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Running head: INTEGRATIVE PAPER

Adding a Systems View to an Adlerian Foundation Jo Friesen University of Calgary

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The discipline of counselling is filed with multiple therapies, based on numerous theories. However, as Corsini writes, a counselor will not be either successful or happy using a method not suited to his or her own personality (Corsini & Wedding, 2011, p. 13). Therefore, the process of developing a personal theory of counselling has also been a process of self-discovery of learning who I am, what I believe and conceptualizing how I view other people. While I am still very much a novice who is just developing a counselling foundation, the journey thus far has required me to honestly consider my own views, biases and beliefs about the purpose of counselling in general. Through coursework in my Introduction to Counselling course, I found that while there were components of numerous theories that interested and intrigued me, it was Adlers theory of Individual Psychology which best fit my own personality and life experience. What I found most compelling about Adlerian theory was how closely it fit with the type of work I had shaped the first 18 years of my career around. I spent my 20s and 30s working with children and youth in under-resourced communities in both Canada and the US, and was dedicated to seeing what was unique in each child or youth, working with them holistically and walking alongside them to support and encourage their potential. As I became more familiar with Adlers theory, it became clear how closely related my own view of people where aligned with his, and thus it made sense to use Adlerian theory as the foundation for my own personal counselling theory. Adlers theory is rooted in the notion that an individual develops within a social context, filled with reciprocal exchanges (Corey, 2009). Adler believed that viewing an individual holistically was the only way to truly understand someone (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). He believed that each person was a unique mixture of their thoughts, beliefs, feelings, actions and social context, and that each individual persons behavior was purposeful and driven

INTEGRATIVE PAPER (Corey, 2009; Osborn, 2001). Adler did not believe that individuals seeking counselling were sick, but rather that they were discouraged (Corey, 2009). He believed that interventions and therapies needed to be closely fitted to the individual and his or her specific needs, but an

underlying foundation for his therapy was to help individuals to build courage in hopes that this encouragement would empower them to take responsibility and help them to grow (Corey, 2009). This process included helping an individual to recognize and to appreciate his or her own strengths, and to see their own potential and possibilities (Corey, 2009). Adlers theory also contains consideration for an individuals level of social interest, and for his or her life style (Corey, 2009). Adler saw social interest as a reflection of an individuals emotional functioning, and recognized the interplay between an individuals healthy coping abilities and his or her interest and competence in engaging with the outside world (Corey, 2009). He also believed in the importance of allowing the individual to shape the therapeutic process and to develop his or her own goals for therapy, a process that was often begun with a look into an individuals life story (Corey, 2009). Adler believed that individuals perception of life experiences were just as important to consider as the life experiences themselves, and he recognized the importance of understanding past influences and exploring an individuals social context (Corey, 2009). From this foundation, I am now able to add elements of developmental theory that have further shaped my personal counselling theory. As I continue to envision a career focused on children and adolescents, it has been invaluable for me to develop a better grasp of the developmental factors that affect these age groups. While again, I have drawn pieces of knowledge from the works of individuals like Piaget, Erikson and Kohlberg, it is the systems view that most closely aligns with my developing framework. Like Adlerian theory, it is not tied

INTEGRATIVE PAPER to a narrow viewpoint, but rather allows for the focus to be on the individual and for consideration to be given to any number of different domains of functioning and influence (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). While allowing for the consideration of the cognitive, behavioral, social and emotional aspects of development, the systems view allows for the consideration of the reciprocal nature of these different factors and domains. It allows for the change process to be viewed from multiple angles, which I believe allows for a more complete picture to emerge (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The systems view also provides a better framework to investigate

and understand non-normative developmental progress, which I believe is a weakness of some of the more unilateral theories. While the system view requires a broader understanding of a variety of developmental theories and issues, it fits well with my Adlerian foundation, and provides the framework on which on place important development components and understanding. Developmental Issues and Theories Bronfenbrenners Bioecological Theory One specific theory that fits with both my Adlerian foundation and systems view orientation of development is Bronfenbrenners Bioecological Theory. Bronfenbrenner based his theory on the reciprocal interaction between the individual and the environment, which of course requires an understanding of both the individual and the environment (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). His theory acknowledges the complex interactions between factors, and requires all factors be taken into account (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). For me, this ties in closely with the Adlerian concept of recognizing the unique nature of each person and allowing those unique characteristics to shape and guide the therapeutic process, while also considering the context in which the individual exists.

INTEGRATIVE PAPER Bronfenbrenner acknowledges the importance of different systems, including the microsystem (immediate environment), the mesosystem (relationships between microsystems), the exosystem (settings of indirect influence) and the macrosystem (larger cultural influences) (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Understanding a childs needs comes from not only understanding these different contextual settings, but also considering how these settings interact with each other, and with the specific child involved. If I consider the work I have done thus far with the School Psychology program, I can already see how I attempt to take these factors into account. The assessment process involves a holistic look that takes into account information about the child, the family, and the school environment, as well as considering broader systems such as culture and community services. However, a better understanding of Bronfenbrenners theory has helped me to place more emphasis on the reciprocal interaction between factors. One area of reciprocal interaction that stands out is the interaction between parenting style and child development. Research supports the link between parenting style and a childs social-emotional functioning (de Minzi, 2010). de Minzi (2010) found that higher levels of parental involvement and behavioral control are positively correlated with a significant number of factors, including the childs social competence, attitude towards school, academic achievement, and self-esteem, and appear to serve as a protective factor against depression, school misconduct and drug use. Other research has shown that parenting style (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive or neglecting/uninvolved) is also related to child outcomes (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). For example, authoritarian parents are more likely to have children who exhibit signs of anger and anxiety, and struggle with social skills (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). This is in contrast to children of authoritative parents, who tend to possess high levels of social and academic competence, to develop high self-esteem and to have good self-regulatory skills

INTEGRATIVE PAPER (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Understanding how parenting style affects child development, including how a childs temperament may influence parenting style, can be an important part of the puzzle. While this is just a small piece of the overall picture, appreciating the importance of understanding different contexts and the nature of reciprocal interaction is an important element for me to fit into my developing counselling theory. Piagets Cognitive Development Theory Another developmental theory that I feel needs consideration within my personal counselling framework is Piagets Cognitive Development Theory. While I tend to consider individual development a bit too complex to fit neatly into a stage theory of development, I

appreciate the importance of considering the different, universal progressions a typical individual makes as they develop. Piagets theory outlines an individuals cognitive development through four distinct stages: sensorimotor (birth-2 years), preoperational (2-7 years), concrete operational (7-12 years) and formal operational (12+ years). Piaget also believed that, in order for normal development to occur, a child needed to interact with his or her environment and that other individuals, including both peers and adults, had a significant influence on that development (Fox & Riconscente, 2008). These interactions allow the child to actively construct their own knowledge through both assimilation and accommodation Piagets work is an important consideration for my counselling theory for three reasons. First, Piagets idea that knowledge is constructed through reciprocal interactions is a good fit with my already developing framework. It takes into account the influence of social interactions, as well as the physical environment in which the child is developing. Second, understanding the cognitive development process of a child is an important aspect of the work I will be doing. While most of my focus will be on children with atypical development, such development can

INTEGRATIVE PAPER only be understood if there is first an understanding of what typical development looks like. Piagets work provides a comprehensive, easy to understand look at how typical cognitive development occurs, and while his theory does not specifically address causes or reasons for atypical development, it provides a foundation for recognizing such development. Finally, in

thinking ahead to practical implications such as counselling strategies or academic interventions, it is important to know and understand what type of thought processes a child is, and is not, capable of. Incorporating Piagets work into my counselling framework will allow me to better consider the effects of the cognitive developmental process on a childs overall development. While I recognize the value of considering Piagets cognitive development stages, I need to remain aware of the ways in which his theory does not fit with my overall counselling perspective. While environment and social interaction are important components, Piagets theory fails to account for how specific relationships (such as parent/child) and environmental factors (such as socio-economic status) may influence development (S. Galbraith, electronic communication, January 19th, 2012). As I wrote on the discussion board, Piagets theory does not make it clear how all typically developing children, despite being reared in vastly different contexts, develop these skills in a consistent order and in a consistent time frame. If the childs active role in the process is the key factor, it becomes difficult to explain why children with different experiences, temperaments, opportunities and teaching all seem to work through the stage in a fairly consistent manner. (J. Friesen, electronic communication, January 24th, 2012). It is an understanding of these specific factors influences which will ultimately be needed in a therapeutic relationship, which is where Piaget falls short. Nature vs. Nurture Another issue that has shaped my personal counselling theory is the nature versus nurture debate. Research has shown that both nature (genes) and nurture (environment) influence

INTEGRATIVE PAPER development, but the nature of that influence may vary depending on both individual

characteristics and the type of development that is being considered (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The nature versus nurture debate is well-known and research is finally acknowledging that in many situations both an individuals genes and his or her environment play a role (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). If I go back to my Adlerian foundation, taking both individual, genetic characteristics and the role of the environment into account makes sense when developing a holistic view of an individual. The nature perspective is an important side of the issue to consider. While there may be little that can be done to intervene with nature, understanding the importance of different genetic and biological influences is important. For example, research has demonstrated that factors such as gender and race place a role in the development of self-esteem (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010; Orth, Trzesniewski & Robins, 2010). For instance, throughout adolescence, a typical males self-esteem is higher than a typical females. This is important to consider when evaluating self-esteem development in a young person and in planning interventions. The same level of low self-esteem in a male may need to be taken more seriously than in a female (as there would be a more significant discrepancy from typical development), and interventions may need to be tailored with special consideration for gender since development appears to follow gender lines. While direct intervention in to a nature influenced factor may not be possible, taking those factors into account is important to ensuring that the whole person is considered in the therapeutic process. The nurture perspective, which accounts for the influence on the environment on an individual, is also an important side to consider both in assessment and intervention. Like with the nature perspective, there may be environmental factors that are difficult to intervene with

INTEGRATIVE PAPER directly (growing up in an impoverished community or as part of a particular culture), but understanding the influence of these factors is an important piece of understanding context.

Other environmental factors, such as peer group or parenting style, could respond to intervention, and support for the child may include supporting, changing or modifying those environmental factors which have been a negative influence. As I continue to develop a framework that is focused on looking at the individual within their social and environmental context, it has helped me to consider the role these outside factors can have on an individual. Active vs. Passive Another important issue is the active versus passive perspective. From the passive perspective, individuals are a product of their environment, and development is often seen as just a change of events that occur, with little consideration given to the individual at the centre of that development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The active perspective takes the other side that it is the individual who is creating and constructing his or her own knowledge and experience (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). While these two perspectives again appear to be on opposite ends of a continuum, research demonstrates that both the individual (or organism) and the environment play a role in development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). In keeping with the Bronfenbrenners viewpoint, the role these two factors play is reciprocal, with each one influencing the other (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). For example, a childs temperament in the classroom may influence how a teacher responds to the child (active the child is influencing the environment). However, the teachers own personality and training may also come into play in how he or she teaches and responds to the child (passive, the environment influencing the child). As the school year progresses, the reciprocal interaction between these two factors may continue

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to influence future interactions as the cycle continues. Knowing that the influence flows in both directions is important in the assessment of both the context and the nature of any disorders. The passive perspective places an emphasis on outside influences on development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). While from a counselling perspective I would place more emphasis on the individuals influence on the environment than vice versa, I cannot dismiss the influence the environment has. Research demonstrates that influences, such as parenting style and level of maternal care can indeed affect a childs cognitive, behavioral and emotional development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). While these factors are often reciprocal in nature, I need to be ready and willing to consider both sides, both in terms of assessment and intervention. Ive also seen first-hand the influence that poverty and racism can have on a young persons life. While I have always worked from the perspective that a young person cannot allow these factors to define them, I also have learned to recognize the very real influence they have. The active perspective considers how the child (or organism) influences or constructs his or her own learning and development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). For example, research has found that a childs attention skills can affect his or her learning, willingness to explore, and attitude towards school (Rueda, Checa & Rothbart, 2010). This may be due to the childs ability to adapt to the school environment, as well as to the childs ability to shape and mold the school environment. If we consider a child with poor attentional control, who is constantly distracted, and distracting others, we can also imagine said child receiving significant negative attention from peers and adults. If this child later expresses frustration with school due to how he or she is being treated by others, it is important to also consider how the child influenced the environment, as the story will rarely one sided. In the same classroom, a child with an easy-going, likeable temperament may influence the teacher and his or her peers to respond in a much more positive

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way, leading to increased learning opportunities and better emotional outcomes. It becomes clear that to truly understand all of the factors involved, it is important to consider the reciprocal nature of influence that occurs between the individual and the environment. Implications for Practice As I move towards my goal of becoming a School Psychologist, I know quite clearly the age group (middle childhood) I will be working with, and know that the counselling aspect of my role will have a fairly narrow scope. Within my role I will primarily be focusing on academic and cognitive concerns, social-emotional concerns (anxiety, depression), and behavioral concerns. While I can certainly expect to deal with complex cases, understanding the boundaries of both my role and my competence allows me to focus more clearly. The continued development of my personal counselling framework has strengthened the foundation on which I hope to base both my assessment practice, as well has the intervention and counselling part of the role. A better understanding of the nature of child development, and a careful consideration for how that development influences the work I will be doing, is a significant piece for me to add to my framework. Academic and Cognitive Development Assessing a childs academic and cognitive development will be a significant part of my role as a School Psychologist. Whether the goal is to diagnose a learning disability or to develop an intervention plan for a student with an intellectual disability, the only way to understand atypical development is to have a firm grasp of what typical development looks like. What I have learned from this course is the importance to considering all of the factors that may be influencing that development, and taking into account the reciprocal interactions that may occur between factors. While it may be relatively straight forward to diagnose a learning disability simply based on a discrepancy between a childs cognitive abilities and his or her academic

INTEGRATIVE PAPER performance, my developing framework has helped me to realize that it will rarely be that simple. If I think of a client I worked with in my practicum this semester, on paper his results

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showed a very black and white learning disability. However, through interviews with him and his mom, we determined that mom used a very authoritarian parenting style, along with a power assertion method of control. Our client, in turn, was very anxious, fearful of making mistakes (which influenced his level of effort) and showed significant signs of depression. While it may very well be that a diagnosis of a learning disability is correct, when I consider his situation from a holistic viewpoint, and take into account the influence his mother plays on his life, my recommendations for interventions need to extend well beyond additional academic support. Although I will not be conducting counselling in this particular scenario, having a solid understanding of the context and the role different factors can play has helped me to better conceptualize how best to outline an intervention plan for this child. Social-emotional Development Another area that will need to address in my future practice is related to the social and emotional difficulties a child might face. One area that has been of particular interest to me throughout this course is the influence of peers on development, including social development and moral development (Tichy, Johnson, Johnson & Roseth, 2010). Of the clients I have seen in my practicums, and number of them struggled with social difficulties, including bullying and difficulty making friends. While there are certainly good, standard practice, interventions to recommend, I now feel better equipped to delve into the whys behind those social difficulties, which will in turn lead to more individualized intervention planning. Understanding the roles that temperament, social skills and moral development play in social competence is important in evaluating where an individual childs difficulties may lie. Considering all these factors can help

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to explain why social skills training may not be enough, especially when one cannot predict how peers with react (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Understanding Piagets cognitive development theory also plays a role, as it has helped me to consider the role a childs though process plays on social interactions, and to be aware of what setting realistic expectations for a child who is still maturing. With the recognition that a therapeutic process that includes encouragement and a progression towards growth is at the core of my Adlerian foundation, understanding these areas of development will also help me to better understand how to encourage an individual child, and what types of growth are realistic. Behavioral Development Working with children with behavioral disorders will be another significant part of my practice moving forward. This is an area where the value of understanding typical development has been very useful in better conceptualizing atypical development. However, of more importance in terms of practical implications, has been developing a better understanding of the interaction between factors that may influence behavior. For example, rather than seeing aggression as simply a personality trait, Ive learned how different factors influence the type and progression of aggressive behavior (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). And while a specific understanding of how the nature of aggression changes from instrumental aggression to more hostile forms of relationship aggression through the middle childhood years is useful, it is simply one example of the importance of taking development into account (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). From a practical perspective, the most useful aspect of this understanding will be the motivation it gives me to develop a similar understanding of other behaviors. In keeping with my goal to practice from a holistic viewpoint that sees children as unique individuals, making the effort to see past the obvious nature of behavior and into the influences (developmental and other) behind

INTEGRATIVE PAPER that behavior will leave me better equip to support and encourage the children with whom I work. Strengths and Limitations Adding a developmental perspective into my existing personally counselling theory has

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served to strengthen and refine my theory. It has further defined the ways in which an individual could be considered unique, while also helping to clarify what is typical, or normal development. While my existing theory took outside influences, such as social context into account, adding a systems view of development allowed me to consider and incorporate the notion of reciprocal interaction. Looking at specific aspects of development, and considering the factors involved in both typical and atypical progression, has also strengthened both my understanding of individual differences, and highlighted the important factors I would need to consider as a part of the therapeutic process. The systems view approach allows me to incorporate these different factors, while still maintaining a foundation that is focused on Adlers Individual Psychology theory. There continue to be a number of limitations involved with my personal counselling framework. Having chosen Adler as a foundation for my theory, I am aware that there is not a significant amount of empirical support for Adlerian theory (Corsini & Wedding, 2011), which is in contrast to the science-practitioner model on which I hope to base my practice. While I am still attempting to reconcile that discrepancy, I am recognizing that there is room within my framework to ensure that I use empirically based assessment measures and interventions. Working through an understanding of the development process has helped me to see how to fill some of those gaps by considering research focused on specific areas, versus looking for empirical support for my theory as a whole.

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A second limitation of my theory is that it continues to be flexible and broad. While this is a good fit for how I view the counselling process, it leaves open the concern that I may lose focus on the foundation of my theory and/or practice from too broad of a perspective. As I work with children who have complex life stories, having a good deal of flexibility and a broad view of the factors that may be contributing to a disorder may be valuable, but may also hinder me in narrowing my focus enough to be of practical support. I will need to be careful that I balance my desire to see the full picture with the practicality of having limited resources, and ensure that I am helping a child to work towards growth even if I am unable to determine all of the answers. Summary & Self-reflection As my personal counselling theory continues to develop and grow, I still feel confident in using Adlers theory of Individual Psychology as a foundation. It is important to me that I look at individuals from a holistic viewpoint, and that I take the time and effort to consider the context in which they live and learn. Adding an understanding of Bronfenbrenners bioecological model has helped me to better understand the reciprocal nature of interactions between an individual and his or her environment, which has in turn helped me to better conceptualize both the nature/nurture perspective, as well as the active/passive perspective. Piagets theory of cognitive development has added to my understanding of what children may, and may not, be cognitively capable of at different ages, which will continue to inform my practice. Overall, adding a consideration of different theories and issues related to developmental theory has allowed me to flesh out important components of my existing theory, particularly in regards to understanding reciprocal interactions and considering the role of external influences. The process of continuing to refine and shape my personally counselling theory has been both challenging and beneficial. It has been challenging to narrow the focus of my theory, while

INTEGRATIVE PAPER still incorporating all of the different aspects I view as important. It has helped to narrow my

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focus to the specific age group I anticipate working with, and the specific issues I will confront, but I feel the scope is still very broad. While I can see the value of all of the different pieces I have learned about, it is daunting to consider having to put those pieces together for each child, especially considering the potential ramifications for the child if I am not up to the task. It has been beneficial to take different developmental stages into account and to consider different perspectives on specific issues. While not all of the theories and issues we discussed in class have made their way into my personal counselling theory, I still believe it is important to understand the issues and it will help as I collaborate with other professionals in the future. Through this process, I have also appreciated the opportunity to reflect on my own development and to compare that development both to typical development and to the experiences of my peers. This experience has helped me to better understand how the different threads of development weave together throughout the life span and to better understand what can hinder or help the developmental process. Journeying with my classmates through this reflective process has also given me a better understanding of the different developmental issues and to glimpse anecdotal evidence for each side of the different debates. For example, reading about a classmates transition from preoccupied attachment to secure attachment in adulthood has helped me to better understand how that process could be facilitating with a client, and to simply recognize that such a transformation is possible (M. Naber, electronic communications, March 21st, 2012). The process has also made me appreciate and understand the ongoing need for collaboration with colleagues, and the value of continuing to gain insight from individuals from all ages, even as I specifically focus on work with children.

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References
Corsini, R. J. & Wedding, D. (2011). Current psychotherapies (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

de Minzi, M.C.R. (2010). Gender and cultural patterns of mothers' and fathers' attachment and links with children's self-competence, depression and loneliness in middle and late childhood. Early Child Development and Care, 180(1-2), 193-209. doi: 10.1080/03004430903415056 Fox, E., & Riconscente, M. (2008). Metacognition and self-regulation in James, Piaget and Vygotsky. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 373-389. doi: 10.1007/s10648-008-9079-2 Orth, U., Trzesniewski, K.H., & Robins, R.W. (2010). Self-esteem development from young adulthood to old age: A cohort-sequential longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(4), 654-658. doi: 10.1037/a0018769
Osborn, C.J. (2001). A visual encapsulation of Adlerian theory: A tool for teaching and learning. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 40, 243-249.

Rueda, M.R., Checa, P., & Rothbart, M.K. (2010). Contributions of attentional control to socioemotional and academic development. Early Education and Development, 21(5), 744764. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2010.510055 Sherman, R., & Dinkmeyer, D.C. (1987). Systems of family therapy: an Adlerian integration. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge.

INTEGRATIVE PAPER Tichy, M., Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., Roseth, C.J. (2010). The impact of constructive controversy on moral development. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(4), 765-787. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00597.x

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