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Introduction to Environmental Engineering And Science

Gilbert M. Masters

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ozone-depleting
substances

Clean Air Act
Amendments
command and control

* cleaner leaner

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Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liabilities Act
Superfund

brownfields

the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

global warming
**the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
IPCC

**

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scenarios

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pump-and-treat

hybrid

IPCC
IPCC
IPCC

Lynn Hildemann
Susan MastenWorcester
Polytechnic InstituteBrian J. Savilonis

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John T. PfefferKiersten
West
John FergusonOrcas
Mary

Gilbert M. Masters

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sustainable development

Masters

pipe-end treatment
pollution prevention

risk assessment

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2001 12

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MASS AND ENERGY TRANSFER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 UNITS OF MEASUREMEMT 1
1.3 MATERIALS BALANCE 6
1.4 ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 17
37

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 45

2.1 INTRODUCTION 45
2.2 STOICHIOMETRY 45
2.3 ENTHALPY IN CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 51
2.4 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA 57
2.5 ORGNMIC CHEMISTRY 70
2.6 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 77
83

MATHEMATICS FOR GROWTH 89

3.1 INTRODUCTION 89
3.2 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 90
3.3 RESOURCE CONSUMPTION 98
3.4 POPULATION GROWTH 107
3.5 HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH 112
127

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 132

RISK ASSESSMENT 133

4.1 INTRODUCTION 133

4.2 PERSPECTIVE ON RISKS 134
4.3 PERCEPTION OF RISK 138
4.4 RISK ASSESSMENT 138
4.5 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION 140
4.6 DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENT 154
4.7 HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSEMENT 168
4.8 RISK CHARACTERIZATION 174
4.9 COMPARATIVE RISK ANALYSIS 175
180
185

WATER POLLUTION 187

5.1 INTRODUCTION 187

5.2 WATER RESOURCES 188
5.3 WATER POLLUTANTS 195
5.4 STATUS OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY 210
5.5 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND 212
5.6 THE EFFECT OF OXYGEN-DAMANDING WASTES ON
RIVERS 225
5.7 WATER QUALITY AND RESERVOIRS 236
5.8 GROUNDWATER 249
5.9 AQUIFERS 250
5.10 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT 253
5.11 DARCY'S LAW 256
5.12 CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT 261
5.13 CONE OF DEPRESSION 267
5.14 CAPTURE-ZONE CURVES 271

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 5.15 CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER PLUME 278
5.16 CONTAMINANTS IN GROUNDWATER 279
5.17 CONVENTIOANL PUMP-AND-TREAT SYSTEMS 283
5.18 ADDITIONAL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY 285
290
302

WATER QUALITY CONTROL 305

6.1 INTRODUCTION 305

6.2 MUNICIPAL WATER AND WASTEWATER SYSTEM 305
6.3 THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT 307
6.4 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM 313
6.5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 328
6.6 HAZARDOUS WASTES 339
6.7 HAZARDOUS MATERIAL LEGISLATION 342
6.8 HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 351
6.9 LAND DISPOSAL 362
367
369

AIR POLLUTION 371

7.1 INTRODUCTION 371

7.2 OVERVIEW OF EMISSIONS 372
7.3 THE CLEAN AIR ACT 374
7.4 THE POLLUTANT STANDARDS INDEX 381
7.5 CRITERIA POLLUTANTS 384
7.6 TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS 407
7.7 AIR POLLUTION IN THE WORLD'S MEGACITIES 408
7.8 MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS 409
7.9 STATIONARY SOURCES 428
7.10 AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY 441

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 7.11 THE POINT-SOURCE GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL 456
7.12 INDOOR AIR QUALITY 477
495
505

GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CHANGE 509

8.1 INTRODUCTION 509

8.2 THE ATMOSPHERE OF EARTH 510
8.3 GLOBAL TEMPERATURE 512
8.4 THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 522
8.5 GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE 526
8.6 RADIATIVE FORCING OF CLIMATE CHANGE 528
8.7 RADIATIVE FORCINGS SINCE PREINDLISTRIAL TIMES 532
8.8 RADIATIVE FORCING SATURATION EFFECTS 548
8.9 GLOBAL WARMING PPOTENTIAL 554
8.10 THE CARBON CYCLE 560
8.11 CARBON EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL FUELS 564
8.12 IPCC IPCC EMISSION SCENARIOS 576
8.13 REGIONAL IMPACT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE 581
8.14 THE OCEANS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 583
8.15 CHANGES IN STRATOSPHERIC OZONE 586
604
614

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND

RESOURCE RECOVERY 617

9.1 INTRODUCTION 617

9.2 BACKGROUND 618
9.3 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT 624
9.4 SOURCE REDUCTION 630
9.5 COLLECTION AND TRANSFER OPERATIONS 639

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 9.6 RECYCLING 650
9.7 COMPOSTING 673
9.8 DISCARDED MATERIALS 677
9.9 WASTE-TO-ENERGY COMBUSTION 677
9.10 LANDFILLS 689
698
704

707

709

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MASS AND ENERGY TRANSFER

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 UNITS OF MEASUREMEMT

U.S. Customary System, USCSInternational System
of Units, SI
1.1

1
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 1.1
SI SI USCS
Length Meter m 3.2808 ft
Mass Kilogram kg 2.2046 lb
Temperature Celsius 1.8() + 32 F
Area Square meter m2 10.7639 ft 2
Volume Cubic meter m3 35.3147 ft 3
Energy Kilojoule kJ 0.9478 Btu
Power Watt W 3.4121 Btu / hr
Velocity Meter / sec m/s 2.2369 mi / hr
Flow rate Meter 3 / sec m3 / s 35.3147 ft 3 / s
Density Kilogram / meter 3 kg / m 3 0.06243 lb / ft 3

ppb
terawatts
1.2

1.2

10 15 femto f
10 12 pico p
10 9 nano n
10 6 micro
10 3 milli m
10 2 centi c
10 1 deci d
10 deka da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exa E
1021 zetta Z
1024 yotta Y

2
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Liquids

Lmg
gg/m3

ppmppb
1 ppm 15
1 ppb 70 m3
1 1000

1.1
1 1.2

1.11.2

mg/L = ppm 1.3

Gases
ppm

1
= 1 ppm= 1 ppmv 1.4
106

ppm v
1.4 ppmv
3 3
Mg/ mg/ ppmv
3
mg/

3
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 PV = nRT 1.5

P = atm
3
V =
n = mole
R = = 0.08256 LatmK 1mol 1

T = K

1.5
Avogadro6.02 1023 molecules/mol
Kelvins, K

K = C + 273.15 1.6

1.5
101.325 PaPa Pascals 14.7
psi 1psi = 6.89 kPa100kPa bar 100Pa
millibar

1.1
STP 1atm 0
1atm 25
[]

0273.15K1.5

V= = 22.414 L

25298.15 K

V= = 24.465 L

4
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 1.1 1 0 1atm 22.414 L
3 3
22.414 10

3
mg/ = ppm

3
mg/ = 0 1atm 1.7

25 1atm

3
mg/ = 25 1atm 1.8

3
ppm mg/

3 273.15 P
mg/ = 1.9
T 1

3
1.2 ppm g/
9.0ppm
3
1atm 25 mg/
[]

9 CO ppm

CO% = 100 = 0.0009%

3
mg/ CO 28C O 12 16
1.8

CO = = 10.3 mg/

10 mg/

5
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 ppmv
1 ppmv 1
1
1 ppmv 1

1 ppmv = = 1.10

1.3 MATERIALS BALANCE

law of conservation of mass

1-1

CO
CO2 1-1

=++ 1.11

1.11

1.11steady-stateequilib-
rium

1.11

6
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1-1

conserved1.11

1.11

Steady-state Conservative System

1.11

= 1.12

1-2

1-2

7
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Q
C
Q C Q
C
1.12

C Q +C Q =C Q 1.13

1.3
10.0 /s 5.0 /s
20.0 mg/L 40.0 mg/L

[]

1-3
1.13
C Q +C Q C Q +C Q
C = =
Q Q +Q
Q + Q Q

1-3

8
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C mg/L Q

mg/L

20.0 10.0 + 40.0 5.0

C =
10.0 + 5.0

Steady-state Systems with Nonconservative Pollutants

1.11

= + 1.14

dC
= KC 1.15
dt

K 1
C
C t
dC
= K dt
C0 C 0

ln (C) ln (C0 ) = ln ( CC ) =
0
Kt

Kt
C = C0 e 1.16

9
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1.15 V
CV
d CV /dt = VdC/dt1.15

= KCV 1.17

1.171.14

= + KCV 1.18

1.18 V C
reactors
continuously stirred tank reactor, CSTR

complete mix box model

1.4
10.0 mg/L 10.0
1-4 100 mg/L
0.20

[]

C
C 1.18

= + KCV 1.18

= Q C + Q C

10
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1-4

= Q C = Q + Q C
3
= 5.0 + 0.5 / C 103 = 5.5 103 C
0.20 / C / 10.0 106 3
103 / 3
= KCV = 24 / 3600 /
= 23.1 103 C

1.14
1.0 105 = 5.5 103C + 23.1 103C = 28.6 103C
1 105
C= = 3.5
28.6 103

1.5
500 50 2 1-5
1.4 mg HCHOK = 0.40/hr
1000 /hr
25 1atm
0.05 ppm

11
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1-5

[]

= 50
C
= 1000 C = 1000C

= KCV = (0.40/hr) ( C mg/ ) (500 ) = 200 C mg/hr

1.14
= +
140 = 1000 C + 200 C

C= = 0.117 mg/

1.8 mg/ ppm 30

C 24/465 =
HCHO = = 0.095 ppm

0.05 ppm

Step Function Response

* cig Cigarette

12
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step function response
1-6 V
Q CSTR
C VC
VdC/dt S

K 1.11

=
dC
V = S QC KCV 1.19
dt

V =
C = g/
S = g/hr
Q = /hr
1
K = hr

1-6

dC
= 0 1.19
dt
S
C = 1.20
Q + KV

C t =

13
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1.191.19

dC
dt
= (K + QV )[C S
Q + KV ] 1.21

1.20

dC
dt
= (K + QV ) C C 1.22

y=C C 1.23

dy dC
= 1.24
dt dt

1.22

dy
dt
= (K+ QV ) y 1.25

1.15
K + Q/V t
y = y0e 1.26

y0 t = 0 C0 t = 0 1.23

y0 = C 0 C 1.27

1.231.271.26
K + Q/V t
C C = C0 C e 1.28

C t exp( )

C t = C + (C0 C ) exp [ (K + Q / V ) t] 1.29

1.29t = 0 1 C = C0 t
= 0C = C 1.29 1-7

14
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1-7

1.6
1.5 500 1000 /hr
140mg/hr
K = 0.40/hr
[]

Q = 1000 /hrV = 500 S = 140 mg/hrK = 0.40/hr1.20

S
C = =
Q + KV

1.5 C0 = 0
1.29
C t =C 1 K + Q/V t
= 0.117{1 exp [ (0.40 + 1000/500)t]}

t = 1
C (1 hr) = 0.117[1 exp ( 2.4 1)] = 0.106 mg/

1.29 1.4

15
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 1.7
1.4 10 106 3.5
mg/LK = 0.20/day

Q = 5.0 C = 10.0
Q

[ ]

C0 = 3.5
V = 10
Q=
C =
K = 0.20/day

S=Q C =
1.20
S
C = =
Q + KV

1.29
C t = C + C0 C exp [ K + Q/V t]

C [
]
7days

C (7days) = 2.1mg/L

1-8

16
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t
1-8 1.7

1.4 ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS

first law of thermodyna-
mics
workforce
second law of thermodynamics
inefficiency

powerrate
SI J/s
kJ/s James
Wattwatt, 1 J/s = 1W = 3.412 Btu/hr

The First Law of Thermodynamic

17
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surroundings
open systems
closed systems

+
= 1.30

1.30

internal energy
U U KE PE
total energy

E = U + KE + PE 1.31

1.30
1
specific heat
British thermal unit Btu 1 lb
1kilocalorie 1
1 1559
SI kJ/kg 1 kJ/kg = 1
Btu/lb = 4.184 kJ/kg

18
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specific heat at constant volume cv

specific heat at constant pressurecp
cv cp c
cp cv

enthalpy H

H = U + PV 1.32

U P V
kJ Btuheat content

U = mcv T 1.33

H = mcp T 1.34

cv = cp = c U
= H m T

= mc T 1.35

1.3

19
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 1.3 c*
kJ/kg kcal/kg Btu/lb
15 4.18 1.00
20 1.01 0.24
0.92 0.22
0.39 0.09
0.84 0.20
2.09 0.50
100 2.01 0.48
20 1.88 0.45

1.8
40 gallon 5 kW 50 140

[]

kilowattsrate
t
= 5 kW t hrs = 5 t kWhr

= 0
50 1401.35 8.34 lb/gal
= mc t
= 40 gal 8.34 lb/gal 1 Btu/lbF (140 50)F
= 30 103 Btu

1.1
5 t kWhr 3412 Btu/kWhr = 30 103 Btu
t = 1.76hr

* specific heat capacity specific heat

20
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. .
, 90


Introdutcion to Environmental
Engineering and Science
ISBN 957-11-2605-5
1. 2.

445.9 90015262

5I07

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science
Gilbert M.Masters

106
339 4
(02)27055066
(02)27066100
0106895-3
http://www.wunan.com.tw
wunan@wunan.com.tw

2002 2

800

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