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    An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl
    An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl
    An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl
    Ebook167 pages2 hours

    An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl

    By Brian Reeder

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    About this ebook



    In this introduction to the genetics of form and feathering of the domestic fowl you will



    fi



    nd a


    straightforward method that allows anyone, beginner or advanced hobbyist, to understand how



    the major genes of form and feathering come together to create the silhouette that is the hallmark



    of each breed. Beginning with a discussion of the skeleton genes, then moving to muscling



    genes, feathering genes and






    fi



    nally to comb genes, an understanding of the layers that make the


    silhouette is revealed. From this system of understanding how the silhouette is formed, one can



    then understand what really makes one breed unique from another.



    All of the genes presented herein are found in the commonly seen exhibition breeds and many



    hobbyists will be familiar with these breeds, but may be less familiar with the genetic factors



    involved. This volume is a wonderful tool for learning the basis of how the breeds are made, how



    their respective forms are derived from separate genes of form and feathering, and how those



    genes all come together to make the one visual impression that we consider a breed. There is in



    fact no one single gene which makes the form of any given breed. Many genes are required to



    derive each type and the combination of those many genes creates the silhouette. As you will



    see from the many silhouette illustrations in this book, once you know a breed, it is instantly



    recognizable from its silhouette alone.



    In addition to the discussion of the genes, there is a discussion of basic genetic concepts and of the



    complex and often confusing method of quantitative selection that is very applicable to many of



    the genes described herein. This book presents a very clear system for learning about the genetics



    of form and feathering in the domestic fowl and is written to be understood by the young and



    beginners alike.





    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAuthorHouse
    Release dateMay 5, 2011
    ISBN9781456747831
    An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl
    Author

    Brian Reeder

    Brian Reeder is the author of the acclaimed and best-selling book An Introduction to Color Forms of the Domestic Fowl. He is also a well known writer oft poultry genetics articles and has studied genetics throughout his life. Having worked with poultry from his youth, he began to research the genetics of the domestic fowl in his teens and proceeded to much more intensive test mating experiments through his twenties and thirties. His collected data now spans two decades. His time is now split between his farm (where he continues to study the genetics of domestic fowl, goldfish and guppies, and domestic plants including food plants and flowering plants such as daylily and peony) and the city (where he teaches yoga as therapeutic body care and maintenance). He says that his own practice of yoga has added years of health and well-being to his life and will allow him to do the physically demanding work that his many research projects demand, for many years to come. He looks forward to bringing more of his research to the public in the future.

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      Book preview

      An Introduction to Form and Feathering of the Domestic Fowl - Brian Reeder

      Contents

      Introduction

      Thoughts On Genetics In Breeding Programs

      Basic Terms

      Basic Genetics

      What is a Gene?

      Quantitative Traits and Selection Methods

      A Note on Notations and Abbreviations

      Genes of Form and Feather

      The Genetics of Size

      Applied Form Genetics

      To the Future:

      What Really Matters?

      In Closing

      Introduction

      I adore poultry, especially chickens, both as a reminder of my heritage and as a study of science. I feel that poultry (and especially chickens with their ancient lineage, prehistoric domestication, world-wide distribution, and hundreds of breeds and genetic variations) are more than just livestock. To take what is available to you and shape it to your aesthetic sensibilities through selection, careful husbandry, and genetic knowledge is living art.

      I have been exposed to poultry since birth. My grandparents on both sides were farmers and both of my grandfathers introduced me to a love of chickens. The earliest chickens I remember from my childhood were American games and Japanese games, Barred Rocks, Dorkings, and Leghorns.

      I have always had a great interest in genetics, breeding, and the development of new strains or breeds through genetic selection. For the last decade and a half, I have made an in-depth study of the genetics of the chicken. In so doing, I have made numerous test matings and studies to unlock the secrets of the genes of domestic fowl. I have used the remarkable research of other poultry researchers as a starting point to devise my test matings and I have sought answers to the unanswered questions of the functions of the various genes of domestic fowl. In so doing, I have discovered the basis of the gene combinations that make the form and feathering that is seen in the many breeds of chickens. I have set out to write a concise, usable text for any person who wishes to breed poultry for specific form or feathering.

      Through the information contained in this book, any breeder should be able to make intelligent selection of genetic factors to produce any form or feathering phenotype desired and possible, within our current knowledge and the limitations of the genes themselves. This book can be used by show-breeders to understand the form and feathering genetics of their high-bred strains, as well as for selecting proper outcrosses when such is needed to improve vigor or resistance to disease, without completely wrecking the desired silhouette. The backyard producer will find ways to select for specific traits to develop the form and function most desirable to them. Those with an eye to creativity and artistry, and who would wish to make new breeds, varieties or forms, will find the basis to enact their designs.

      There is much to consider beyond the visual in breeding domestic fowl. While the focus of this volume will be on the genetics of the silhouette, I cannot emphasize strongly enough that there are other factors that are really more important. Vigor, disease resistance, production, reproduction ability, and calm disposition are of the utmost importance in any breeding endeavor. I would advise the beginner to make a serious study of these other factors, and many more experienced breeders may want to pause to consider them as well. With the obvious visual characteristics being so…obvious, it is all too easy to get tunnel vision in regards to visual traits, yet it is often those traits which cannot be seen that really make or break a breeding endeavor. I cannot advise strongly enough that all breeders, at all levels of experience, should not forget them. One should never evaluate a bird or line solely on how it looks, as looks are but one factor amongst many, and is not the most important of them all.

      Brian Reeder

      Thoughts On Genetics In Breeding Programs

      It is possible to breed stock with no knowledge of genetics. People have done it for thousands of years. However, I would caution that if you choose not to learn about the genetics of the animals you are breeding, you should stick with a well developed breed which has a large following and for which much information is readily available. Good examples are Barred Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, White Leghorns, or Black and White Cochin bantams. Other alternatives could be to maintain a mixed flock or perhaps a pure bred flock of hatchery type birds and to go no further. Any of these scenarios are accomplishable with no genetic knowledge.

      For those who wish to do more with their stock such as improve it, develop it further, salvage it, or develop new forms, a working knowledge of genetics becomes a great asset. A working knowledge of genetics is indispensable to easy and proper selection of stock, especially when working on new varieties or breeds, or when outcrosses must be made for salvaging an endangered breed or strain.

      When one understands the genetics of color, pattern, feathering, form, production and immunogenetics, making new varieties, forms or breeds becomes a simple process of patience, time and effort. With genetic understanding, it is also possible and much simpler to eliminate some undesirable characteristics from established strains. Most importantly, with genetic knowledge, one can make whatever one desires within the limitations of the available genes. Finally, and perhaps of greatest importance at this time, through a working knowledge of the genetics of immunology, one can produce hardy, strong, vigorous and disease resistant birds which are a credit to the species, reflect positively on the breeder, and may offer heightened survival skills in the face of an uncertain future.

      Basic Terms

      First, I have to say before we go any further that I do not know all there is to know about poultry genetics. What I am presenting here is the research and study I have done of the professional poultry genetic researchers findings and my own experiences, findings, outcross results, and my method of looking at the appearance (called phenotype) of the bird. The system that I am presenting is for hobbyists, commercial producers, show-breeders and anyone interested in form/feather traits in the domestic fowl. There are genes and effects yet to be discovered and there will also be discoveries that simplify some previous assumptions. It has been shown that some functions currently attributed to one gene will turn out to be multigenic or perhaps the result of an unknown factor. We must also not discount the possibility that new mutations will occur in the future or that new factors of inheritance may yet be revealed.

      Phenotype is the visual appearance of the bird. The phenotype exists due to the genotype, which is the combination of genes of any given bird. Condition has nothing to do with phenotype or genotype. Condition is the result of maintenance, care and environment. A homozygous bird, perfect in genotype/phenotype, may look very undesirable due to poor condition, or conversely a heterozygote for phenotype/genotype may look very nice if its condition is good. A deleterious gene causes the organism to be weaker in some way than it’s non-carrier counterpart. This is not a disease nor is it the result of condition, but is a weakening effect due to a mutation, which may in some way play a part in the phenotype as well.

      • Phenotype – the visual appearance of the bird

      • Genotype – the gene combination of the bird

      • Condition – the results of maintenance and environment

      • Deleterious - negatively affecting the organism

      The silhouette is the outline of the bird. If the bird were standing in front of a bright light such that you could see no details, only the outline, then you are seeing the silhouette. This is how we want to visualize our birds to understand how the many genes of form and feathering come together. When two or more genes have a different effect when combined as compared to individually, this is called interaction. The silhouette is a product of interaction of several factors.

      • Silhouette – the outline of the bird

      • Interaction – combined genes having different effects together than when they exist singly

      • Recombination (recombinant) – the redistribution of genes on chromosomes through the meiotic process (formation of sex cells) Heterozygous recombinant – recombination event that produces a set of chromosomes with two different alleles at a locus

      • Homozygous recombinant – recombination event that produces a set of chromosomes with the same allele at a locus

      There are certain terms that are used in the hobby which actually shadow some genetic realities. Pure is one of these terms. While it is frequently used, it is often misused. Pure, in fact, is an attempt to say homozygous. To say that something is pure has become a political term within hobby poultry to imply superiority of one strain or breed over another. Another confusing aspect to pure as used in the hobby is that many of the older breeds are said to be pure races and are thus called prepotent, which in the hobby is defined as being able to pass on traits. These in fact are all references to levels of homozygosity. It must be understood that a new breed can be brought to a level of homozygosity that is sufficient to reproduce the breed with high levels of similarity. This can be achieved within a decade or two. However, very old breeds, which were once bred in very large numbers in a given geographical region may reach levels of homozygosity that gives them a very high level of uniformity, even where there are multiple genes at work. There would presumably be genes which have achieved homozygosity that we know nothing about or that do not directly effect phenotype, but still help to achieve the overall uniformity. It must be stressed that it is highly unlikely that any of these breeds have remained absolutely pure over the last hundred and fifty years of breed development, show breeding, and commercial development and improvement. However, the high level of homozygosity found in these breeds allows them to be more quickly brought back to type when out crossed and bred back to their own breed.

      Any research of the old literature (1800’s) shows that the various breeds which are now attributed as true races, such as Langshan, Cochin, Brahma, or Sumatra will reveal that the original importations of these were of birds rather different than those seen today. For example, the Cochin was much less fully feathered. The Sumatra was taller and less profusely feathered and had single spurs. The Brahma had much in common with the Cochins of the time and unlike today; they were hard to distinguish from one another. It is apparent that changes through selection, outcross and refinement occurred AFTER importation of these so-called ancient races.

      • Pure –a term used in the hobby to imply that one strain is superior to another or an attempt to imply homozygous; also homozygous for the gene(s) in question

      • Impure – hobby term meaning of poorer quality or type or genetic term meaning heterozygous for the gene(s) in question

      • Homozygous – having matching alleles at the same loci

      • Heterozygous – having two different alleles at a the same loci

      • Prepotent – a hobby term that is meant to imply that a given bird can exert a greater influence over it’s offspring than can it’s partner. Prepotent implies a bird with very high homozygosity for most of its alleles. A good number of these genes are simply dominant, as recessives can never be prepotent as they disappear when heterozygous

      • True or Ancient Races – a hobby term implying that some breeds are more pure because they are very old and have been subject to isolation. This can imply high levels of homozygosity but in most cases it is usually a way of claiming superiority of one strain or breed over another.

      • Dominant – a gene is dominant when it is expressed in the phenotype as a heterozygote

      • Recessive –a gene is recessive when it disappears from the phenotype as a heterozygote, but can be seen in the phenotype when homozygous

      • Penetrance - indicates how many members of a population with a particular genotype show the expected phenotype

      • Pleiotropy - when

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