Fundamental Antenna Parameters

1. Radiation Pattern
An antenna radiation pattern is defined as a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna
as a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the
radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region.
Radiation properties include radiation intensity, field
strength, phase or polarization.
Coordinate System
Idealized
Point Radiator
Vertical Dipole Radar Dish
Isotropic
Omnidirectional Directional
Types of Radiation Patterns
Full Null Beamwidth
Between
1st NULLS
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Main lobe
Side lobes
Back lobes
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Field Regions
D
R
1

R
2

Reactive near-field region

3
1
62 . 0
D
R =
Radiating near-field
(Fresnel) region

2
2
2
D
R =
Far-field (Fraunhofer)
region
Radiation Intensity
Aside on Solid Angles

= length arc
rad 0 . 1 = u
r
sr 0 . 1 = O
2
r area surface =
radians ce circumfran total t 2 =
2 2
4 r r S area surface total
o
O = = = t
sr
r
S
o
2
= O
| u u d d r ds ) sin(
2
=
infinitesimal area
of surface of sphere
| u u d d
r
ds
d ) sin(
2
= = O
Radiation Intensity
}}
O =
O
=
t 4
d U P
sr
W
d
dP
U
tot
rad
tot
rad
}}
= = ds P P
m
W
ds
dP
P
rad
tot
rad
tot
rad
rad 2
rad
P r U
2
=
) , , ( r P
rad
| u decays as 1/r
2
in the far field
since
) , ( | u U will be independent of r
Radiation Intensity
max
2 2
2
2 2
2
*
) , (
) , (
2
) , (
2
1 ~
2
1 ~ ~
2
1
) , , (
U
U
U
E E
r
U
E E E H E r P
rad
u
u
q
u
q q
u
u
u
=
+ =
+ = = =
Radiation Intensity
Examples
0 . 1
) , (
) , (
4
) , , ( ) , (
4
) , , (
max
2
2
= =
= = =
=
U
U
U
const
P
r P r U
r
P
r P
tot
rad
rad
tot
rad
rad
u
u
t
u u
t
u
1. Isotropic radiator
2. Hertzian Dipole
) ( sin
) , (
) , (
) ( sin
4 2
) sin(
4 2
1
2
1
) , (
0 ) , , (
) sin(
4
) , , (
2
max
2
2
0
2
0
2
2 2
2
0
u
u
u
u
t
| q
u
t
|
q
q q
u
u
u
t
|
q u
|
| u
|
|
u
= =
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
A
= + =
=
A
=

U
U
U
I l
r
e I l
r E E r U
r E
r
e I l
j r E
r j
r j
Directive Gain
) ( 1 4
) , (
4
4
) , ( ) , (
) , (
max
max
y directivit
P
U
D D
P
U
P
U
U
U
D
tot
rad
o
tot
rad
tot
rad ave
> = =
= = =
t
u
t
t
u u
u
Directivity
Examples
0 . 1
0 . 1
) , (
4 ) , (
4
) , (
=
= =
= =
o
tot
rad
tot
rad
o
D
P
U
D
P
U U
u
t u
t
u
1. Isotropic radiator
2. Hertzian Dipole
2
3
) ( sin
2
3 ) , (
4 ) , (
3
8
4 2
) sin( ) ( sin
4 2
) , (
) ( sin
4 2 2
1
) , (
0 ) , , ( ), sin(
4
) , , (
2
2
0
2
0 0
2
2
0
4
2
2
0
2 2 2
=
= =
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
= O =
|
|
.
|

\
| A
= + =
=
A
=
} } }}

o
tot
rad
tot
rad
r j
D
P
U
D
I l
d d
lI
d U P
I l
E E r U
r E
r
e l
j r E
u
u
t u
t
t
| q
u | u u
t
| q
u
u
t
| q
q
u
u u
t
|
q u
t t
t
| u
|
|
u
Antenna Gain
input
P
U
G
) , (
4 ) , (
u
t u =
POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION
DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL POWER RADIATED

POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION
DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL INPUT POWER
TO THE ANTENNA TERMINALS (FEED POINTS)
IF ANTENNA HAS OHMIC LOSS
THEN, GAIN < DIRECTIVITY
DIRECTIVITY
GAIN
Antenna Gain
Sources of Antenna System Loss
1. losses due to impedance mismatches
2. losses due to the transmission line
3. conductive and dielectric losses in the antenna
4. losses due to polarization mismatches
According to IEEE standards the antenna gain does not include losses due to
impedance or polarization mismatches. Therefore the antenna gain only
accounts for dielectric and conductive losses found in the antenna itself. However
Balanis and others have included impedance mismatch as part of the antenna gain.
The antenna gain relates to the directivity through a coefficient called the
radiation efficiency (e
t
)
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( u u u D e e e D e G
d c r t
= =
conduction losses dielectric losses
1 s
t
e
impedance mismatch
Overall Antenna Efficiency
The overall antenna efficiency is a coefficient that accounts for all the different
losses present in an antenna system.
losses dielectric conductor e
losses dielectric e
losses conduction e
mismatch impedance ef f iciency ref lection e
mismatches on polarizati e
e e e e e e e e
cd
d
c
r
p
cd r p
e
d c r p
t
&
) (
=
=
=
=
=
= =

Reflection Efficiency
The reflection efficiency through a reflection coefficient (I) at the input (or feed)
to the antenna.
) (
) (
1
2
O =
O =
+

= I
I =
impedance output generator R
impedance input antenna R
R R
R R
e
output
input
generator input
generator input
r
Radiation Resistance
The radiation resistance is one of the few parameters that is relatively
straight forward to calculate.
2
4
2
) , ( 2
2
o o
total
rad
rad
I
d U
I
P
R
}}
O
= =
t
u
Example: Hertzian Dipole
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
2
2
4
3
2
3
8
4
3
8
4 2
2
3
8
4 2
) sin( ) ( sin
4 2
) , (
2
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
= O =
} } }}

t
q
t
t
|
q
t
t
| q
t
t
| q
u | u u
t
| q
u
tt
t
l l
I
I l
R
I l
d d
I l
d U P
o
o
rad
o o tot
rad
Radiation Resistance
Example: Hertzian Dipole (continued)
0063 . 0
9 . 7 50
9 . 7 50
1
079 . 0
10000
1
3
2
377
377
100
1
3
2
3
8
4
3
8
4 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
~
|
.
|

\
|
+

~
O = =
O = =
A
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A
=
r
rad
o
o
rad
e
R
and
l
let
l l
I
I l
R
t
q

t
q
t
t
|
q
t
t
| q
Antenna Radiation Efficiency
rad cd
rad
cd
R R
R
e
+
=
Conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very difficult to separate and
are usually lumped together to form the e
cd
efficiency. Let R
cd
represent the actual
losses due to conduction and dielectric heating. Then the efficiency is given as
For wire antennas (without insulation) there is no dielectric losses only conductor
losses from the metal antenna. For those cases we can approximate R
cd
by:
o
e
t 2 2
o
cd
b
l
R =
where b is the radius of the wire, e is the angular frequency, o is the conductivity
of the metal and l is the antenna length
Example Problem:
A half-wavelength dipole antenna, with an input impedance of 73O is to be
connected to a generator and transmission line with an output impedance of
50O. Assume the antenna is made of copper wire 2.0 mm in diameter and the
operating frequency is 10.0 GHz. Assume the radiation pattern of the antenna is


Find the overall gain of this antenna

SOLUTION
First determine the directivity of the antenna.
) ( sin ) , (
3
u | u
o
B U ~
tot
rad
P
U
D
) , (
4 ) , (
u
t u =
697 . 1
3
16
) ( sin
3
16
4
3
) ( sin
4 ) , (
max 0
3
2
0
3
= = =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
u
t
t
u
t u
D D
B
B
D
o
Example Problem: Continued
SOLUTION
Next step is to determine the efficiencies
965 . 0 )
50 73
50 73
1 ( ) 1 (
2
2
=
+

= I =
=
r
cd r t
e
e e e
rad cd
rad
cd
R R
R
e
+
=
964 . 0 9991 . 0 965 . 0
9991 . 0
0628 . 0 73
73
0628 . 0
10 7 . 5 2
10 4 10 10 2
) 001 . 0 ( 2
015 . 0
2 2
7
7 9
= = =
=
+
=
O =


= =

cd r t
cd
o
cd
e e e
e
b
l
R
t t
t o
e
t
Example Problem: Continued
SOLUTION
Next step is to determine the gain
dB dB G
G G
G
D e e G
cd r
14 . 2 ) 636 . 1 ( log 10 ) (
636 . 1
3
16
964 . 0
) ( sin
3
16
964 . 0 ) , (
) , ( ) , (
10 0
max 0
3
= =
= = =
=
=
t
u
t
u
u u
Antenna Type Gain (dBi) Gain over
Isotropic
Power Levels
Half
Wavelength
Dipole
1.76 1.5x
Cell Phone
Antenna
(PIFA)
3.0 2.0x 0.6 Watts
Standard Gain
Horn
15 31x
Cell phone
tower
antenna
6 4x
Large
Reflecting
Dish
50 100,000x
Small
Reflecting
Dish
40 10,000x
Effective Aperture
plane wave
incident
A
physical

P
load

inc physical load
W A P
?
=
Question:
Answer: Usually NOT
inc
load
eff inc eff load
W
P
A W A P = =
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(no losses)
Antenna #2
transmit
receiver
R
Direction of wave propagation
Antenna #1
A
tm
, D
t

A
rm
, D
r

o em
D A
t

4
2
=
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(include losses)
Antenna #2
transmit
receiver
R
Direction of wave propagation
Antenna #1
A
tm
, D
t

A
rm
, D
r

2
*
2
2

4
) 1 (
a w o cd em
D e A
t

I =
conductor and
dielectric losses
reflection losses
(impedance mismatch)
polarization mismatch
Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #2
Antenna #1
R
The transmitted power density supplied by Antenna #1
at a distance R and direction (u
r
,|
r
) is given by:
2
4
) , (
R
D P
W
t t gt t
t
t
u
=
(u
t
,|
t
)
(u
r
,|
r
)
The power collected (received) by Antenna #2 is given by:
) , ( ) , (
4
4
) , (
4
) , (
4
) , (
2
2
2 2
r r gr t t gt
t
r
r r gr t t gt t
r
t t gt t
r t r
D D
R P
P
D
R
D P
A
R
D P
A W P
u u
t

t
u
t
u
t
u
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #2
Antenna #1
R
(u
t
,|
t
)
(u
r
,|
r
)
) , ( ) , (
4
2
r r gr t t gt
t
r
D D
R P
P
u u
t

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
If both antennas are pointing in the direction of their maximum radiation pattern:
ro to
t
r
D D
R P
P
2
4
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t

Friis Transmission Equation ( loss)

Antenna #2
Antenna #1
R
(u
t
,|
t
)
(u
r
,|
r
)
2
*
2
2 2

) , ( ) , (
4
) 1 )( 1 (
a w r r gr t t gt t r cdr cdt
t
r
D D
R
e e
P
P
| u | u
t

|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
conductor and
dielectric losses
transmitting antenna
conductor and
dielectric losses
receiving antenna
reflection losses in transmitter
(impedance mismatch)
reflection losses in receiving
(impedance mismatch)
polarization mismatch
free space loss factor
Friis Transmission Equation: Example #1
A typical analog cell phone antenna has a directivity of 3 dBi at its operating frequency of
800.0 MHz. The cell tower is 1 mile away and has an antenna with a directivity of 6 dBi.
Assuming that the power at the input terminals of the transmitting antenna is 0.6 W, and
the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them and the polarizations are
matched, find the power delivered to the receiver. Assume the two antennas are well
matched with a negligible amount of loss.
nW watts P
r
65 . 1 4 2
609.344 1 4
375 . 0
6 . 0
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
t
2
*
max max
2
2 2

4
) 1 )( 1 (
a w r t t r cdr cdt
t
r
D D
R
e e
P
P

t

|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
= 0
= 0
= 1
= 1
= 1
0 . 4 10
0 . 2 10
375 . 0
6 800
8 3
10 / 6 max
10 / 3 max
= =
= =
= = =
r
t
D
D
m
e
e
f
c

Friis Transmission Equation: Example #2

A half wavelength dipole antenna (max gain = 2.14 dBi) is used to communicate from an
old satellite phone to a low orbiting Iridium communication satellite in the L band (~ 1.6
GHz). Assume the communication satellite has antenna that has a maximum directivity of
24 dBi and is orbiting at a distance of 781 km above the earth. Assuming that the power at
the input terminals of the transmitting antenna is 1.0 W, and the antennas are aligned for
maximum radiation between them and the polarizations are matched, find the power
delivered to the receiver. Assume the two antennas are well matched with a negligible
amount of loss.
pW watts P
r
15 . 0 251 64 . 1
781,000 4
1875 . 0
0 . 1
2
= |
.
|

\
|

=
t
2
*
max max
2
2 2

4
) 1 )( 1 (
a w r t t r cdr cdt
t
r
D D
R
e e
P
P

t

|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
= 0
= 0
= 1
= 1
= 1
0 . 251 10
64 . 1 10
1875 . 0
6 800
8 3
10 / 24 max
10 / 14 . 2 max
= =
= =
= = =
r
t
D
D
m
e
e
f
c

Friis Transmission Equation: Example #2

A roof-top dish antenna (max gain = 40.0 dBi) is used to communicate from an old satellite
phone to a low orbiting Iridium communication satellite in the Ku band (~ 12 GHz).
Assume the communication satellite has antenna that has a maximum directivity of 30 dBi
and is orbiting at a distance of 36,000 km above the earth. How much transmitter power is
required to receive 100 pW of power at your home. Assume the antennas are aligned for
maximum radiation between them and the polarizations are matched, find the power
delivered to the receiver. Assume the two antennas are well matched with a negligible
amount of loss.
W
watts
P
t
82
1000 000 , 10
36,000,000 4
025 . 0
10 100
2
12
=
|
.
|

\
|

=

t
2
*
max max
2
2 2

4
) 1 )( 1 (
a w r t t r cdr cdt
t
r
D D
R
e e
P
P

t

|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
= 0
= 0
= 1
= 1
= 1
0 . 1000 10
000 , 10 10
025 . 0
6 800
8 3
10 / 30 max
10 / 40 max
= =
= =
= = =
t
r
D
D
m
e
e
f
c

Radar Range Equation

Definition: Radar cross section or echo area of a target is defined as the area when intercepting
the same amount of power which, when scattered isotropically, produces at the receiver the same
power density as the actual target.
2 2
2
4 lim
4
lim m
W
W
R
R
W
W
inc
s
R
inc
R
s (

=
(

=

t o
t
o
o (radar cross section) m
2

R (distance from target) m
W
s
(scattered power density) W/m
2

W
inc
(incident power density) W/m
2
Radar Range Equation (no losses)
Power density incident on the target is a function
of the transmitting antenna and the distance
between the target and transmitter:
2
4
) , (
t
t t gt t
inc
R
D P
W
t
u
=
The amount of power density scattered by the
target at the location of the receiver is then given
by:
2 2
) 4 (
) , (
4
r t
t t gt t
r
inc s
R R
D P
R
W W
t
u
t
o
= =
The amount of power delivered by the receiver is
then given by:
t

u
t
u
o
4
) , (
) 4 (
) , (
2
2
r r gr
r t
t t gt t
r s r
D
R R
D P
A W P = =
t
u u
t

o
4
) , ( ) , (
) 4 (
2
2
r r gr t t gt
r t t
r
D D
R R P
P
=
) , , , (
r r t t
u u o o =
Note that in general:
Radar Range Equation (losses)
2
*
2
2 2

4 4
) , ( ) , (
) 1 )( 1 (
a w
r t
r r gr t t gt
t r cdr cdt
t
r
R R
D D
e e
P
P

t

t
| u | u
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Definition: Radar cross section or
echo area of a target is defined as
the area when intercepting
the same amount of power which,
when scattered isotropically,
produces at the receiver the same
power density as the actual target.
2 2
2
4 lim
4
lim m
W
W
R
R
W
W
inc
s
R
inc
R
s (

=
(

=

t o
t
o
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
4 lim 4 lim m
E
E
R m
E
E
R
inc
scat
R inc
scat
R
(
(

=
(
(

/
/
=

t
k
k
t o
) , , , (
r r t t
u u o o =
r t r t
u u = = ,
Transmitter and receiver not in
the same location (bistatic RCS)
r t r t
u u = = ,
Transmitter and receiver in the
same location (usually the same
antenna) called mono-static RCS
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
RCS Customary Notation:
Typical RCS values can span 10
-5
m
2

(insect) to 10
6
m
2
(ship). Due to the
large dynamic range a logarithmic
power scale is most often used.

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
1
log 10 log 10
2 2
2
10 10
m
ref
m
dBm
dBsm
o
o
o
o o
100 m
2
20 dBsm
10 m
2
10 dBsm
1 m
2
0 dBsm
0.1 m
2
-10 dBsm
0.01 m
2
-20 dBsm