Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

The Impacts of Parents and Peers in Regards to Emotional Competence France Goulard University of Calgary APSY 650 Kelly Dean Schartz

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE The Impacts of Parents and Peers in Regards to Emotional Competence

Researchers and policy analysts indicate that in order to succeed in school, children need to master emotional competence (Halberstadt, Denham & Dunsmore, 2001). Emotional competence is defined as a life long development that includes emotional expression and experience, emotion regulation, and the decoding and understanding of these processes in self and others (Halberstadt, Denham & Dunsmore, 2001). These skills and attributes play a central role in the development of pathways to mental health and risk, as well as social and academic success. They are usually founded during the preschool and gradeschool years although they increase as children get older. According to Halberstadt, Denham & Dunsmore (2001), preschool-age children are able to express emotions that are not always experienced, to decode these processes in others and regulate emotions in ways that are age and socially appropriate. The focus of this paper is on the importance of the development of emotions in a child, as well as the impacts that parental and peer ecologies have in regards to the socialization of emotional competence. The theoretical framework will explore the positive and negative aspects of the parents and peer ecologies, as well as the gaps and the relationships they have formed. Limitations and future considerations will also be noted, and the paper will conclude with a summary. Lets start by defining the types of emotional competence in order to better understand the influences of the two ecologies on the child. Emotional Competence In order to master you emotional competence, the following three types of emotions are required: Emotional expression and experience, understanding of emotions in self and others, and emotion regulation. Emotional expression is the specific emotion shown with varying purposefulness by children and the rate of such expressiveness, across emotions. Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and empathy/love are examples of emotional expression. Understanding of

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

Emotions in Self and Others represents the childs knowledge about the emotions of themselves and others including comprehension of basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, their expressions, situations, causes, and consequences (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). It can also bring insight into more complicated facets of emotions, for example, two people can feel two different emotions in response to the same eliciting event; and discernment of display rule usage, mixed emotions, and more complex emotions (ex., guilt and shame). Then by using physical, cognitive, and/or behavioral strategies, children can regulate the emotion when its experience or expression is too much or too little for themselves to fit others expectations. Emotion Regulation is a crucial contributor to aspects of a childs social competence. Preschoolers who regulate their anger by venting are seen later as less socially competent by peers and teachers (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). Emotion regulation determines the offset of emotional responding and is thus distinct from emotional sensitivity, which determines the onset of emotional responding (Koole, 2009). Among the most viable categories for classifying emotion-regulation strategies are the targets and functions of emotion regulation. The emotion-generating systems that are targeted in emotion regulation include attention, knowledge, and bodily responses. The functions of emotion regulation include satisfying hedonic needs, supporting specific goal pursuits, and facilitating the global personality system (Koole, 2009). After discussing the types of emotional competence, the following are some of the impacts that parents and peers play in regards to emotional competence. Parental Impact Parents play an important role as they are known as modelers, coaches, and teachers, influencing their childs emotional expression, understanding, and regulation, as well as social functioning (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). They are a crucial part of their childs emotional

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

development as they have a huge influence on whether their child will be able to properly control their emotions. Valiente, Eixenberg, et al. (2004) describes parents as doubtless key models of emotional expressiveness from infancy through adolescence. The parent-child relationship is known as a close dyadic relationship. Parents are attachment figures for their children. They are primary figures since infancy for support in times of pain, anxiety, or distress. Although the importance of this support diminishes, as children get older, they still play a major role for their offsprings psychological understanding of basic emotions (Denham, 2007). Exposure to negative emotions expressed by adults can be problematic for children (Koole, 2009). as it can affect their quality of life. Parental expressiveness can make it more difficult for young children to address issues of emotion altogether. These negative emotions from parents have been linked to depression, behavioral problems and emotional incompetence in children. With that in mind, here are examples of some positive and negative impacts in regards to parental emotional competence. Positive Parental Impacts Parents are attachment figures for their children. Exposure to their particular profile of emotions can promote childrens experience and expression of the same specific emotions and may also contribute to differing patterns of overall emotional expressiveness. For example, parents positive emotional expression is significantly related to positive emotional expression in children (Isley, ONeil, Clatfelter, &Park, 1999). Positive emotions from parents are also related to childrens popularity with peers and their displays of positive caregiving behaviors with siblings (Isley et al., 1999). Furthermore, parents positive emotional expression is significantly related to positive emotional expression in children. A secure attachment to parents, mainly to the mother, tends to promote the understanding of basic emotions and of mixed emotions (Denham & Auerbach, 1995). Parents positive affect during semi-naturalistic game playing was related to

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE their kindergarteners social competence, as mediated by the childrens positive affect in

interaction with their parents (Denham & Auerbach, 1995). It is also important to note that wellmodulated negative emotion can be positively related to understanding of emotion. For example, showing disappointment in a proper way after the loss of a job could be known as well-modulated. Parents, who are good emotion coaches, accept childrens experiences of emotion and their expression of emotions that do not harm others; they empathize with and validate emotions. Regardless of the childs age, emotional moments are seen as opportunities for intimacy (Dunn, Slomkowski, Donelan, & Herrera, 1995). Negative Parental Impacts Exposure to parents negative emotions can hamper young childrens emotion knowledge but at the same time can be positively related to understanding of emotion (Garner, Jones, & Miner, 1994). Denham (1998) explains that the frequency and intensity of displayed negative parental emotions may disturb the emotional learning of children; therefore, will lack in the childs acquisition of emotion knowledge. Pollak and Tolley- Schell (2003) have found that physically abused children have trouble disengaging from invalid anger cues, suggesting that any advantage of their increased ability to identify valid anger cues may be counterbalanced by an identification bias. Also, the limited expressiveness of parents gives little accurate information about emotions. Finally, parental negative affect had only a direct, negative contribution to childrens social competence.

Peer Impact

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

Peers are of central importance to children throughout childhood and adolescence ((Koole, 2009). If parent-child relationships are asymmetrical and close, the childs relationship with the peer group is just the opposite- symmetrical and not close. They are expected to have a pervasive influence on childrens emotional development for mainly two reasons: (1) Peers are in a better position to understand the emotional life of their agemates than parents or children of other age groups because of their similarities (Dunn & Hughes, 1998); (2) Agemates argue at about the same socio-cognitive and moral level, face the same transitions and normal life events and share the same role in regards to school (Denham, 2007). These similarities are expected to improve their understanding of their peers situation, perhaps independent of individual differences due to level of development, personality, and upbringing (Ontai & Thompson, 2002). Positive affect is important in the initiation and regulation of social exchanges as it may facilitate the formation of friendships (Koole, 2009). Unfortunately, some of these foundations are not easily constructed. Children who engage in negative affect, especially anger, can be quite problematic in social interaction (Miller et al., 2006). Furthermore, children who experience intense negative emotions, and are unable to regulate their expressions of such emotions, are especially likely to suffer deficits in their social competence and overall well being. In grade school, observations of peers emotions and rules about emotions are likely to grow in importance. Peer emotions observations could also be expected to inform more sophisticated aspects of understanding emotion (guilt or shame), display rules, and ambivalence, which complement the childs new world of peers (Katarina et al., 2008). Managing how and when to show emotion becomes a crucial issue, as does knowing with whom to share emotion-laden experiences and ideas. The key to social success is emotional competence (Katarina et al., 2008).. With that being said, here are some examples of positive and negative peer

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE influences in regards to a childs emotional competence. Positive Peer Impact Children who engage in positive activities with peers tend to experience levels of

emotional well-being, beliefs about the self, and values for prosocial forms of behavior and social interaction that are stronger and more adaptive than levels of children who do not (Denham, 2007). Children who enjoy positive interactions and relationships with their peers also tend to be more engaged in and even to excel at academic tasks than those who experience problems with peers (Raikes & Thompson, 2006). Positive affect is also of great importance because the child is seen as nice or friendly. Sharing positive affect may facilitate the formation of friendships, and to be known as more likeable (Dunham, Mckinley, Couchoud, & Holt, 1990). Negative Peer Impact Children who are most emotionally intense, and poorly regulate this intense emotion, show the most difficulty in maintaining positive social behavior and have more troubled relationships with peers (Fabes & Guthrie, 1999). There is evidence that emotionally negative preschoolers tend to engage with equally negative playmates, and show increasingly negative evaluations of social competence (Contreras, Kerns, Weimer, Getzler, & Tomich, 2000). Furthermore, frequent anger explosions or triumph over other childrens failures are both associated with peer rejection. Interestingly, expressing envy at other childrens achievements on a regular basis is likewise linked to peer rejection (Tassi & Schneider, 1997). Now, lets focus on the positive and negative link that the two ecologies bring forward. Positive Peer-Parental Impact Here are some overlap examples between the two ecologies: parents and peers. Research indicates that positive relationships with parents create better opportunities in creating positive and

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE successful relationships with peers. Mothers of securely attached children provide a richer

discourse about emotions to their children; therefore increases the childs acceptance by peers When parents discuss and explain their own and others emotions, their children are more capable of empathetic involvement with peers (Ontai & Thompson, 2002). Socializers tendencies to discuss emotions, and the quality of their communications about emotions, if nested within a warm relationship (parental or friendship), assist the child in expressing and regulating emotions (Dunn, Slomkowski, Donelan, & Herrera, 1995). Positive emotions from parents are also related to childrens popularity with peers, and their displays of positive caregiving behaviors with siblings (Ontai & Thompson, 2002). Negative Peer-Parental Impact The following are examples of some negative overlap between the two ecologies. Research indicates that negative relationship with parents creates instability within the childs emotions and therefore has less success in obtaining strong relationships with peers (Denham, 2007). Sharing in angry interchanges with parents can unfortunately help children become easily aroused during social interaction, and/or learn an overly confrontational style, that carry over to peer aggression and avoidance (Dunn, Slomkowski, Donelan, & Herrera, 1995). Finally, primary school children expect more negative reactions when expressing sadness or pain in front of peer audiences than in the presence of parents (Denham, 2007).

Research on Emotional Competence Emotional competence is also important from a mental health perspective. Externalizing and internalizing behavior disorders cause untold difficulty for parents, teachers, children

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

themselves, and societies as a whole (Campbell & Ewing, 1990). Research on these problems during elementary school repeatedly mentions emotional factors (e.g. Dadds, Sanders, Morrison, & Rebetz, 1992; Denham et al., 2000). Moreover, such emotion-related descriptors often predict continuity of such behavior problems (Robins & Rutter, 1990; Werner, 1989). Thus, when developmental milestones of emotional competence are not negotiated successfully, children are at risk for psychopathology, both concurrently and later in life (Denham, Zahn-Waxler, et al., 1991; Rubin & Clark, 1983; Zahn-Waxler, Iannotti, Cummings, & Denham, 1990). Mental health policy analysts (e.g., Knitzer, 1993) are calling for the study of emotional competence and for primary and secondary interventions for children at risk for deficits (Denham, 2007). More and more evidence-based prevention and intervention programming is being tested and promoted in early childhood education (Denham & Burton, 1996, 2003; Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007; Frey, Hirschstein, & Guzzo, 2000; Izard, 2002b; Izard & Bear, 2001; Webster-Stratton & Taylor, 2001). Statistics Canada did a survey on depression and anxiety level on their link to parental closeness. Results indicated that there is a negative correlation between relationship scores with parents and friends, and levels of anxiety (Bushnik, 2005). Higher scores on the relationship with mother scale, father scale, and friendship scale, were all significantly related to lower levels of anxiety (Bushnik, 2005). With the relationship to the mother being the most important as the unstanderdized regression coefficient was lowest. Another study from Statistics Canada showed the importance of father-child relationship. Both sons and daughters with high father relationship scores displayed less depressive symptoms. This is a prime example of just how important it is to have a positive parent-child relationship. Interestingly enough, the higher level of positive influence that these scores had was in regards to father-son relationship (Bushnik, 2005). According to calculations done by the Canadian Council on Social Development (CCSD), the

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

10

distribution of Canadas families are 12,7% female lone-parent in comparison to 2,8% male loneparent (Canadian Council on Social Development [CCSD], 2006). Not having a father figure in the 12,7% of the population is probably a factor in the cause of depression in sons. Albertas female lone-parent is at 11,5% and at 2,9% male lone-parent (CCSD, 2006). Recent studies have shown that emotion knowledge at the beginning of the Head Start year uniquely predicted, as did emotion regulation, year-end school adjustment (i.e., behavioral regulation, preacademic ability, compliance/ participation, forming relationships), (Shields et al., 2001). Further, emotion knowledge contributes to the prediction of later attentional and academic competence even after controlling for the effects of verbal ability (Izard, 2002a; Izard et al., 2001). Limitations and Future Considerations Certain limitations and future considerations are needed in order to gain more knowledge on the impacts of parents and peers in regards to emotional competence. Research findings on the prediction of emotion knowledge by parental emotion and the contribution of emotion knowledge to concurrent and later social competence still require complete testing (Denham, 2007). Most research of emotional competence within the peer group has focused on the difference between the experience and the expression of emotions. What is missing is a descriptive study which details peer influences on other aspects of childrens emotional development, on their ways of appraising, experiencing and regulating specific emotions. In terms of the contribution of emotion knowledge to school readiness and academic success, fewer research reports are available, but they are emerging. Also, more evidence is needed about the ways in which emotion knowledge and regulation work together during infancy, so that early childhood educators can refine socialemotional programming. In the future, ascertaining early social difficulties could make it easier to intervene with

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE children before their difficulties with aggression become severe. Discussion

11

Understanding emotion lays at the heart of emotional competence, with both experiencing and expressing emotions contributing to understanding, and understanding contributing to both other aspects (Pons & Harris, 2005). Studies show that the more positive the relationship young people have with a parent, the more positive their mental well-being; therefore have a better chance to be socially accepted by their peers and others (Raikes & Thompson, 2006). Furthermore children with high levels of closeness, affection and understanding from their parents have fewer symptoms of depression, anxiety and behavioral problems. Moreover, youth who reported getting along well with their peers also had fewer symptoms of depression and created a better environment at school which in return optimized the chances to get better grades. The role of parenting and peers as positive modelers was proven to be of great importance for a childs proper emotional development (Pons & Harris, 2005). One cannot stress enough on the importance of an effective relationship between parent and child.

References Bushnik, T. (2005). Youth depressive symptoms and changes in relationships with parents and peers. Statistics Canada, 89(2), 1-37. doi: 10.1097/MRR.0b013e32831e452e Canadian Counil on Social Development (2006). A profile of Canadian families. Stats and facts. Retrieved from http://www.ccsd.ca/home.htm

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

12

Cambpell, S., & Ewing, L. (1990). Follow-up of hard-to-manage preschoolers: adjustment at age 9 and predictors of continuing symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology, 31, 871-889. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp2801_4 Contreras, J.M., Kerns, K., Weimer, B., Gentzler, A., & Tomich, P.L. (2000). Emotion regulation as a mediator of associations between mother-child attachment and peer relationship in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 111-124. Dadds, M.R., Sanders, M.R., Morrison, M., & Rebetz, M. (1992). Childhood depression and conduct disorder: II. Ananalysis of family interaction patterns in the home. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 505-513. Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York. NY: Guilford. Denham, S. A. (2007). Dealing with feelings: How children negotiate the worlds of emotions and social relationships. Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 11(1), 1-48. doi:10.1136/jech.2007.070797 Denham, S. A., & Auerbach, S. (1995). Mother-child dialogue about emotions. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 121, 311-338. doi: 10.1023/A:1018866908472 Denham, S.A., & Burton, R. (2003). Social and emotional prevention and intervention programming for preschoolers. New York, NY: Kluwer-Plenum. Denham, S.A., Mckinley, M., Crouchard, E.A., & Holt, R. (1990). Emotional and behavioral predictors of peer status in young preschoolers. Child Development, 61, 1146-1152. Denham, S.A, Zahn-Waxler, C., Cummings, E., & Iannotti, R. (1991). Social-competence in young childrens peer relationships: Patterns of development and change. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 22, 29-43. doi: 10.1207/s15566935eed1201_1 Domitrovich, C., Cortes, R., & Greenberg, M. (2007). Improving young childrens social and

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

13

emotional competence: a randomized trial of the preschool paths curriculum, The journal of Primary Prevention. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01227.x Dunn, J., & Hughes, C. (1998). Young childrens understanding of emotions within close relationships. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 171-190. doi:10.1080/026999398379709 Dunn, J., Slomkowski, C., Donelan, N., & Herrera, C. (1995). Conflict, understanding, and relationships: Developments and differences in the preschool years. Early Education and Development, 6, 303-316. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0604_2 Garner, P., Jones, D., & Miner, J. (1994). Social competence among low-income preschoolers. Social Development, 9, 246-264. Grusec, J. & Hastings, P. (2007). Handbook of Sociolization. New York. NY: Guilford. Halberstadt, A., Denham, S.A., & Dunsmore, J. (2001). Affective social competence. Social Development, 10, 79-119. Isley, S.L., ONeil, R., Clatfelter, D., & Parke, R.D. (1999). Parent and child expressed affect and childrens social competence: Modeling direct and indirect pathways. Developmental Psychology, 35, 547-560. Izard, C. (2002). Emotion knowledge and emotion utilization facilitate school readiness. SRCD Social Policy Report, 16(3), 8. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1701_4 Izard, C., Fine, S., Schultz, D. Mostow, A., Ackerman, B., & Youngstrom, E. (2001). Emotions knowledge as a predictor of social behavior and academic competence in children at risk. Psychological Science, 12, 18-23 Katarina et al. (2008). Evaluation of a school-based health promotion programme for adolescents aged 12-15 years with a focus on well-being related to stress. Public Health, 122, 25-33. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2007.04.016

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE

14

Ladd, G. (1999). Peer relationships and social competence during early and middle childhood. Annual review of psychology, 50, 333-359 Koole, S. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition & Emotion, 23(1), 4-41. doi:10.1080/0269993080261931 Miller, A. L., Fine, S. E., Gouley, K. K., Seifer, R., Dickstein, S., & Shields, A. (2006). Showing and telling about emotions: Interrelations between facets of emotional competence and associations with classroom adjustment in Head Start preschoolers. Cognition & Emotion, 20(8), 1170-1192. Ontai, L. L., & Thompson, R. A. (2002). Patterns of attachment and maternal discourse effects on children's emotion understanding from 3 to 5 years of age. Social Development, 11(4), p. 433. doi:10.1017/S0954579403000348 Pons, F., & Harris, P. L. (2005). Longitudinal change and longitudinal stability of individual differences in children's emotion understanding. Cognition & Emotion, 19(8), 1158-1174. Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2006). Family emotional climate, attachment security and young children's emotion knowledge in a high risk sample. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 89-104. Robins, L. N., & Rutter, M. (1990). Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rubin, K. H., & Clark, M. L. (1983). Preschool teachers ratings of behavioral problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 11, 273-286. Rydell, A.-M., Berlin, L., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Emotionality, emotion regulation, and adaptation among 5- to 8-year-old children. Emotion, 3(1), 30-47. doi:10.1080/01650250344000389 Sheilds, A., et al. (2001). Emotional competence and early school adjustment: A study of

Running head: IMPACTS ON EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE preschoolers at risk. Early Education and Development, 12(1), 73-97. Webster-Stratton, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Nipping early risk factors in the bud: Preventing

15

substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children. Prevention Science, 2, 165-192.