Name: France Goulard

Applied Psychology 523 Supporting Learning Difficulties, Winter 2009 FINAL EXAM DUE DATE: APRIL 22, 2009

All questions are based on class content. That is, the assigned readings (articles,

chapters, and designated text chapters) as outlined in your detailed class outline, presentations given in class, and Breeze presentations. You are NOT required to do any additional research for this exam.

Respond to all questions in your own words. Do not use quotations from the sources,

but rather paraphrase all information. Cite sources (from class content) appropriately, but you are not required to attach a reference list.

Your answers should be original to you and should not resemble the answers from anyone else in the class.

Final exams will not be returned.

Part A: Short answer questions. Answer each question in a succinct, single-spaced paragraph. Remember to focus on the big ideas rather than the details. Mark weightings are provided in parentheses.

1.

Define behavioural inhibition and briefly describe its importance in the development of executive function in children. (5)

According to Barkleys model (1997), which is one of the theories of executive function, behavioral inhibition is the first of the five essential elements used to provide a sequence for the development of these skills beginning in infancy. It is known as the cornerstone of Barkleys model and has three properties that allow us to delay or stop a behavior: The first one is the ability to delay or prevent the response leading to an immediate consequence so that some later occurring consequence may impact behavior; the second is the ability to stop ongoing behaviors when they prove unsuccessful; the third and last is the ability to manage distractions or interruptions that could interfere with the work of other executive skills. In general, behavioral inhibition helps us to think before we act and to decide when and if we will respond. It gives the child some control over what to respond to. It also precedes the other executive functions and shields them from interference.

2. What is working memory? (5)

There are many definitions for working memory but according to class content this one was referred as the best: According to Gathercole & Alloway, 2008, working memory is defined as a system of inter-linked memory components that are located in different parts of the brain. Some of these components are specialized to store material of particular kinds; these are often referred to as short-term memory, although they are part of the larger working memory system. Other definitions are indicated as: Active memory system that is responsible for the temporary maintenance and simultaneous processing of information (Dehn, 2008) and; the management, manipulation, and transformation of information drawn from ST and LT memory. A cognitive process whose primary function is to facilitate and enhance the capacity of encoding, storage, and retrieval functions that are essential for learning and higher level processing of information (Dehn).

3. Define schemata and explain why schema development is important for successful learning. (5)
Schemata are generalized knowledge about objects, situations, or events. Schema development is important for successful learning because schemata have a powerful effect on the comprehension and recall of information in learners of all ages. Schemata focus student attention, influence the inferences students make, and have a bearing on students recall of the information.

4. Describe Carrolls (1993) three-stratum model of intelligence. (3)

Carrolls three-stratum model of intelligence starts with general intelligence (g) at the top of the hierarchy; in the middle you will find eight moderately general abilities (which include both fluid and crystallized intelligence and more specific skills, similar to the seven primary mental abilities); and at the bottom are many specific processes derived from the eight moderately general abilities. The general intelligence influences all of the moderately general abilities, and they both influence the specific processes. The model suggests that intelligence can be usefully viewed as a single entity, as a small set of abilities, or as a very large number of particular processes.

5. What general principles should be followed when delivering mathematical instruction to students in inclusive settings? (7)
The general principles that should be followed when delivering mathematical instruction to students in inclusive settings are 1-1 correspondence, stable order, cardinality, abstraction and order-irrelevance. Some unessential features include standard direction, adjacency, pointing and start at an end (Geary et al, 2007). Children who have mathematical learning disabilities do not have all of these principles in place. For example, they may not understand about order irrelevance. The over arching implications for children in an inclusive setting to learn are as follows: working memory in young children need to be supported; time is also required to develop the long-term memory representations needed for children in this area; and many experiences need to be provided in the classroom for children to develop a sense of number and counting.

6. What are the important preconditions necessary if a teacher wants to build motivation and affect with a student or students? (6)
Motivation and affect are extremely important variables that can make the difference between success and failure in the classroom. Many students with special needs may benefit particularly from strategies to enhance motivation and affect. Before implementing specific strategies to enhance motivation and affect, ensure that the necessary preconditions have been met. These preconditions include creating a supportive, well-organized classroom environment; assigning tasks that are meaningful, concrete, relevant, and of the appropriate difficulty level; and creating task-oriented, rather than ego-oriented, classrooms, in which students are reward for effort and improvement, rather than for static variables such as "ability". Motivation and affect can be improved by engaging in practices to improve students' selfesteem, such as providing positive statements, assigning classroom responsibilities, use of classroom peers and nurturing possible selves. Self-efficacy is an important determiner of positive motivation and affect because students believe they will be successful. Students feel more in control when they learn to attribute their classroom successes or failures to their own behaviors, such as appropriate effort, attitude, or academic/behavioral strategy use. Students can appropriately take credit when they succeed, and identify strategies for improvement when they fail, when they make appropriate attributions. Students feel more ownership in the classroom when they participate in decision- making involving classroom rules and procedures. Use a variety of techniques to receive input from students, and implement positive and helpful suggestions whenever possible. Students are more motivated to learn when learning is fun and interesting, therefore making academic tasks more interesting and expressing personal enthusiasm in the subject being covered, and teach with enthusiasm. Use a variety of approaches, media, game-like activities, cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and peer interactions to prevent classroom learning from becoming monotonous and routine. Students are motivated to learn when their accomplishments are acknowledged and rewarded. Use positive feedback and praise frequently to demonstrate your positive regard for students' accomplishments. Use rewards, in the form of prizes, privileges, or tokens, when needed to acknowledge achievement and maintain persistence of effort.

7. What is the relationship between academic motivation and age/grade in school? (4)
The relationship between academic motivation and age/grade in school is that most children, when they increase in age, during the elementary and middle-school years, their feelings of learning helplessness in response to failures increases. The reason being that young elementary students think very differently than do older students. From preschool to first grade, students do not differentiate between effort and ability. As they increase in age during the elementary years, students start to differentiate effort and ability. As they grow older, children increasingly begin to

explain accomplishments in terms of ability, with poor outcomes reflecting low ability and positive outcomes reflecting high ability. That is why students that increase in age are less likely to think that they can improve by trying hard, therefore motivation decreases. In summary, with increasing age, students are increasingly at risk for a sense of low self-efficacy, due partly to the attributions they make about their own successes and failures. When they start differentiating their task outcomes in terms of effort, ability, task difficulty and luck, they are increasingly likely to explain outcomes, including academic performances, in ways that undermine motivation.

8. What are the overarching goals in spelling instruction with children who are experiencing significant difficulty in this area? Why? (6)
For students who are experiencing spelling difficulties, it is important that teachers understand the linguistic principles that underlie the English spelling words and instructional activities, appropriate pacing, distributed practice, and direct instruction in problem solving, self-monitoring, and error correction which are essential for sustainable gains in spelling proficiency. The most important goals are to provide students with enough focused practice and explicit knowledge of spelling principles and patterns that they feel confident in trying to spell many different words in their writing assignments, and to teach students when and how to tap a variety of strategies and resources for spelling-error detection and correction. The reasons why it is so important to reach these goals in spelling instruction with children who are experiencing difficulty in this area are numerous. Here are a few examples. Spelling disability should be viewed as a chronic condition that is treatable in most cases but not curable. Remediation is necessary to the fullest extend possible and focusing on the specific spelling disability is important so that it doesnt derail the pursuit of higher educational or occupational goals. We also do not want students to restrict their writing due to low spelling ability and confidence because their teachers might never know the richness of their thoughts, and the students may never discover the sense of accomplishment that comes through writing ones thoughts well.

9. Define data-based decision making and explain its importance in instructional contexts. (4)
Data-based decision making is described by the following three elements: An aspect of every element of professional practice; professional decisions based on an analysis and synthesis of an array of objective assessments; and decisions firmly based on evidence rather than personal opinion/judgment. Data based decision making is important because of its accountability, objectivity and decisions that educators and psychologists make and recommend that has a great impact across the lifespan of a child. In general data-based decision making is based on objective

findings that is child driven and not data driven. The assessments should be interpreted in light of the childs current context and interventions recommended should also be considered in light of what would be suitable for teacher, student, and family. Another important factor is the adaptations for special needs that it creates. It determines whether a child needs more time during a task or test or if the testing session need to be broken down in several testing sessions, if distracters need to be removed, if the child needs help with verbal or written responses and if there is a need for a proxy to read or write for the student.

10. Why is it important, as Westby (2006) has suggested, that teachers explicitly attend to

students learning to do school? (6)

As Westby (2006) suggested, it is important that teachers attend to students learning to do school because school is more than just learning academic subject matter and moving along in the scope and sequence charts of the curriculum. It is also about being able to interact with teachers and other students to achieve their educational goals and objectives. If social interaction is not developed appropriately, they risk having negative impacts on academic learning and social development. Teaching students how to do school involves learning how to negotiate the multiple official and unofficial curriculas of the classroom, which involves dealing with peers, teachers, and materials. The six curriculas needed to be mastered are known as the following: Official, cultural, de facto, classroom, hidden and underground. Many aspects of doing school are implicit which can present a roadblock for culturally/linguistically diverse students and students with learning disabilities. The different components of learning to do school are also important factors to look at in order to achieve the full aspect of it. These components are known as: the components of classroom scripts; the influence of disabilities and culture on doing school; and how the scripts for doing school change across the grades, particularly with respect to expectations for increasing self-regulation. Collaborative strategies are also important in order to facilitate the ability of students with language impairments to be successful in doing school.

Part B: Long answer. Answer each question in a maximum of 2 pages, double-spaced. Be succinct in your responses. Each question is worth 15 points. You will be marked on content (10) and clarity of writing (5).
1. A novice teacher who has recently graduated has been given a grade one assignment

in a low SES community, in which there are a significant number of students who have been identified as at risk for learning and literacy difficulties. In your capacity

as a teacher-mentor or school psychologist, what general recommendations would you offer in terms of teaching students to effectively read words?
As a teacher-mentor or school psychologist, it is important to give the new teacher some important general principles about learning to read words such as: instructional strategies that match the students current level, effective instruction that is explicit and systematic, correcting errors as they form and a lot of scaffolding (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; Torgensen, 2002). Other principles like balancing the literacy program, delivering small group situations and increasing the amount of time engaged in reading instruction and practice should also be implemented. When it comes to word reading it is important to keep in mind that the goal is to have the automaticity in retrieval in and out of context and also to have the key understanding of the alphabetic principle ( Ehri & Snowling, 2004). General recommendations to effectively teach students to read words would include: following the right phases of development (prealphabetic, partialalphabetic, full-alphabetic and consolidated alphabetic); teaching them phonemic awareness and effective phonics instructions; and word patterns and sight words. The following are detailed recommendations and strategies to be used and followed. The first recommendation that would be implemented is making sure each student is in the right phase of development. It is important that a student fully comprehends a phase before moving along to the next one. Evaluating each student by doing a miscue analysis is a great way to see in which phase they belong to and to identify struggling readers. An example of the first phase, called prealphabetic, is when the student is dependent on context or visual features. Their letter knowledge and phonemic awareness is extremely limited and even

thought they recognize logographic stimuli, they are still very much environmentally dependant. An example of the partial alphabetic phase is when unfamiliar words are identified using parts of word and context with frequent miscues of familiar words. Students that are in the full-alphabetic phase begin decoding words and are in the spelling-sound stage. Lastly, the consolidated alphabetic phases is when a student uses larger units to decode words and has good phonetic spelling and invented orthographies. Once the teacher is familiar with these phases and can appropriately place each student in his or her rightful group, word reading will become easier and more effective thus, less stressful for the struggling reader. A second recommendation would be teaching phonemic awareness and effective phonics instruction. At the beginning of grade one, students should be able to isolate 3 phonemes (Good, et al., 2001). It is important to follow specific steps in order to effectively teach phonemic awareness. These steps include: stretched segmenting, stretched blending, isolating first, end, middle phoneme and segment word into individual phonemes (OConnor, 2007). The teacher should also encourage the use of invented spelling and structured approaches. Effective phonics instruction starts by teaching the easiest sounds first, then by isolating words and lastly by using decodable texts to apply what is known. Teaching and practicing blending letter sounds is also important. Teaching word patterns and sight words are also great ways for students to learn to read words. When it comes to word patterns it is important to show students the patterns vs word families, the different sounds that letter combinations will sometimes make and how some letters can change the sound of a phoneme in a word but dont make any sound. A good strategy is to take

advantage of lists that list letter patterns are common in (OConnor, 2007). Sight words are taught and decoded in relation to sight word acquisition. Strategies such as introduce and review, spelling words out loud, clustering irregular words with similar spelling and using word walls or word banks are great effective ways in getting students to learn and consolidate sight words (OConnor, 2007). By using these effective recommendations any teacher, new or old will be able to effectively teach their students how to read words and be able to identify struggling readers and help them increase their language comprehension with their word recognition to finally become a skilled reader.

2. Effective reading involves the development of many skills and processes and is a

major goal in schooling. Discuss the role of metacognition, self-regulation, and executive function in skilled reading. In what ways can metacognitive, self-regulated reading be supported in a classroom?

Effective reading involves more than just reading words, it involves the ability to analyze critically and interpret what one reads, and to use the information gathered for effective problem solving. Good readers know why they are reading. They have the ability to use effective strategies to remediate their comprehension difficulties. This is where metacognition, self-regulation and executive function come in play. Metacognition is the conscious knowledge of what one is expected to do, and strategies for doing it. Executive functioning or self-regulation is described as planning how to do the task and implementing the plan. An explanation of the roles of each of these skills in regards to reading will be discussed as well as some components for classroom support.

Developing executive functioning in reading is a necessity. In order to comprehend a text, one must require executive functioning. Students must interpret text-analyzing and synthesizing ideas, reading between the lines, inferring ideas that are not stated explicitly and integrating information interpreted from multiple texts to identify and solve problems (Morris & Tchudi, 1996). To accomplish this integration of ideas across texts, students must understand the purpose of their reading by monitoring and self-regulating to ensure that they are accomplishing their purpose. In this case, an adequate executive functioning system is needed which in turn requires an efficient working memory system that enables persons to engage in the act of reading while simultaneously monitoring, evaluating, self-correcting, and interpreting. Teaching specific declarative knowledge and procedural strategies are good interventions for promoting executive functioning in reading. There are four components that need to be considered when interventions are needed: Nonverbal working memory, internalization of self-directed speech, emotional control and problem solving. Metacognitive knowledge includes information that students know about themselves as learners. For example, do they like the book or not? It also includes the skills and strategies students use when reading and whatever supports or resources they need to perform the tasks. For example, what background knowledge must be activated? If students are to employ executive functioning in the reading process, they must have metacognitive knowledge that represents conscious awareness of broad cognitive processes and metalinguistic representing awareness of the structure and function of language. For example, do the readers have strategies to help them comprehend? Distancing strategies are used to promote metacognition awareness that is a key underpinning for self-regulated reading and can promote a depth of

comprehension in reading. . These strategies include these four types of questionanswer relationships: Right there, think and search, you and the author and on my own. Having only metacognitive-metalinguistic knowledge of the reading process does not ensure that students will use this knowledge to self-regulate their reading behavior. Students must be motivated to use their cognitive and linguistic knowledge to comprehend and to have the self-regulatory skills for independent performance. Self-regulation is a developmental process that starts with planning, guiding, and monitoring a childs behavior from within by early elementary school. There are three procedures used to evaluate self-regulation strategies students use in reading: Interviews, think-aloud methods and error detection tasks. Instructional strategies in promoting self-regulation include: reciprocal teaching, direct explanation, and transactional. We need not forget that children do not spontaneously become selfregulated learners. They must be scaffolded to develop these skills themselves. The following components should be part of instruction to facilitate self-regulation in reading: Teach students to set goals, model self-regulation, teach a few researchvalidated comprehension strategies well and combine strategy instruction with content teaching, motivate students to use strategies, encourage students to monitor their comprehension and stimulate them to reflect on their performance. By being aware and well educated on the role of metacognition, self-regulation, and executive function in skilled reading, educators will become more successful in teaching their students how to read and the students will benefit by becoming successful readers.

3. Despite a large body of research-based literature on effective practice in the support of students diagnosed with learning disabilities, there remains a gap between research and practice. What are some possible explanations for this gap? What are some of the general overarching principles are important to keep in mind when designing effective instruction for students in this population?

Even though there is an increase in research funding, there continues to be gaps in research and practice for support of students diagnosed with learning disabilities (LDs). It is disconcerting that so many students with LDs continue to suffer dramatic deficits in reading, writing, and math. Seven possible causes or reasons are explained in the following paragraphs why moving this research into practice has proven difficult. General overarching principles will also be discussed in order to implement effective instruction that may narrow the gap significantly. Inadequate implementation is the first reason why best practices instructional components fail to meet the needs of many students with LDs in schools today. When interventions are out of controlled environment and into complex schools and classroom settings, fidelity suffers, and contextual variables such as teacher preparation and commitment to the intervention, composition of students, and adequacy of resources dilute the efficacy that is apparent in a more controlled research setting (Denton, Vaughn, & Fletcher, 2003). Implementation is a big concern especially when considering the full inclusion of students with LDs in regular classrooms. Also, no single approach works with every student; therefore a range of intervention strategies is needed. Future research in this area should carefully evaluate the conditions in which interventions can be scaled and implemented in an educational environment.

Screening and progress monitoring outcomes have also been proven inadequate. Students with LDs who received resource room instruction for 3-6 years showed no evidence of improvement (Bentum and Aaron, 2003). Large scaled studies also show similar results of the effects of special education placement with little improvements for students with LDS. Prevention is also a major concern given the widespread lack of implementation of early intervention programs in the general education. Those who do not receive instruction addressing their needs at an early age, develop academic difficulties. Wide implementation of early intervention programs could potentially reduce the number of students who emerge as eligible for special education at later ages. But interventions implemented in research are generally more intensive than those used in schools, where remedial instruction is frequently carried out in larger groups which makes it difficult to ensure the intensity needed to accelerate growth in academic skills. Even with adequate levels of implementation, screening and monitoring, and prevention, validated instructional components will fail to meet the needs of some students with LDs. Although many different instructional components have been developed and with research showing high levels of treatment fidelity being achieved, an unacceptable proportion of students with LDs fail to profit because their integration into comprehensive instructional packages remain to be addressed and have multifaceted problems. More integration of instruction is needed that involves skills and strategies. Multifaceted problems are also evident in most students with LDs. Research on interventions has done an inadequate job of identifying and addressing the

contributions of different sources of heterogeneity to outcomes. Understanding intervention outcomes in terms of major sources of heterogeneity may emerge as the next step in intervention design for a variety of childhood conditions. For many students, more time and practice may be required to achieve adequate progress. Whether it is implemented at school or at home, it may be necessary for some students to increase the time devoted to instruction in the area which they are struggling. Extra engagement also gives an opportunity to practice what is taught and to consolidate skills, promoting transfer from the remedial environment; therefore intervention programs must look more systematically at these practice and engagement issues. The field of LDs is in the process of transforming from a discipline based largely on clinical intuition and craft experience to a profession that relies on scientific research. When it comes to teaching practices, instruction also needs to be informed by research on effectiveness and the mechanisms that underlie efficacy. Despite the absence of evidence of efficacy or knowledge about mechanisms, education continues to be hampered by reliance on faddish interventions that keep persisting. With the lack of scientific investigations, clinicians must be prepared to modify and update practice based on research even if it contradicts traditional beliefs. When designing effective instruction for students with LDs, ten general principles are important to keep in mind: increase time on task; instructional approach that is explicit, well organized, and routinely provides opportunity for cumulative review of previously mastered content; self-regulation strategies; peer mediation; produce impressive growth in higher-order processes; gains that are

specific to what is taught; instructional programs need to be integrated; research must increasingly take into account the heterogeneity of students with LDs; progress must be frequently monitored and used to inform instruction at all levels of intervention; and interventions designed for students with LDs must be systematically integrated with general education practices. Major changes are needed in the identification procedures for LDs and will require a closer working relationship between special education and general education. They must share responsibility for preventing academic difficulties whenever possible which will require more systematic screening and assessment, as well as better teacher preparation programs. Research is only as good as its implementation; therefore we need a future that will require the integration of science, practice, and policy for closing the gap on research and practice.