Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1st Edition
Effective December 2004
Guidance Material and Best Practices for Fuel and Environmental Management
Ref. No: 9093-01
ISBN 92-9195-444-6
© 2004 International Air Transport Association. All rights reserved.
Montreal — Geneva
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................................................... III
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 FUEL MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY................................................................................................... 1
1.2 FUEL MANAGEMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................. 1
1.3 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EFFICIENT FUEL MANAGEMENT ............................................................. 1
1.4 BASIC FACTS REGARDING FUEL CONSUMPTION.......................................................................... 2
2. FLIGHT PLANNING ....................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 EFFICIENT FLIGHT PLANNING ........................................................................................................... 3
2.2 STATISTICAL AND DISCRETIONARY FUEL ...................................................................................... 3
2.3 ALTERNATE SELECTION .................................................................................................................... 3
2.4 RE-DISPATCH AND RE-CLEARANCE TECHNIQUES ....................................................................... 5
2.5 FUEL TANKERING ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.6 WEIGHT MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.7 CENTER OF GRAVITY MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 6
3. PRE-FLIGHT PROCEDURES ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.1 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROGRAMMING.......................................................................... 7
3.2 AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU) MANAGEMENT .............................................................................. 8
4. START AND TAXI ........................................................................................................................................ 11
4.1 ENGINE START-UP AND TAXI .......................................................................................................... 11
5. DEPARTURE AND CLIMB........................................................................................................................... 13
5.1 REDUCED THRUST TAKE-OFF ........................................................................................................ 13
5.2 INITIAL CLIMB OUT PROFILE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................ 13
6. CRUISE MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................................................. 15
6.1 LATERAL TRACK MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................... 15
6.2 VERTICAL PROFILE MANAGEMENT IN CRUISE ............................................................................ 15
6.3 CRUISE SPEED MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................... 16
6.4 COST INDEX MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................ 17
7. DESCENT ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
7.1 FMS DESCENT PROFILE MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................... 19
7.2 DESCENT PROFILE MANAGEMENT FOR NON-FMS AIRCRAFT .................................................. 21
8. APPROACH AND LANDING ....................................................................................................................... 23
8.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE DECELERATED APPROACH ............................................................ 23
8.2 REDUCED FLAP LANDING................................................................................................................ 25
8.3 IDLE ENGINE REVERSE ON LANDING ............................................................................................ 26
8.4 ENGINE-OUT TAXI-IN ........................................................................................................................ 26
9. MISSION MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................................ 29
9.1 FLIGHT SCHEDULE AND FUEL MANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 29
9.2: CALCULATION OF SAVINGS ............................................................................................................ 29
9.3 MISSION MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................... 33
9.4 COST INDEX COMPUTATION ........................................................................................................... 35
9.5 FUEL MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (FUEL MI)............................................................. 36
9.6 HIGH COST OF FULL THRUST TAKE-OFF ...................................................................................... 39
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Guidance Material and Best Practices for Fuel and Environmental
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FOREWORD
Welcome to the first edition of the IATA ‘Guidance Material on Best Practices for Fuel and
Environmental Management’. The record high prices experienced during 2004 are a vivid reminder
of the strategic nature of fuel in the aviation business. In response to this ‘crisis’, IATA launched a
‘Fuel Action Plan’ on the 24th August 2004 when IATA Director General Giovanni Bisignani wrote to
the Board of Governors setting out mitigation strategies aimed at alleviating the burden of high
prices on the industry.
This IATA guide is the result of three months of intense effort by the IATA team and airline
representatives to work together with our fuel specialists. Their challenge was not only to cover a
wide area that cuts across many functional divides in the airline organisation, but also to include and
highlight the all-important roles played by air traffic controllers, dispatchers, maintenance personnel
– as well as pilots - in this endeavour. Indeed, IATA encourages a holistic approach to fuel efficiency
management through which, it believes, the maximum benefit can be derived for the whole
community.
I wish to emphasise that fuel management is first and foremost about safety. A fuel efficiency
program does NOT — and should NEVER — aim at compromising safety. However, we can
improve our bottom-line — and make a difference to the environment — by carefully and intelligently
burning our fuel. We have thus quoted figures in terms of dollar savings or kilograms of pollutants
wherever appropriate to give a sense of what impact a fuel conservation measure will have on our
operations, the industry and the environment.
Needless to say, Flight Operations is the centrepiece of the document where all flight phases are
critically examined in the pursuit of better fuel economy. A Flight Dispatcher section discusses the
critical elements and techniques that can be used in determining the optimum fuel load for a
particular flight. An Engineering and Maintenance chapter discusses the simple — and sometimes
more complex — tasks that would get the best fuel performance from an aircraft. And last but not
least is the Air Traffic Controller section, which highlights the strategic and tactical measures that
controllers can take to assist airlines in reducing fuel burn.
We recognise that some airlines will already have fuel efficiency programs in place and have made
this a permanent feature in their operations. We offer them the checklist at the end of the document,
which will allow the conduct of a ‘self-check’ on their operations, and determine how comprehensive
and/or how deep their programs are. For others who have yet to develop a structured and
systematic approach to fuel efficiency, we invite them to make full use of the document.
If you need more information about fuel conservation, please consult our website at:
http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/fuelaction/fuel_conservation
Guenther Matschnigg,
Senior Vice President, Safety, Operations and Infrastructure
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1. INTRODUCTION
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2. FLIGHT PLANNING
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recent years in spite of the significant advances in aircraft navigation and landing systems,
improved weather reporting including satellite and radar imaging and improved airport ground
systems technology. The primary reasons for diversions are equally divided between medical
emergencies, maintenance or weather. Most diversions are not to the planned alternate.
There are several reasons why the selection of alternate airports is not fully optimized. Many
airlines have not carefully analyzed the best and most efficient alternate for each destination. Many
alternate airports are selected because of a dispatcher’s familiarity with that airport or with the
services available in case of diversion, or for personal preferences, etc. Many times a long alternate
is selected with the full knowledge that if a flight diverts, it will divert to an airport other than the
designated alternate airport.
As for pilots, they might prefer a specific alternate because of comfort, familiarity, available charts,
perceived traffic, ground servicing and communications after landing, etc.
When an alternate is carried for regulatory reason such as international flights but the weather and
traffic at destination are such that a diversion is very unlikely, the closest suitable alternate (the one
that requires the least fuel) should be selected. In some cases, the use of re-dispatch or re-
clearance can be used where the alternate can be dropped once the flight is approaching its
destination.
On longer-range flights, not only is it expensive to carry a long alternate [from a fuel point of view],
but payload can also be affected. Every ton of fuel not carried to destination can enable the
boarding of additional 10 revenue passengers.
As the risk of diversion increases, an important factor to consider when selecting the alternate is
customer service and rerouting. Look for an alternate that will offer a quick a turn-around and a
rapid return to normal operation, proximity to hotels and restaurants, customs and visa
requirements, etc.
Airlines should, subject to regulations, establish a clear policy that outlines the actions to take by
the crew when the weather at destination or alternate airports deteriorates. The following scenarios
could be considered:
• If the weather at destination is above alternate weather limits and the weather at the
designated alternate airport decreases unexpectedly below normal approach limits, the flight
can continue at the captain’s discretion after verifying that the landing at destination can be
assured and the no unreasonable traffic delays are expected.
• If the weather at destination is between normal approach and alternate weather limits, the
weather at the alternate should remain at least above normal approach limits with no traffic
delays expected.
• If the weather at destination decreases below normal CAT I ILS approach limits, then the
weather at the designated alternate should remain above normal alternate limits.
Caution is required to ensure that a flight does not end up without options. Unless the
landing can be safely assured at either the destination or the alternate airports with no anticipated
ATC delays, an enroute landing should be considered.
To improve the alternate selection process, consider the following steps:
• Designate a primary alternate at every destination
• Perform a detailed review of all possible alternates for each new destination
• List all the available alternates in order of fuel requirements for reference
• Ensure that the information regarding handling details, communications, approach charts, etc
are readily available for the closest alternates
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• Ascertain that both the crews and dispatchers are fully familiar the primary and closest
alternates for each destinations
• Perform regular reviews to ensure adherence to the established alternate selection process by
both pilots and dispatchers.
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3. PRE-FLIGHT PROCEDURES
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On long flights, after several hours, more recent winds and temperatures should be updated. When
the cruise altitude is different from flight plan, winds and temperatures for the new altitudes should
be inserted.
Once airborne, the FOD and ETA should be monitored continuously and cross-checked with the
flight plan. Any differences should be reconciled. If a high Cost Index was planned for the flight and
the FOD falls below the desired level, the CI should be reduced to ensure that adequate fuel is
available on arrival. If the flight is held at a less than optimal altitude for some time, allow the FMS
to compute the best Mach for that altitude to minimize the fuel burn.
If the ETA varies from the normally scheduled arrival time, coordinate with Operations Control and
Dispatch to adjust the ETA as discussed in the Mission Management section.
The idea is to ensure that the most accurate information is inserted in the FMS to maximize it
usefulness, improve safety while reducing cost.
• Inadequate SOPs;
• Ground electrical power unavailable;
• Ground air conditioning or heating unavailable;
• Shortage of ground personnel to connect the ground support equipment;
• APU air conditioning provided to unattended airplanes;
• Aircraft abandoned with the APU running;
• APU operating overnight;
• Excessive aircraft towing using the APU;
• Aircraft plugged to ground electrical but APU still operating;
• Maintenance performed on the aircraft with the APU instead of ground power;
• Excessive charges for ground equipment or lack of an adequate servicing contract with ground
handling agencies often encourages airlines to use the APU;
• Incompatible or unreliable gate power for certain aircraft types;
• Crews who have completed their flight leave the aircraft with the APU operating;
• Unnecessary operation of APU during taxi, takeoff and landing;
• APU operating in flight with unserviceable generator; and
• Lack of training and sensitization of personnel.
• When the APU is required, the load should be minimized by using pneumatics only when
necessary. For certain APU types, the fuel consumption is reduced by as much as 35%.
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Pre-Flight Procedures
If the APU is started when a flight arrives, and if the turn time for the airplane is more than one hour
and is left unattended, consider de-powering the aircraft once the passengers have deplaned.
Airlines should develop a system to track APU usage and correct any excessive usage.
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4. START AND TAXI
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extra 6 to 8 minutes. There are other considerations however; if a flight is late with several
connections and a short turn around on arrival and if the selection of a different runway can
possibly result in additional ground delays, it might be worthwhile to use the most expeditious
runway. Crew cost is another factor to consider.
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5. DEPARTURE AND CLIMB
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6. CRUISE MANAGEMENT
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will be incorrect. Some older FMS versions will recommend a flight level based on weight
regardless of winds or Cost Index. In the case of older generation or regional aircraft without FMS
altitude information available, the Aircraft Operating Manuals simply recommend altitudes normally
based on weight for LRC speeds (no wind or Cost Index input).
Performance advisory systems are available for non-FMS aircraft, which enable the use of Cost
Index speeds and altitude optimization. These systems are available in either in a booklet format,
electronically as part of the Electronic Flight Bag system (EFB), or in a stand-alone system. Ideally,
the optimization from these systems should be integrated to the flight planning system for greater
flight planning accuracy and optimization.
Cost Index optimization will result in substantial fuel and time savings, while balancing the time and
fuel costs for a specific airline cost structure. They would also permit the use of tactical Cost Indices
for day-to-day operation to accelerate flights when adverse winds are impacting on the on-time
performance or during delays when several passenger connections are affected. The use of lower
Cost Index values should also be available to reduce speed for flights arriving early thereby
reducing fuel consumption and minimizing the chances of gate holds and possibly ramp
congestion.
If a flight is restricted to a lower than planned altitude for a significant time period such as ocean
crossings, allow the Cost Index to determine the best Mach for that altitude. This process may
result in additional time costs; however, there will be significant fuel savings. In some extreme
cases, it might even allow for the completion of the flight rather than diverting for fuel.
If the actual aircraft weight differs significantly from the flight-planned weight, the best option is to
re-compute the flight plan to achieve a better optimized vertical flight profile.
On short flights, the most efficient vertical profile would be to continue climbing until intercepting the
descent profile. However, this is not always practical. Most optimum altitude data for short flights
will assume a minimum cruise time of 5 minutes. Total air distance should be considered when
selecting the optimum altitude on short flights, including the departure and arrival runways and
procedures.
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Cruise Management
situation, a lower than “standard” Cost Index can be used to reduce the speed of an early flight.
This will save fuel and prevent possible gate holds, ramp congestion, and additional ground staff
costs.
While the cost of fuel should be minimized, other costs must be considered when selecting a
specific mission Cost Index. Post departure re-optimization of the flight speed profile should be
considered to reduce other time related costs.
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7. DESCENT
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Descent
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corrective actions early in the descent. If the flight is high on profile, excess altitude needs to be
consumed preferably by increasing the descent speed rather than using speed brakes. It is
assumed that crews will fly at the most efficient descent speeds unless a restriction is given by
ATC.
Ideally, when a flight is approximately 30 miles away from the destination, the aircraft should be at
10,000 feet and 250 knots. However, depending on the glide ratio, some aircraft might need
additional distance to slow down from 250 knots to minimum drag clean speed and reach 3,000
feet at about 10 miles on final approach.
At descent speeds of approximately 280 knots, a distance of three miles per thousand feet of
altitude lost from cruise altitude to 10,000 feet should be a reasonable initial estimate. So, a
descent from 35,000 feet to 10,000 feet would normally require about 75 nautical miles. However,
a correction should be applied for the wind component. Assuming a normal descent wind profile, a
correction of 15% of the top of descent wind component should be added to the descent distance to
10,000 feet for a tailwind or subtracted for a headwind. If the aircraft is flying at a fixed descent
speed, some distance correction also needs to be applied for the landing weight. When the flight is
close to maximum landing weight, an additional 5-mile correction should be added to the descent
distance. When the flight is at low landing weights, a 5-mile correction should be subtracted from
the computed descent distance.
If the descent is interrupted temporarily due to an ATC altitude restriction, it is important to reduce
speed all the way to the minimum drag clean speed if required and subsequently regain the
descent profile vertical flight path by accelerating back to the normal or higher descent speed.
It is cheaper to initiate a descent slightly early than late. It is always possible to reestablish the
proper profile by making an early correction to the descent profile at a high altitude. If the descent
is started late and the higher descent speed cannot burn the excess energy, then the energy has
already been consumed at altitude and the speed brakes will most likely be required during
descent.
Precise descent profile computation and management presents the greatest opportunity for fuel
savings. In addition, it will ensure that the aircraft arrives at the proper altitude and speed at the
initial approach point thereby blending nicely into a stabilized and safe approach.
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8. APPROACH AND LANDING
The most fuel-efficient arrival allows the descent profile to flow unrestricted into final approach
without the use of engines thrust or speed brakes. The following should be considered:
• Since normally the descent speed below 10,000 feet is limited to 250 kts, that speed should be
maintained until ready to reduce speed to the minimum drag clean speed in preparation for the
approach phase.
• When feasible, use or request speed vectors to prevent excessive distance travel to establish
the aircraft on final approach. This will often require some initiative by the crew. Remember that
most aircraft have a significant speed margin of almost 150 knots between VMO and clean
maneuvering speed during the descent phase.
• Keep the aircraft clean! Flaps and slats are not designed as drag devices for slowing down but
to produce lift. In the process, there is a significant drag increase. Continuous extension of flap
at near limiting speeds also increases the risk of component failure. Note that ATC might not
always be aware of the clean maneuvering speed for your aircraft type. Often a word to them
will save an unnecessary early flap extension. Don’t be afraid to retract the flaps should the
approach be extended
• Request the arrival sequence number from the Approach Controller on initial contact. This
makes it easier to estimate the distance to touch down. Decide how to manage the energy and
whether to slow down early to minimum drag speed to prevent excessive downwind vectoring.
• Avoid dumping excess altitude too early or use of speed brakes to a cleared altitude and then
having to add power to fly level at that cleared altitude for an extended period of time
• Unless assigned a hard speed by ATC or by a specific procedure, do not hesitate to use speed
control to best advantage
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8.1.4 High Head Winds on Final will result in long final legs
When high winds (30 knots or more) are encountered on final approach, its effect on the
intermediate approach pattern can be significant. Slower traffic will often cause the subsequent
traffic to back up and will result in very long final approach legs at low speed in a high drag
configuration.
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Approach and Landing
When this is anticipated, subject to ATC restrictions, the crew should attempt slow down as soon as
the situation is recognized (normally early downwind). All speeds above minimum drag clean speed
should be traded for altitude even if that will make the flight appear high on final. The flights will
likely end up on a long approach and the extra altitude can be used up once the flight is turned
toward final. It is not difficult to eliminate excess altitude on final approach when headwinds winds
are strong.
The idea is to reduce speed early, when possible, to minimize excessive downwind travel and
getting into a high drag configuration while on the final approach in a strong headwind. This is
extremely inefficient and will consume a significant amount of fuel during the final leg.
Slowing down early will improve the possibilities of maintaining the aircraft in a clean configuration
as long as possible once on final. At this point, the previous traffic would have had time to move
forward. This should help position the flight for a low drag approach, which is even more critical in a
high head wind situation.
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Approach and Landing
taxi-in procedures follow the procedure after almost every landing. The main advantages are the
following:
• Reduction in fuel consumption;
• Reduction in pollution; and
• Reduction in brake wear.
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9. MISSION MANAGEMENT
The impact of Air Traffic Control on fuel consumption is covered elsewhere. However the following
can have a marked effect on fuel consumption:
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average from plus or minus 2.5% from planned fuel burns. This can be even more pronounced on
short-range flights where a significant portion of the flight is spent maneuvering. Proper training,
emphasis on fuel economy, adequate SOPs, proper management leadership and accountability will
greatly impact fuel performance. It may be possible to save at least 1% to 2% in fuel consumption if
the crews consistently apply all the following fuel saving procedures:
• APU management;
• Efficient start up and taxi speeds;
• Engine-out taxi out;
• Departure runway selection if possible;
• Speed control and altitude trade off on departure;
• Post departure flight profile optimization;
• Cruise altitude and speed management process;
• Descent profile planning and management;
• Low noise low drag approaches procedures;
• Reduced flap landing;
• Idle engine reverse on landing;
• Engine-out taxi in.
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Mission Management
the case of misconnection related costs, these can be very significant and in many cases, can be
mitigated by the proper use of accelerated Cost Index profiles.
No other method of flying - including fixed Mach, multiple fixed Mach, Long-Range Cruise - will
result in optimal profile solutions. Furthermore, these basic profiles also use simplistic altitude
selection methods. However, altitude is a critical component of the profile. Cost Index solutions
solve both the altitude and Mach number. By using Cost Index profiles significant cost savings will
result because of a more efficient overall operation, based on both fuel and time based savings.
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9.2.8 Tankering
Depending on circumstances, the potential savings from tankering will vary between airlines. An
adequate tankering process will yield significant savings. Proper fuel supply management will
prevent tactical tankering, which is normally costly (see the Tankering section for more details). An
efficient tankering program should save airlines between 0.5% to 1% and more in fuel cost.
9.2.11 Maintenance
Aircraft maintenance impacts the efficiency of an aircraft. Engine washes, flight control rigging,
airframe buffing, paint condition, engine overhaul, door seals, protruding controls, spoilers, doors,
etc contribute to the reduction of an airplane’s fuel efficiency. With improved maintenance,
approximately 1% – 2 % in fuel savings can be realized. Refer to section 10 for more details.
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Mission Management
List [MEL] tasks to be performed, and brief the cabin crew on the need to be ready for on on-time
departure.
The flight plan package should include a list of connections with the connecting flights and
departure times. While Operations Control and Dispatch have numerous flights to handle, crews
only manage one flight at a time. They are often aware of problems before other departments. It is
important to communicate and coordinate any change of situation as soon as possible.
Start up and ramp departure procedures should be efficient. Some airlines have long and
cumbersome starting procedures that they block the ramp for 15 minutes or more, causing a tie up
for several other flights.
Taxi speed should be reasonable. Valuable time can be lost by excessively slow taxi speeds.
Crews that are consistently over schedule are probably loosing the best part of the block time
during taxi. Airline contracts often have the strange characteristic of rewarding crews that are
arriving late (schedule growth) often for no identifiable reasons.
Once the flight is airborne, the arrival time can be estimated fairly accurately. If it is determined that
the flight will be late at planned speeds, the crew should advise Operations Control or Dispatch of
the forecast arrival time and a cost analysis of the late arrival should be performed. If it is decided
that the flight should be accelerated, a new optimized flight plan should be computed with a new
profile and Cost Index, depending on the fuel available.
It is critical for the crew to update the Estimated Arrival Time (ETA) as soon as possible to facilitate
the ground coordination such as gate planning, meeting the flight by ground crews, passenger
agents to assist with tight connections and rearrange missed connections.
An accurate ETA might also allow Operations Control to delay some connecting flights and
subsequently accelerate these flights keeping service to customers in mind while minimizing
operating costs.
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Mission Management
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dispatchers with the appropriate tools including statistical information, accurate and up-to-date
weather information, and traffic
information (Airport ATC Demand Charts and graphical flight watch). The workload must be
appropriate to allow for efficient flight planning. However, some dispatchers will systematically
board unnecessary discretionary fuel on flights resulting in significant additional costs incompatible
with proper risk management techniques. In some cases, the cost of planning unnecessary fuel by
some dispatchers will cost the airline over US$100,000 per year before considering payload and
wear on the aircraft. In addition, the flight watch provided by dispatchers, who more closely
optimize fuel boarding, is in general of superior quality.
9.5.7 Monitor Estimated Zero Fuel Weight (EZFW) and payload optimization
Dispatchers will tend to overestimate the Estimated Zero Fuel Weight (EZFW) to avoid the last
minute requirement for additional fuel. This results in the boarding of unnecessary fuel, which is
costly especially on longer flights where it can affect payload. Accurate EZFWs are essential,
especially for long-range flights. A proper Fuel MI system will help determine the lost opportunities
and the cost of carrying the additional fuel. It will also facilitate the tracking of airports from where
maximum EZFW errors occur because of poor load planning. On long-range flights, an airline
should consider a fuel top-up policy just before departure. Re-optimizing the fuel and flight profile
before departure will minimize the boarding of excess fuel and prevent a return to the gate in case
of last minute ZFW increases over the flight plan. It would also permit the boarding of additional fuel
should higher speeds (ideally higher Cost Indices) be required to speed up a flight due to a last
minute delay. Reassessing the alternate selection before departure might allow for the use of a
closer alternate or dropping the alternate altogether as conditions (winds, forecasted ceiling and
visibility) could have changed significantly since the initial flight plan calculations.
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Mission Management
little they can do to save fuel or that a fuel surcharge on tickets will compensate for increase in fuel
prices. In the case of Flight Operations, while safety is the primary responsibility, lack of upper
management support, training and accountability of managers are the primary reasons for less than
optimal fuel management performance.
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10. MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Operators must, of course, weigh the costs of increased maintenance against the likely benefits
derived – they must define a cost/benefit proposition, to balance savings from maintenance
performance improvements, versus cost to perform maintenance.
A defined process of Service Bulletin (SB) or Modification evaluation for voluntary incorporation of
items can play a role in the cost/benefit proposition affecting fleet economics. Even the
incorporation of a most desirable modification or item can add weight to the aircraft. The overall
fleet cost, for the incorporation not only of the item but the additional fuel required to manage the
increased empty weight can be significant.
Regular review of aircraft Empty Weight does pay dividends. Aircraft have been known to
increase by as much as 1000 pounds in a 5-year period.
Any rationalized maintenance approach must be managed through the existing approved
maintenance program, the objective being to manage a controlled process rather than executing
random oversight over still another activity.
Existing task cards (TC) can be revised to include the actions deemed necessary for fuel
conservation activities. A key factor to using the existing TC may be the inspection interval. As
applicable, new TC’s can be produced to meet this criteria. To the degree possible, every attempt
to utilize existing TC’s is best - but guard against overloading the TC content.
Once airline management has made the foregoing decisions they need to ensure that adequate
resources and personnel are provided both to manage the aircraft downtime, and any requirements
that may arise as a result of the fuel conservation efforts.
The maintenance training program may provide the best mechanism to initiate fuel conservation
efforts, facilitating an explanation to personnel of the rationale behind revisions to the maintenance
program.
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c) Tired air cycle machines can place a demand for additional pneumatic muscle to drive them.
This further adds to the need for additional fuel.
d) Inspect for excessive autopilot lateral input. This can cause spoiler panel operation, which
induces drag – thus increasing fuel consumption.
e) Inspect for marginal aileron rigging that will create unnecessary drag - not to mention sloppy
performance.
f) Inspect for optimum spoiler control rigging. Spoilers are a full time control parameter - so
ensuring better than nominal rigging enhances performance by not adding to the drag
component.
g) Ensure that wing leading edges and particularly leading edge flaps, slats and slots are not
dented or damaged.
h) Rough surfaces alone will increase drag.
i) Inspect the flap system rigging for optimum position. These large surfaces are designed to
manage flight regime attitudes at controlled speeds. Out of tolerance situations will cause
excessive fuel burn.
j) Inspect the rudder control system for optimum rig.
k) Inspect all the flight controls for seal integrity. Ensure that air is directed so as to meet the intent
of the design. Where applicable inspect draft curtains for condition and replace as required.
l) Inspect all control surfaces for maximized fit and fair positions. Ensure correct flush fasteners
are installed on all surfaces. Rough surfaces from any leaks must be corrected.
m) Investigate all reported fuel quantity discrepancies, ensuring that possible problems related to
contaminated probes are eliminated.
n) Perform calibration checks for the fuel tank indication system ensuring accurate quantity
readings.
o) Ensure regular fuel tank sumping. Fuel tanks have experienced ice build up 4 feet in length and
18 inches to 2 feet thick. Components in these tanks may not fail immediately but may
experience damage leading to calibration issues as well as structural concerns.
p) Inspect tanks for algae growth and rectify as required.
q) Sump drains can allow fuel seeps or weeps. While these may be an allowable MEL dispatch
criteria, over time the fuel can affect surface finish causing roughness and a resulting increase
in drag.
r) Inspect all areas of the aircraft for both hydraulic and fuel leaks that can degrade surface finish.
Rectify leak areas and return surface finish to specification.
s) Inspect pylon and other similar drain systems. Eliminate any source of leaks and ensure
surface integrity of surfaces affected.
t) Inspect wheel well doors for optimum fit and fair conditions.
u) Ensure all door seals are correctly installed and in airworthy condition.
v) Review pilot reports for cabin and cargo door complaints. Inspect all doors for optimum fit and
fair condition. Ensure door seals integrity. Eliminate any sources of pressure leaks.
w) Inspect the aircraft fuselage. All panels must be installed. The fit and fair condition ensuring
smooth flow over the edges of the panel/s and mating structure must be maintained. Any rough
surfaces must be identified and returned to a smooth condition. Any discrepancies caused by
hydraulic or fuel leaks must be corrected.
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x) All antennae must be installed so as to maximize the best fit and fair considerations. This
includes attention to the detail of sealing compound applications where required.
y) A major area of airflow degradation can be the wing speed fairing/s as well as the Horizontal
Stabilizer to Vertical Stabilizer fairings. Inspect these areas to ensure an enhanced installation
eliminating sources of unnecessary drag.
z) Inspect cockpit Windscreen/s to ensure best fit and fair with the fuselage nose section
structure. Any uncured sealant that may have migrated from the sealed area must be removed
and the surface area cleaned.
aa) Inspect engine and thrust-reverser translating cowls for correctly stowed fit clearances. The
following items cause fuel burn deterioration:
• Blade rubs – HP Compressor, HP Turbine, airfoil blade erosion.
• Thermal distortion of blade parts.
• Blade leading-edge wear.
• Excessive fan rub strip wear.
• Lining loss in the HP Compressor.
• Oil or dirt contamination of LP/HP compressor.
• Loss of High Pressure Turbine (HPT) outer air seal material.
• Leaking thrust reverser seals.
• ECS leaks
• Failed – open fan air valves
• Failed – open IDG air cooler valves.
• Faulty turbine case cooling
• Failed or faulty 11th stage cooling valves.
bb) On wing engine washing can address dirt accumulation with the compressor. Leakage caused
by the bleed air system can be remedied by on wing engine bleed rigging and additionally
provide up to 2.5% Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) benefit. Regular on – wing engine
washing can bring as much as a 1.5% SFC improvement.
cc) An aircraft wash and polish program can produce clean smooth airflows over the surfaces
enhancing fuel burn figures.
dd) Ensure regular Instrument Calibration checks. Speed measuring equipment has a large impact
on fuel mileage. If speed is not accurate the airplane may be flying faster or slower than
intended. On a particular commercial transport flying at .01M faster can increase fuel burn by
1% or more. Maintain calibration of airspeed systems. Plugging or deforming the holes in the
alternate static port can result in erroneous instrument readings in the flight deck. Keeping the
circled area smooth and clean promotes aerodynamic efficiency. Maintenance operations must
ensure the use of proper tooling to block the static ports. Check the Illustrated Tool and
Equipment List (ITEL) for the applicable aircraft model
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Here is an example of the estimated fuel penalty in liters per year, per aircraft, per each 5
centimetres of missing door seals.
Here is an example of the estimated fuel penalty, in liters per year, per aircraft, for a control surface
mis-rigging of 10 millimetres.
Here are some examples of the estimated penalty in litres per aircraft per year for single dents or
blisters.
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Here are some examples of estimated fuel penalty in litres per year, per aircraft for 0.3 mm of skin
roughness over 1 square meter.
Skin Roughness over 1m2 on: Litres per year per aircraft
Fuselage 3,300
Wing Skin Upper 12,000
Wing Skin Lower 6,000
Tail 5,800
Here are some examples of estimated fuel penalty in litres for parts missing.
The double outcome of this drag component is not only the added cost of fuel to overcome it but
also the lost payload. On a typical commercial transport it is conceivable, that in order to offset a
1% increase in drag, a reduction in Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW) could be 260 pounds/118 kilograms, in
order to maintain a constant takeoff weight.
(Note that the reductions vary as actual values vary with distance flown. Also the above figure
varies up or down depending on the actual aircraft in question).
Considering the example provided above, a 1% drag in terms of gallons per year could result in
approximately 25,000 gallons. Any one item on this list may of itself bring miniscule benefit.
However, in combination the savings can be substantial per aircraft. Exponentially applying these
figures to an operator’s fleet brings large returns.
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11. DISPATCH CONSIDERATIONS
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b) Long Range Flights: Today’s Flight Planning systems should be able to optimize for Minimum
Distance, Minimum Fuel, Minimum Time or Minimum Cost. It is possible - or sometimes
desirable - to fly minimum distance and minimum time. This will often result in a lower flight
level therefore increasing the fuel burn.
In most cases, however, the choice will come down to a selection between minimum fuel and
minimum cost. Where possible plan for enroute step climbs; however when unable to plan the most
optimum altitude for fuel economy, it is usually better to opt for the best lateral profile and accept a
slightly less than optimal altitude.
c) Runway Selection: For greater accuracy, the planned take-off runway, the departure and
arrival procedures and landing runway should all be included in the flight planned route.
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programs and the provision of statistics demonstrating that safe flight operations can be
maintained.
Statistical Fuels. Many airlines have now developed a Fuel Management Database for use by
Flight Dispatchers and Pilots. It is normally a historical record of actual fuel information such as:
- burn off;
- contingency fuel used versus contingency fuel boarded;
- additional fuel used versus additional fuel boarded.
• Accurate additional fuel figure increments should be developed. Additional fuels should only
be carried in increments of one minute. Why add 5 minutes of fuel if statistics show that 2
minutes is sufficient?
• Additional fuels should only be carried for known or forecast operational reasons.
• Remember a lighter aircraft is a safer aircraft. Amongst other things it provides:
- greater terrain clearance on take-off;
- ability to climb quicker;
- higher cruise altitude;
- better stall recovery and lower stall speed;
- lower approach speed;
- reduced landing distance and reduced tire and brake wear.
Here are some reasons NOT to carry additional fuel:
• This flight held for 10 minutes last week;
• The Captain always likes additional fuel;
• I don’t trust the forecast, evaluate whether there is a real risk of a diversion; and
• The payload might increase.
Every time you do not carry additional fuel you are contributing to the profitability of the company,
increased payload opportunities and better aircraft performance.
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• Care should be taken when tankering fuel into areas with low temperatures and high relative
humidity and precipitation; and
• Long-haul overseas flights where the cost to carry become excessive and the associated
aircraft performance becomes limiting e.g., unable to step climb.
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This process can greatly enhance flight safety, and will ultimately produce the safest and most cost
effective operation. The Flight Crew cannot adequately analyze the significant amount of data and
factors involved in planning a flight without experienced knowledgeable assistance from the ground.
Once a flight is airborne, the Flight Dispatcher can advise the Flight Crew of many issues, all of
which will enable the crew to better manage the fuel efficiency of the flight. These include:
• Are there delays at the destination? In which case slow down and save fuel;
• If the flight is running late, can the aircraft speed up to avoid missed connections? Burning a
little more fuel is usually preferable to having passengers miss connecting flights
• The Re-dispatch technique is best practiced with qualified Flight Dispatchers able to provide
the flight crew with the latest information to re-clear them to their destination.
• Contingency fuel may be available to provide either a longer alternate or provide holding fuel at
the destination
• Additional fuels may be available other than the reason for which they were originally carried.
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12. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
12.1 OVERVIEW
Today's economic climate is very hard on Air Transport Operators and belt tightening is the order of
the day. All areas of operation are being investigated with the hope of finding means to economize.
The recent dramatic rise in the price of fuel oil means that aviation fuel costs now account for over
20% of the total operating costs for an airline – and in some cases much more.
In order to reduce fuel consumption, most Air Transport Operators are making changes to their
operating procedures and are attempting to improve flight planning, management and operating
techniques. Some of the changes alter the operating characteristics of aircraft and it is here that Air
Traffic Control becomes involved.
The previous chapters describe many of the fuel saving measures that can be taken by Air
Transport Operators. Air traffic controllers, and air navigation service provider managers, are
encouraged to read these chapters, to better understand the actions being taken by operators, and
to use this knowledge to work with operators in their fuel conservation efforts.
This chapter looks at how good strategic Air Traffic Planning and Management practices – and
tactical Air Traffic Control practices – can influence and complement operator fuel management
practices.
There is no intent to change rules or existing ATC procedures – and the primary focus must
remain on safety; however where safety is not impacted, every effort should be made to facilitate
the actions being taken by operators.
Take the following example.
There are around 30 million scheduled air transport operations around the
globe annually. The average flight time is about 1 hour and 37 minutes. The
average operating cost per minute for an air transport operator is USD$100.
Reducing flight time by just 1% - that is, by just 1 minute – could reduce
airline operating costs by USD$3,000,000,000.00!
It is recognized that with high-density traffic any appreciable changes to the day-to-day operation
are limited; however there are areas – particularly in lower density environments, or in times of light
traffic - where opportunities for greater flexibility do exist, which could be translated into tremendous
savings for Air Transport Operators.
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• Continuously sensitize ATS staff and management about the cost of fuel – both in dollar terms, and
environmental impact - and its impact on the operating efficiency of airspace users;
• Encourage the establishment of familiarization flight for ATC controllers and visits to ATC centers
by pilots;
• Encourage the establishment of a program to visit airline dispatch and flight planning offices, to
better understand the factors affecting scheduling and flight mission management.
In November 2004, average jet-fuel cost was USD$1.70 per gallon. This may not seem like a large
sum – however one airline has estimated that its fleet could save $250,000 per year just by
delaying APU start by one minute.
It’s important, then, for air traffic control to notify aircraft operators as soon as possible if there is
likely to be a delay in start or pushback, so that the cheapest power source can be maintained for
as long as possible.
If delays are anticipated, the sooner the pilot knows the more economical it can be!
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afford up to 12 minutes taxi time on 2 engines in order to trade off a runway aimed the wrong way
and use its reciprocal. Most airlines will taxi the extra distance to get a runway that is even 30°
closer to the flight path.
Again the good technique question should be “could an alternate runway be safely approved?”
Both takeoff and landing will be affected by the operators’ energy awareness. Aircraft will be taking
off with reduced thrust and lower flap settings, and may be requesting intersection takeoffs in order
to save taxi time. Rolling takeoffs are more fuel-efficient.
12.6 CLIMB
Airlines say that when departing on a heading away from the destination airport their climb speed
will be decided by the following:
• If departure control needs DISTANCE before a turn, the aircraft will complete the noise
abatement procedure and accelerate to optimum clean speed to 3000 ft AGL;
• If altitude is required prior to turning they will maintain minimum clean speed (or max pitch) to
that altitude. The aircraft will trade speed for altitude. In other words, it will keep the take off
flap configuration so as to reach the altitude with minimum distance where a turn to the on-
course can be initiated as soon as possible. Then at low speed, the rate of turn is very high
and the distance away from the intended direction is minimized.
• When cleared to turn on a normal climb-out they will use the maximum permissible bank and
minimum clean speed until within about 90° of the on-course; then commence acceleration to
normal climb speed.
Where it is practical to do so – and consistent with safety – controllers should consider canceling
Standard Instrument Departures [SIDs] as soon as possible. They should also initiate on-course
climbs at pilot discretion.
12.7 CRUISE
An A340 flying 4,000 feet below its optimum cruise altitude will use 400 kg of extra fuel per hour. At
today’s prices, that works out to USD$176.00 or almost one short-sector return airfare.
Every aircraft has an optimum altitude at which it can operate. Optimum altitude, simply stated –
and in the absence of other economic factors [refer section 9 – Mission Management] - is the
altitude at which aircraft can fly the most ground miles per 1000kg of fuel.
This altitude is determined individually using as many of a long list of variables as are available to
the pilot. The primary factors considered are aircraft weight (which changes as the aircraft burns
fuel), winds at the various altitudes, temperature, and length of the flight stage. Many airlines and
charter companies employ the services of central computerized agencies to provide the most up-to-
date information possible.
When the flight segment is too short to permit the optimum altitude, the most fuel-efficient profile is
a climb until intercept of the descent profile.
It is an unfortunate - although often unavoidable - fact that the efforts made to maximize fuel
efficiency in cruise can very quickly be negated by the inability of ATC to approve a request.
It is important that ATC maintain a constant awareness of the impact of assigned altitudes on fuel
efficiency.
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outcome”. So, when an operator requests a certain preferred Mach number, it is likely that it has
been carefully calculated to achieve a specific economic outcome.
The cost penalty of flying at 0.01 Mach high or low could be 5½ cents per mile (at 4.5 million miles
per month for one operator this would equal $3,000,000 per year!). With Cost Index optimizing the
speed, in most cases changes in the aircraft speed can be mitigated though the en-route phase of
flight; however, it becomes a more significant problem as the flight approaches destination.
Controllers should also be aware of the meteorological conditions prevailing in their sector of
responsibility – and the likely effect in terms of aircraft requested speeds or levels. In order to
achieve the desired business outcome, an operator may reduce speed with a tail wind, or increase
speed into a headwind.
When a speed increase/reduction is required for control purposes try to co-ordinate with adjacent
sector/units so as to maintain uniformity throughout the flight segment.
Modern aircraft Flight Management Systems [FMS] are able to calculate the effects of a proposed
change quite quickly. If there is time, controllers should consider asking a pilot for options. For
example, many aircraft have a “Required Time of Arrival” [RTA] function, and over an appropriate
route segment can program the FMS so that an aircraft reaches a point with a high degree of
accuracy. ATC will achieve their desired outcome – and the pilot and FMS will have determined the
most economic way of achieving that outcome.
Where a speed restriction or requirement is imposed, it should be canceled as soon as it is no
longer required.
It is an inevitable part of ATC that in radar areas, aircraft will be vectored. Where there is a choice,
however, and provided the route segment is sufficiently long, an aircraft will generally prefer speed
control over vectoring. Better still – use the RTA function described earlier Whilst a vector of just 8
miles may seem insignificant, in cruise it amounts to a minute, and if repeated just once per day, it
can cost over USD$36,500 per aircraft per year.
If there is a message that comes in clear from all airlines, it is that — VECTORING FOR SPACING
USES TOO MUCH FUEL! They all prefer to be slowed down for separation rather than sent on
wide and fast routes. Speed control is far more efficient than vectors from a fuel economy point of
view. In fact, although there is a small penalty for increasing speed (which ATC seldom require)
there is a considerable saving in decreasing speed in most cases.
It is also important to let pilots know what you intend to do – BEFORE you do it. This is particularly
important in a terminal area. If you have an idea of the track miles to run – advise the pilot. This will
allow them to adjust their profile. If you know the position in a sequence – let the pilot know. They
may be able to monitor the traffic and adjust their profile.
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12.10 DESCENT
A properly planned and executed descent provides the greatest opportunity to save fuel. The ideal
profile is an unrestricted descent from cruise altitude, at a planned distance, without the use of
thrust or drag devices until on final approach.
On many aircraft start down points are pre-calculated by on-board computers with the following
factors taken into consideration:
• Wind corrections
• Airport altitude
• Air miles to go (including anticipated vectors)
• Runway in use
• Landing weight
If descent is interrupted and the aircraft forced to level off at an intermediate altitude, most pilots will
(allow the aircraft to) slow down as much as possible while level, then trade surplus height to regain
descent speed.
Late descent increases fuel consumption as more time is spent with cruise power and the extra
height energy must be dissipated with drag. When possible ATC should give descent clearance
when requested by the pilot, or better yet, give such clearance early and advise the pilot to
commence descent at his discretion.
Controllers should be aware that pilots may use "IDLE THRUST" technique if required to level off
for a portion of descent. This will result in a reduction of ground speed until such time as the aircraft
begins further descent. This may negate the control effect they were trying to achieve.
Significant increases of fuel burn are experienced when descent is commenced either too early or
too late. (The penalties are even greater if descent is initiated too late). If descent is started just ten
miles early, it can incur a penalty of over 200kg of fuel to a B747.
ATC should coordinate descent early - not when the aircraft asks for descent. Better still, controllers
should ask pilots when they want to start down.
12.11 HOLDING
Holding, although expensive, is sometimes inevitable. In order to reduce the fuel cost as much as
possible, consider the following:
• When advised that a hold is expected, most aircraft will wish to slow down in order to absorb as
much time enroute as possible. Some pilots refer to this procedure as a "linear hold".
• Most aircraft will want to stay at altitude as long as possible. Holding low is very fuel inefficient.
• If holding is anticipated, let the pilot know early.
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13 FUEL AND EMISSIONS EFFICIENCY CHECKLIST
Purpose: IATA recognizes that fuel management strategies form a key component of the commercial
advantage that airlines have established over many years. The purpose of this checklist is to:
• allow airline management to audit their current fuel management practices
• ensure that airlines are taking advantage of all generally available avenues to reduce fuel
expenditure, within the bounds of safety.
These lists are intended for internal audit purposes only — i.e., the information is not intended to be
returned to IATA, shared with other airlines, nor used in any way other than as a “self-check”.
It is likely that most airlines are already applying many of the techniques identified here. Some may not apply
to your particular mode of operation. In some cases, however, even one or two of the items raised could have
significant benefit to your airline, and we would encourage you to seek further information on these
techniques.
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1 THE SCHEDULE
1.1 Is your airline schedule built for maximum fuel
efficiency, optimized speeds, and best Cost Index
values (Time cost versus fuel cost)?
1.2 How often is your flight schedule (flight times and
Cost Index) adjusted to cater for fuel prices
changes?
1.3 Are your Cost Index values adjusted for specific
routes?
1.4 Is your schedule adjusted for seasons, time of day,
and day of the week?
1.5 Are you using the right aircraft on the right route to
minimize fuel consumption per passenger?
1.6 Do you have a process to perform aircraft swaps
based on last minute load changes?
1.7 Does your schedule minimize aircraft positioning or
ferry flights?
1.8 Do you have an early departure policy for oversked
flights that would permit the use of a lower Cost
Index and still arrive on time?
1.9 Is Cost Index flight planning and flying available for
your non-FMS aircraft types or other aircraft types?
1.10 Are high overflight charges causing inefficient fuel
planning?
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7 TANKERING
7.1 Do you have a tankering program in place, and is it
well optimized?
7.2 Is your flight planning system properly computing
tankering costs?
7.3 Is the “cost-to-carry” computed by your flight
planning system?
7.4 Do you use strategic tankering and are the costs
well understood?
7.5 How often do you update fuel prices in your flight
planning system?
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10 WEIGHT MANAGEMENT
10.1 Do you have a program to manage aircraft weight?
(such as minimizing the carriage of unnecessary water,
magazines and newspaper, toilets servicing, blankets,
cargo containers, crew baggage, carry on baggage,
unnecessary galley supplies, ovens, garbage, etc)
10.2 Do you have a center of gravity management
system for passengers and cargo (C of G)?
10.3 Are your estimated zero fuel weights accurate
(EZFW)?
10.4 Do you have a last minute fuel top-up policy
especially for long-range flights to avoid carriage of
unnecessary fuel?
(The flight plan is re-optimized for actual weight changes
(passengers or cargo), winds, cruise speed and
altitudes, connections, dropping of choosing a more
efficient alternate, re-optimizing the discretionary fuel,
slowing down early flights for fuel efficiency, etc.)
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