Sensor Notes

Aisjhtrec Hmiagwgn, Aisjhtrec jermiko, mhqaniko, magnhtiko, aisjhtrec aktinobolac kai qhmiko aisjhtrec
Ajansioc A. Argurou Epkouroc Kajhghtc Panepistmio Patrn - Tmma Fusikc Tomac Efarmosmnhc Fusikc argiriou@physics.upatras.gr Ptra, Oktbrioc 2004
Perieqmena
1 Eisagwg 1.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Statik qarakthristik twn aisjhtrwn . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Pistthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Akrbeia, epanalhyimthta, anaparagwgimthta 1.2.3 Anoq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Eroc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.5 Susthmatik sflma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.6 Grammik apkrish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.7 Euaisjhsa sth mtrhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.8 Euaisjhsa sth diataraq . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.9 Ustrhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.10 Nekr eroc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.11 Katfli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.12 Diakritik ikanthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Dunamik qarakthristik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Aisjhtrac mhdenikc txewc . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Aisjhtrac prthc txewc . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Aisjhtrac deutrac txewc . . . . . . . . . . 2 Jermokrasa 2.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Jermozegh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Genikc arqc Jermohlektrik fainmeno . . 2.2.2 Praktikc mtrhshc Jermokrasa anaforc 2.3 Antisttec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Tpoi PRTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 18 19 19 19 19 20 21 22 25 25 27 27 32 38 38 41
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4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Jermstorc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisjhtrec optikn inn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kruogeniko aisjhtrec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisjhtrec ex apostsewc . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.1 Genik - Arq leitourgac . . . . . . . . . 2.8.2 Sustmata mtrhshc jermikc aktinobolac 2.8.3 Aniqneutc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epilog tou katllhlou aisjhtra jermokrasac . 2.9.1 Jermozegh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.2 Antisttec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.3 Jermstorc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.4 Oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PERIEQOMENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 48 48 49 51 51 54 56 57 57 59 59 59 61 61 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 68 70
2.9
3 Pesh 3.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Edh aisjhtrwn peshc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Potensiometriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Epagwgiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Qwrhtiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Piezohlektriko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Paramrfwshc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.6 Piezohlektriko oloklhrwmnoi hmiagwgo 3.3 Egkatstash kai qrsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Udraulik plgma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Paramrfwsh 73 4.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.2 O aisjhtrac paramrfwshc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.3 Praktikc mtrhshc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5 pH 81 5.1 Genik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 5.2 Mjodoi mtrhshc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Katlogoc Sqhmtwn
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra. . . . . . . . . . . . (a) Olsjhsh mhdenc, (b) Olsjhsh euaisjhsac, (c) drash twn do olisjsewn[8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me ustrhsh[8]. . . Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me nekr eroc[8]. . Qarakthristik aisjhtra prthc txewc[8]. . . . . . Apkrish aisjhtra deutrac txewc[8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sunduasmnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 17 18 19 21 23 29 30 31 32 33 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 37 39 42 42
Jermozegoc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suntelestc Seebeck diafrwn jermozeugn. Ta grmmata antistoiqon se stouc tpouc jermozeugn tou Sqmatoc 2.3 [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . Tpoi jermozeugn kai poluwnumiko suntelestc metatropc thc tshc Seebeck x(V ) se jermokrasa T (o C) [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mtrhsh tshc Seebeck me th bojeia boltomtrou [11]. . . . . . . . . . . Exwterik epaf anaforc [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jermozegoc sidrou konstantnhc [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apomkrunsh twn nwn epafn ap touc akrodktec tou boltomtrou [11]. Antikatstash loutro anaforc ap isojermik bsh [11]. . . . . . . . . Enwsh twn do isojermikn bsewn [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nmoc twn endiamswn metllwn [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isodnamo kklwma met thn apomkrunsh tou agwgo Fe ap to skloc LO tou Sqmatoc 2.8 [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exwterik phg anaforc [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hlektrik antistjmish jermozeugn [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H antstash nikelou (Ni), qalko (Cu) kai leukoqrsou (Pt) sunartsei thc jermokrasac [10]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edh PRTs[1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tupik ditaxh PRTs me jkh [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27
KATALOGOS SQHMATWN Epdrash thc antstashc twn agwgn [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gfura Wheatstone, gia mtrhsh PRT [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Praktik kklwma mtrhshc PRT me gfura [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teqnik trin agwgn [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mtrhsh PRT me phg rematoc kai boltmetro [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . Morf jermstorc [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metabol thc antstashc sunartsei thc jermokrasac, gia tic trec basikc kathgorec hlektronikn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac [11]. . . . . . . . Fasmatik katanom tou mlanoc smatoc [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leptomreia thc fasmatikc katanomc tou mlanoc smatoc [1]. . . . . . Teqnht mlan sma [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gewmetra ditaxhc mtrhshc jermikc aktinobolac. (Dd h grammik distash tou aniqneut, dS to edwlo tou aniqneut proballmeno sthn epifneia mtrhshc, Sp h epifneia tou anogmatoc tou sustmatoc estashc, h stere gwna metax sustmatoc estashc kai eidlou dS. . . . . . . Mtrhsh thc jermikc roc thc proerqmenhc ap stoiqeidh epifneia. . Sma exdou jermiko aisjhtra aktinobolac [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orismo Pisewn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basik aisjhtria peshc [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exrthsh thc metatpishc ap th jermokrasa [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exrthsh thc euaisjhsac ap th jermokrasa [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apklish ap th grammik sumperifor [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epanalhyimthta [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ustrhsh [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pontensiometrikc aisjhtrac [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epagwgikc aisjhtrac me grammik metaballmeno diaforik metasqhmatist [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kataskeu oloklhrwmnou piezohlektriko aisjhtra peshc [4]. . . . . . Piezohlektrikc aisjhtrac peshc, diastsewn mkouc 1,32, pltouc 1,12 kai youc 2,54 cm, sumperilambanomnhc thc jrac epikoinwnac [4]. . . . Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: tsh (mV ) [2]. . . . . . . Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: tsh (V ) [2]. . . . . . . . Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: rema (mA) [2]. . . . . . Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc me sma exdou rema (mA) me perisstera tou enc rgana [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orismc thc paramrfwshc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 44 44 44 45 46 47 52 53 54
2.28 2.29 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15
55 56 57 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 69 70 73
4.1
KATALOGOS SQHMATWN 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 Metallikc aisjhtrac paramrfwshc [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gfura Wheatstone [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gfura Wheatstone me aisjhtra paramrfwshc [9]. . . . . . . . . Qrsh anenergo aisjhtra gia antistjmish twn jermokrasiakn boln [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ditaxh do energn aisjhtrwn [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gfura tessrwn aisjhtrwn paramrfwshc [9]. . . . . . . . . . . Epdrash thc antstashc twn agwgn [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 74 76 76 77 77 78 79 82 83
Hlektrdio ulou [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ditaxh mtrhshc pH [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
KATALOGOS SQHMATWN
Katlogoc Pinkwn
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 Dunatthtec mtrhshc jermokrasac. . . . . . . . . . Qarakthristik diafrwn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac. . Anoq aisjhtrwn PRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tupik qarakthristik jermstor 44004 YSI. . . . . . Kathgorec kai idithtec kruogenikn aisjhtrwn [1]. Qarakthristik aisjhtrwn uprujrhc aktinobolac. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 28 41 47 50 58 62
Mondec peshc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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KATALOGOS PINAKWN
Prlogoc
Oi shmeiseic autc grfthkan gia touc foithtc tou Diatmhmatiko Progrmmatoc Metaptuqiakn Spoudn sthn Hlektronik kai Epexergasa thc Plhroforac, tou Panepisthmou Patrn. Apotelon thn enthta {Aisjhtrec hmiagwgn, aisjhtrec jermiko, mhqaniko, magnhtiko, aisjhtrec aktinobolac kai qhmiko aisjhtrec}, tou majmatoc {Aisjhtrec, mikroelegktc kai sustmata sullogc dedomnwn}. Prkeitai gia th deterh kdosh tou teqouc auto, to opoo qrhsimopohsa gia prth for kat thn akadhmak qroni 2003 ` 2004. Prospjhsa, sto mtro tou dunato, na proqwrsw se orismnec diorjseic kai beltiseic. Elpzw sto mllon oi beltiseic autc na gnoun akmh perissterec. Oi upodexeic lwn twn anagnwstn enai idiaitrwc euprsdektec. Ptra, Oktbrioc 2004 Ajansioc A. Argurou argiriou@physics.upatras.gr
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KATALOGOS PINAKWN
Keflaio 1 Eisagwg
1.1 Genik
H shmasa twn aisjhtrwn gia ton njrwpo enai sqedn autonhth. Oi prtoi aisjhtrec emfanzontai maz me ta mbia nta kai apotelon rgan touc. To mti kai to aft enai qarakthristik paradegmata: to prto aniqneei tmma tou fsmatoc thc hlektromagnhtikc aktinobolac kai to detero ton qo, dhlad kmata peshc. Pol argtera, o njrwpoc suneidhtopoie ti qreizetai rgana mtrhshc gia na lsei kajhmerin praktik problmata, pwc aut thc mtrhshc tou mkouc, tou brouc tou gkou. Sth sunqeia h epijuma tou anjrpou na gnwrsei th Fsh all kai diforoi praktiko lgoi, dhmiourgon thn angkh mtrhshc perissterwn fusikn megejn. Endeiktik anafroume ti to prto jermmetro emfanzetai to 1585, en to barmetro to 1643 [12]. Oi prtoi aisjhtrec kai rgana mtrhshc enai mhqanik. H arq leitourgac tou prtou jermomtrou baszetai sth metabol twn diastsewn twn swmtwn me thn jermokrasa, en tou baromtrou sthn metabol thc stjmhc enc reusto anloga me thn askomenh se aut pesh. H susthmatik melth tou hlektrismo odghse sthn anptuxh nwn aisjhtrwn - hlektrikn -, h xodoc twn opown tan na analogik sma. H anptuxh twn hmiagwgn eqe wc apotlesma th dhmiourga aisjhtrwn hmiagwgn all kai yhfiakn orgnwn mtrhshc. Gia na suneidhtopoisei kanec th ragdaa exlixh ston toma twn aisjhtrwn, arke na jumhje ti ta autoknhta paragwgc thc dekaetac tou 60 kai tou 70, perielmbanan do mno aploc hlektrikoc aisjhtrec, na gia thn mtrhsh thc jermokrasac tou yuktiko ugro kai na detero gia thn mtrhsh thc stjmhc tou kausmou. Ta sgqrona autoknhta diajtoun pollaplsiouc aisjhtrec pou qrhsimopoiontai gia thn: 13
14 mtrhsh thc peshc twn elastikn, mtrhsh thc jermokrasac tou ara eisagwgc, anqneush broqc, mtrhsh thc fwteinthtac tou peribllontoc,
KEFALAIO 1. EISAGWGH
angkh energopohshc twn zwnn asfaleac kai twn aersakwn, angkh energopohshc tou sustmatoc antimplokarsmatoc twn troqn kai gia plhjra llwn anagkn gia tic opoec den mporome na epektajome ed. Shmantik jhsh sthn exlixh twn aisjhtrwn dwse h angkh antimetpishc twn problhmtwn thc sgqronhc reunac stic jetikc epistmec kajc kai thc exlixhc thc teqnologac. Endeiktik anafrontai oi aisjhtrec pou qrhsimopoiontai sth diasthmik teqnologa kai sth Fusik twn Swmatidwn. Oi mellontiko exeligmnoi aisjhtrec anamnetai ti ja prokyoun ap thn reuna sth nanoteqnologa kai th bioteqnologa. Sto prto keflaio twn shmeisewn analoume ta genik qarakthristik twn aisjhtrwn, en sta epmena keflaia exetzoume sugkekrimnouc aisjhtrec, oi opooi qrhsimopoiontai se na eur pedo ergasthriakn / ereunhtikn all kai biomhqanikn efarmogn [8].
1.2
Statik qarakthristik twn aisjhtrwn
Ta statik qarakthristik twn aisjhtrwn anafrontai sthn katstash kat thn opoa qei epljei isorropa metax aisjhtra kai metromenou megjouc. Gia na epiteuqje kti ttoio prpei to metromeno mgejoc ete na enai stajer, ete na metablletai pol arg se sqsh me th dunatthta tou aisjhtra na antilhfje th metabol aut.
1.2.1
Pistthta
Me ton ro pistthta apoddetai o agglikc roc accuracy. H pistthta de sqetzetai me ton arijm twn dekadikn yhfwn me ton opoo mpore na gnei h mtrhsh, all me to kat pso to apotlesma pou dnei o aisjhtrac plhsizei thn fusik pragmatikthta, msa se na logik eroc timn [10]. H pistthta dnetai sunjwc wc posost ep tou erouc leitourgac tou aisjhtra. An, gia pardeigma, nac aisjhtrac peshc, perioqc leitourgac 0 10 bar qei pistthta 1.0% thc plrouc klmakac, tte h mgisth
1.2. STATIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA TWN AISJHTHRWN
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abebaithta tou aisjhtra ja ena sh me 0, 1 bar. Aut shmanei ti tan o aisjhtrac dnei wc apotlesma 1 bar, tte h mgisth anamenmenh abebaithta ja enai sh me to 10% thc timc autc. Gia ton lgo aut ja prpei to eroc leitourgac twn aisjhtrwn na enai so to dunatn eggtera sto eroc twn metroumnwn timn, ste na exasfalzetai h mgisth dunat pistthta twn metrsewn. An dhlad qoume ma efarmog sthn opoa oi piseic metabllontai sto disthma 0 1 bar enai ljoc na epilxoume aisjhtra perioqc leitourgac 0 10 bar.
1.2.2
Akrbeia, epanalhyimthta, anaparagwgimthta
O roc akrbeia (precision) ekfrzei ton bajm eleujerac tou aisjhtra ap tuqaa sflmata. An proume meglo arijm metrsewn ap nan akrib aisjhtra, tte h metax touc diaspor ja enai mikr. H akrbeia sugqetai suqn me thn pistthta. H meglh akrbeia den shmanei kat angkhn kai meglh pistthta. Enac akribc aisjhtrac mpore na qei kak pistthta. Kakc pistthtac metrseic ap nan akrib aisjhtra, shmanei ti h metrseic qoun susthmatik sflma (bias), gegonc to opoo mpore na diorjwje me bajmonmhsh (diakrbwsh) tou aisjhtra. Oi roi epanalhyimthta kai anaparagwgimthta enai tautshmoi, qrhsimopoiontai mwc o kajnac se diaforetikc periptseic. Kai oi do anafrontai sto pso kont enai ta apotelsmata enc aisjhtra pou metr to dio stajer mgejoc, mn epanalhyimthta tan oi sunjkec mtrhshc enai stajerc, h de anaparagwgimthta, tan oi sunjkec mtrhshc metabllontai.
1.2.3
Anoq
H anoq sundetai sten me thn pistthta kai orzei to mgisto anamenmeno sflma mic timc. Den prkeitai gia statik qarakthristik enc aisjhtra, all to anafroume, giat pollc forc h pistthta dnetai wc anoq.
1.2.4
Eroc
Me ton ro eroc anafermaste sthn elqisth kai thn mgisth tim tou fusiko megjouc pou mpore na metrsei nac aisjhtrac.
1.2.5
Susthmatik sflma
Wc susthmatik sflma (bias) enai na stajer sflma, to dio gia lo to eroc tou aisjhtra, to opoo sunjwc mpore na mhdeniste msw bajmonmhshc. Qarakthristik
16
Sqma 1.1: Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra. pardeigma susthmatiko sflmatoc emfanzetai stic oikiakc zugaric, oi opoec mpore na deqnoun m mhdenik ndeixh, akmh kai qwrc forto. Aut h m mhdenik ndeixh apotele to susthmatik sflma to opoo prpei na afairsoume ap thn ndeixh pou parnoume kat th mtrhsh ste na prokyei h pragmatik tim.
1.2.6
Grammik apkrish
Enai genik epijumit h apkrish enc aisjhtra na metablletai grammik me to metromeno mgejoc. Ta shmea tou Sqmatoc 1.1 apeikonzoun thn sqsh metax smatoc eisdou (orizntioc xonac) kai exdou (katakrufoc xonac) enc aisjhtra. H gramm metax twn shmewn qarssetai efarmzontac thn mjodo twn elaqstwn tetragnwn. H m-grammikthta ekfrzetai wc h mgisth apklish metax twn shmewn kai thc grammc. H m-grammikthta ekfrzetai sunjwc wc h apklish tou erouc tou aisjhtra.
1.2.7
Euaisjhsa sth mtrhsh
Prkeitai gia to lgo thc metabolc sthn ndeixh tou aisjhtra, proc th metabol tou fusiko megjouc pou thn proklese. Ap ton orism aut prokptei ti h euaisjhsa isotai me thn efaptomnh thc grafikc parstashc tou Sqmatoc 1.1.
1.2.8
Euaisjhsa sth diataraq
H bajmonmhsh kai ta qarakthristik enc aisjhtra isqoun tan aut leitourge entc sugkekrimnou erouc periballontikn sunjhkn paramtrwn pwc h jermokrasa, h pesh, h sqetik ugrasa k.l.p. To eroc kajorzetai ap ton kataskeuast tou
1.2. STATIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA TWN AISJHTHRWN
17
Sqma 1.2: (a) Olsjhsh mhdenc, (b) Olsjhsh euaisjhsac, (c) Sunduasmnh epdrash twn do olisjsewn[8].
aisjhtra. Metabol kpoiac ap tic paramtrouc autc endqetai na metabllei kpoio ap ta statik qarakthristik tou aisjhtra. H metabol aut orzetai wc h euaisjhsa sth diataraq. Ta qarakthristik tou aisjhtra pou metabllontai enai kurwc do kai enai gnwst wc olsjhsh tou mhdenc (zero drift) kai olsjhsh euaisjhsac (sensitivity drift). H olsjhsh tou mhdenc enai to m mhdenik sma exdou tou aisjhtra tan to sma eisdou enai mhdn, lgw metabolc twn periballontikn sunjhkn. Metrtai sunjwc se V.o C 1 sthn perptwsh p.q. boltomtrou to opoo qei ephreaste ap th metabol thc jermokrasac. An nac aisjhtrac ephrezetai ap perissterec thc mic periballontikc paramtrouc, tte autc qarakthrzetai ap antstoiqec se arijm olisjseic tou mhdenc, ma gia kje ephrezousa ton aisjhtra parmetro. Qarakthrik olsjhsh mhdenc aisjhtra peshc, fanetai sto Sqma 1.2a.
18
Sqma 1.3: Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me ustrhsh[8].
H olsjhsh euaisjhsac orzetai wc to pos metabolc thc euaisjhsac enc aisjhtra lgw metabolc twn periballontikn sunjhkn. Ekfrzetai msw suntelestn olsjhshc euaisjhsac, oi opooi ekfrzoun to mgejoc thc olsjhshc an monda metabolc thc periballontikc paramtrou pou thn proklese. To Sqma 1.2b deqnei thn epdrash thc h olsjhshc euaisjhsac sta qarakthristik exdou enc aisjhtra. H sunduasmnh epdrash twn olisjsewn mhdenc kai euaisjhsac sta qarakthristik exdou enc aisjhtra, fanetai sto Sqma 1.2c.
1.2.9
Ustrhsh
Sto Sqma 1.3 fanetai to sma exdou enc aisjhtra o opooc parousizei ustrhsh. An h tim tou smatoc eisdou metablletai stajer, xekinntac ap arnhtikc timc, to sma exdou perigrfetai ap thn kamplh A. An katpin to sma exdou meinetai stadiak, tte to sma exdou perigrfetai ap thn kamplh B. H m tatish twn do kampuln {fortsewc - ekfortsewc} enai gnwst wc ustrhsh. H ustrhsh ekfrzetai msw thc mgisthc ustrhshc eisdou kai thc mgisthc ustrhshc exdou, oi opoec orzontai pwc fanetai sto Sqma 1.3.
1.3. DUNAMIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA
19
Sqma 1.4: Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me nekr eroc[8].
1.2.10
Nekr eroc
Wc nekr eroc (dead space) orzetai to eroc tou smatoc eisdou, gia to opoo to sma exdou enai mhdenik, pwc fanetai kai sto Sqma 1.4. Opwc blpoume kai sto sqma, kje aisjhtrac o opooc emfanzei ustrhsh emfanzei kai nekr eroc. Par la aut akmh kai aisjhtrec oi opooi den emfanzoun shmantik ustrhsh, mpore na emfanzoun nekr eroc.
1.2.11
Katfli
An to sma eisdou enc aisjhtra auxnetai stadiak xekinntac ap mhdenik tim, aut ja prpei na lbei ma orismnh - mh mhdenik- tim prin o aisjhtrac dsei kpoio m mhdenik sma exdou. Aut h elqisth tim tou smatoc eisdou, onomzetai katfli tou aisjhtra. To katfli llote dnetai wc apluth tim kai llote wc posost tou erouc exdou tou aisjhtra.
1.2.12
Diakritik ikanthta
Wc diakritik ikanthta enc aisjhtra orzetai h apaitomenh elqisth metabol tou smatoc eisdou, ste na proklhje metabol sto sma exdou tou aisjhtra.
1.3
Dunamik qarakthristik
Ektc ap ta statik qarakthristik ta opoa anafrontai sthn perptwsh pou qei epljei isorropa metax smatoc eisdou kai aisjhtra (dhlad tan plon ta smata
20
eisdou - exdou den metabllontai me to qrno), kje aisjhtrac diajtei kai dunamik qarakthristik. Ta dunamik qarakthristik perigrfoun th sumperifor tou aisjhtra metax thc stigmc kat thn opoa to sma eisdou metablletai wc th stigm kat thn opoa to sma exdou ja stajeropoihje ek nou. Ta dunamik qarakthristik isqoun, pwc kai ta statik, entc sugkekrimnou erouc sunjhkn leitourgac tou aisjhtra. An o aisjhtrac breje na leitourge ektc auto tou erouc, tte ta dunamik qarakthristik anamnetai na metablhjon. Upojtontac na grammik aisjhtra tou opoou oi idithtec den metabllontai me to qrno, h sqsh metax smatoc eisdou - exdou perigrfetai ap thn exswsh: dn1 qo dqo dm qi dm1 qi dqi dn qo +an1 n1 + +a1 +a0 qo = bm m +bm1 m1 + +b1 +b0 qi n dt dt dt dt dt dt (1.1) pou qi kai qo ta smata eisdou kai exdou antistoqwc, kai a0 an , b0 bm stajerc. An perioristome sthn perptwsh kat thn opoa to sma eisdou enai klimakwt sunrthsh 1 , tte h exswsh (1.1) lambnei thn akloujh aplosterh morf: an dn1 qo dqo dn qo + an1 + + a1 + a0 q o = b 0 q i n n1 dt dt dt (1.2)
an
Se eidikterec periptseic, h sqsh (1.2) aplousteetai perisstero.
1.3.1
Aisjhtrac mhdenikc txewc
Aisjhtrac mhdenikc txewc enai ekenoc tou opoou oi suntelestc a1 an enai mhdn kai mno o a0 enai diforoc tou mhdenc. Sthn perptwsh aut h exswsh (1.2) grfetai: a0 q o = b 0 q i q o = b0 qi = K q i a0 (1.3)
pou K stajer, gnwst kai wc euaisjhsa tou aisjhtra, thn opoa orsame nwrtera.
Heaviside f (x) = H(x a), : 0, x<a H(x a) = 1/2, x = a 1, x>a 0 1 x = a.
1
21
Sqma 1.5: Qarakthristik aisjhtra prthc txewc[8].
1.3.2
Aisjhtrac prthc txewc
Prkeitai gia ton aisjhtra h sumperifor tou opoou perigrfetai ap exswsh thc morfc: a1 dqo + a0 q o = b 0 q i dt (1.4)
Orzontac ton telest D = d/dt, h sqsh (1.4) grfetai: a1 Dqo + a0 q0 = b0 qi ap thn opoa prokptei: q0 = 1
b0 q a0 i a1 + a0 D
(1.5)
An orsoume wc K = b0 /a0 th statik euaisjhsa kai = a1 /a0 th stajer qrnou tou aisjhtra, h exswsh (1.5) grfetai: q0 = K qi 1+ D (1.6)
H analutik lsh thc exswshc (1.6) fanetai sto digramma tou Sqmatoc 1.5. H stajer qrnou thc apkrishc tou aisjhtra sthn klimakwt metabol tou smatoc eisdou, enai o qrnoc pou apaitetai ste to sma exdou na gnei so me to 63% thc telikc timc tou. Pardeigma aisjhtra prthc txewc enai to jermozegoc.
22
1.3.3
Aisjhtrac deutrac txewc
Prkeitai gia ton aisjhtra h sumperifor tou opoou perigrfetai ap exswsh thc morfc: d2 qo dqo + a0 q o = b 0 q i + a1 dt2 dt Qrhsimopointac xan to sumbolism tou telest D, h sqsh (1.7) gnetai: a2 a2 D2 q0 + a1 Dq0 + a0 q0 = b0 qi ap thn opoa katalgoume sthn b 0 qi qo = 2 a0 + a1 D + a2 D qi K
D2 2
(1.7)
2 D
+1
(1.8)
H (1.8) apotele thn tupik exswsh aisjhtra deutrac txewc. Oi roi thc statikc euaisjhsac K, mh aposbesjeseic fusikc suqnthtac kai lgoc aposbsewc orzontai wc exc: K= = b0 a0
a0 a2 a1 = 2a0 a2
. H morf tou smatoc exdou tou aisjhtra, to opoo ja prokyei wc h analutik lsh thc (1.8), exarttai ap thn tim tou lgou aposbsewc , pwc fanetai kai sto Sqma 1.6. Sthn prth perptwsh pou den uprqei apsbesh ( = 0) to sma exdou enai periodik, apokrinmeno sth metabol tou smatoc eisdou. Gia = 0, 2 to sma exdou exakolouje na enai periodik all oi talantseic stadiak mhdenzontai. Peraitrw axhsh tou prokale plrh exafnish twn talantsewn. Genik oi aisjhtrec ja prpei na epilgontai tsi ste to na kumanetai metax 0,6 - 0,8. O anagnsthc o opooc endiafretai gia ektensterh majhmatik perigraf thc apkrishc aisjhtrwn prthc kai deutrac txewc, mpore na sumbouleuje thn anafor [5].
23
Sqma 1.6: Apkrish aisjhtra deutrac txewc[8].
24
Keflaio 2 Jermokrasa
2.1 Genik
Jermokrasa enai h fusik idithta pou kajorzei kat pso na ssthma isorrope jermik qi me lla1 . Ta rgana mtrhshc thc jermokrasac onomzontai jermmetra. Ta sgqrona jermmetra enai hlektronik kai qwrzontai se do kathgorec: sta jermmetra epafc kai sta ex apostsewc. Ta jermmetra epafc metron erqmena se epaf me to ssthma tou opoou zhtetai h jermokrasa, dhlad metron ousiastik thn dia touc th jermokrasa. Ara, h akrbeia thc mtrhshc exarttai, metax llwn, ap to kat pso qei epljei jermik isorropa metax jermomtrou kai sustmatoc. Ta jermmetra ex apostsewc metron th jermik aktinobola tou sustmatoc kai emmswc upologzoun th jermokrasa. Wc ek totou den apaitetai fusik epaf metax jermomtrou kai proc mtrhsh sustmatoc. To edoc tou aisjhtra pou ja qrhsimopoihje exarttai ap diforouc pargontec, pwc to eroc diakmanshc thc proc mtrhsh jermokrasac, thn apaitomenh akrbeia (precision) kai pistthta (accuracy), to peribllon sto opoo ja topojethje o aisjhtrac - an dhlad ja uposte mhqanikc llec kataponseic - k.l.p. H duskola eukola thc mtrhshc exarttai ap thn tim thc jermokrasac, to mso tou opoou jloume na prosdiorsoume th jermokrasa, kajc kai ap tic apaitseic gia akrbeia kai pistthta. O Pnakac 2.1 sunoyzei th duskola mtrhshc thc jermokrasac gia diforec periptseic. Sto ergastrio kai me eidik exoplism kai teqnikc, enai dunatn na metrhje h jermokrasa me akrbeia 1 mK (milliKelvin) kalterh. H arq leitourgac twn aisjhtrwn epafc baszetai sthn exrthsh kpoiac idithtc touc ap th jermokrasa. Wc
R.A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, .. , , . 70.
1
25
KEFALAIO 2. JERMOKRASIA
Jermokrasa -200 o C 0o C - 50 o C 1000 o C 2000 o C
5o C Apaitetai prosoq Ekola Apaitetai prosoq Pol dskola
Pnakac 2.1: Dunatthtec mtrhshc jermokrasac. Apathsh se akrbeia 1o C 0.5o C 0.1o C Dskola Dskola Pol dskola Apaitetai prosoq Dskola Pol dskola Pol dskola Exairetik dskola Sqedn adnaton Exairetik dskola Sqedn adnaton Apokleetai
26
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
27
pardeigma anafroume thn eidik hlektrik antstash twn metllwn, re , h opoa gia kajar mtalla kai jermokrasec dwmatou, proseggzetai ap th sqsh re re,273 (T /273), = 2 pou re,273 h eidik hlektrik antstash stouc 273 K . Me katllhlec hlektronikc diatxeic metrtai h metabol thc idithtac autc kai, msw miac diadikasac bajmonmhshc, antistoiqetai se metabol thc jermokrasac. Aisjhtrec epafc enai: ta jermozegh, oi antisttec (leukoqrsou nikelou), ta jermstorc, ta oloklhrwmna jermmetra, oi aisjhtrec optikn inn, oi kruogeniko aisjhtrec. O Pnakac 2.1, mac epitrpei na sugkrnoume prqeira ta qarakthristik diafrwn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac sumperilambanomnwn twn ex apostsewc.
2.2
2.2.1
Jermozegh
Genikc arqc Jermohlektrik fainmeno
Prkeitai gia to sunduasm do agwgn ap diaforetik ulik to opoo mpore na enai mtallo, hmiagwgc amtallo enwmnwn o nac me ton llo sto na touc kro (Sqma 2.1). To shmeo thc nwshc onomzetai epaf mtrhshc, en ta elejera kra apotelon thn epaf anaforc. H epaf anaforc onomzetai suqn kai yuqr epaf. H onomasa aut den enai apluta swst, giat uponoe ti to jermozegoc mpore na qrhsimopoihje mno tan h jermokrasa thc epafc mtrhshc enai megalterh ap thn epaf anaforc, en kti ttoio den isqei. H mnh apathsh enai na uprqei diafor jermokrasac. H apl kataskeu kai qrsh touc kajc kai h axiopista touc, kanan ta jermozegh touc pi diadedomnouc aisjhtrec se praktikc efarmogc pou qoun sunjeic apaitseic se akrbeia. Oso auxnontai mwc oi apaitseic qnetai stadiak h aplthta sth qrsh, en h axiopista touc paei na enai egguhmnh.
2
R. Siegel, J.R. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Trasnfer, 3rd ed., Taylor & Francis, 1992, .
126.
Tpoc Aisjhtra Jermozegoc Antistthc Platnac Antistthc Nikelou Jermstor Hmiagwgo Ex apostsewc Optikc Inec Kruogeniko 40V.o C 1 0.4%.o C 1 0.4%.o C 1 5%.o C 1 10 mV.o C 1 1 A.o C 1 mV Poiklei Poiklei
Sma Exdou
Eroc (o C) 270 2300 200 600 200 600 50 200 40 - 125
Pistthta (o C) 1.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 1.5 0 - 6000+ 2 -100 - 200 1 273.15 200 Poiklei, wc 0.001
Antoq Uyhl Msh Msh Uyhl Msh Qamhl Msh Poiklei
Kstoc Qamhl Mso Qamhl Mso Qamhl
Uyhl Pol Uyhl Poiklei
Pnakac 2.2: Qarakthristik diafrwn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac.
28
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
29
Sqma 2.1: Jermozegoc. H arq leitourgac twn jermozeugn sthrzetai sto jermohlektrik fainmeno Seebeck, to opoo anakalfjhke to 1821. O T. Seebeck paratrhse ti tan do agwgo ap diaforetik mtalla enwjon stic krec touc sqhmatzontac kleist kklwma, aut diarretai ap hlektrik rema, ef son oi do epafc brskontai se diaforetikc jermokrasec. H posotik perigraf tou fainomnou Seebeck, gine argtera, met to 1826 opte kai diatupjhke o nmoc tou Ohm. Gia th mtrhsh thc jermokrasac, ja prpei oi epafc mtrhshc kai anaforc na brskontai h kje ma se isjermo peribllon, diaforetikc jermokrasac. H emfanizmenh hlektregertik dnamh (HED) metax twn akrodektn thc epafc anaforc onomzetai tsh Seebeck. H tsh Seebeck auxnei so auxnei h diafor jermokrasac metax twn do epafn. Mia tupik tim euaisjhsac enai 40 V.grad1 , h opoa mpore ekola na metrhje me ta sgqrona boltmetra. Sthn enthta pou akolouje, ja epiqeirsoume mia aplousteumnh ermhnea tou fainomnou Seebeck. Jewrome ti o metallikc agwgc apoteletai ap na plgma aknhtwn jetikn intwn. Ta hlektrnia enai elejera kai kinontai msa sto plgma san na tan na ario. An loc o agwgc brsketai sthn dia jermokrasa kai den diarretai ap rema, tte to hlektrik forto katanmetai omoiomrfwc se lo to mkoc tou agwgo, par to gegonc ti ta elejera hlektrnia ektelon takth jermik knhsh. An proklhje kpoia bajmda jermokrasac, tte kpoia hlektrnia ja kinhjon perisstero, prokalntac tsi mia anisokatanom tou fortou, h opoa qei wc apotlesma thn emfnish diaforc dunamiko. Parathrome ti h tsh Seebeck ofelei thn parx thc sthn bajmda jermokrasac, enai idithta tou metalliko agwgo kai den exarttai ap thn epaf thn parxh kai deterou agwgo ap diaforetik ulik. Opwc ja dome sth sunqeia, o lgoc gia ton opoo sunduzontai do ulik enai gia na auxhje h paragmenh HED. H tsh Seebeck, E,
30
Sqma 2.2: Suntelestc Seebeck diafrwn jermozeugn. Ta grmmata antistoiqon se stouc tpouc jermozeugn tou Sqmatoc 2.3 [11]. twn diafrwn ulikn dnetai sunjwc wc proc to leukqruso, o opooc jewretai ti qei mhdenik tsh Seebeck, EP t = 0 mV , anexrthth thc jermokrasac. Estw ti qoume na jermozegoc sidrou konstantnhc stouc 100 o C. Oi antstoiqec tseic Seebeck enai: EF e = +1, 98 mV kai ECo = 3.51 mV . H HED thc epafc Fe-Constantan sthn jermokrasa aut ja enai: EF eCo = +1, 98 (3, 51) mV = 5, 49 mV . H basik diafor tou jermozegouc ap touc llouc aisjhtrec jermokrasac, enai ti to sma exdou tou den exarttai ap th jermokrasa, all ap th bajmda jermokrasac kat mkoc tou. An jewrsoume nan agwg mikro mkouc, h metabol thc tshc Seebeck dE, kat mkoc auto, enai anlogh tou suntelest Seebeck tou agwgo, s(T ), kai thc jermobajmdoc, dT , kat mkoc tou: dE = s(T, x) dT dx dx (2.1)
O suntelestc Seebeck exarttai ap th jermokrasa kai th jsh kat mkoc tou agwgo, o opooc genik den enai apoltwc omogenc kai omoimorfoc. Oi kat mkoc diaforc ston agwg mpore na ofelontai se exwterik atia, pwc sundseic sto kklwma k.l.p., ap anapfeuktec allagc kai alloiseic, pwc mhqanikc tseic dibrwsh. H metabol tou suntelest Seebeck diafrwn jermozeugn, dnetai sto Sqma 2.2.
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
31
Sqma 2.3: Tpoi jermozeugn kai poluwnumiko suntelestc metatropc thc tshc Seebeck x(V ) se jermokrasa T (o C) [11]. To gegonc ti o upologismc thc hlektregertikc dnamhc (HED) E enc jermozegouc se na kklwma pwc aut tou Sqmatoc 2.1, apaite thn efarmog thc exswshc 2.1, odhge pijann sto sumprasma ti h qrsh tou jermozegouc sth jermometra, kje llo par praktik enai. Aut giat h efarmog thc exswshc 2.1, apaite leptomer gnsh thc jermobajmdac kat mkoc twn agwgn, kajc kai thc leptomeroc kataskeuc tou agwgo, pwc epshc kai twn stoiqewn pou apotelon to boltmetro me to opoo h E ja metrhje. To prblhma aut uperbanetai me th bojeia do jewrhmtwn, ta opoa baszontai sthn nnoia tou isojrmou peribllontoc, kai twn omogenn agwgn[7]. Jerhma 1 An den uprqei jermobajmda (dhl: dT /dx = 0 isjermo peribllon), tte den anaptssetai tsh Seebeck. To jerhma aut apodeiknetai me mesh antikatstash thc sunjkhc sthn exswsh 2.1. Jerhma 2 An o agwgc enai omogenc, (dhl: S(T, x) = S(T )), tte h tsh Seebeck exarttai mno ap th jermokrasa twn krwn tou. H apdeixh prokptei oloklhrnontac th sqsh 2.1. Shmeinetai ti oi nnoiec isjermo peribllon kai omogenc agwgc, enai nnoiec anafermenec se idanikc katastseic. To Jerhma 1 enai isqurtero twn do, up thn nnoia ti to isjermo peribllon enai katstash h opoa elgqetai msw metrsewc, en h omoiogneia tou agwgo enai duskoltero na elegqje peiramatik.
32
Sqma 2.4: Mtrhsh tshc Seebeck me th bojeia boltomtrou [11].
2.2.2
Praktikc mtrhshc Jermokrasa anaforc
Praktik h tsh Seebeck den mpore na metrhje mesa; gia th mtrhs thc apaitetai h qrsh boltomtrou, oi akrodktec tou opoou sundemenoi me to jermozegoc, dhmiourgon epiprsjetec jermohlektrikc epafc. Estw ti epijumome na metrsoume thn tsh Seebeck sta kra enc jermozegouc qalko konstantnhc (Tpou T) (Sqma 2.4). Aut to opoo ja prepe na metr to boltmetro enai h HED h ofeilmenh sthn epaf J1 , dhlad h tsh V1 . H parembol mwc twn qlkinwn akrodektn tou boltomtrou, dhmiourge do nec epafc: thn J2 kai thn J3 . Epeid h epaf J3 gnetai metax omown agwgn (qalkc qalkc), den dhmiourgetai tsh Seebeck. Ara V3 = 0. H epaf J2 mwc, dhmiourgetai metax qalko konstantnhc me apotlesma thn anptuxh thc HED V2 , h opoa enai antjethc polikthtac wc proc thn V1 . Wc ek totou, to boltmetro ja metr th sunistamnh HED, h opoa enai anlogh thc diaforc jermokrasac twn epafn J1 kai J2 . Enac trpoc prosdiorismo thc jermokrasac thc epafc J2 enai na thn topojetsoume se loutr jermokrasac 0 o C, metatrpontc thn tsi se epaf anaforc (Sqma 2.5). Ap to Sqma 2.5 prokptei ti to boltmetro ja metr tra tsh: V = V1 V2 s(TJ1 TJ2 ) . Anagrfontac th jermokrasa se o C (smbolo ), h teleutaa aut sqsh gnetai: V = V1 V2 s[(J1 + 273, 15) (J2 + 273, 15)] = s(J1 J2 ) = s(J1 0) = sJ1
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
33
Sqma 2.5: Exwterik epaf anaforc [11]. . Parousisame autn ton ekolo upologism analutik, gia na suneidhtopoisei o anagnsthc ti h HED thc epafc J2 den enai mhdenik, all ti enai sunrthsh thc apoltou jermokrasac. Apodexame tsi ti prosjtontac sto kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.4 thn tsh thc epafc anaforc se jermokrasa 0 o C, to boltmetro metr tsh h opoa enai anlogh mno thc jermokrasac thc epafc J1 , thn opoa epijumome na metrsoume. Iswc anarwthje kanec kat pso h anwtrw mejodologa mpore na genikeute, dedomnou ti sto pardeigma pou mlic exetsame, nac ap touc do agwgn tou jermozegouc apoteletai ap to dio mtallo me touc akrodktec tou boltomtrou. Estw ti qrhsimopoiome tra jermozegoc sidrou konstantnhc (Tpou J), ant tou prohgoumnou Tpou T. Opwc fanetai sto Sqma 2.6, h parousa tou sidrou auxnei ton arijm twn eterogenn metallikn epafn sto kklwma, afo kai oi do akrodktec tou boltomtrou metatrpontai se jermozegh Cu F e. En oi do auto akrodktec den brskontai sthn dia jermokrasa, eisgetai sflma sth mtrhsh. Gia beltiwje h akrbeia thc mtrhshc, prpei oi qlkinoi agwgo tou boltomtrou na epimhkunjon, ste h epaf qalko sidrou na gnei epnw se ma isojermik bsh(Sqma 2.7). H isojermik bsh prpei na enai monwtc wc proc to hlektrik rema all, tautqrona, pol kalc agwgc thc jermthtoc ste oi epafc J3 kai J4 na diathrontai sthn dia jermokrasa. H apluth jermokrasa tou mplk den ephrezei th mtrhsh, dedomnou ti pli isqei h sqsh V = s(TJ1 TREF ). An tra antikatastsoume to loutr
34
Sqma 2.6: Jermozegoc sidrou konstantnhc [11].
Sqma 2.7: Apomkrunsh twn nwn epafn ap touc akrodktec tou boltomtrou [11].
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
35
Sqma 2.8: Antikatstash loutro anaforc ap isojermik bsh [11].
Sqma 2.9: Enwsh twn do isojermikn bsewn [11]. 0 o C me deterh isojermik bsh (Sqma 2.8). An h jermokrasa thc nac bshc enai TREF kai dedomnou ti oi epafc J3 kai J4 brskontai sthn dia jermokrasa, mporome na apodexoume ti kai pli V = s(TJ1 TREF ). Ja prospajsoume tra na aplopoisoume to kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.8. Gia na to petqoume aut, ennoume kat arqn tic do isojermikc bseic (Sqma 2.9). H tsh exdou exakolouje na enai V = s(TJ1 TREF ). Sth sunqeia ja qrhsimopoisoume ton empeirik {nmo} twn {endiamswn metllwn}, bsei tou opoou nac agwgc apotelomenoc ap mtallo B, paremblhje metax do agwgn metllou A kai C antstoiqa, miac epafc, den metabllei thn paragmenh tsh Seebeck, ef son oi do epafc pou dhmiourgontai ap thn parembol aut brskontai sthn dia jermokrasa (Sqma 2.10). Ed o trtoc metallikc agwgc enai autc ap sdhro, o opooc mpore na katarghje. Prokptei tsi to isodnamo kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.11. H tsh Seebeck enai kai pli sh me V = s(TJ1 TREF ). To loutr anaforc antikatastjhke ap tic epafc J3 kai J4 , pou apotelon tra thn epaf anaforc. Ara an metrsoume th jermokrasa TREF thc isojermikc bshc, mporome na prosdiorsoume th zhtomenh jermokrasa TJ1 .
36
Sqma 2.10: Nmoc twn endiamswn metllwn [11]. H apluth jermokrasa thc isojermikc bshc mpore na metrhje me th bojeia llou aisjhtra p.q. msw antistth platnac, jermstor (Sqma 2.12). Etsi qrhsimopointac na yhfiak polmetro elegqmeno ap upologist, akoloujome ta exc bmata: metrme th RT , gia na upologsoume thn TREF thn opoa katpin metatrpoume sthn isodnamh tsh epafc VREF . metrme th V ap thn opoa afairntac th VREF upologzoume th V1 , thn opoa metatrpoume se jermokrasa TJ1 . H parapnw diadikasa onomzetai upologistik antistjmish (software compensation), giat to loutr anaforc antikajstatai ap mia seir apln majhmatikn prxewn, msw tou upologist. Amesteroc trpoc antistjmishc enai h hlektrik antistjmish (hardware compensation). Epitugqnetai antistajmzontac thn tsh Seebeck thc isojermikc bshc, parembllontac sto kklwma mia phg tshc (Sqma 2.13). Genik metax twn do mejdwn protimtai h upologistik antistjmish, giat h efarmog thc enai eniaa gia louc touc tpouc jermozeugn. Epshc epitrpei th dirjwsh thc mh grammikc sumperiforc twn jermozeugn sthn perioq twn jermokrasin pou endiafrei thn kje efarmog. To sma exdou twn jermozeugn enai genik qamhl tupik 50 mV sthn plrh klmaka kai gi aut euasjhto se parembolc pou mpore na prorqontai ap hlektrokinhtrec, hlektrik kaldia kai metasqhmatistc. Etsi kal enai oi agwgo twn jermozeugn na jwrakzontai. Sustrfontac ta jermozegh (endeiktik, ma peristrof an 10
2.2. JERMOZEUGH
37
Sqma 2.11: Isodnamo kklwma met thn apomkrunsh tou agwgo Fe ap to skloc LO tou Sqmatoc 2.8 [11].
Sqma 2.12: Exwterik phg anaforc [11].
Sqma 2.13: Hlektrik antistjmish jermozeugn [11].
38
cm) periorzetai shmantik h epdrash twn magnhtikn pedwn. H qrsh jwrakismnwn kalwdwn periorzei thn epdrash tou hlektriko pedou. H ditaxh mtrhshc ja prpei na filtrrei ta smata ete me hlektronikc diatxeic ete msw logismiko, qrhsimopointac fltra me isqur apokop sthn perioq thc suqnthtac trofodosac (50/60 Hz) kai twn armonikn thc. Gia thn epilog tou katllhlou jermozegouc, prpei na lambnetai up yin kai to peribllon leitourgac tou. H kjesh se idiaitrwc oxeidwtik anagwgik atmsfaira mpore na alloisei orismnouc tpouc jermozeugn. Ta jermozegh epshc pou periqoun rdio (tpoi B, R kai S) den enai katllhla se peribllon pou uprqei ro netronwn. Ta jermozegh enai, lgw twn qarakthristikn touc, oi aisjhtrec pou protimntai perisstero se seir efarmogn. Enai anjektik, anephrasta ap kroseic kai kradasmoc, apl sthn kataskeu touc, den apaiton exwterik digersh, den autojermanontai kai mporon na kataskeuasjon se idiaitrwc mikr mgejoc. Kannac lloc hlektronikc aisjhtrac jermokrasac den parousizei ttoio eroc pleonekthmtwn. Ston antpoda, to sma exdou touc enai qamhl kai mh grammik, opte h ditaxh mtrhshc thc jermohlektrikc tshc prpei na enai euasjhth, stajer kai na parqei th dunatthta antistjmishc kai dirjwshc thc mh grammikthtac. Epshc lgw tou qamhlo smatoc exdou touc, apaitetai na lambnetai mrimna kat thn egkatstas touc ste na elaqistopoiontai oi pijanc phgc jorbou.
2.3
2.3.1
Antisttec
Genik
Opwc dh qoume anafrei, h eidik hlektrik antstasth twn metllwn enai sunrthsh thc jermokrasac. Ara h mtrhsh thc hlektrikc antstashc mpore na odhgsei ston prosdiorism thc jermokrasac. Jewrhtik antisttec jermmetra mporon na kataskeuaston ap plhjra ulikn. Epeid mwc h sunrthsh metax eidikc hlektrikc antstashc kai jermokrasac den enai h dia gia la ta ulik, sth jermometra qrhsimopoiontai, kat fjnousa shmasa, o leukqrusoc, to niklio kai o qalkc. Oi antisttec leukoqrsou (Platinum Resistance Thermometers PRTs), enai swc oi kalteroi aisjhtrec epafc. Se diforec morfc touc, mporon na qrhsimopoihjon gia metrseic jermokrasac ap 14 K wc 960 o C, me akrbeia h opoa proseggzei to 1 mK. O dioc aisjhtrac mpore na qrhsimopoietai se diforec perioqc jermokrasin qwrc na emfanzei fainmena ustrhshc. Ta qarakthristik tou paramnoun idiatera stajer, akmh kai met ap polloc kklouc qrshc. Uprqoun diforec morfc
2.3. ANTISTATES
39
Sqma 2.14: H antstash nikelou (Ni), qalko (Cu) kai leukoqrsou (Pt) sunartsei thc jermokrasac [10]. PRTs, xekinntac ap ton prtupo aisjhtra thc Diejnoc Jermometrikc Klmakac, mqri PRTs biomhqanikn efarmogn, oi opooi enai idiaitrwc anjektiko kai me akrbeia thc txhc megjouc tou dektou tou bajmo. To qamhl kstoc kajc kai h pol kal akrbeia twn PRTs touc qei knei touc pi diadedomnouc aisjhtrec mtrhshc jermokrasac. Se efarmogc de uyhln apaitsewn akribeac, qrhsimopoiontai kat apokleistikthta. Oi antisttec leukoqrsou, se antidiastol me ta jermozegh, gia na leitourgsoun apaiton exwterik digersh. H digersh aut mpore na enai ete rema ete tsh, h mtrhsh twn opown odhge ston upologism thc timc thc hlektrikc touc antstashc kai, msw miac diadikasac bajmonmhshc, sth jermokrasa. Gia to lgo aut prpei gia ton upologism thc akrbeiac mic mtrhshc jermokrasac, na parnoume upyh mac, ektc ap tic abebaithtec tou diou tou aisjhtra kai tic abebaithtec pou sqetzontai me ta rgana mtrhshc thc antstashc. H exrthsh thc antstashc ap th jermokrasa perigrfetai ap th sqsh: R(T ) = R(0o C)(1 + T ) (2.2)
pou o jermikc suntelestc eidikc antstashc (gia to leukqruso = 3, 92 R(T ) 103 o C 1 ). Sto Sqma 2.14 dnetai h metabol tou lgou R(0o C) , sunartsei thc jermokrasac. Sto sqma aut parathrome thn pol kal grammikthta sth metabol thc ant-
40
stashc tou leukoqrsou, gegonc pou ermhneei, metax llwn, thn katallhlthta tou metllou auto sth jermometra. H mh grammik sumperifor twn llwn do metllwn perisstero tou Ni kai ligtero tou Cu, ermhneetai kurwc ap thn parxh prosmxewn kai tic atleiec tou plgmatc touc. Ektc ap th grammik sumperifor, gia na mpore na mtallo na qrhsimopoihje wc aisjhtrac jermokrasac prpei na qei kai llec idithtec, pwc antoq stic uyhlc jermokrasec, na enai qhmikc adranc kai na mpore na breje ekola se qhmikc kajar morf. O leukqrusoc ikanopoie to snolo twn apaitsewn autn. H exswsh (2.2) isqei genik gia ta perisstera mtalla. Eidik gia tic antistseic platnac, qrhsimopoietai h akribsterh sqsh Callendar - van Dusen: R(T ) = R(0o C)(1 + AT + BT 2 + C(T 100)T 3 ) (2.3)
O suntelestc C lambnei thn tim 0 gia jermokrasec megalterec twn 0 o C. Tupikc timc twn suntelestn autn enai (prtupo IEC751 (Pt100)): A = 3, 985 103 /o C B = 5, 85 107 /o C 2 C = 4, 27 1012 /o C 4 = 3, 927 103 /o C = 1, 11814 . Gia na biomhqaniko tpou PRT, oi antstoiqec timc enai (prtupo SAMA RC-4): A = 3, 908 103 /o C B = 5, 80 107 /o C 2 C = 4, 27 1012 /o C 4 = 3, 85 103 /o C = 1, 1158 . H parmetroc stic anwtrw timc, onomzetai tim lfa tou aisjhtra kai orzetai wc exc: R(100o C) R(0o C) (2.4) = 100R(0o C)
2.3. ANTISTATES Pnakac 2.3: Anoq aisjhtrwn PRT Klsh Exswsh anoqc (o C) A (0.15 + 0.002. |t|) B (0.30 + 0.005 |t|) C (0.40 + 0.009 |t|) D (0.60 + 0.0018 |t|)
41
H parmetroc aut prokptei metrntac thn antstash sto shmeo pxewc tou datoc (0 o C) kai sto shmeo brasmo tou (100 o C). Uprqoun diforoi isodnamoi trpoi anagrafc thc paramtrou lfa: 0,385 W/o C gia PRT 100 W 3,85 103 /o C 0,385%/o C 3850 ppm/o C H tim lfa exakolouje na qrhsimopoietai kai smera wc mtro thc kajarthtoc tou leukoqrsou. Sth jermometra mwc, epeid to shmeo brasmo tou datoc den qrhsimopoietai plon sth Diejn Jermometrik Klmaka, h tim lfa qei antikatastaje ap thn tim r (shmewsh: diabzetai {tim ro} ), h opoa orzetai wc exc: = R(29, 7646 o C) R(0 o C) (2.5)
pou 29,7646 o C, to shmeo txhc tou gallou. H anoq twn aisjhtrwn, pou akoloujon to prtupo IEC751, taxinometai se tssereic klseic, pwc fanetai kai ston Pnaka 2.3. To smbolo |t| upodhlnei thn apluth tim thc jermokrasac se bajmoc Kelsou.
2.3.2
Tpoi PRTs
Ta PRTs kataskeuzontai se diforec morfc. Oi aisjhtrec genikc qrshc apotelontai ap srma platnac (Sqma 2.15 arister). Ta teleutaa qrnia mwc qoun anaptuqje kai PRTs leptn umenwn, ta opoa kerdzoun suneqc dafoc (Sqma 2.15 dexi).
42
Sqma 2.15: Edh PRTs[1].
Sqma 2.16: Tupik ditaxh PRTs me jkh [1]. Oi aisjhtrec srmatoc apotelontai ap elikoeidc pol lept srma platnac topojethmnou sto eswterik keramiko swlhnskou, ste na prostateetai kai na sthrzetai. To srma mpore na enai enwmno me to swlhnsko. Oi aisjhtrec srmatoc enai kat kanna akribsteroi ap autoc twn leptn umenwn, epeid kai h kajarthta tou metllou elgqetai kaltera kai den anaptssontai sflmata lgw ditmhshc. Enai mwc akribteroi. Oi aisjhtrec umenou apotelontai ap na lept metallik umnio to opoo enapotjetai se keramik ualdec upstrwma. Enai ligtero akribec se sqsh me touc aisjhtrec srmatoc. Enai mwc sqetik fjhno, diatjentai se mikr megjh kai antqoun perisstero se mhqanikc kataponseic. Oi aisjhtrec den mporon genik na qrhsimopoihjon sth basik morf touc, pwc dhlad apeikonzontai sto Sqma 2.15, giat enai euasjhtoi. Eisgontai sunjwc se kpoia prostateutik ditaxh - jkh, ste na mporon na antxoun sta peribllonta sta opoa ja leitourgsoun. Sunjwc prkeitai gia kulndrouc ap anoxedwto qluba, oi opooi gemzontai me eidik grso auxhmnhc jermikc agwgimthtac (Sqma 2.16). O aisjhtrac bujzetai tloc msa sto grso. H ditaxh aut prostateei ton aisjhtra kai ap kradasmoc. Oi tupopoihmnec dimetroi twn swlnwn autn enai 3, 4.5, 6, 8, 10, 12 kai 15 mm kai ta tupopoihmna mkh 250, 300, 500, 750 kai 1000 mm. Kat th qrsh twn PRTs dhmiourgontai epafc do metllwn: thc platnac kai twn
2.3. ANTISTATES
43
Sqma 2.17: Epdrash thc antstashc twn agwgn [11]. qlkinwn agwgn msw twn opown metafrontai ta smata sth metrhtik ditaxh. Ara, dhmiourgetai jermozegoc. Epomnwc an kat mkoc tou sustmatoc auto dhmiourghje jermobajmda, anaptssetai tsh Seebeck thc txhc twn 7 mV /o C. H tim aut den ephrezei thn akrbeia twn metrsewn, ektc an prkeitai gia metrseic idiaterhc akribeac oi opoec diexgontai me pol mikr ntash rematoc. Mtrhsh thc antstashc Opwc anaframe sthn prohgomenh enthta, h parmetroc lfa enc PRT 100 W isotai me 0,385 W/o C. Gia na metrsoume thn antstash enc aisjhtra, ra kai th jermokrasa, prpei na ton ensoume me mia katllhlh ditaxh. H nwsh gnetai me qlkinouc agwgoc, h antstash twn opown, analgwc tou apaitoumnou mkouc, mpore na kumanetai ap merik W, wc merikc dekdec W. Parathrntac ti h tim thc paramtrou lfa enai mikr, katalabanoume ti akma kai mia mikr prsjeth antstash twn agwgn, an den lhfje up yh, mpore na epifrei shmantik sflma sth mtrhsh. Estw gia pardeigma to kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.17, me to opoo metrtai h antstash enc PRT 100 W. An h antstash kajenc ap touc do agwgoc isotai me 5 W, h sunolik epiplon antstash ja enai 10 W. Ara h diafor jermokrasac pou antistoiqe ja enai 10 o C / 0,385 W.o C 1 = 26 o C. O klassikc trpoc gia thn apofug auto tou problmatoc enai h qrsh thc gfurac Wheatstone (Sqma 2.18). H tsh exdou Vout thc gfurac enai mia mmesh mtrhsh thc timc thc zhtomenhc antstashc Rg . H qrsh thc gfurac apaite ma exwterik phg tshc kai treic antisttec, mhdeniko suntelest lfa. Gia na mhn ektjentai oi treic antisttec sthn dia jermokrasa me to PRT, qrhsimopoietai sthn prxh to diaforopoihmno kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.19. Tra mwc emfanzetai xan dio to prblhma: h antstash twn do proektetamnwn agwgn epidr sth mtrhsh thc jermokrasac. To prblhma antimetwpzetai qrhsimopointac th legmenh teqnik twn trin agwgn (Sqma 2.20). An oi agwgo A kai B qoun akribc to dio mkoc, oi antistseic touc allhloanairontai, dedomnou ti ankoun se antjeta sklh thc gfurac. To kklwma tou Sqmatoc 2.20 qei wc apotlesma h metabol thc tshc exdou
44
Sqma 2.18: Gfura Wheatstone, gia mtrhsh PRT [11].
Sqma 2.19: Praktik kklwma mtrhshc PRT me gfura [11].
Sqma 2.20: Teqnik trin agwgn [11].
2.4. JERMISTORS
45
Sqma 2.21: Mtrhsh PRT me phg rematoc kai boltmetro [11]. thc gfurac me thn antstash tou PRT na mhn enai grammik. Aut h mh grammikthta rqetai na prosteje sthn dh mh grammik exrthsh metax jermokrasac kai antstashc tou PRT. Ta problmata pou sqetzontai me th qrsh thc gfurac, lnontai an h mtrhsh gnei qrhsimopointac ant thc exwterikc phgc tshc, ma phg rematoc. Ena ttoio kklwma fanetai sto Sqma 2.21. Gia thn ulopohsh tou kuklmatoc auto apaitontai tssereic agwgo, gi aut kai onomzetai teqnik twn tessrwn agwgn tessrwn surmtwn (four wire technique). H tsh pou metr to boltmetro enai h ptsh tshc sta kra sta kra tou PRT kai enai eujwc anlogh thc antstasc tou, all anexrthth ap to mkoc twn qrhsimopoioumnwn agwgn. H teqnik twn tessrwn agwgn enai h akribsterh gia th mtrhsh thc jermokrasac me PRTs. Ektc ap to leukqruso, gia thn kataskeu antistatn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac qrhsimopoiontai kai lla mtalla pwc niklio, qalkc kai molubdnio. Oi qrseic touc mwc enai exeidikeumnec kai oi sunolikc touc dunatthtec den kalptoun autc twn aisjhtrwn leukoqrsou. Kat ta loip, o trpoc qrshc kai oi sundesmologec mtrhshc enai oi diec.
2.4
Jermstorc
Ta jermstorc kataskeuzontai ap hmiagwg ulik, sunjwc oxedia metllwn. H eidik agwgimthta enc hmiagwgo dnetai ap thn sqsh 3 : = e (n e + p h ) (2.6)
pou e to forto tou hlektronou, n kai p oi sugkentrseic twn forwn hlektronwn kai opn antistoqwc, e kai h oi eukinhsec twn hlektronwn kai opn antistoqwc. H sqsh (2.6) gia thn perptwsh endogenoc hmiagwgo, dhlad ekenou tou opoou oi
3
. . , - , , 1992, . 138
46
Sqma 2.22: Morf jermstorc [1]. forec enai ta hlektrnia twn atmwn tou, grfetai: = e ni (e + h ) Gnwrzoume mwc ti: EG ) (2.8) kT pou B stajer exartmenh ap to ulik tou krustllou kai k h stajer Boltzmann. H sqsh (2.8) mac deqnei ti auxanomnhc thc jermokrasac, auxnetai h sugkntrwsh twn forwn, ra kai h eidik agwgimthta (sqsh 2.6). Epomnwc h axhsh thc jermokrasac qei wc apotlesma th mewsh thc antstashc tou jermstor. H morf twn jermstorc fanetai sto Sqma 2.22. An to jermozegoc enai o eurtera qrhsimopoiomenoc hlektrikc aisjhtrac jermokrasac kai to PRT o pio stajerc, to jermstor enai o pi euasjhtoc. Ap tic treic kathgorec, to jermstor enai aut tou opoou h antstash exarttai perisstero ap th jermokrasa (Sqma 2.23). O suntelestc jermokrasac twn jermstorc enai kat kanna arnhtikc. Uprqoun jermstorc jetiko suntelest jermokrasac, all qrhsimopoiontai pol ligtero. H metabol tou suntelest jermokrasac mpore na enai pol meglh, fjnontac se txh megjouc arketc mondec ep toic ekat an o C. To gegonc aut touc epitrpei na aniqneoun pol mikrc jermokrasiakc metabolc, oi opoec den ja mporosan na aniqneujon me antistth platnac jermozegoc. H euaisjhsa aut mwc qei wc apotlesma thn isqurc mh grammik sumperifor touc. H antstash enc jermstor stouc 20 o C mpore na kumanetai ap merik k wc ta 40 M . Tupik qarakthristik tou plon dhmofiloc jermstor 44004 thc YSI dnontai ston Pnaka 2.4. Ta jermstorc qoun pol kal mhqanik antoq kai enai apl sthn qrsh touc. Lgw thc meglhc euaisjhsac touc qrhsimopoiontai eurtata sthn reuna, all qi tso se biomhqanikc efarmogc. n2 = BT 3 exp( i (2.7)
2.4. JERMISTORS
47
Sqma 2.23: Metabol thc antstashc sunartsei thc jermokrasac, gia tic trec basikc kathgorec hlektronikn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac [11].
Pnakac 2.4: Tupik qarakthristik jermstor 44004 YSI. Parmetroc Qarakthristik Antstash stouc 25 o C 2252 W (diajsima ap 100 wc 1 MW) Perioq mtrhshc -80 to +120 o C tupik (250 o C max) Anoq 0.1 0.2o C o Stajerthta (etsia) < 0.02 C stouc 25o C, < 0.25o C stouc 100o C Stajer qrnou < 1.0s se laio, < 60s se aknhto ara Autojrmansh 0.13 o C/mW se laio, 1.0 o C/mW ston ara Suntelestc grammikopohshc a = 1.4733 103 , b = 2.372 103 , c = 1.074 107 Diastseic Elleiyoeidc stleqoc 2.5mm 4mm
48
H sqsh metax antstashc kai jermokrasac twn jermstorc dnetai ap thn exswsh Steinhart & Hart: T = [a + b ln(R) + c ln3 (R)]1 pou a, b, c stajerc, T h apluth jermokrasa kai R h hlektrik antstash (W). H exswsh Steinhart & Hart den parqei thn apaitomenh akrbeia an efarmoste sto snolo tou erouc leitourgac tou jermstor. Gi aut ja prpei h perioq leitourgac na upodiairetai se mikrc znec, gia kje ma ek twn opown ja upologzontai oi stajerc a, b kai c.
2.5
Oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec
Oi oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec jermokrasac kataskeuzontai epnw se hmiagwgoc, pwc la ta sgqrona hlektronik stoiqea, p.q. oi mikroepexergastc. Ta qarakthristik touc enai h grammikthta tou smatoc exdou, to sqetikc mikr mgejc touc, h periorismnh perioq leitourgac (sunjwc metax -40 wc +120 o C ), to qamhl touc kstoc kai h kal akrbeia, ef son bajmonomhjon ikanopoihtik. Se merikc periptseic, oi oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec qoun kak jermik sqediasm, me apotlesma o aisjhtrac - hmiagwgc na mhn rqetai se kal jermik epaf me thn exwterik epifneia tou aisjhtra, ra kai me to ssthma tou opoou zhtme th jermokrasa. Prnontac louc autoc touc periorismoc upyh mac, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume touc oloklhrwmnouc aisjhtrec apotelesmatik se pollc efarmogc. H arq leitourgac twn oloklhrwmnwn aisjhtrwn baszetai sth sqsh metax jermokrasac kai rematoc tou tranzstor. An do tranzstor leitourgon up diaforetik, all stajer rema sullkth, tte h diafor dunamiko metax bshc kai ekpompo enai anlogh thc apluthc jermokrasac tou tranzstor. Aut h tsh metrtai ap eujeac metatrpetai se rema. Oi oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec jermokrasac enai idaniko gia metrseic sto eswterik diafrwn suskeun, eidik ef son qrhsimopoiontai kai lla oloklhrwmna kuklmata.
2.6
Aisjhtrec optikn inn
Oi aisjhtrec optikn inn metron diforec paramtrouc qrhsimopointac leptc optikc nec wc to mno mso gia th digersh kai angnwsh tou aisjhtriou stoiqeou. Oi qrhsimopoiomenec nec enai oi diec me autc twn thlepikoinwnin. Qrhsimopoiontai se periptseic pou den mporon na qrhsimopoihjon oi aisjhtrec pou exetsame stic
2.7. KRUOGENIKOI AISJHTHRES
49
prohgomenec enthtec. Ena pardeigma enai h mtrhsh thc jermokrasac stic perielxeic enc metasqhmatist isqoc uyhlc tshc. H tsh mpore na fjnei wc kai ta 500 kV , opte h qrsh aisjhtrwn pou epikoinwnon me metallikoc agwgoc enai adnath gia lgouc asfaleac. Sthn perptwsh aut qrhsimopoiontai aisjhtrec optikn inn. Oi optikc nec diajtoun difora qarakthristik, th metabol twn opown ekmetalleumaste gia na tic qrhsimopoisoume wc aisjhtrec. Ttoia qarakthristik enai oi mikrokmyeic (micro bendings), sumbolometrik fainmena, h metabol tou dekth diajlsewc, h allag thc plwshc, h metabol tou mkouc kmatoc, ta perijlastik frgmata kajc kai to fainmeno Sagnac to opoo efarmzetai gia thn anqneush peristrofikc knhshc4 . H jermokrasa upologzetai emmsa afo metrhjon metabolc mkouc kmatoc diaforc fshc kai metatrapon se jermokrasa, msw katllhlwn hlektronikn diatxewn. Epeid oi optikc nec den mporon na qrhsimopoihjon wc aisjhtrec autnomoi, pwc ta jermozegh, oi antisttec, ja touc exetsoume se megalterh leptomreia.
2.7
Kruogeniko aisjhtrec
Kruogeniko onomzontai oi aisjhtrec jermokrasac pou metron pol qamhlc jermokrasec. Qrhsimopoiontai kurwc sth fusik qamhln jermokrasin kai se diasthmikc efarmogc. H arq leitourgac touc enai h dia me aut twn sunjwn aisjhtrwn, all ta ulik kataskeuc touc diafroun. Oi hlektrikc idithtec diafrwn ulikn metabllontai taqwc kai merikc forc aptoma, so h jermokrasa touc proseggzei to apluto mhdn. Oi aisjhtrec pou qrhsimopoiontai se peirmata fusikc qamhln jermokrasin prpei na upakooun se pol austhrc prodiagrafc. Den prpei p.q. oi agwgo twn aisjhtrwn na metaddoun jermthta sto qro mtrhshc. Prpei epshc oi aisjhtrec, analgwc tou edouc tou peirmatoc, na mhn ephrezontai ap magnhtik peda thn purhnik aktinobola. Ston Pnaka 2.5 dnontai diforec kathgorec kruogenikn aisjhtrwn.
Sagnac .. http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s207/2-07.htm
4
Pnakac 2.5: Kathgorec kai idithtec kruogenikn aisjhtrwn [1].

Ga - Al - As Si RTD RTD Cernox RTD Pt 30 - 800 0,05 - 300 RTD Ge () 1,4 - 325 1 - 475 >5 1.4 - 325 40
RTD Rh - Fe RTD Ru oxide Thermox
1.4 - 325 < 50 103 300 70 - 300
10 A 10 A , 70 , 14 30 , ,
50
2.8. AISJHTHRES EX APOSTASEWS
51
2.8
2.8.1
Aisjhtrec ex apostsewc
Genik - Arq leitourgac
Oi aisjhtrec ex apostsewc metron th jermokrasa enc sustmatoc qwrc na enai se fusik epaf me aut. Aut qei pleonektmata stic periptseic pou: oi metromenec jermokrasec enai pol uyhlc, pra ap ta ria antoqc twn ulikn twn aisjhtrwn epafc, o aisjhtrac ja deqje shmantikc mhqanikc kataponseic ja ekteje se qhmik, to proc mtrhsh ssthma kinetai, to proc mtrhsh ssthma brsketai se apstash ttoia ste den mpore na metrhje ensrmata, tloc, apaitetai ttoia akrbeia ste to jermokrasiak pedo na mhn prpei na diataraqje ap thn parousa tou aisjhtra. Oi perissteroi aisjhtrec ex apostsewc leitourgon aniqneontac th jermik aktinobola pou ekpmpetai ap la ta smata jermokrasac megalterhc tou apoltou mhdenc. Epeid sthn pleioyhfa twn efarmogn h ekpempmenh jermik aktinobola brsketai sthn uprujrh perioq tou hlektromagnhtiko fsmatoc (l = 0,7 wc 1000 m), oi aisjhtrec ex apostsewc onomzontai kai uprujroi aisjhtrec. H fasmatik katanom tou mlanoc smatoc5 perigrfetai ap to nmo tou Planck: eb (, T ) = 2C1 5 e T 1
C2
(2.9)
pou C1 kai C2 stajerc, l to mkoc kmatoc kai T h apluth jermokrasa tou mlanoc smatoc. H sqsh (2.9) apoddetai grafik sto Sqma 2.24. O dekthc b upodhlnei to mlan sma. Parathrome ti so meinetai h jermokrasa tou mlanoc smatoc, tso to mgisto thc antstoiqhc fasmatikc katanomc metatopzetai proc ta megaltera mkh kmatoc.
( ) ( . . .
5
52
Sqma 2.24: Fasmatik katanom tou mlanoc smatoc [1]. H tim tou megstou mkouc kmatoc sunartsei thc jermokrasac dnetai ap to nmo thc fasmatikc metatpishc tou Wien: max T = 2897, 8 m.K (2.10)
H ekpempmenh jermik aktinobola den gnetai antilhpt ap to anjrpino mti tan h jermokrasa tou ekpmpontoc smatoc enai qamhl. Sto Sqma 2.25 fanetai h fasmatik katanom tou mlanoc smatoc, gia thn perioq mhkn kmatoc metax 0,3 - 0,7 m, h opoa perilambnei to orat tmma tou hlektromagnhtiko fsmatoc. Parathrome ti gia na mporsoume na diakrnoume thn ekpempmenh jermik aktinobola, ja prpei h jermokrasa tou mlanoc smatoc na enai perpou 500 o C. To qrma thc ekpempmenhc aktinobolac exarttai ap to fasmatik perieqmen thc. An aut perilambnei kurwc megla mkh kmatoc, tte ja qei qrma erujrwp. An megla kai mikr mkh kmatoc periqontai se perpou diec analogec, to qrma ja fanetai leuk, en an uperteron ta mikr mkh kmatoc, h apqrwsh ja tenei proc to kuan. Lgw auto tou fainomnou, mporome na ektimsoume th jermokrasa twn swmtwn ap to qrma thc ekpempmenhc aktinobolac touc. Prkeitai gia ektmhsh kai qi mtrhsh, giat h akrbeia me thn opoa mpore to anjrpino mti na prosdiorsei to qrma thc ekpempmenhc aktinobolac, odhge se sflmata sthn ektmhsh thc jermokrasac thc txhc twn 200 o C, sthn kalterh perptwsh.
53
Sqma 2.25: Leptomreia thc fasmatikc katanomc tou mlanoc smatoc [1]. H olofasmatik (dhlad se la ta mkh kmatoc) ekpempmenh ap to mlan sma jermik aktinobola, prokptei an oloklhrsoume th sqsh (2.9) wc proc to mkoc kmatoc. H kfrash pou ja prokyei apotele to nmo twn Stefan - Boltzmann gia to mlan sma:
eb =
eb ()d = T 4 .
(2.11)
H sunolikc ekpempmenh jermik aktinobola ap na pragmatik sma dnetai ap th sqsh: e = eb . (2.12) Sunduasmc twn (2.11) kai (2.12) dnei: e = T 4. (2.13)
O suntelestc onomzetai suntelestc ekpompc6 kai qarakthrzei to sma. To enai adistato kai lambnei timc metax 0 - 1. H tim 1 antistoiqe sto mlan sma. Sthn prxh to mlan sma prosomoinetai wc ma sfairik koilthta thc opoac h esodoc
( ) . . ( ) . R. Siegel, J.R. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Trasnfer, 3rd ed., Taylor and Francis, 1992, 3. .
6
54
Sqma 2.26: Teqnht mlan sma [11]. enai nac swlnac pol mikrc diamtrou (thc txhc merikn mm) (Sqma 2.26), pou den epitrpei sthn eiserqmenh se autn aktinobola na xanabge. O suntelestc ekpompc tou teqnhto mlanoc smatoc isotai me 0,998. Sthn prxh oi aisjhtrec jermikc aktinobolac metron thn ekpempmenh aktinobola enc pragmatiko smatoc, e, kai msw thc sqshc (2.13) prosdiorzetai h apluth jermokrasa tou smatoc, ef son enai gnwstc o suntelestc ekpompc tou. An qi, tte mpore na prosdiorisje mno h isodnamh jermokrasa mlanoc smatoc, dhlad h jermokrasa thn opoa qei to mlan sma tan h sunolikc ekpempmenh jermik tou aktinobola isotai me th metromenh. Sthn perptwsh aut, h apklish thc isodnamhc jermokrasac mlanoc smatoc ap thn pragmatik jermokrasa, exarttai ap thn tim thc ttarthc rzac tou .
2.8.2
Sustmata mtrhshc jermikc aktinobolac
Ta basik stoiqea enc ttoiou sustmatoc enai: na ssthma estashc msw tou opoou h jermik aktinobola estizetai ston aniqneut, nac aniqneutc o opooc metatrpei th jermik aktinobola se hlektrik sma, mia ditaxh antistjmishc thc jermokrasac, to opoo diathre th jermokrasa tou aniqneut stajer. Kpoia sustmata froun kai diatxeic rjmishc tou suntelest ekpompc ste sthn xod touc na dnetai ap eujeac h pragmatik jermokrasa tou smatoc. To optik mroc thc ditaxhc mtrhshc fanetai sto Sqma 2.27.
55
Sqma 2.27: Gewmetra ditaxhc mtrhshc jermikc aktinobolac. (Dd h grammik distash tou aniqneut, dS to edwlo tou aniqneut proballmeno sthn epifneia mtrhshc, Sp h epifneia tou anogmatoc tou sustmatoc estashc, h stere gwna metax sustmatoc estashc kai eidlou dS. Apodeiknetai ti to sma exdou tou aniqneut dnetai ap th sqsh7 : f2 u= ub 2 cos4 [ 4 A N
2 1 D (, T )Lo (T ) d + 2 1 D (, T, T ) Lo (T ) d]
(2.14) pou A epifneia tou aniqneut, Dn eroc znhc tou hlektroniko sustmatoc mtrhshc, N sqetik noigma tou fako8 , a gwna metax aisjhtra kai metromenhc epifneiac (blpe Sqma 2.28), D eidik aniqneusimthta tou aisjhtra (specic detectivity)9 , monoqrwmatikc kateujuntikc suntelestc ekpompc tou metroumnou smatoc, monoqrwmatikc kateujuntikc suntelestc anklashc tou metroumnou smatoc, Lo (T ) lamprthta mlanoc smatoc sth jermokrasa T, Lo (Ta ) lamprthta mlanoc smatoc sth jermokrasa Ta . H perioq leitourgac twn aniqneutn epilgetai ste na mhn ephrezetai h metromenh aktinobola ap thn atmsfaira. Parathrome ti metax thc parnjeshc thc sqshc (2.14), uprqoun do prosjetaoi. O prtoc anafretai sthn jermik aktinobola pou ekpmpei to sma kai thn opoa me
A. Argiriou, La mesure en thermographie infrarouge, calibration et traitement du signal: application a ` la validation dune modlisation numrique, en rgime instationnaire, dun convertisseur thermique e e e de lnergie solaire sous concentration de type THEK. Doctorat, Universit de Provence, Marseille, e e France, 1987. 8 R.A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, .. , , . 251. 9 , D = D A . m.W 1 .s1/2 .
7
56
Sqma 2.28: Mtrhsh thc jermikc roc thc proerqmenhc ap stoiqeidh epifneia. endiafrei na metrsw. O deteroc roc anafretai sth jermik aktinobola h opoa prorqetai ap to peribllon kai h opoa anakltai sto metromeno sma. Autc o roc eisgei sflma sthn mtrhsh. Kat th qrsh twn aisjhtrwn jermikc aktinobolac, ja prpei na frontzoume ste o roc autc na enai so to dunatn mikrteroc.
2.8.3
Aniqneutc
To basiktero qarakthristik twn aniqneutn jermikc aktinobolac enai h fasmatik touc apkrish. Qwrzontai se do kathgorec, touc kbantikoc kai touc jermikoc. Oi kbantiko aniqneutc aniqneoun fwtnia twn opown h enrgeia uperbanei ma elqisth tim. Kataskeuzontai sunjwc ap kpoio hmiagwg. H apkris touc enai omogenc, mqri na orismno mkoc kmatoc, all pran auto, h apkris touc meinetai taqtata. To pleonkthm touc enai ti apokrnontai taqtata se diakumnseic thc aktinobolac. Oi jermiko aniqneutc baszoun thn leitourga touc sth jrmansh pou prokale h aporrofmenh aktinobola. H mikr axhsh thc jermokrasac mpore na aniqneuje ap sumbatikoc aisjhtrec jermokrasac, sunjwc jermostlec (jermozegh sundedemna se seir) jermstorc. Ta qarakthristik tou aniqneut kajorzontai ap ta fasmatik qarakthristik thc aporrofsac epifneiac. Genik h apkris touc ektenetai se eurea perioq tou fsmatoc kai enai omogenc, den diajtoun mwc thn taqea apkrish twn kbantikn aniqneutn.
2.9. EPILOGH TOU KATALLHLOU AISJHTHRA JERMOKRASIAS
57
Sqma 2.29: Sma exdou jermiko aisjhtra aktinobolac [11]. Diforoi tpoi aniqneutn kajc kai ta qarakthristik touc, dnontai ston Pnaka 2.6. Sto Sqma 2.29 dnetai h metabol tou smatoc exdou enc jermiko aisjhtra aktinobolac.
2.9
Epilog tou katllhlou aisjhtra jermokrasac
Enai profanc pwc h epilog tou katllhlou aisjhtra exarttai ap pollc paramtrouc. Sthn pargrafo aut ja epiqeirsoume na sunoysoume ta basik shmea anaforik me touc basikoc tpouc hlektrikn jermomtrwn, dhlad twn jermozeugn, twn jermomtrwn antistatn, twn jermstorc kai twn oloklhrwmnwn jermomtrwn.
2.9.1
Jermozegh
H tsh exdou twn jermozeugn auxnetai me th jermokrasa. Pleonektmata: den apaitetai exwterik digersh, apl sthn kataskeu, antoqc, qamhlo kstouc, diatjentai se polloc tpouc, kalptoun meglo eroc jermokrasin. Meionektmata: H sqsh jermokrasac - tshc exdou den enai grammik, to sma exdou enai qamhl,
Pnakac 2.6: Qarakthristik aisjhtrwn uprujrhc aktinobolac.

(PbS) 0.4 1.1m 1.0 3.0m
(PbSe)
1.0 4.5m
8 11m
. . 77 4 m . 77 4 m . (PVDF) ( Kynar Ampec Solef Solvay et Cie). 14 m
a , , . , , . : Kubo R., Nagamiya T., Solid State Physics, McGraw-Hill, 1969.
58
2.9. EPILOGH TOU KATALLHLOU AISJHTHRA JERMOKRASIAS
59
apaiton th qrsh anaforc, enai ta ligtero stajer kai ta ligtero euasjhta se sqsh me touc upolopouc tpouc aisjhtrwn.
2.9.2
Antisttec
H antstash twn antistatn - aisjhtrwn jermokrasac auxnetai me th jermokrasa. Pleonektmata: Enai oi stajerteroi kai akribsteroi aisjhtrec. Grammikteroi se sqsh me ta jermozegh. Meionektmata: Meglo kstoc. Apaitetai exwterik digersh (phg rematoc). Sqetik snjeth sundesmologa (4 agwgn). Lgw thc arqc leitourgac touc, autojermanontai. Eqoun qamhl sma exdou.
2.9.3
Jermstorc
H antstas touc meinetai me th jermokrasa. Pleonektmata: Uyhl sma exdou. Taqea apkrish. Apl sundesmologa (2 agwgn). Meionektmata: M grammik sma exdou. Periorismnh perioq leitourgac. Ejraustoi. Apaitetai exwterik digersh (phg rematoc). Autojermanontai.
2.9.4
Oloklhrwmnoi aisjhtrec
To sma exdou touc mpore na enai tsh rema, auxanmeno me thn jermokrasa. Pleonektmata: Oi perisstero grammiko. To uyhltero sma exdou. Qamhlo kstouc. Meionektmata: Qrhsimopoiontai mqri touc 200 o C. Apaitetai trofodosa. Arg apkrish. Autojermanontai. Lgoi diajsimoi tpoi.
60
Keflaio 3 Pesh
3.1 Genik
An se stoiqeidh epifneia mtrou ds, asketai dnamh mtrou dF , tte h pesh isotai me to lgo p = dF/ds. H mtrhsh thc peshc gnetai pnta wc prc kpoia pesh anaforc. Wc ttoia mpore na qrhsimopoihje h atmosfairik pesh, h pesh sto eswterik kpoiac sfragismnhc koilthtac sto eswterik tou aisjhtra, h pesh se kpoio llo shmeo. Sto Sqma 3.1, dnontai orismo pisewn. H mhdenik pesh enai aut tou aplutou keno. H apluth pesh metrtai wc proc to apluto ken. Oi aisjhtrec pou metron thn apluth pesh anafrontai se sfragismnh koilthta sto eswterik touc, sthn opoa qei dhmiourghje ken. Ap ton orism thc, h apluth pesh enai pnta uperpesh, dhlad lambnei mno jetikc timc. H sqetik pesh metritai wc proc thn atmosfairik pesh, opte aut mpore na lbei ete arnhtikc (upopesh) ete jetikc (uperpesh) timc. H diaforik pesh metrtai wc prc ma tuqaa anafor. Opwc kai h sqetik pesh kai h diaforik mpore na enai ete jetik, ete arnhtik. Onomzoume kanonik pesh, thn pesh thc kanonikc atmsfairac, h opoa lambnetai sh me 1013,25 hP a (1 h = 1 hecto = 102 ). Ston Pnaka 3.1, dnontai diforec mondec peshc kajc kai oi metax touc sqseic. Oi metrseic peshc, pwc kai llwn fusikn megejn, gnontai ete se mnimec (stajerc) ete se qronikc metaballmenec (dunamikc) sunjkec. Oi metrseic up stajerc sunjkec gnontai tan endiafroun mno sunjkec isorropac, ta fainmena metabllontai arg me to qrno. Otan endiafroun oi metabolc tc peshc sunartsei tou qrnou, tte oi metrseic enai dunamikc. H dunamik mtrhsh thc peshc parousizei perissterec duskolec se sqsh me tic metrseic up stajerc sunjkec. Sth dunamik mtrhsh, prpei na lhfje up yin h apkrish tou aisjhtra (to pso grgora antapokr61
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
P SI P ascal Bar mbar mmHg mmH2 O AT M kg/cm2
P SI 1 6894.6 0.068946 68.946 51.714 703.05 0.068045 0.070305
P ascal 0.00014504 1 0.00001 0.01 0.0075006 0.10197 9.8692 106 1.0197 105
Pnakac 3.1: Mondec Bar mbar 14.504 0.014504 105 100 1 0.001 103 1 750.06 0.75006 10197 10.197 0.98692 0.00098692 1.0197 0.0010197
peshc. mmHg mmH2 O AT M 0.019337 0.0014223 14.696 133.32 9.8068 101320 0.0013332 9.8068E-05 1.0132 1.3332 0.098068 1031.2 1 0.073558 760 13.595 1 10332 0.0013158 9.6788E-05 1 0.0013595 0.0001 1.0332
kg/cm2 14.223 98067 0.98068 980.68 735.59 10000 0.9678 1
62
3.1. GENIKA
63
Sqma 3.1: Orismo Pisewn. netai se dedomnh metabol tou metromenou megjouc), h epdrash tou qrou msa ston opoo gnetai h mtrhsh, kajc epshc kai h diataraq tou metromenou sustmatoc pou endeqomnwc na prokaletai ap ton dio ton exoplism mtrhshc. Oi aisjhtrec peshc diakrnontai se mhqanikoc kai hlektromhqanikoc. Sthn enthta aut ja asqolhjome mno me touc hlektromhqanikoc aisjhtrec. Oi hlektromhqaniko aisjhtrec diajtoun mhqanikc diatxeic twn opown kpoia distash metablletai me thn pesh (Sqma 3.2). Oi diatxeic autc mpore na enai plkec, kelfh swlnec. H metabol thc distashc prokale mhqanik knhsh, h opoa metafretai se hlektrik ditaxh kai metatrpetai se hlektrik sma. To sma exdou enc hlektromhqaniko aisjhtra apoddetai majhmatik wc exc: V = k 0 + k1 P (3.1)
pou V h tsh exdou, P h metromenh pesh, k0 h olsjhsh tou mhdenc kai k1 h euaisjhsa tou aisjhtra se Volt / monda peshc. Genik ta k0 kai k1 den enai stajerc all suntelestc exartmenoi ap th jermokrasa (Sqma 3.3 kai 3.4). Oi aisjhtrec qarakthrzontai epshc ap ta aklouja megjh: Grammikthta: Anafretai sthn apklish thc sumperiforc tou aisjhtra ap thn eujea thc exswshc (3.1) (Sqma 3.5). Epanalhyimthta: Ekfrzei thn ikanthta tou aisjhtra na dsei thn dia tim tan efarmzetai s autn diadoqik thn dia tim peshc.
64
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
Sqma 3.2: Basik aisjhtria peshc [4].
Sqma 3.3: Exrthsh thc metatpishc ap th jermokrasa [4].
Sqma 3.4: Exrthsh thc euaisjhsac ap th jermokrasa [4].
3.1. GENIKA
65
Sqma 3.5: Apklish ap th grammik sumperifor [4].
Sqma 3.6: Epanalhyimthta [4].
Ustrhsh: Ekfrzei thn ikanthta tou aisjhtra na dsei tic diec timc peshc kat thn axousa kai katpin fjnousa metabol thc peshc. Euaisjhsa (gauge factor): Orzetai wc o lgoc thc metabolc tou paragmenou hlektriko megjouc se lo to eroc twn metromenwn pisewn, proc thn tim tou gia mhdenik pesh. An p.q. to metaballmeno mgejoc enai h hlektrik antstash, tte h euaisjhsa orzetai wc R/R, pou R h antstash tan den efarmzetai pesh kai R h metabol thc antstashc tan efarmoste h mgisth dunat pesh.
Sqma 3.7: Ustrhsh [4].
66
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
Sqma 3.8: Pontensiometrikc aisjhtrac [4].
3.2
3.2.1
Edh aisjhtrwn peshc

Potensiometriko
Qrhsimopoion mhqanik ditaxh, h paramrfwsh thc opoac kine to droma enc potensiomtrou. Gia na leitourge axipista prpei o dromac na sundetai me th mhqanik ditaxh arket isqur, me apotlesma na emfanzontai sflmata ustrhshc kai epanalhyimthtac. Qrhsimopoiontai se efarmogc periorismnwn apaitsewn, pwc p.q. gia th mtrhsh thc peshc tou lipantiko tou kinhtra twn autokintwn.
3.2.2
Epagwgiko
H mhqanik knhsh metakine ton oplism enc hlektromagnth. Apaiton exwterik digersh enallassomnou rematoc. Ant gia hlektromagnth qrhsimopoietai kai o legmenoc grammikc metaballmenoc diaforikc metasqhmatistc, tou opoou o oplismc metakinomenoc metabllei thn epagwgik zexh prwteontoc - deutereontoc. H apkrish autn twn aisjhtrwn enai sqetik arg.
3.2.3
Qwrhtiko
Oi qwrhtiko aisjhtrec qrhsimopoion na lept difragma wc oplism enc puknwt. H efarmozmenh pesh paramorfnei to difragma, metabllontac th qwrhtikthta tou puknwt. H metabol thc qwrhtikthtac mpore na enai grammik m kai enai thc txhc merikn pF (pikoFarad) gia sunolik qwrhtikthta thc txhc twn 50 - 100 pF .
3.2. EIDH AISJHTHRWN PIESHS
67
Sqma 3.9: Epagwgikc aisjhtrac me grammik metaballmeno diaforik metasqhmatist [4].
3.2.4
Piezohlektriko
Apotelontai ap krstallo qalaza lla keramik ulik. Enai shmantik na jumhjome ti h piezohlektrik tsh emfanzetai so diarke h efarmozmenh metabol thc peshc. Gi aut touc qrhsimopoiome gia th mtrhsh metaboln peshc.
3.2.5
Paramrfwshc
H mtrhsh thc peshc enai dunat kai me aisjhtrec paramrfwshc (strain), touc opoouc ja exetsoume sto Keflaio pou anafretai sthn Paramrfwsh.
3.2.6
Piezohlektriko oloklhrwmnoi hmiagwgo
Qrhsimopoiontai oi teqnikc dhmiourgac oloklhrwmnwn kuklwmtwn gia to sqhmatism piezoantistatn sthn epifneia enc wafer puritou (Sqma 3.10). Wc mhqanik ditaxh mtrhshc thc peshc qrhsimopoietai difragma, pnw sto opoo topojetontai tssereic piezoantisttec, do gia th mtrhsh twn efaptomenikn kai oi lloi do gia th mtrhsh twn aktinikn paramorfsewn, pou anaptssontai tan askhje pesh sto difragma. Oi tssereic antisttec sundontai wc gfura. H eikna enc ttoiou aisjhtra dnetai sto Sqma 3.11. Ta kuklmata ensqushc, antistjmishc jermokrasac kai bajmonmhshc, mporon na enswmatwjon sto dio oloklhrwmno stoiqeo. Oi aisjhtrec mporon na kataskeuasjon gia eurea perioq pisewn, metabllontac katllhla to pqoc tou diafrgmatoc, en gia pol qamhlc piseic th dimetr tou. Qrhsimopoiontai gia th mtrhsh lwn twn pisewn (apluthc, diaforikc kai sqetikc). Lgw twn mikrn tou diastsewn qei taqea apkrish kai qrhsimopoietai gia dunamik mtrhsh thc peshc.
68
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
Sqma 3.10: Kataskeu oloklhrwmnou piezohlektriko aisjhtra peshc [4].
Sqma 3.11: Piezohlektrikc aisjhtrac peshc, diastsewn mkouc 1,32, pltouc 1,12 kai youc 2,54 cm, sumperilambanomnhc thc jrac epikoinwnac [4].
3.3
Egkatstash kai qrsh
To sma exdou twn aisjhtrwn peshc mpore na enai tsh (mV V ) rema (mA). H epilog tou katllhlou smatoc exdou, exarttai ap th sugkekrimnh efarmog. Ja exetsoume sth sunqeia ta pleonektmata kai meionektmata kajc kai th sundesmologa gia kje ma ap autc tic trec periptseic. Oi aisjhtrec pou qoun sma exdou tsh thc txhc twn mV qrhsimopoiontai kurwc se ergasthriakc efarmogc. Enai fjhno, mikro se mgejoc kai apaiton exwterik trofodosa. Epeid to sma exdou enai qamhl, den mpore na metaferje se meglec apostseic - h anterh apstash metax aisjhtra kai sustmatoc mtrhshc enai perpou 60 m. Epshc enai euasjhto se hlektromagnhtikc parembolc ap geitonik hlektrik smata (lla rgana, grammc uyhlc tshc, k.l.p.). H sundesmologa touc fanetai sto Sqma 3.12. Oi aisjhtrec me enisqumno sma exdou qrhsimopoiontai se pia biomhqanik peribllonta se sunduasm me upologistik sustmata, pou apaitontai uyhltera suneq smata. Epeid h enisqutik ditaxh emperiqetai ston aisjhtra, to kstoc kai to mgejc touc enai megaltera ap ti aut twn aisjhtrwn pou qoun wc sma exdou mV. H apstash metax aisjhtra kai sustmatoc mtrhshc mpore na enai megalterh kai enai kaltera prostateumnoi wc proc tic hlektromagnhtikc parembolc. H
3.3. EGKATASTASH KAI QRHSH
69
Sqma 3.12: Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: tsh (mV ) [2].
Sqma 3.13: Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: tsh (V ) [2]. sundesmologa touc fanetai sto Sqma 3.13. Oi aisjhtrec twn opown to sma exdou enai rema (mA), qrhsimopoiontai se barei biomhqanik peribllonta kai enai o sunhjsteroc tpoc aisjhtra pou qrhsimopoiome se efarmogc elgqou diergasin. H ditaxh metatropc tou smatoc se rema enai enswmatwmnh ston aisjhtra. Gia to lgo aut kai auto tou edouc oi aisjhtrec enai megalteroi kai akribteroi, se sqsh me ekenouc twn opown to sma exdou enai mV . Oi aisjhtrec autc thc kathgorac enai prostateumnoi ap parembolc. To sma touc mpore na metaferje se meglec apostseic. H sundesmologa touc fanetai st Sqma 3.14. Basik pleonkthma tou aisjhtra peshc me xodo rema, enai h dunattht tou na sundeje me perissterec ap ma suskeuc, idiatera apl. H sundesmologa fanetai
Sqma 3.14: Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc - sma exdou: rema (mA) [2].
70
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
Sqma 3.15: Sundesmologa aisjhtra peshc me sma exdou rema (mA) me perisstera tou enc rgana [2]. sto Sqma 3.15. . O mnoc periorismc pou tjetai enai h trofodosa tou aisjhtra. Estw ti qoume nan aisjhtra peshc (4 - 20 mA) tou opoou h tsh trofodosac enai 12 - 30 V DC. O aisjhtrac sundetai me rgano yhfiakc ndeixhc, empdhshc 10 W, na katagrafik empdhshc 25 W kai upologist empdhshc 200 W. Dnetai epshc ti h olik antstash twn qrhsimopoioumnwn agwgn enai 5 W. H elqisth tsh trofodosac upologzetai ap to nmo tou Ohm, lambnontac upyh ti ja prpei na enai sh me thn elqisth tsh digershc tou aisjhtra (Vex,min ed 12 V DC) sun thn ptsh tshc stic ep mrouc suskeuc (gia th mgisth ntash tou smatoc exdou dhlad 20 mA): Vmin = Vex,min + imax Ro = 12V + 0, 02 A (10 + 25 + 200 + 5) = 16, 8 V . To prblhma pou parousizetai kat th qrsh twn aisjhtrwn me sma exdou rema, enai to pc ja sunduaston me ta difora rgana, dedomnou ti ta perisstera ap aut dqontai sthn esod touc tseic. Aut gnetai parembllontac metax twn akrodektn eisdoutou orgnou nan antistth, h tim thc antstashc tou opoou kajorzei th sqsh metatropc tou rematoc se tsh. An, gia pardeigma, qrhsimopoisoume nan antistth twn 500 W, tte h xodoc twn 4 - 20 mA tou aisjhtra metatrpetai (efarmzontac to nmo tou Ohm) se tsh exdou 2 - 20 V .
3.4
Udraulik plgma
Kat th qrsh twn aisjhtrwn peshc, emfanzetai na snjeto fainmeno to opoo onomzetai udraulik plgma (waterhammer). Prkeitai gia stigmiaa, all pol meglh metabol thc peshc pou prokaletai kat thn aptomh, kurwc diakop, kai thn narxh thc roc tou reusto s na udraulik kklwma. Otan stamatsoume th ro mac flbac nero pou rei sto eswterik enc agwgo, tte ta stoiqea tou nero pou kinontai
3.4. UDRAULIKO PLHGMA
71
prin ton diakpth, sugkroontai to na me to llo. Epeid to ner enai asumpesto, dhmiourgontai kroustik kmata kai anaptssontai terstiec piseic. To fainmeno paromoizetai me na trno tou opoou h mhqan pftei se na toqo kai akinhtopoietai, en ta bagnia pou akoloujon sunjlbontai lgw thc adrneiac. Oi piseic pou anaptssontai enai tso meglec ste na mporon na katastryoun ton aisjhtra. H katastrof prorqetai ap th mnimh paramrfwsh thc mhqanikc ditaxhc tou aisjhtra sthn opoa efarmzetai h pesh. Apotlesma emfnishc tou kratoc krio enai o ntonoc qoc pou prorqetai ap tic udraulikc egkatastseic, tan klenoume aptoma ma brsh. Se sustmata elgqou diergasin, to krac krio dhmiourgetai kat th leitourga diafrwn hlektrobann pou perilambnontai sta udraulik kuklmata, sta opoa, an uprqoun aisjhtrec peshc, mpore na katastrafon. Gia to lgo aut ja prpei se ttoia kuklmata oi aisjhtrec na topojetontai afo paremblhjon eidikc prostateutikc diatxeic [3].
72
KEFALAIO 3. PIESH
Keflaio 4 Paramrfwsh
4.1 Genik
H paramrfwsh (strain), enai h metabol twn diastsewn enc smatoc, ex aitac thc efarmogc mic dnamhc. H paramrfwsh posotikopoietai msw thc paramrfwshc efelkusmo ( anhgmnhc mkunshc) ( ) h opoa orzetai wc o lgoc thc metabolc tou mkouc (DL) proc to arqik mkoc (L): = L L (4.1)
H distash L enai aut kat th diejunsh thc opoac efarmzetai h dnamh. H paramrfwsh mpore na enai jetik arnhtik. An kai adistato mgejoc, h paramrfwsh dnetai qontac wc mondec to lgo do mhkn (sunjwc mm/mm). Sthn prxh, h metromenh paramrfwsh enai pol mikr. Gia to lgo aut ekfrzetai sunjwc wc mikroparamrfwsh, dhlad 106 . Otan ma rbdoc epimhknetai up thn epdrash mac diamkouc dnamhc, pwc sto Sqma 4.1, tte h llh thc distash D (h kjeth proc th for thc efarmozmenhc dnamhc) mikranei. To fainmeno aut onomzetai eklptunsh paramrfwsh Poisson.
Sqma 4.1: Orismc thc paramrfwshc. 73
74
KEFALAIO 4. PARAMORFWSH
Sqma 4.2: Metallikc aisjhtrac paramrfwshc [9]. To mgejoc thc metabolc thc distashc D, exarttai ap to lgo Poisson, o opooc qarakthrzei kje ulik kai orzetai wc o arnhtikc lgoc thc paramrfwshc wc proc ton xona ton kjeto proc th dnamh pou thn prokale ( T ), proc thn paramrfwsh ston xona efarmogc thc dnamhc ( ): =
T
(4.2)
Gia pardeigma, o lgoc Poisson tou qluba kumanetai metax 0,25 kai 0,30.
4.2
O aisjhtrac paramrfwshc
Prkeitai gia ditaxh thc opoac h hlektrik antstash exarttai thn paramrfwsh thn opoa ufstatai. Gi pardeigma, o piezoantistatikc (piezoresistive) aisjhtrac paramrfwshc enai nac hmiagwgc, tou opoou h hlektrik antstash metablletai - m grammik - me thn paramrfwsh. O perisstero diadedomnoc aisjhtrac paramrfwshc enai o metallikc. Autc apoteletai ap na pol lept metallik stoiqeo (srma, sunjwc lept metallik fllo) (Sqma 4.2). H paramrfwsh efarmzetai parllhla proc thn epifnei tou. H diatom tou metalliko stoiqeou epilgetai na enai pol mikr, sugkritik me to mkoc tou, ste na elaqistopoietai h epdrash ap thn emfnish thc paramrfwshc Poisson. To metallik stoiqeo proskolltai se ma lept epifneia, pou onomzetai forac. O forac prosarmzetai sto sma tou opoou jloume na metrsoume thn paramrfwsh. Me ton trpo aut, h anaptussmenh sto sma paramrfwsh, metafretai ston aisjhtra, o opooc apokrnetai metabllontac grammik thn hlektrik tou antstash. H
4.3. PRAKTIKES METRHSHS
75
onomastik antstash twn aisjhtrwn pou diatjentai sto emprio, kumanontai metax 30 wc 3 000 W. Oi pi sunhjismnec timc enai 120, 350 kai 1 000 W. Prosoq apaitetai sthn topojthsh tou aisjhtra pnw sto dokmio, ste na exasfalzetai h swst metafor thc paramrfwshc ap to dokmio sto fora kai sth sunqeia sto metallik stoiqeo. Basik parmetroc twn aisjhtrwn paramrfwshc enai h euaisjhsa touc (gauge factor). O orismc thc euaisjhsac diafrei ed ap ekeno twn aisjhtrwn peshc. Orzetai wc o lgoc thc sqetikc metabolc thc hlektrikc tou antstashc proc thn sqetik metabol tou mkouc: R/R GF = (4.3) L/L H sunjhc tim thc euaisjhsac twn metallikn aisjhtrwn paramrfwshc enai 2. Idanik ja jlame h hlektrik antstash na metablletai mno sunartsei thc paramrfwshc. To metallik mwc stoiqeo kajc kai to metromeno dokmio ephrezontai ap th jermokrasa. Gia to lgo aut oi aisjhtrec ufstantai epexergasa kat thn kataskeu touc, ste na antistajmzontai oi poiec epidrseic thc jermokrasac sto metromeno dokmio. Par la aut, den enai dunatn na exaleifje telewc h epdrash thc jermokrasac. Gia pardeigma, stw aisjhtrac o opooc diajtei antistjmish gia to aloumnio, tou opoou h exrthsh ap th jermokrasa enai 23 ppm/o C. An h onomastik tou antstash enai 1 000 W kai h euaisjhsa tou 2, to sflma sthn paramrfwsh ja enai 11,5 /o C. Ara apaitetai kalterh antistjmish jermokrasac.
4.3
Praktikc mtrhshc
Sthn prxh, h txh megjouc twn paramorfsewn enai 103 . Gia to lgo aut, h mtrhsh thc paramrfwshc apaite pol akribec metrseic metabolc thc hlektrikc antstashc. Estw, gia pardeigma, na dokmio to opoo ufstatai shmantik paramrfwsh sh me 500 . H hlektrik antstash aisjhtra euaisjhsac 2, ja metablhje kat 2(500 106 ) = 0, 1%. An h onomastik tou antstash enai 120 W, h metabol thc hlektrikc antstashc ja enai 0,12 W. Gia na metrsoume tso mikrc metabolc tic timc thc hlektrikc antstashc, me tautqronh antistjmish thc jermokrasac, pwc anaframe prohgoumnwc, prpei na qrhsimopoisoume ditaxh gfurac, me phg tshc rematoc. Mi tupik ditaxh gfurac Wheatstone fanetai sto Sqma 4.3. H tsh exdou thc gfurac dnetai ap thn sqsh:
76
Sqma 4.3: Gfura Wheatstone [9].
Sqma 4.4: Gfura Wheatstone me aisjhtra paramrfwshc [9].
R3 R2 ] VEX . (4.4) R3 + R4 R1 + R2 Ap thn sqsh 4.4 enai profanc ti tan R1 /R2 = R4 /R3 , h tsh Vo ja enai mhdenik. Sthn perptwsh aut h gfura brsketai se isorropa. Opoiadpote metabol thc antstashc se opoiodpote skloc thc gfurac ja eqei san apotlesma thn emfnish mic tshc Vo m mhdenikc. Epomnwc, an antikatastsoume thn antstash R4 tou Sqmatoc 4.3 me nan aisjhtra paramrfwshc, onomastikc antstashc RG (Sqma 4.4), h tsh exdou thc gfurac ja enai mh mhdenik, gia opoiadpote metabol thc onomastikc autc antstashc. An ma paramrfwsh metabllei thn onomastik antstash tou aisjhtra kat R, aut h metabol mpore na grafte wc exc: R = RG GF . Upojtontac ti R1 = R2 kai R3 = RG , h exswsh thc tsewc exdou thc gfurac (4.4), mpore na prei thn akloujh morf: Vo = [ GF 1 Vo = [ ] VEX 4 1 + GF 2 (4.5)
Sthn sqsh (4.5), o roc msa sthn agklh dhlnei ti h tsh exdou thc gfurac den metablletai grammik me thn paramrfwsh. H epdrash thc metabolc thc jermokrasac antimetwpzetai qrhsimopointac sth gfura nan epiplon aisjhtra paramrfwshc, thc diac onomastikc antstashc. Sto
77
Sqma 4.5: Qrsh anenergo aisjhtra gia antistjmish twn jermokrasiakn metaboln [9].
Sqma 4.6: Ditaxh do energn aisjhtrwn [9]. Sqma 4.5 fanetai h ditaxh do aisjhtrwn, pou o nac enai energc (RG + R) kai o deteroc enai topojethmnoc egkrsia wc proc thn efarmozmenh paramrfwsh. O deteroc onomzetai kai yeudoaisjhtrac (dummy gauge), giat h efarmozmenh paramrfwsh den metabllei thn hlektrik tou antstash. H hlektrik antstash mwc kai twn do aisjhtrwn ja metablhje me ton dio trpo efson allxei h jermokrasa, opte o lgoc twn antistsen touc den ja metablhje, ra ote kai h tsh exdou Vo thc gfurac. Me to trpo aut elaqistopoietai h epdrash thc metabolc thc jermokrasac sth mtrhsh. Enallaktik, mporome na diplasisoume thn euaisjhsa thc gfurac, qrhsimopointac kai touc do aisjhtrec wc energoc. Sto Sqma 4.6 dnetai to pardeigma do aisjhtrwn, ap touc opoouc o nac metr elkusm (tension) kai o lloc jlyh (compression). Sto dio sqma dnetai kai h antstoiqh ditaxh thc gfurac. H tsh exdou autc thc ditaxhc apodeiknetai ti enai grammik sunrthsh thc paramrfwshc kai dnetai ap thn kfrash:
78
Sqma 4.7: Gfura tessrwn aisjhtrwn paramrfwshc [9].
GF Vo = VEX 2
(4.6)
Sugkrnontac tic sqseic (4.5) kai (4.6), parathrome ti gia dedomnh tsh digershc VEX , h tsh exdou thc gfurac enai perpou diplsia sthn perptwsh twn do energn aisjhtrwn. Tloc, enai dunatn na auxhje perisstero h euaisjhsa tou kuklmatoc, antikajistntac to snolo twn antistatn thc gfurac me energoc aisjhtrec paramrfwshc, ap touc opoouc oi do ja metron ktash kai oi do sumpesh. To sqetik kklwma fanetai sto Sqma 4.7 kai h tsh exdou dnetai ap thn sqsh: Vo = GF VEX (4.7)
Oi majhmatikc sqseic (4.4) wc (4.7) pou dnoun thn tsh exdou thc gfurac Wheatstone, baszontai sthn upjesh ti h gfura enai se isorropa, dhlad ti h tsh thc enai mhdenik tan den efarmzetai paramrfwsh. Sthn prxh mwc, oi anoqc sthn tim twn antistatn kajc kai paramorfseic pou anaptssontai kat thn topojthsh twn aisjhtrwn sta dokmia, qoun san apotlesma thn emfnish m mhdenikc tshc Vo . O mhdenismc thc mpore na gnei ete problpontac ma metablht antstash sto kklwma thc gfurac, ete msw tou logismiko mtrhshc. Epshc stic pi pnw sqseic agnosame tic antistseic twn agwgn twn aisjhtrwn paramrfwshc. Aut gine gia na katanosoume kaltera thn leitourga touc, kajc kai thn qrsh touc msw thc gfurac. Agnontac mwc tic antistseic autc sthn prxh eisgoume sth mtrhs mac shmantik sflmata. Estw, gia pardeigma, h sundesmologa tou Sqmatoc 4.8(a): O aisjhtrac paramrfwshc ennetai me thn gfura, msw do agwgn mkouc 15 m o kajnac kai antstashc 1 W. Aut qei wc apotlesma, to sugkekrimno skloc thc gfurac na emfanzei pr-
79
Sqma 4.8: Epdrash thc antstashc twn agwgn [9]. sjeth antstash sh me 2 W. Ektc ap th m mhdenik tsh isorropac, h parxh thc prsjethc autc antstashc meinei thn euaisjhsa thc gfurac. Apodeiknetai ti h mewsh aut isotai me (1 + RL /RG ). To eisagmeno sflma diorjnetai an metrsoume thn antstash RL twn agwgn kai eisgoume thn tim thc stic sqetikc exisseic. Duskoltero prblhma mwc, enai aut tou upologismo thc metabolc thc antstashc twn agwgn lgw thc metabolc thc jermokrasac. Parnontac upyh mac ti o jermokrasiakc suntelestc metabolc thc eidikc hlektrikc antstashc tou qalko isotai me 0,0068 .m1 .K 1 , blpoume ti akmh kai mikrc metabolc thc jermokrasac, odhgon se sflmata arketn me. To prblhma antimetwpzetai qrhsimopointac th sundesmologa twn trin agwgn (Sqma 4.8 b). Sthn perptwsh aut oi antistseic RL1 kai RL3 emfanzontai se diadoqik sklh thc gfurac, me apotlesma oi poiec metabolc touc lgw thc jermokrasac na allhloanairontai. H antstash RL2 paremblletai sthn xodo thc gfurac. To rema pou thn diarrei enai pol mikr, me apotlesma oi poiec metabolc thc timc thc na enai amelhtec.
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Keflaio 5 pH
5.1 Genik
To pH enai ma parmetroc me thn opoa posotikopoietai o bajmc oxthtac twn dialumtwn. To kat pso na diluma enai xino alkalik exarttai ap th sugkntrwsh se aut tou intoc oxonou (H3 O+ ). An enai megalterh twn 107 mol.l1 , tte to diluma enai xino, en an enai mikrterh thc timc autc, tte to diluma enai alkalik. Dhlad an to pH enai so me 7, tte to diluma enai oudtero. An kumanetai metax 0 - 7, tte enai xino en an enai metax 7 - 14, tte enai alkalik.
5.2
Mjodoi mtrhshc
H sgqronh mjodoc mtrhshc tou pH baszetai sthn kataskeu galbanikn stoiqewn [13]. Metritai dhlad h diafor dunamiko metax do hmistoiqewn, h opoa ofeletai sto oxnio. Gia na gnei aut apaitontai ta exc: Enac metrhtc pH, o opooc metr me akrbeia kai metatrpei thn tsh h opoa prokaletai ap to oxnio, se tim tou pH. Ena hlektrdio pH ulou (onomzetai genik endeiktik hlektrdio), tou opoou to dunamik exarttai ap th sugkntrwsh tou oxonou. Ena hlektrdio anaforc, to opoo qei qronik stajer dunamik kai anexrthto thc sugkntrwshc tou oxonou. O metrhtc pH metr th diafor dunamiko metax tou hlektrodou pH (to opoo aniqneei ta inta oxonou) kai tou hlektrodou anaforc (tou opoou to sma enai 81
82
KEFALAIO 5. PH
Sqma 5.1: Hlektrdio ulou [6]. anexrthto ap th sstash tou dialmatoc). Prkeitai ousiastik gia nan enisqut meglhc empdhshc, o opooc metr th diafor dunamiko kai emfanzei to apotlesma ete se yhfiak ete se analogik morf. To dunamik tou hlektrdiou pH metablletai me th sugkntrwsh twn intwn oxonou. Ena ttoio hlektrdio apeikonzetai sto Sqma 5.1. To hlektrdio anaforc qei anlogh kataskeu me to endeiktik hlektrdio. To pH prokptei ap thn mtrhsh thc diaforc dunamiko metax hlektrodou pH ulou kai hlektrodou anaforc. (Sqma 5.2). Sta sgqrona sustmata, ta do hlektrdia - anaforc kai ulou - enswmatnontai se na sunduasmno hlektrdio. H prokptousa diafor dunamiko metax twn do hlektrodwn, sundetai me th sugkntrwsh tou oxonou, ra kai me to pH, msw thc sqshc tou Nernst: U = U0 + 2, 303RT log[H3 O+ ] zi F (5.1)
5.2. MEJODOI METRHSHS
83
Sqma 5.2: Ditaxh mtrhshc pH [6].
84
KEFALAIO 5. PH
pou U h metromenh diafor dunamiko metax twn do hlektrodwn, U0 ma stajer tsh exartmenh ap to hlektrdio anaforc, R h pagksmioc stajer twn aerwn (8,31441 J.K 1 1.mol1 ), T h apluth jermokrasa tou dialmatoc, zi h (algebrik) tim tou fortou to oxonou (+1), F h stajer Faraday (96 484,56 o C). Opwc blpoume ap thn exswsh (5.1), h tim tou pH exarttai kai ap th jermokrasa. Gia to lgo aut, ta sgqrona pH-metra qoun enswmatwmnouc kai aisjhtrec jermokrasac. H tsh U enai thc txhc megjouc twn mV . Jewrhtik na pH-metro kataskeuzetai tsi ste na pargei tsh 0 mV , tan to metromeno pH enai 7. H tim aut onomzetai mhdenik dunamik tou hlektrodou. To mhdenik dunamik enai na ap ta do basik qarakthristik tou hlektrodou. To detero enai h apkrish kat Nernst tou hlektrodou, h opoa mac dnei th diafor tou metromenou dunamiko metax do dialumtwn twn opown to pH diafrei kat 1, se sqsh me thn anamenmenh jewrhtik tim (ap th sqsh Nernst). H jewrhtik tim thc enai 59,16 mV.pH 1 stouc 25 o C. Sthn pragmatikthta mwc uprqoun apoklseic, oi opoec upologzontai msw thc bajmonmhshc tou hlektrodou.
Bibliografa
[1] CAPGO Data Acquisition and Data Logging Web Page: http://www.capgo.com/Resources/Sensors/Temperature/TempHome/TempMeasurement.html. [2] Omegadyne, Pressure Transducers Installation and Use: http://www.omegadyne.com. [3] Omegadyne, Waterhammer - A complex phenomenon with a simple solution: http://www.omegadyne.com. [4] Bicking R.E. Fundamentals of Pressure Sensor Technology. www.sensormag.com, 1998. [5] Doebelin E.O. Measurement Systems Application and Design. McGraw-Hill International Editions, New York, 1990. [6] Metrohm Ltd. The backgrounds of pH measurement and hints for your daily work. Metrohm Ltd., 1999. [7] Michalski L., Eckersdorf K., McGee J. Temperature Measurement. John Wiley and Sons, 1991. [8] Morris A.S. Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation. Prentice Hall, New York, 1993. [9] National Instruments. Strain gauge measurements A tutorial, Application Note 078. www.ni.com, 1998. [10] Nicholas J.V., White D.R. Traceable Temperatures An Introduction to Temperature Measurement and Calibration. John Wiley and Sons, 1994. [11] Omega Engineering Inc. Omega Temperature Measurement Handbook and Encyclopedia. Omega Engineering Inc, 1992. 85
86
BIBLIOGRAFIA
[12] Flka Aj. Apstolou. Majmata Metewrologac kai Klimatologac. Ekdseic Zth, Jessalonkh, 1992. [13] Karaginnh M.I. Qhmik Organologa - Eisagwgik Majmata. Panepistmio Iwannnwn, 1992.

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Aisjhtrec Hmiagwgn, Aisjhtrec jermiko, mhqaniko, magnhtiko, aisjhtrec aktinobolac kai qhmiko aisjhtrec

Hlektrdio ulou [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ditaxh mtrhshc pH [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Statik qarakthristik twn aisjhtrwn

1.2. STATIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA TWN AISJHTHRWN

Akrbeia, epanalhyimthta, anaparagwgimthta

Euaisjhsa sth mtrhsh

Euaisjhsa sth diataraq

1.2. STATIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA TWN AISJHTHRWN

Sqma 1.3: Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me ustrhsh[8].

1.3. DUNAMIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA

Sqma 1.4: Qarakthristik exdou aisjhtra me nekr eroc[8].

Se eidikterec periptseic, h sqsh (1.2) aplousteetai perisstero.

Aisjhtrac mhdenikc txewc

1.3. DUNAMIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA

Sqma 1.5: Qarakthristik aisjhtra prthc txewc[8].

Aisjhtrac prthc txewc

Aisjhtrac deutrac txewc

1.3. DUNAMIKA QARAKTHRISTIKA

Sqma 1.6: Apkrish aisjhtra deutrac txewc[8].

Jermokrasa -200 o C 0o C - 50 o C 1000 o C 2000 o C

5o C Apaitetai prosoq Ekola Apaitetai prosoq Pol dskola

Eroc (o C) 270 2300 200 600 200 600 50 200 40 - 125

Antoq Uyhl Msh Msh Uyhl Msh Qamhl Msh Poiklei

Kstoc Qamhl Mso Qamhl Mso Qamhl

Uyhl Pol Uyhl Poiklei

Pnakac 2.2: Qarakthristik diafrwn aisjhtrwn jermokrasac.

Sqma 2.4: Mtrhsh tshc Seebeck me th bojeia boltomtrou [11].

Praktikc mtrhshc Jermokrasa anaforc

Sqma 2.6: Jermozegoc sidrou konstantnhc [11].

Sqma 2.8: Antikatstash loutro anaforc ap isojermik bsh [11].

Sqma 2.12: Exwterik phg anaforc [11].

Sqma 2.13: Hlektrik antistjmish jermozeugn [11].

Sqma 2.15: Edh PRTs[1].

Sqma 2.18: Gfura Wheatstone, gia mtrhsh PRT [11].

Sqma 2.19: Praktik kklwma mtrhshc PRT me gfura [11].

Sqma 2.20: Teqnik trin agwgn [11].

Aisjhtrec optikn inn

2.7. KRUOGENIKOI AISJHTHRES

Pnakac 2.5: Kathgorec kai idithtec kruogenikn aisjhtrwn [1].

RTD Rh - Fe RTD Ru oxide Thermox

1.4 - 325 < 50 103 300 70 - 300

2.8. AISJHTHRES EX APOSTASEWS

2.8. AISJHTHRES EX APOSTASEWS

Sustmata mtrhshc jermikc aktinobolac

2.8. AISJHTHRES EX APOSTASEWS

2.9. EPILOGH TOU KATALLHLOU AISJHTHRA JERMOKRASIAS

Epilog tou katllhlou aisjhtra jermokrasac

Pnakac 2.6: Qarakthristik aisjhtrwn uprujrhc aktinobolac.

. . 77 4 m . 77 4 m . (PVDF) ( Kynar Ampec Solef Solvay et Cie). 14 m

a , , . , , . : Kubo R., Nagamiya T., Solid State Physics, McGraw-Hill, 1969.

2.9. EPILOGH TOU KATALLHLOU AISJHTHRA JERMOKRASIAS

P SI P ascal Bar mbar mmHg mmH2 O AT M kg/cm2

P SI 1 6894.6 0.068946 68.946 51.714 703.05 0.068045 0.070305

kg/cm2 14.223 98067 0.98068 980.68 735.59 10000 0.9678 1

Sqma 3.2: Basik aisjhtria peshc [4].

Sqma 3.3: Exrthsh thc metatpishc ap th jermokrasa [4].

Sqma 3.4: Exrthsh thc euaisjhsac ap th jermokrasa [4].

Sqma 3.5: Apklish ap th grammik sumperifor [4].

Sqma 3.6: Epanalhyimthta [4].

Sqma 3.7: Ustrhsh [4].

Sqma 3.8: Pontensiometrikc aisjhtrac [4].

Edh aisjhtrwn peshc

3.2. EIDH AISJHTHRWN PIESHS

Sqma 3.9: Epagwgikc aisjhtrac me grammik metaballmeno diaforik metasqhmatist [4].