Calculations in Fundamental Physics: Electricity and Magnetism

CHAPTER 1

CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Publisher Summary

Two types of charged particles are involved in the structure of any material—the positively charged nuclei of the atoms and the negatively charged electrons moving around the nuclei. When no current flows in a stationary conductor, the continual orbiting and jostling of these particles lead to no resultant large-scale movement of either positive or negative charge one way or another. If an electric cell is connected in a closed circuit of conductors, the cell tends to drive negative particles one way around the circuit and positive the other. The direction of flow of the positive charge is the direction of the current. In most solid conductors, electric currents consist only of those electrons that are free to drift through the solid, while the positive nuclei, with orbiting electrons, remain localized in the solid structure. Many effects of currents are the same whether because of positive particles drifting in one direction or to negative in the other. When an electric current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is produced in the surrounding space or medium. Evidence of this field is provided by the force exerted on a magnetic compass or on another conductor carrying a current. Such a force can be attributed to the existence of magnetic flux, which is imagined to pass around the current causing the field, and to have the same direction as a compass needle.

Flow of Charge

1.1 WORKED EXAMPLE

Two lamps are connected in parallel across a battery of cells. A current of 1.6 A flows through the battery when the current through one lamp is 7.5×10¹⁸ electrons per second. Calculate the current through the second lamp (a) in amperes, and (b) in electrons per second.

Introduction

Two types of charged particles are involved in the structure of any material: the positively charged nuclei of the atoms and the negatively charged electrons moving around the nuclei. When no current flows in a stationary conductor, the continual orbiting and jostling of these particles leads to no resultant large scale movement of either positive or negative charge one way or another. If, however, an electric cell is connected in a closed circuit of conductors, the cell tends to drive negative particles one way around the circuit and positive the other. The direction of flow of the positive charge is said to be the direction of the current. Yet in most solid conductors, electric currents consist only of those electrons which are free to drift through the solid, while the positive nuclei, with orbiting electrons, remain localized in the solid structure.

Many effects of currents are the same whether due to positive particles drifting in one direction or to negative in the other. Also the magnitudes of currents are more easily measured by their effects than by attempting to count the numbers or rates of flow of the particles. Thus the unit of current, the ampere (A), is determined by a convenient effect, namely the force exerted between parallel wires carrying currents (as inFig. 1.1). The ampere is that constant current which, in each of two parallel, infinitely long, and straight wires of negligible circular cross-section, spaced one metre apart in a vacuum, produces on each wire a force of 2×10−7 newton per metre length. The number 2×10−7 makes this definition agree with another referring to curved conductors, but now obsolete.

FIG. 1.1 Forces of attraction between current-carrying conductors.

The unit of charge corresponding to the ampere of current is the coulomb. Thus one coulomb (C) is the resultant charge passed in one second through any full cross-section of a constant current of one ampere. In terms of this unit the very small negative charge of each electron is found to be 1.6×10−19 C. Many charges are measured in microcoulombs (μC); 1 μC = 10−6 C. In general, the charge Q which passes when a constant current I flows for a time t is given ([A-z]+)

(1.1)

where I is in amperes (A), Q is in coulombs (C), and t is in seconds (s).

The question relates to the circuit shown inFig. 1.2, where the number of electrons arriving at any point in any time interval equals the number leaving in the same interval. No means of storing an accumulation of electrons is to be considered in this circuit. Thus at either terminal A or B,

FIG. 1.2 Ex. 1.1.

(1.2)

where Ib is the battery current and I1 and I2 are the lamp currents.

Solution

Using eqn. (1.1), the current through the first lamp

Then, from eqn. (1.2),

(a)

Now from eqn. (1.1) the charge passed by I2 in one second = 0.4×1 C.

But each electron is a charge of 1.6×10−19 C. Therefore the rate of flow of electrons in I2 is

b

1.2

Calculate the number of electrons which pass the terminals of an electric heater which draws a continuous current of 8.0 A for a period of 12 h. [2.2×10²⁴.]

1.3

How long would it take to supply a charge of one microcoulomb at the rate of one million electrons per millisecond? What would be the current in amperes? [6.3×10³ s; 1.6×10−10 A.]

Parallel Conductors

1.4 WORKED EXAMPLE

Two long, thin, straight, parallel conductors are spaced 6.0 cm apart in a vacuum. They carry currents of 25 A and 30 m A respectively. Calculate (a) the force per unit length exerted on each conductor, and (b) the flux density of the magnetic field across the axis of each conductor.

Introduction

When an electric current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is produced in the surrounding space or medium. Evidence of this field is provided by the force exerted on a magnetic compass or on another conductor carrying a current, as in ex. 1.1. Such a force may be attributed to the existence of magnetic flux, which is imagined to pass around the current causing the field, and to have the same direction as a compass needle.

With two conductors as in the question, each current sets up a field of magnetic flux around it, and thereby exerts a force on the other conductor. In accordance with Newton’s law of action and reaction, the forces on the two conductors are equal and opposite. Hence, in the following analysis, the suffixes 1 and 2 could be interchanged.

In Fig. 1.3 the loops show some of the directions of the magnetic flux produced by current I1 and exerting the force F2 on current I2. The force is perpendicular to both the flux and the current where they cross.

FIG. 1.3 Magnetic field of one conductor crossing another

The force per unit length, F2/l2 or F1/l1, is found to be proportional to both currents I1 and I2 and inversely proportional to the distance r between the conductors. Thus

(1.3)

where k is a constant which depends on the system of units and the medium in which the field is set up.

In M.K.S. units, the ampere (A) is defined as that value of both I1 and I2 which makes F/l = 2×10−7 newton per metre (N m−1), when r = 1 metre (m) in a vacuum (see also ex. 1.1).

(1.4)

in vacuum.

The strength of the magnetic field in any small region is represented by the flux density B, i.e. the ratio of the quantity of flux passing through the region to the cross-section area through which CFPVII 2

it passes perpendicularly (seeFig. 1.3). Since F decreases with increase of r, so also must the flux density be less at greater distances from the current which causes it. This is represented roughly by the spacing of the loops of flux inFig. 1.3.

An expression for B appears on rearranging eqn. (1.3):

where the factor (kI1/r) indicates the influence of the flux and is therefore the measure of the flux density B1 due to I1 at distance r.

Then

(1.5)

and

(1.6)

where F2 is in newtons, I1 and I2 are in amperes, l2 and r are in metres, and the unit of B1 is called either a tesla (T) or a weber per square metre (Wb/m²), the weber being the unit of flux.

Solution

(a) 

Then eqns. (1.3) and (1.4) give the force per unit length:

(b) Across I2, the flux density due to I1 is given by eqn. (1.5):

Similarly, across I1,

1.5

Consider two conductors as in ex. 1.4 but with unknown currents and spacing. One current is then trebled and the other is halved. Calculate the change of spacing required to obtain a quarter of the original force. [+ 500%.]

1.6

A long, straight wire, carrying a current of 50 A, experiences a force per unit length of 2×10−2 Nm−1 due to the magnetic field of a second wire running parallel to it at a distance of 5.0 cm in a vacuum. Calculate (a) the flux density of the magnetic field acting on the first wire, and (b) the current in the second wire. [(a) 4×10−4 T; (b) 100 A.]

Ammeters

1.7 WORKED EXAMPLE

turns of wire, pivoted in a magnetic field of flux density 0.20 T. The control springs have a total stiffness factor of 4.0 × 10−6 Nm per degree. Calculate the current which would give a deflection of 45°.

Introduction

The coil of a moving-coil instrument is pivoted about an axis, as in Fig. 1.4, so that it may turn under the influence of the forces acting on the sides of the coil which run across the curved faces of the pole pieces.

FIG. 1.4 Coil, core, and poles of a moving-coil instrument.

The force on each wire on each side is given by eqn. (1.6), i.e. F = BIl, where l is the length of one coil side, I is the current, and B is the density of the radial magnetic flux due to the poles. F is perpendicular to both l and B and therefore perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Also F acts on each side to produce rotation in the same