CONFERINA INTERNAIONAL

PREDAREA LIMBAJELOR DE SPECIALITATE N SECOLUL AL XXI-LEA: REALIZRI I PERSPECTIVE

Chiinu, aprilie 2012

Parteneri oficiali ai evenimentului

CZU

Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova Academia de Studii Economice, Bucureti, Romnia Aliana Francez din Moldova Consiliile Americane pentru nvmnt Internaional ACCELS Moldova Centrul de Resurse pentru Predarea Limbii Engleze, ETRC Reeaua Internaional de Resurse i Educaie iEARN Centrul Lingvistic American Coordonatorii Proiectului Gheorghe MOLDOVANU, dr.hab., coordonator general de proiect, responsabil de relaii cu partenerii strategici Daniela MUNCA-AFTENEV, dr., lect. sup. univ. coordonator logistic, responsabil de secia anglofon Svetlana DRAGANCEA, dr.conf,univ.,responsabil de secia francofon Parascovia GROZAV, lect. sup. ASEM Serghei VASILACHI, lect. sup. ASEM Luminia DIACONU, lect. univ. ASEM Irina CUZMINIH si Larisa GUZUN, reprezentani ETRC Olga MOROZAN, reprezentant ACCELS Moldova Olga BUREVSCHI, director interimar al Centrului Lingvistic American
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Comitetul tiinific al Conferinei Ana BONDARENCO, prof. univ., dr. hab., USM Vladimir GUU, prof. univ., dr. hab. USM Galina BURDENIUC, prof. univ., dr. hab. USM Gheorghe MOLDOVANU, prof. univ. dr. hab. ASEM Corina LACU CILIANU, prof. univ. dr. ASE Bucureti, Romnia Sanda Maria ARDELEANU, prof.univ.dr. ASE Bucureti, Romnia Ion MANOLI, prof. univ. dr. hab, ULIM

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PREDARERA/NVAREA LIMBAJELOR DE SPECIALITATE DIN PERSPECTIVA ACIONAL: O NOU PROVOCARE A MILENIULUI.................17 Gheorghe MoLdoVANU, dr. hab., ef, Catedr limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova PERSPECTIVA ACIONAL N PREDAREA / NVAREA LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC: OBIECTIVE, STRATEGII, REZULTATE ...................................30 Corina LACU-CILIANU, prof. dr., Catedra de limbi moderne i Comunicare n afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti CoMUNICRI PE SECIUNI: FORMAREA COMPETENEI DE COMUNICARE N LIMBAJ TIINIFIC LA LICEENI DIN PERSPECTIV METODOLOGiC......................................49 Victor MPU, cercettor tiinific, Sectorul Educaie Lingvistic, Literar i Artistic, I..E. Chiinu CREATIVE PERFORMANCE APPROACH IN TEACHING ENGLISH TO ADULTS........................................56 Galina BURdENIUC, prof. univ., dr. hab., Catedra de limbi strine, Institutul de Formare Continu din Moldova ........................................72 , , , LES PRINCIPES DE LAPPRENTISSAGE DES LANGUES ETRANGERES A ORIENTATION PROFESSIONNELLE ........82 Elena CEPRAGA, profesor l. francez, grad did.superior, sef catedr, Catedra de limbi moderne, Colegiul Politehnic, Chiinu

ONLINE ASSESSMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION: STRATEGIES TO SYSTEMATICALLY EVALUATE STUDENT LEARNING ...................................................................92 Cristina MARIN, asist.univ.dr., Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea din Craiova TYPOLOGY OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND WORD ORDER IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN TALES .........................100 Svetlana TodoSICHUK, Masters Degree student, Viorica Lifari, Doctor in Philology, Associate Professor, Moldova State University PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF USING VIDIO IN THE FOREIGH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM THE USEFULNESS OF VIDEO AIDS ........................................109 Rodica ACULoV, English teacher, LyceumM.Eminescu, Cimilia OPIUNI METODOLOGICE PENTRU PREDAREANVAREA LIMBAJULUI PROFESIONAL ECONOMIC N LIMBA FRANCEZ .......................................122 Eufrosinia AXENTI, dr., conf. univ., Silvia NUA, lector superior, Mariana MORARI, lec., drd, Catedra limba francez, Facultatea de Limbi i Literaturi Strine, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova USING CROSSWORD PUZZLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES .....................................136 Nadejda BACIMANoVA, MA, Chair of Applied Modern Languages, Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova THE USE OF DIGITAL STORY AS A FORM OF STUDENT`S INDIVIDUAL WORK ......................................149 Svetlana BUREA-TITICA, dr. st., Catedra limbi moderne, Universitatea de Stat din Tiraspol THE DEVELOPMENT OF TAILOR MADE CASE STUDIES IN ESP CLASSES .............................................155 Marcela CALCHEI, MA, Moldova State University 6

EUROPEAN STANDARDS OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES .............................................................165 Radadiana CALCIU, PhD Lecturer, Liliana dELLEVoET, Lecturer, Laura Mihaela MURESAN, prof.dr. The Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL ESP TEACHING ........................177 olga CALINA, lecturer, Chair of Applied Modern Languages, Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS DURING THE ACCESS CLASSES ..............................189 Corina CEBAN, profesor de limba englez, Liceul Teoretic Vasile Alecsandri, mun. Bli METODE TRADIIONALE I COMPLEMENTARE DE EVALUARE CONTINU A PERFORMANELOR STUDENILOR LA LIMBA ENGLEZ CA DISCIPLIN DE CULTUR GENERAL IN CADRUL SISTEMULUI DE NVMNT SUPERIOR ...................................................197 Cristina CERNEI, Magistru n Filologia Limbii Engleze, Catedra de Limbi moderne, Liceul Teoretic Petru Rare PREDAREA CORESPONDENEI DE AFACERI N LIMBA ROMN N CADRUL UNUI PROIECT SOCIAL (studiu de caz) .................................209 Cristina CoRNoVAN, profesoar de limba romn, American Language Center DETERMINRI PSIHOLINGVISTICE I PSIHOPEDAGOGICE ALE ABORDRII COMUNICATIVE N PREDAREA LIMBII ENGLEZE ..........221 Luminia dIACoNU, lect.univ, magistru, drd, Angela CHIoSEA, lect. sup., Catedra limbi moderne de Afaceri, ASEM ENSEIGNEMENT / APPRENTISSAGE DU FRANAIS DE SPECIALIT EN ALBANIE: BILAN ET PERSPECTIVES ....237 Eldina NASUFI, dr., Dpartement de franais,Universit de Tirana Silvana VISHKURTI, dr., Centre des langues trangres, Universit polytechnique de Tirana 7

CREATIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING READING FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES ........................................................243 Evghenia FLoREA, Ph.D., aras Shevchenko State University, Tiraspol SELECTING AND DEVELOPING MATERIALS FOR TEACHING ESP ...................................................................253 Ana GOREA, PhD, associate professor, Applied Foreign Languages Chair, Academy of Public Administration PREDAREA-NVAREA LIMBII ENGLEZE DIN PERSPECTIVA OBIECTIVELOR PEDAGOGICE ..................263 Adela GUU, lect. sup., Catedra de limb englez, Universitatea Pedagogic de Stat Ion Creang HOW TO DEAL WITH CIVIL ENGINEERING TRANSLATIONS ...........................................................................277 Ionela IoNIIU, asis.univ. dr., Universitatea Ovidius, Constana, Cristina Mihaela ZAMFIR, asis.univ.dr., Universitatea Ovidius, Constana ....................289 , , TERMINOLOGICAL, GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL DIFFICULTIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES .......................................295 dumitru MELENCIUC, Assistant professor, English Philology Chair, Moldova State University TEACHING ADOLESCENTS THROUGH WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION .....................................................308 olga MoRoZAN, magistru, doctorand, Catedra de limbi strine, Institutul de tiine ale Educaiei, ACCELS 8

LIMBA ENGLEZ I IMPACTUL ACESTEIA ASUPRA LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC ROMNESC ................................317 Lavinia NdRAG, prof. univ. dr., Departamentul de limbi i Literaturi Moderne i tiinele Comunicrii, Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana Alina BUZARNA-TIHENEA GLBEAZ, referent dr., Departamentul de Drept, Stiine Administrative i Sociologie, Facultatea de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana Alina STAN, masterand, Departamentul de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Facultatea de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana OPORTUNITILE FOLOSIRII COMPUTERULUI N CADRUL PROCESULUI DE PREDARE/NVARE A LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC .....................................................327 Angela PRLoG, lect. univ., ASEM USING INTERACTIVE WEB IN TEACHING ESP ..................335 Ludmila RACIULA, Master of Philology, Balti State University, English Philology Department SOME ASPECTS OF TEACHING PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH IN NEW EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ..........349 oLGA SHCHUKINA, Phd, English Philology department, Tiraspol State University ENHANCING CULTURE AWARENESS IN TEACHIG BUSINESS ENGLISH ...................................................................356 Vera TABUREANU, lecturer, MA, English Philology Chair, Moldova State University TO THE PROBLEM OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION WITH MODULAR TECHNOLOGIES ..............368 Elena TANURKoVA, Chief Specialist of the Department of Public Education (Tiraspol) 9

APPLICATIONS OF THE NLP LOGICAL LEVELS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: A LINGUISTIC APPROACH .......................................................378 Cristina Mihaela ZAMFIR, PhD. Teaching Assistant, Ionela IoNIIU, PhD. Teaching Assistant, Department of Modern Languages,Ovidius University of Constana, Romania ..............391 .., , . PARTICULARITILE UTILIZRII NOILOR TEHNOLOGII DE INFORMARE I COMUNICARE N PREDAREA LIMBILOR STRINE ..........................................................................397 Serghei VASILACHI, lect. sup. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice a Moldovei : ( ) .......................................................409 Iurie KRIVoTURoV, dr. n pedagogie, Catedra de filologia germanic, ULIM GAMES AND SIMULATIONS AS MEANS OF ENHANCING ACADEMIC PROGRESS..............................419 Elena CAISIN, master degree student, USM, Chiinu LINTERCUTUREL ET LIDENTITE NATIONALE DANS LE CONTEXTE DE LA MONDIALISATION ...............433 Mme le Professeur A. BoNdARENCo, Universit dEtat de la Rpublique de Moldova LE NEOLOGISME EN FRANAIS CONTEMPORAIN: ENSEIGNEMENT ET PEDAGOGIE DE LA NEOLOGIE ......452 Ion MANOLI, Universit Libre Internationale de Moldova 10

LIMBA DE SPECIALITATE I LEXIC SPECIALIZAT. DIDACTICA LEXICULUI JURIDIC N CADRUL CURSURILOR DE LIMB FRANCEZ CU OBIECTIV SPECIFIC (FOS) ............................................................................466 Larisa CAZANESCU, lect. sup., Catedra de limb francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova ESTE OARE FRAZEOLOGIA UN COMPARTIMENT AL LEXICOLOGIEI SAU O RAMUR INDEPENDENT A LINGVISTICII? ........................................................................477 Natalia HIoARA, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Parascovia GRoZAV, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Ecaterina RUGA, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM TRSTURILE CARACTERISTICE ALE IDIOMURILOR ....................................................................493 Ecaterina RUGA, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Svetlana APACHITA, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Natalia VoLoHoV, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri SPECIFICUL DISTRIBUIEI ADJECTIVULUI N LIMBAJUL ECONOMIC ........................................................503 (din:1.Financial Times, 2. English for Business Studies de Ian Mackenzie, 3. Dicionar economic englez-romn de Andrei Banta, Violeta Nstsescu) Aliona CHIMACoVSCHI-LEAHU, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Luminia dIACoNU, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Ecaterina RUGA, dr., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM UTILIZAREA DOCUMENTULUI VIDEO N PREDAREA LIMBII STRINE .............................................525 Valentina dAMIAN, lector superior, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova 11

PROBLEMATIZAREA CA STRATEGIE DIDACTIC DE DEZVOLTARE A COMPETENELOR COMUNICATIVE (STUDIUL DE CAZ) ....................................531 Natalia BoLGARI, lect. sup., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Svetlana APACHITA, lect. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM UTILIZAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR INFORMAIONALE N COMUNICARE N PROCESUL INSTRUCTIV-EDUCATIV ...........................................................541 ANdoNI Ina, lect. sup. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM BACINSCHI Svetlana, lect. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM AVANTAJELE UTILIZRII TEHNOLOGIILOR INFORMAIONALE N PROCESUL DE PREDARE / NVARE A LIMBILOR STRINE ........................................552 Stela HRBU, lect. sup. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM DEVELOPING DIGITAL COMPETENCES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION THROUGH WEBQUESTS ......559 daniela MUNCA AFTENEV, PhD, Academia de Studii Economice a Moldovei PREDAREA LIMBII ITALIENE I A LIMBII FRANCEZE STUDENILOR TEOLOGI ..................................568 Irina-Roxana FLoREA, asist.univ. Departamentul de Limbi Moderne pentru faculti nefilologice, Universitatea OvidiusConstana, Cristina Tama, Conf. Univ. Dr. Departamentul de Limbi Moderne pentru faculti nefilologice, Universitatea OvidiusConstana OPORTUNITI METODOLOGICE DE EFICIENTIZARE A PREDRII LIMBII ENGLEZE ...............................................575 BONDARENCO Angela, lect. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM 12

CHIoSEA Angela, lect. sup. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM dIACoNU Luminia, lect. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM STRATEGIES OF TRAINING THE TRAINER ........................585 Marina CHIRNITCAIA, MA, Catedra de filologie englez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova LENSEIGNEMENT/ APPRENTISSAGE DE LA TRADUCTION SPCIALISE: APPROCHE LEXICO-SMANTIQUE ET PRAGMATIQUE (LA TRADUCTION JURIDIQUE) ........593 Angela GRdINARU, dr., conf. univ., Catedra traducere, interpretare i lingvistic aplicat, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova SURSELE COMUNICATIVE-LINGVISTICE I ETICEPROFESIONALE ALE ASCULTRII ACTIVE N CADRUL COMUNICRII DE AFACERI ............................605 Vasile BoTNARCIUC, dr. hab., conf. univ., Catedra tiine umanistice i limbi moderne, Universitatea Cooperatist-Comercial din Moldova Angela SAJIN, lect. sup., drd., Catedra tiine umanistice i limbi moderne, Universitatea Cooperatist-Comercial din Moldova ROLUL INDIVIDUALITII TERMINOLOGIEI DE SPECIALITATE N PROMOVAREA PLURILINGVISMULUI ...............................................................619 Svetlana BIRSAN , dr., conf. univ., Catedra comunicare economic i didactic, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova PREDAREA LIMBAJULUI DE SPECIALITATE DIN PERSPECTIVA MONDIALIZRII I A INDIVIDUALITII LINGVISTICE .................................626 Lucia CEPRAGA, dr., conf. univ., Catedra comunicare economic i didactic, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova 13

 ........................................................631 Tatiana PodoLIUC Doctor in Philology, Free International University of Moldova MOTIVAREA STUDENILOR LA ORELE DE LIMB STRIN PRIN DIVERSIFICAREA MATERIALELOR DIDACTICE UTILIZND SURSELE MULTIMEDIA ..............642 Irina GUTUL GORDIENCO, lect. sup. univ., catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Lidia.PANAINTE, lect. sup. univ., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM ENJEUX ET STRATEGIES DE LINSERTION NUMERIQUE DANS LENSEIGNEMENT DU FOS DANS NOTRE PAYS ....650 Ina ZAPoRoJAN, lect. univ, Catedra limba francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Ludmila ZBANT, dr.hab., Catedra traducere interpretare i Lingvistic Aplicat, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Vitalina BAHNEANU, dr. Conf., Catedra limba francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova ESP FOR CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT STUDENTS .............659 Elena RUSU Teacher of Chemistry and English, Theoretical Lyceum Budeti : ...........................671 Tatiana BIGdAN lec. sup., Catedra filologie germanic, Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova

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PREDARERA/NVAREA LIMBAJELOR DE SPECIALITATE DIN PERSPECTIVA ACIONAL: O NOU PROVOCARE A MILENIULUI Gheorghe MOLDoVANU, dr.hab., ef, Catedr limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova
RSUM

Le prsent article traite du rle de la perspective actionnelle dans lenseignement/apprentissage des langues de spcialit. Cette approche, dune part, considre lapprenant comme un acteur social qui agit avec ses pairs dans un domaine donn, dautre part, elle accorde une importance particulire la notion de tche, conue comme une action dfinie en termes dobjectifs et non plus en termes de contenu. Autrement dit, les tches concernent la fois lagir dapprentissage et lagir social. De cette manire, le passage du discours laction et du contenu lobjectif nous conduit repenser nos supports de cours et privilgier la perspective actionnelle alias lenseignement-action par rapport lenseignement ax sur le texte. Mots-cls: perspective actionnelle, tche, langue de spcialit, apprenant-usager, acteur social.

1. Introducere
Didactica1 limbajelor de specialitate nregistreaz succese notabile mai ales n anii 70-80 ai secolului trecut, odat cu elaborarea i pro__________________
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Termenul didactic ne este rezervat n mod expres domeniului limbilor: semnificaia lui etimologic, mai nti, ca adjectiv este de propriu instruciei(derivat al verbului grecesc didakein a nva pe cineva). ntr-o definiie privitoare la limbi, substantivul didactic acoper un ansamblu de mijloace, tehnici i procedee care concur la nsuirea, de ctre un subiect dat, a unor elemente noi de toate tipurile, ntre care putem deosebi: (i) cunotine lingvistice, de exemplu, lexicul, gramatica, adic elementele i regulile de funcionare a codului lingvistic; (ii) competene comunicative, adic mijloace de a aciona (subl. n.Gh. M.) asupra lumii nconjurtoare (moduri de a ordona, de a informa, de a aproba, de a prezenta etc.); (iii) un mod de a fi alias competena existenial, comportamentele socioculturale, indisociabile de limb, deoarece sunt ncorporate n limba nsi (de exemplu, ritualizarea interaciunilor umane n forme lingvistice specifice, cuvinte aparent inutile, forme de politee care corespund unor valori etc.). A se vedea i [7, p. 5].

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movarea pe scar larg a abordrii comunicative n predarea/nvarea limbilor strine. Avnd la baz, pe de o parte, principiile teoretice propuse de ctre J. L. Austin [1], reflectate n celebrele sale acte de vorbire, i, pe de alt parte, concepia lui D. Hymes [5] privitoare la competena comunicativ, procesul de predare/nvare a limbajelor de specialitate este orientat, cu precdere, spre nsuirea particularitilor discursive ale unei limbi n raport cu contextul concret de utilizare a acesteia. n form rezumativ, putem afirma c obiectivul esenial al predrii limbajelor de specialitate se axeaz actualmente, preponderent, pe dezvoltarea competenelor de nelegere (citire i ascultare), vorbire (participare la conversaie i producerea unui discurs oral) i scriere (exprimare scris) ntr-un limbaj specific unui domeniu specializat. nceputul secolului al XXI-lea marcheaz o nou orientare n didactica limbajelor de specialitate. Odat cu apariia Cadrului european comun de referin (n continuare Cadrul, CECR) [3], n prim-plan se situeaz perspectiva acional (PA) avnd drept nucleu dur noiunea de sarcin, care urmeaz a fi realizat n cadrul unui proiect global. Avantajul major al PA, n raport cu abordarea comunicativ n accepiunea lui D. Hymes, rezid n faptul c PA contribuie de o manier eficient la dezvoltarea activitilor interactive ntre studeni n loc s se concentreze asupra textului.

2. Sarcina ca nucleu al perspectivei acionale

Dup cum am menionat supra, conceptul de perspectiv acional a fost elaborat de ctre autorii CECR. Perspectiva acional este definit n lucrare ca o abordare axat pe aciune, n sensul c elevul2 i utilizatorul unei limbi sunt considerai, n primul rnd,
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n lucrare, termenul elev este folosit n accepia lui cea mai larg i nu desemneaz un individ nscris ntr-un sistem administrativ, ci un individ aflat ntr-o situaie anume, n postura de a nva. Opoziia lve/apprenant, care n limba francez traduce tocmai distincia semnalat anterior, este inoperant n limba romn n plan lingvistic, echivalentul aproximativ nvcel fiind un termen familiar, uor peiorativ.
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drept actori sociali (membri ai societii) care au de ndeplinit anumite sarcini (acestea nefiind exclusiv de natur comunicativ) ntr-o serie de circumstane date, ntr-un mediu specific, n cadrul unui domeniu particular de activitate [3, p. 15, subl.n. Gh.M.]. n continuare, textul Cadrului anun, n doar cteva rnduri, survolate uneori de ctre cititori, apariia unei noi orientri n didactica limbajelor de specialitate, fapt care implic, n opinia noastr, o reconsiderare a ntregului proces de predare/nvare. n timp ce actele de vorbire se realizeaz n cadrul activitilor comunicative, aceste activiti se nscriu ele nsele ntr-un cadru mai larg al contextului social, singurul capabil de a da acestora deplina lor semnificaie. [Ibidem; subl.n. Gh.M.]. Pornind de la aceast integrare a activitilor comunicative n contextul social, pentru a transforma perspectiva preconizat de CECR n demers didactic concret, este necesar s se in cont de trei elemente eseniale: (i). Elevul este, conform CECR, mai nti i-nti, un utilizator al limbii. Lund n considerare valoarea adugat a termenului elev-utilizator n raport cu termenul elev, cadrelor didactice le incumb obligaia s reorganizeze procesul didactic, astfel nct predarea/nvarea s se efectueze prin prisma utilizrii limbii. Dup cum se vede, Cadrul nu orienteaz spre anumite sarcini academice, dar mai degrab pune accentul pe sarcini care nu sunt doar de natur comunicativ; (ii). n aceast ordine de idei, formularea unei sarcini elevului-utilizator nsemn de acum nainte ncorporarea sarcinii comunicative, considerat actualmente drept o finalitate a procesului de predare/nvare, ntr-o aciune concret care urmeaz a fi ndeplinit. Conform CECR, sarcina este definit ca orice aciune orientat spre un scop, considerat de actorul social ca fiind necesar pentru obinerea rezultatului scontat n soluionarea unei probleme, onorarea unei obligaiuni sau atingerea unui obiectiv. Cu alte cuvinte, noiunea de sarcin, n acest sens, nglobeaz o serie ntreag de aciuni, cum ar fi deplasarea unui dulap, scrierea unei cri, obinerea unor condiii avantajoase n negocierea unui contract, comandarea unui fel de mncare ntr-un restaurant, 19

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traducerea unui text ntr-o limb strin etc. [3, p.16]. n aa mod, comunicarea este subordonat aciunii i are loc n serviciul acesteia; n cadrul perspectivei acionale de predare/nvare a limbilor strine, unii cercettori au introdus noiunea de co-aciune pentru a desemna trecerea de la interaciune la aciune comun [9]. n aceast concepie, elevul-utilizator nu se limiteaz la coabitarea sau la comunicarea cu ali interlocutori, dar acioneaz n comun cu acetia n vederea realizrii unor sarcini sociale sau profesionale concrete ntr-un domeniu dat. Conceptul de sarcin lato sensu a fcut obiectul numeroaselor studii, ntreprinse cu precdere de ctre cercettorii anglo-saxoni. Menionm, cu titlu de exemplu, opinia lui J. Willis [11], conform creia sarcina este considerat drept o aciune care i permite elevului s ating un obiectiv real prin utilizarea limbii-int. Sarcina poate fi complex n msura n care ea include anumite sub-sarcini, avnd drept scop atingerea unui obiectiv foarte precis. De exemplu, un elev care urmeaz s participe la o dezbatere pe un subiect ntr-un domeniu anume, va trebui s culeag, din diverse surse, informaii referitoare la subiectul n cauz, s selecioneze informaiile adunate, s le claseze n conformitate cu anumite criterii, s-i exprime acordul/dezacordul cu ali participani la dezbatere, s argumenteze punctul su de vedere etc. (iii). Unul dintre aspectele fundamentale ale perspectivei acionale se conine n citatul menionat mai devreme: n timp ce actele de vorbire se realizeaz n cadrul activitilor comunicative, aceste activiti se nscriu ele nsele ntr-un cadru mai larg al contextului social, singurul capabil de a da acestora deplina lor semnificaie [3, p.15]. ncorporarea actelor de vorbire n cadrul unor aciuni concrete nseamn, de fapt, att depirea teoriei actelor de vorbire, bazat pe intenia locutorului [1], ct i a teoriei referitoare la situaiile de comunicare [5], teorii care au inspirat de-a lungul anilor abordarea comunicativ n didactica limbajelor de specialitate. ntruct actele de vorbire i au rostul deplin doar n cadrul aciunilor concrete, dezvoltarea de acum nainte a competenelor care implic doar intenia locutorului, cum ar fi aptitudinile de nelegere, pe de o parte, i cele de producere, pe de alt parte, pare s fie lipsit de sens, 20

cu excepia cazului cnd putem considera c ansamblul unor competene separate contribuie la formarea unei competene globale. De altfel, Cadrul pune accentul pe necesitatea depirii unui proces de predare/ nvare a limbilor axat exclusiv pe intenia locutorului ca mijloc de aciune asupra celuilalt, n msura n care intenia nu contribuie neaprat la reuita unei aciuni. 2.1. dimensiunile perspectivei acionale Aadar, perspectiva acional nsumeaz anumite caracteristici care o deosebesc de metodologia existent. n primul rnd, PA implic o schimbare a rolului elevului n procesul de predare/nvare: elevul nu se mai limiteaz la nvarea regulilor gramaticale i/sau a vocabularului propriu limbajelor de specialitate. Mai mult, rolul elevului nu se reduce nici mcar la stpnirea unor competene de comunicare lingvistic. Abordarea acional l transform pe elev n actor social, care acioneaz mpreun cu semenii si pentru a soluiona o problem concret n societate. Punerea n prim-plan a PA de CECR a impulsionat apariia numeroaselor studii [2; 4; 8; 9; 10] n care abordarea dat i gsete dezvoltare ulterioar i aplicare concret. C. Charnet, de exemplu, precizeaz c Les apprenants sont des tres sociaux part entiere dont il ne faut pas nier les diffrentes caractristiques et en particulier les niveaux, profiles et comptences quil faut prendre en compte, pour les intgrer dans la realisation de lactivit [4, p. 98], iar C. Bourguignon, pentru a desemna demersul didactic, definit prin prisma perspectivei acionale, introduce n circuitul didactic neologismul approche communic-actionnelle [2, p.58, 72]. Cea de-a doua caracteristic a PA este n raport cu noiunea de sarcin abordat mai sus. n acest context, unii cercettori [ 2; 8;9] opereaz o distincie ntre sarcina pedagogic i sarcina social. n opinia acestora, n cadrul PA, sarcinile pedagogice i cele sociale se intercondiioneaz i se influeneaz reciproc, dup cum urmeaz: Les stratgies utilises par lacteur social en socit subissent des oprations de transfert pour tre adaptes et utilises en classe de langue. Elles deviennent alors des stratgies dapprentissage. Inversement, les stratgies dapprentissage 21

sont utilises en classe et elles subissent des oprations de transfert pour tre utilises leur tour en socit et y devenir des stratgies sociales [8]. Este important s menionm c executarea unei sarcini depinde de doi factori principali: competenele elevului i complexitatea sarcinii. Astfel, Ghidul de utilizare a CECR [6] distinge trei categorii de sarcini n care sunt implicai elevii n procesul de predare/nvare a limbilor strine: 1. Sarcini int sau apropiate de cele din viaa real. Ele sunt selecionate n funcie de nevoile elevului, n afara contextului de nvare; 2. Sarcini de comunicare pedagogic. Acestea sunt inspirate din realitatea social, iar elevii particip la jocuri de simulare utiliznd limba strin; 3. Sarcini de pre-comunicare pedagogic, bazate pe exerciii specifice de utilizare decontextualizat a formelor lingvistice.

3. Noiunea de limbaje de specialitate prin prisma CECR

Punerea n prim-plan a PA de CECR a zdruncinat nu numai concepiile existente referitoare la predarea/nvarea/evaluarea limbilor, n general, dar i a limbajelor de specialitate, n particular. ntr-adevr, integrarea activitilor comunicative n aciunea social implic o schimbare de paradigm n didactica limbilor strine, fapt care trebuie luat n considerare att de cadrele didactice, ct i de persoanele responsabile din ministere, departamente etc., n msura n care Cadrul pretinde s ofere administratorilor din domeniul educaiei, persoanelor responsabile de elaborarea programelor, de pregtirea cadrelor, [], membrilor juriilor de examinare etc. instrumentele, care le vor permite s mediteze asupra activitii lor ordinare n vederea reconsiderrii i coordonrii eforturilor lor, pentru a garanta c aceste eforturi rspund nevoilor reale ale elevilor, la a cror formare sunt parte responsabil [3, p. 9]. Or, dei Cadrul furnizeaz un set de instrumente care permit s suscite i s alimenteze o reflecie general asupra didacticii limbilor strine n secolul al XXI-lea, rmne de vzut n ce mod i n ce msur 22

aceste instrumente rspund nevoilor concrete n materie de predare/nvare a limbajelor de specialitate i cum ar putea fi extrapolate asupra chestiunilor specifice legate de domeniul dat. Aceasta, cu att mai mult, cu ct Cadrul nu trateaz n mod explicit conceptul de limbaj de specialitate chiar dac ntr-un scurt pasaj se menioneaz c Exist cazuri n care nvarea unei limbi strine are ca obiectiv principal o mai bun adaptare la cerinele unui post de lucru sau la contextul unei instruiri [3, p.111] i c ntr-un anumit context se poate vorbi despre obiective specifice, cursuri de limb pentru diferite profesiuni [ibidem]. Apare ntrebarea fireasc cum s identificm, cel puin de o manier implicit, prin lecturarea textului acestui document important i a descriptorilor propui, noiunea de limbaj de specialitate, pentru a putea utiliza Cadrul n cunotin de cauz. Se pare c rspunsul la ntrebarea care ne preocup se conine n conceptul de domeniu, introdus chiar la nceputul capitolului al II-lea, unde este definit PA. Revenind la definiia acesteia, vom meniona, de aceast dat, c elevii, n calitatea lor de actori sociali, au de ndeplinit anumite sarcini de natur lingvistic i extralingvistic ntr-o serie de circumstane date, ntr-un mediu specific, n cadrul unui domeniu particular de activitate [3, p. 15, subl. n.- Gh.M.]. Dei n textul Cadrului nu figureaz n mod expres sintagma domeniu specializat, putem desprinde, din acest citat, un element care vars lumin asupra dezbaterii ce ne preocup: domeniile sunt definite ca domenii de aciune n societate. Este oportun s menionm din start c domeniile categorisite n Cadru nu corespund cu clasificarea specialitilor (profesiilor) n cadrul decuprii instituionale a disciplinelor de predare, a profesiilor etc. De altfel, Cadrul precizeaz, n aceast ordine de idei, c domeniile desemneaz marile sectoare ale vieii sociale n care intervin actorii sociali [3, p. 16] i c repartizarea lor pe categorii majore (domeniul educaional, domeniul profesional, domeniul public i domeniul personal) are drept scop s faciliteze nvarea/predarea limbilor [ibidem]. De altfel, aceast clasificare foarte general a domeniilor corespunde obiectivelor majore ale Cadrului, chiar dac n capitolul al IV-lea gsim urmtoarea precizare: Numrul domeniilor este nedeterminat; [], 23

oricare centru de interes sau sfer de activitate poate constitui domeniul unui utilizator dat [3, p.45]. Pentru a contura limitele noiunii de limbaj de specialitate prin prisma domeniilor descrise n Cadru, este necesar s menionm c domeniile evocate supra reprezint doar un aspect a ceea ce este definit n CECR drept context de utilizare a limbii [3, p. 45] i c fiecare domeniu include situaii clasificate n funcie de diferite criterii3 [ibidem], contextul i situaiile fiind nglobate, la rndul lor, n contextul extern de utilizare a limbii [3, p. 46]. Ct privete contextul, acesta este descris prin prisma temelor de comunicare (cmpurilor tematice), sarcinilor comunicative i finalitilor, activitilor de comunicare lingvistic i strategiilor comunicative, textului etc. Aici se regsesc numeroase aspecte legate de limbajele de specialitate, precum nelegerea unei oferte de angajare n cmpul muncii, participarea la un interviu de angajare la un post de munc, completarea unui formular de asigurare etc. [3, p.49-83]. Prin urmare, chiar dac Cadrul nu definete, de o manier explicit, noiunea de limbaj de specialitate, ea se desprinde din textul acestuia, fapt care implic i justific aplicarea PA inclusiv n predarea/nvarea limbajelor de specialitate. De altfel, drept dovad a faptului c predarea/ nvarea limbajelor de specialitate este integrat n didactica limbilor strine, n general, pot servi i descriptorii nivelurilor comune de referin [3, p. 25]. n cele ce urmeaz, ne vom referi doar la nivelurile B1i B2 (utilizator independent), nivelul B1 fiind considerat drept o condiie necesar de acces n instituiile de nvmnt superior din Moldova, menionnd, totodat, c nivelurile superioare C1 i C2 (utilizator experimentat) se deosebesc de nivelurile de B1 i B2, mai ales, prin gradul mai nalt de complexitate cu referire la limbajele de specialitate. Astfel, descriptorii nivelului B1 graviteaz n jurul criteriului de familiarizare a elevului cu un anumit domeniu, subiect, de regul, asociat cu caracteristicile lingvistice ale limbii standard:
__________________
3

Loc, moment, instituii sau organisme, actori, obiecte, evenimente, operaii, texte [3, p. 45-46].

[1] B1. [Scala global]. Poate s neleag punctele eseniale n vorbirea standard clar pe subiecte familiare, legate de munc, coal, timpul liber etc. []. Poate s produc un discurs simplu i coerent pe teme familiare legate de domeniile sale de interes [3, tabelul1, p. 27]. [2] B1. [nelegere]. Pot s neleg texte redactate, n principal, ntrun limbaj uzual sau referitor la munca mea [3, tabelul 2, p. 30]. [3] B1. [Ascultare]. Poate nelege o conferin sau o expunere referitoare la propriul su domeniu cu condiia ca subiectul s fie cunoscut i prezentarea s fie simpl i clar structurat [3, p. 60]. Dup cum se vede, noiunea de limbaj de specialitate nu figureaz la nivelul B1, ea se subnelege cnd se face referin la domeniul de interes, la munc etc. Dimpotriv, descriptorii nivelului B2 introduc n mod explicit dimensiunea n cauz, asociat, n general, cu un anumit grad de complexitate. [4] B2. [Scala global] Poate s neleag ideile principale din texte complexe pe teme concrete sau abstracte, inclusiv n discuii tehnice referitor la specialitatea sa [3, tabelul1, p. 25, subl. n G.M]. [5] B2. [Ascultare]. Poate nelege punctele eseniale ale unei conferine, ale unui discurs, ale unui raport i ale altor tipuri de expozeuri educaionale/profesionale care sunt complexe din punctul de vedere al fondului i formei [3, p. 60, subl.n.-Gh.M.]. [6] B2. [Citirea pentru a se informa i participa la o discuie]. Poate culege informaii, selecta idei i opinii din surse foarte specifice din domeniul su. Poate nelege articole specializate care nu in de domeniul su cu condiia de a recurge din cnd n cnd la un dicionar pentru verificare [3, p. 62, subl.n. Gh.M.]. Aadar, n loc s ne irosim timpul, exprimndu-ne regretele inutile referitoare la deficienele CECR n conceptualizarea limbajelor de specialitate, este rezonabil s ne orientm eforturile spre o utilizare i adaptare ct mai adecvat a acestuia la nevoile teoretice i practice concrete n materie de predarea/nvarea/evaluare a limbajelor de specialitate. Aceasta cu att mai mult cu ct Cadrul pretinde a fi un document, care poate fi utilizat n scopuri multiple [], suplu [], deschis [], dinamic [], uor utilizabil [], lipsit de dogmatism [] [3, p. 13-14]. 25

24

4. Avantajele PA n predarea/nvarea limbajelor de specialitate

PA reprezint n sine o valoare adugat n raport cu abordarea comunicativ n predarea/nvarea limbilor strine, n general, i a limbajelor de specialitate, n particular. Din acest punct de vedere, PA nu marcheaz nceputul unei revoluii n domeniu, ci doar o schimbare de paradigm: tot ceea ce se fcea pn n prezent este valabil i de acum nainte activiti comunicative, lucrul asupra limbii, dimensiunii culturale atta doar c abordarea este alta: activitile comunicative nu mai graviteaz n jurul unei teme, prin urmare, n jurul unor texte, dar sunt prezentate de o manier integrat n serviciul unei aciuni, astfel nct elevul s contientizeze rostul procesului de predare/nvare. ntr-adevr, perspectiva acional i permite profesorului s plaseze elevul, n calitatea acestuia de actor social, n contact direct cu domeniul lui de specialitate. Acest lucru este posibil datorit faptului c elevul posed anumite competene profesionale n domeniul dat. Bazndu-se pe aceste pre-rechizite, elevul poate s-i dezvolte anumite competene comunicative i profesionale n limba-int prin realizarea unor sarcini autentice. Cu alte cuvinte, PA i permite elevului s devin protagonistul procesului de nvare, acesta din urm fiind pus n situaia de a participa activ la realizarea diferitor sarcini sociale. De exemplu, admitem c un productor de vinuri din Moldova dorete s dezvolte relaii comerciale cu parteneri francofoni din domeniu. n acest scop, el va nva franceza de afaceri, pentru a ndeplini anumite sarcini concrete, cum ar fi: prezentarea diferitor tipuri de vinuri, participarea la negocieri comerciale cu omologii francofoni, participarea la o discuie n vederea atragerii investiiilor strine n ntreprinderea sa, elaborarea proiectelor comune, alctuirea unui deviz de cheltuieli a unui proiect etc. n acest context, cursul de franceza afacerilor l va ajuta nu numai s comunice cu partenerii francofoni, dar i s acioneze n comun cu ei. n acest sens, PA joac un rol important n motivarea elevului. n opinia unor cercettori [10], PA este singurul demers didactic capabil s dez26

volte motivaia elevului, n msura n care acesta este contient de faptul c sarcinile propuse sunt sarcini profesionale autentice n raport cu nevoile sale concrete. n plus, PA responsabilizeaz elevul, fapt care contribuie i mai mult la motivarea acestuia. Or, motivarea i responsabilizarea sunt cheia reuitei procesului de predare/nvare a limbajelor de specialitate. n continuare, prezentm un exemplu de scenariu didactic care implic demersul acional n predarea francezei de afaceri (nivelul B1B2) la Facultatea de Relaii Economice Internaionale a Academiei de Studii Economice din Moldova, la compartimentul trouver le candidat idal: MISE EN SITUATION PROFESSIONNELLE Vous travaillez dans une importante socit de distribution de produits de beaut ayant le sige social Paris. Le Directeur des Ressources Humaines vous demande dtudier les dossiers de 3 candidats (M.Kleiner, Mme Bic et M. Arnaud) qui souhaitent postuler pour le poste danimateur rgional des ventes pour la rgion parisienne. Vous ferez votre tude partir du profil du poste ci-annex TCHES ACCOMPLIR 1. Vous allez avoir un entretien avec le Directeur des Ressources Humaines et vous lui exposerez votre prfrence entre les 3 candidats. Vous argumenterez votre point de vue et vous dfendrez votre position en rpondant ses questions. 2. Vous crirez une lettre Monsieur Duval, chef rgional des ventes pour la rgion parisienne pour lui exposer la dcision qui aura t prise lors de votre rencontre avec le Directeur des Ressources Humaines. MOYENS Vous allez tudier un certain nombre de documents crits et sonores qui ont t rassembls cette occasion (CV, lettres de candidature, lettres de rfrences, fiches dentretien du candidat etc.) et vous aurez la possibilit de recueillir des informations supplmentaires en tlphonant aux employeurs prcdents des candidats. 27

Dup cum se vede, pentru ndeplinirea acestei sarcini complexe, studenii vor trebui s valorifice competenele lor de nelegere (ascultare i citire), vorbire (discurs oral i participare la conversaie) i scriere.

Concluzii
Chiar dac abordarea comunicativ reprezint un demers evoluat n comparaie cu metodologia tradiional de predare/nvare a limbilor axat pe nsuirea unor cunotine lingvistice, ea nu atribuie dect parial elevului locul care i revine n procesul dat, ntruct rmne totui orientat asupra textului (discursului). Or, utilizarea unei limbi nu se reduce la ntrebuinarea steril a unor cunotine lingvistice acumulate, iar intenia locutorului rmne deseori nerealizat. Perspectiva acional deschide calea demersului constructivist al cunotinelor care transform elevul n utilizator al limbii. Logica integratoare presupune nu doar comunicarea, dar i realizarea unor aciuni comune cu ali participani ntr-o limb strin, fapt care implic o dimensiune pragmatic (luarea n considerare a mediului n care se situeaz aciunea) i o dimensiune epistemic (partajarea cunotinelor i nsuirea unor noi cunotine). Dei CECR nu folosete n mod explicit conceptul de limbaj de specialitate, el decurge din textul acestuia, fapt care implic i justific aplicarea PA inclusiv n predarea/nvarea limbajelor de specialitate. Recurgerea la noiunea de sarcin lato sensu motiveaz i responsabilizeaz elevul, condiii necesare pentru garantarea eficienei n predarea/nvarea limbajelor de specialitate.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

4. Charnet, C., Du cte de lenseignant : tablissement dun cadre dans une tche mdie par ordinateur dans lapprentissage du franais langue trangre. In Travaux de didactique du FLE, 2004, n. 51, pp. 91-113. 5. Hymes, D., Vers la comptence de communication, Paris : Hatier Crdif, 1984. 6. Le Guide de lutilisation du Cadre Europen commun de rfrence, Strasbourg : Conseil de lEurope, Paris : Didier, 2002. 7. Martinez, P., Didactica limbilor strine, ed.: Matei Bnic, trad.: I. Littera, M. Zoica, Bucureti: Grafoart, 2008. 8. Perrichon, E., Agir dusage et agir dapprentissage en didactique des langues-cultures trangres, enjeux conceptuels, volution historique et construction dune nouvelle perspective actionnelle, thse de doctorat, Universit Jean Monnet de Saint Etienne, 2008. 9. Puren, C., Perspectives actionnelles et perspectives culturelles en didactique des langues-cultures : vers une perspectives co-actionnelle co-culturelle. In Langues modernes, juillet-aot-septembre, Paris : ALPV, 2002, n.3, pp. 55-71. 10. Tardif, J., Pour un enseignement stratgique. Lapport de la science cognitive, Montral : Les Editions Logiques, 1992.

1. Austin, J.L., Quand dire cest faire, Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1970. 2. Bourguignon, C., De lapproche communicative lapproche communic-actionnelle: une rupture epistmologique en didactique des langues-cultures. In Synergie Europe, 2006, n.1, pp. 58-73. 3. Cadrul european comun de referin pentru limbi: nvare, predare, evaluare, ed. : Tipografia Central, trad.: Gh. Moldovanu, Chiinu, 2003. 28 29

PERSPECTIVA ACIONAL N PREDAREA / NVAREA LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC: OBIECTIVE, STRATEGII, REZULTATE Corina LACU-CILIANU, Prof.dr., Catedra de limbi moderne i comunicare n afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti
RSUM

pragma-rfrentielle et socioculturelle dans une perspective actionnelle et communicative base sur la pdagogie du projet et lenseignement/ apprentissage par les tches [25, p.45].

1. Context socioeconomic i cultural

Schimbrile socioeconomice, politice i culturale, ca i mutaiile intervenite pe piaa muncii, determin noi perspective ale abordrii procesului de predare/nvare a limbilor strine, n general, i a limbilor strine de specialitate, n special, printr-o reorientare a finalitilor instituionale, personale i pedagogice care au un impact direct asupra obiectivelor profesionale, funcionale i lingvistice, n cazul nostru ale cursurilor de limba francez: OBIECTIV GLOBAL (non lingvistic) (folosirea limbii n activiti profesionale) OBIECTIV FUNCIONAL (activiti comunicative necesare) OBIECTIV SPECIFIC (cunotine lingvistice)

La perspective actionnelle dans lenseignement/apprentissage du langage conomique : objectifs, stratgies, rsultats Les nouveaux enjeux imposs par les besoins du march du travail ainsi que la mondialisation des changes ont eu un impact majeur sur les options mthodologiques du Cadre europen commun de rfrence pour les langues autour de larticulation entre approche communicative et perspective actionnelle : le passage dun apprentissage individuel centr sur lapprenant caractristique des approches communicatives des annes 1980 un apprentissage collaboratif et solidaire bas sur un agir social et communicationnel. Les relations complexes entre technologies pluridirectionnelles, approches pdagogiques et apprentissage des langues trangres dterminent des changements profonds de motivation, attitudes et comportements de tous les facteurs impliqus, universit, quipes multidisciplinaires, tudiants. Dans notre expos, nous nous proposons de prsenter les caractristiques de ce changement de paradigme ducationnel o les comptences transversales et interculturelles occupent une place centrale. Aprs la prsentation de nos options mthodologiques, nous prsentons un tat des lieux de la situation qui rvle une srie de contraintes institutionnelles et humaines. Enfin, nous donnons un exemple concret des rsultats de la mise en oeuvre de nos choix mthodologiques dans llaboration dun dispositif de formation en Franais sur Objectifs Spcifiques conu lAcadmie dEtudes Economiques de Bucarest, avec la prise en charge de lensemble des comptences de communication, lintgration de la composante linguistique, discursive, 30

[14, p.171]

Evoluiile tehnologice i teriarizarea activitilor profesionale determin creterea rolului limbii n procesul muncii (part langagire du travail) [24, p.12-31], astfel nct a face nseamn a spune, ceea ce implic cunoaterea codurilor comunicrii profesionale pentru performana carierei i articularea dintre competenele de comunicare n limba strin i competenele profesionale. Orice situaie de munc este o situaie de comunicare i de schimb extrem de complex, ale crei elemente contribuie fiecare n parte la reuita sau la eecul activitii. n aceste condiii, conceperea procesului de predare/nvare a limbajului economic este determinat de factorii deosebit de compleci care definesc cererea social ca i de noile orientri 31

2. Opiuni metodologice pentru abordarea limbajelor de specialitate din perspectiva acional

Pentru atingerea obiectivelor unui curs de limb strin conform perspectivei acionale este necesar o viziune integrant a diferitor tipuri de competene a cror achiziie este realizat printr-o abordare de tip diferit n condiiile n care acceptm ideea caracterului eclectic al demersului didactic: SAVOIR SAVOIR-FAIRE SAVOIR-VIVRE SAVOIRCOMMUNIQUER SAVOIR-APPRENDRE approche approche approche approche fonctionnelle interculturelle communicative cognitive [14, p. 211] Competenele de comunicare implic diferitele componente: lingvistic (capacitatea de a face fraze corecte), discursiv (capacitatea de a folosi frazele), referenial (capacitatea de a vorbi despre lume), pragma-referenial i sociocultural (capacitatea de a vorbi despre oameni) [14, p.162]. 32

nvarea limbilor strine nu mai este centrat pe coninuturi, ci pe realizarea unor sarcini, secvene i scenarii care fac parte din cadrul contextualizat al unui proiect. Dac pedagogia sarcinii este central n CECR, cea a proiectului nu este foarte explicit, ea fiind continuat de o serie de didacticieni ca fiind forma cea mai realizat a demersului acional [17, p. 21]. Organizarea demersului didactic conform relaiilor dintre: Micro-sarcini Sarcini Macro-sarcini Secvene Scenarii Proiect permite conceperea Pedagogiei Proiectului (PP) definit ca urmrirea unui obiectiv parial care i poate gsi locul ntr-un proiect de ansamblu pentru nvare [3, p.106, n.s.] n care elevii (....) vor trebui s fie instruii n domeniul educaional ca participani la interaciuni ghidate sau finalizate, proiecte, simulri, jocuri de roluri [3, p.47, n.s.] Proiectul vizeaz achiziia unor competene pariale n funcie de obiectivele de nvare, urmnd ca ulterior s fie integrat unui obiectiv general. n ciuda unor constrngeri externe legate de planurile de nvmnt i de mediul de predare/nvare heteroglot, demersul acesta este de natur s ofere un compromis necesar i eficient prin care proiectul cu orientare spre un domeniu profesional n vederea adecvrii la lumea ntreprinderii [5] are nevoie de un instrument didactic acional, elaborat pe baza celor dou concepte pedagogice-cheie, n parte concurente, pedagogia proiectului i predarea/nvarea prin sarcini [25, p.45]. 33

teoretice i metodologice ale perspectivei acionale (PA) i comunicative (PC). n cele ce urmeaz ne propunem mai nti s prezentm succint opiunile noastre teoretice i metodologice potrivit Cadrului european comun de referin pentru limbi (CECR) [3] (v.infra 2), pentru abordarea limbajelor de specialitate, ca ulterior s exemplificm aceste opiuni prin definirea etapelor de realizare a dispozitivului de formare (v.infra 3) pe care l-am realizat mpreun cu o echip format din Niculina Ivanciu, Maria-Antoaneta Lorentz, Rodica Stoicescu i Deliana Vasiliu i materializat ntr-un manual de francez, destinat viitorilor economiti [6]. n final, concluziile sunt orientate n special asupra modului n care trebuie operate schimbri fundamentale ale tuturor parametrilor: mentalitatea actorilor implicai, coninutul materialelor didactice tradiionale i moderne, tipurile de evaluare ntr-o relaie strns cu procesul de predare / nvare (v. infra 4).

Composante linguistique (tre capable de faire des phrases correctes) Composante COMPTENCES discursive DE (tre capable COMMUNICATION dutiliser des phrases) Composante socioculturelle

Composante rfrentielle (tre capable de parler du monde)

(tre capable de parler aux gens)

Perspectiva acional presupune o nou viziune asupra limbajelor de specialitate: de la lectura exclusiv a textelor de specialitate i nvarea terminologiei specifice la folosirea limbilor strine n rezolvarea unor sarcini concrete, care au n vedere un rezultat. n acest context se pune ntrebarea dac este corect s mai vorbim de limbaje de specialitate sau de predarea/nvarea limbilor strine conform unor obiective specifice [20] [pentru Franceza pe Obiective Specifice Franais sur Objectifs Spcifiques FOS, 2, 21]. Noile opiuni metodologice i tehnologice determin noi raporturi ntre obiectivele procesului i metodele folosite: trecerea de la transferul de informaie specific sistemlor de predare, centrate pe profesor, la transferul de cunotine al sistemelor de nvare, centrate pe student, pn la ceea ce reprezint mprtirea de cunotine bazate pe munca colaborativ i centrate pe munca n echip [17]:

Opiunile privitoare la alegerea coninuturilor i strategiilor conform perspectivei acionale, pe care le-am prezentat n studii anterioare [8, 9, 10, 12], ntlnesc o serie de obstacole legate de situaia pedagogic concret, ceea ce oblig la gsirea unor rspunsuri la urmtoarele ntrebri: Cum se articuleaz un demers individual de nvare cu un demers instituional de predare i evaluare? Cum se realizeaz o corelare dintre curriculum i centrele de interes/motivaiile studenilor? Care sunt situaiile i domeniile n care viitorii specialiti n economie vor folosi limba strin? Cum se acord multitudinea de opiuni posibile cu planul de nvmnt foarte constrngtor? Cum se rezolv lipsa de experien a studenilor n domeniul economic respectiv, ceea ce implic achiziia unor competene transversale? Care este gradul de specializare economic pn la care este posibil perspectiva acional pentru competena de expresie i interaciune [13]?

3. Etape de realizare a dispozitivului de formare

Modelul comenzii sociale i modelul participativ sunt dou componente eseniale care au orientat toate opiunile demersului didactic de elaborare a unui manual pentru studenii Facultii de Relaii Economice Internaionale din Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti [6]. Deoarece tiina proiectelor const n prevenirea dificultilor de execuie ( La science des projets consiste prvenir les difficults dexcution. [Vauvenargues n 27], parcurgerea etapelor urmtoare este obligatorie [27]:

34

35

cultural i de cunoatere a limbii franceze foarte diferit (A1-A2-B1), sunt dificulti majore de care trebuie s se in seama n stabilirea realist a obiectivelor pariale i finale ale activitii. 3.2. obiective Proiectul i propune ca objectiv operaional capacitatea studenilor s tie s comunice eficient n cadrul unui stagiu ntr-o ntreprindere francofon. Objectivele specifice evaluabile sunt n relaie cu sarcinile i activitile ingineriei proiectului i competenelor vizate. n aceast etap, sunt alese i definite competenele vizate n termeni de savoirfaire, savoir-tre, savoirs langagiers. Ne vom opri n acest articol la prezentarea primelor dou etape, schind numai cteva elemente ale celei de-a treia, Dezvoltarea, analiza strategiilor i tehnicilor de folosire ale acestui manual ca i evaluarea lui fcnd obiectul altei cercetri [4]. Primele trei etape presupun: definirea publicului: trecut colar, nivel de limb, nevoi, ateptri; definirea obiectivelor n termeni de competene; identificarea coninuturilor: trecerea de la logica coninutului la cea de competene; structurarea coninuturilor; elaborarea activitilor de nvare; conceperea scenarizrii cursului n funcie de situaia de predare/ nvare pentru a organiza progresia pedagogic. 3.1. definirea publicului Proiectul este destinat studenilor anului I de licen, debutani n economie, lipsii total de experien profesional, cu nevoi i motivaii necontientizate de cunoatere a limbii strine de specialitate. Trecutul pedagogic de public captiv n nvarea limbilor strine are implicaii directe asupra atitudinilor i comportamentelor fa de nvare a studenilor notri: lips de autonomie, iniiativ, implicare, interes pentru studiu. Numrul foarte mic de ore sptmnal (o or i jumtate), ca i numrul mare de studeni din grupele de studiu (n jur de 25) cu un nivel 36 3.3. Identificarea coninuturilor
3.3.1. Alegerea temei

Proiectul pedagogic Stagiaire: Droulement du stage dun tudiant roumain en conomie dans une entreprise francophone (Desfurarea stagiului unui student romn n economie ntr-o ntreprindere francofon) [19] corespunde unei cereri specifice, i anume, punerea n situaie cvasireal a studenilor. Alegerea temei rspunde unor exigene diferite printr-un compromis dintre curriculum i interesul studenilor: motivarea studentului: intrarea rapid n viaa profesional, ctigarea unei prime experiene; nivelul de competene lingvistice i profesionale ale studenilor la nceputul facultii; coninutul tematic al curriculum-ului este n concordan cu progresia lingvistic.
3.3.2. Tipuri de progresie

Pentru alegerea coninuturilor tematice s-a inut cont de o progresie cronologic: etape de parcurs pn la raportul de stagiu, care a determinat o progresie pragma-lingvistic, deci progresia introducerii coninuturilor lingvistice adecvate: tipuri de discurs, acte de vorbire, structuri lexico-gramaticale i vocabular specializat, structuri morfosintactice. 37

Conform perspectivei acionale, am avut n vedere: relaiile dintre executarea sarcinilor i produse, aadar Calendarul de execuie: demersurile pentru obinerea stagiului, urmate de participarea la acest stagiu. realizarea produselor n funcie de sarcinile fiecrei etape semestriale: alegerea ntreprinderii, redactarea dosarului de candidatur i participarea la interviul de angajare; participarea la activitile specifice, prezentarea ntreprinderii, redactarea raportului de stagiu i susinerea lui oral. 3.4. Structurarea coninuturilor
3.4.1. Module

Manualul cuprinde dou module pentru cele dou semestre ale anului universitar: Module I Entrer dans la vie Dcouvrir professionnelle lentreprise UA 1. Prsentezvous UA 2. Prenez rendez-vous UA 3. Prsentez lentreprise Module II Rechercher un emploi Travailler dans lentreprise

UA 1. Prparez UA 3. Relations votre dossier dans le travail de candidature

UA 4. UA 2. Prparez UA 4. Dcrivez votre entretien Organisez votre lvolution de agenda dembauche lentreprise Rvision 1
3.4.2. Unitatea de nvare

Rvision 1

Fiecare unitate de nvare (U) (unit dapprentissage UA) corespunde unei macro-sarcini pragmatice i cuprinde: pagin de prezentare cu ceea ce studenii: O - vor fi capabili s fac (savoir-faire): completarea unei fie telefonice, nelegerea/producerea unui mesaj telefonic, redactarea 38

unei scrisori de confirmare/anulare a unei ntlniri, stabilirea i prezentarea agendei de lucru (U 4, Modulul II); - vor putea s comunice (savoir-communiquer): acceptarea/refuzarea unei propuneri, exprimarea scuzelor, povestirea unei zile de lucru (U 4, Modulul II); - vor ti s utilizeze (savoirs linguistiques): exprimarea posibilitii/ imposibilitii cu ajutorul unei expresii impersonale, a timpului cu ajutorul unei prepoziii urmate de un substantiv, folosirea expresiilor temporale pentru prezent, trecut i viitor i a pronumelor personale, complemente directe i indirecte (U 4, Modulul II). Rubrica Avez-vous bien compris? propune micro-sarcini foarte structurate care vizeaz nelegerea scris i/sau oral a unui text dialogat sau nu: de exemplu, pentru unitatea U Organisez votre agenda, ntrebri cu alegere multipl (QCM), completarea fiei telefonice corespunztoare dialogului telefonic propus, completarea agendei de lucru conform informaiilor din dialog. Fiecare unitare de nvare cuprinde o relaie direct ntre cerinele sarcinilor i instrumentele lingvistice, care trebuie folosite pentru realizarea lor, adic ncadrarea lingvistic, comunicativ i cultural prin rubrici ca: Vocabulaire Repres professionnels Repres (inter)culturels Outils de communication : comment .... Morpho-syntaxe: pour utiliser.... . Rubrica Activits presupune o mare diversitate de sarcini de natur diferit: sarcini discursive, de comunicare pedagogic sau de conceptualizare [pentru definirea tipurilor de sarcini, a se vedea 1, p. 36-45]. Conform perspectivei acionale i a demersului bazat pe FOS, realizarea obiectivelor este evaluat n termeni de rezultate. acest sens, la sfritul fiecrei U, rubrica Auto-valuation n Testez-vous propune o serie de sarcini de autoevaluare a achiziiei competenelor enumerate n pagina de prezentare a uni39

tii respective pentru nelegerea i exprimarea scris i oral. n acest fel, se dezvolt autonomia, implicarea i responsabilitatea individual a studentului pentru propriul proces de nvare. De exemplu, n unitatea Prparez votre dossier de candidature competenele vizate erau: fi capabili s consultai / analizai / redactai un anun, s vei examinai / redactai un CV, s nelegei / redactai o scrisoare de motivaie, s v facei bilanul de competene, s v redactai dosarul de candidatur; putea s exprimai necesitatea; vei ti s folosii viitorul, partitivul, femininul adjectivelor, un vei substantiv n locul unui adjectiv. Autoevaluarea const n sarcini de tip diferit: prezentarea unui director de vnzri n urma lecturii CV-ului i rspunsului la o serie de ntrebri privind nelegerea acestuia, realizarea bilanului de personalitate prin folosirea unui site specializat, completarea sau redactarea unei scrisori de motivaie pentru ocuparea unui post prezentat ntr-un anun. Un element specific al CECR este includerea aspectelor legate de evaluare n direct legtur cu procesul de predare/nvare, ntr-un capitol sepatat [3, p. 135-164]. Manualul nostru cuprinde pentru fiecare modul o recapitulare final prin sarcini i activiti specifice fiecrei competene: nelegere scris i oral, exprimare scris i oral, interaciune. n acest fel, se evalueaz calitatea achiziiilor din modulul respectiv. Dou proiecte intermediare integreaz tematic i pragma-lingvistic coninuturile i competenele vizate i valorific cteva dintre principiile de baz ale demersului acional, n primul rnd rolul studentului ca actor social, care lucreaz n echip prin valorificarea nvrii colaborative [26, p.25-36]: Modulul I : Travaillez ensemble pour dcouvrir une entreprise, le groupe Bollor. Travaillez ensemble cest se mettre daccord sur la rpartition du travail. Consultarea site-ului ntreprinderii ofer surse documentare de natur diferit, care dau posibilitatea exersrii diferitor competene prin 40

lectura unor texte, vizionarea unui film de prezentare, ascultarea unor dialoguri, astfel nct studenii s poat rezolva sarcinile i activitile cerute de proiect: redactarea fiei i a organigramei ntreprinderii Bollor, prezentarea activitilor ntreprinderii, constituirea unei fie de observaii personale i de grup. Modulul II : Vous tes la recherche dun emploi ou dun stag. Cutarea unor oferte de serviciu pe un site specializat, realizarea dosarului de candidatur pentru postul ales, ca i candidatura on line reprezint simularea unei situaii socio-profesionale, i prin aceasta, implicit, o motivare suplimentar i o implicare real a studentului doritor s aib o prim experien profesional. n acest fel, se evalueaz achiziia competenelor vizate de modulul II prin rezolvarea sarcinilor proiectului: folosirea ofertei de lucru alese ca baz pentru redactarea CV-ului i a scrisorii de motivaie i, apoi, participarea la simularea unui interviu de angajare. Internetul, ca surs de documentare, dar i ca posibilitate de aciune [22, p.82-91], este o alt caracteristic a punerii n practic a perspectivei acionale.

4. Concluzii
Specificitatea situaiei de predare/nvare/evaluare a limbajelor de specialitate presupune o lectur i o folosire specific a CECR pentru valorificarea perspectivei acionale care, n condiiile schimbrii unuia sau a mai multor parametri ai situaiei didactice, implic o pluralitate de opiuni mai ales la nivelul strategiilor i tehnicilor de predare i de nvare interdiscursive i a utilizrii Noilor Tehnologii de Informare i Comunicare. De exemplu, manualul prezentat impune schimbri pentru nvmntul n campus sau la distan [4] mai ales n etapa pedagogic de dezvoltare i implantare [27]. n condiiile nvrii limbajului economic de ctre viitorii economiti este necesar ndeprtarea frontierelor dintre disciplinele curriculare i competenele lingvistice [15]. O component important a activitii este selectarea situaiilor specifice ale temelor propuse n cadrul FOS [23]. Coninutul tematic al curriculum-ului corespunde parial unei progresii lingvistice (lexic 41

specializat, acte de vorbire, structuri morfo-sintactice i discursive) de la simplu la complex n cazul debutanilor i, mai puin, n cazul mai frecvent al falilor debutani . Capacitatea de refolosire adecvat n alte situaii de comunicare a elementelor nvate d msura performanei sau eecului dispozitivului de formare propus. Perspectiva acional impune o schimbare de mentalitate, de competene, atitudini i comportamente a tuturor factorilor implicai: nou concepie a actorilor implicai n formare: teoreticieni, o conceptori de metode, practicieni, echipe pluridisciplinare formate din specialiti n limb specialiti din domeniul de referin informaticieni [4]; de animator, catalizator al nvrii, i de furnizor de resurse rol al profesorului de francez economic, de fapt profesor de comunicare profesional n limba strin avnd cunotine din domeniul economic de referin, ca i savoir-faire i savoir-tre n lumea ntreprinderii, conform conceptului de limb-cultur [16]; de actor al studentului n cadrul grupului printr-o munc rol autonom i colaborativ (savoir-faire, savoir-tre), printr-o implicare activ n nvare (savoir-apprendre) prin realizarea unor sarcini profesionale specifice vieii studeneti, dar mai ales pentru exercitarea viitoarei profesii, n condiiile lacunelor n cunoaterea limbii, a fazei de nceput n studiul economiei i a lipsei totale de experien de ntreprindere; necesitatea unei politici lingvistice adecvate a universitilor n concordan cu noile cerine sociale i cu exigenele perspectivei acionale n predare, nvarea i evaluarea limbilor strine, poziie care presupune un alt loc al acestei activiti n planul de nvmnt, o mai bun organizare a procesului didactic cu un numr mai mic de studeni n grupe, resurse documentare i instrumente tehnologice adecvate etc. Elaborarea de programe de formare necesit din partea universitilor constituirea unor celule de resurse umane, materiale, documentare. 42

Realizarea integral a PP implic, n grade diferite, dezvoltarea ansamblului competenelor, iar multe dintre competenele pariale cuprind dimensiuni ale competenelor transferabile i transversale, absolut necesare n profesionalizarea formrii viitorilor economiti.
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1. Brard, velyne, Les tches dans lenseignement du FLE. Rapport la ralit et dimension didactique , n Franais dans le monde, Recherche et Application no. 45 (janvier), 2009, p. 36-44. 2. Berchoud, Marie-Josphe, Rolland, Dominique, Franais sur objectifs spcifiques : de la langue aux mtiers , numro spcial Le Franais dans le monde, janvier, 2004. 3. Cadre Europen Commun de Rfrence pour les Langues : apprendre, enseigner, valuer, Apprentissage des langues et citoyennet europenne Division des Langues Vivantes, Strasbourg, Les Editions Didier, Paris, 2001. 4. Cilianu-Lascu, Corina, Lorentz, Maria-Antoaneta, Vasiliu, Deliana, Conception et gestion dun cours en ligne de franais des affaires pour le prsentiel rduit luniversit , comunicare prezentat la Congresul FIPF, Praga, 2011. 5. Cilianu-Lascu, Corina, Deliana Vasiliu, Rodica Stoicescu, Antoaneta Lorentz, Quelle perspective actionnelle (PA) pour le franais en dispositif LANSAD, n Actes du 7e Congrs Panhellnique et International des Professeurs de Franais Communiquer, Echanger, Collaborer en franais dans lespace mditerranen et balkanique, Athnes, 21-24 octobre 2010. 6. Cilianu-Lascu Corina, Ivanciu, Niculina, Lorentz, Maria-Antoaneta, Stoicescu, Rodica, Vasiliu, Deliana, Manuel de franais pour lenseignement distance, I-re anne, Relations Economiques Internationales, Suport de curs pentru nvmnt la distan, Editura ASE, Bucureti, 2009. 7. Cilianu-Lascu, Corina, Les rapports entre la politique linguistique des entreprises et les langues de la communication interne , 2e Assises europennes du plurilinguisme, juin 2009, Berlin, http://plurilinguisme.europe-avenir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task 43

8. Cilianu-Lascu Corina, Analyse des diffrentes mthodologies et mthodes denseignement / apprentissage des langues trangres, Dialogos, nr. 18, 2008, p. 6-16. 9. Cilianu-Lascu Corina, Options mthodologiques gnrales et spcifiques pour lenseignement / apprentissage du franais conomique, Dialogos, nr.18, 2008, p.16-27. 10. Cilianu-Lascu Corina Classes denseignement / apprentissage en L2, Dialogos, nr.18, 2008, p. 65-69. 11. Corina Cilianu-Lascu, Marius Sala, Les langues de la communication professionnelle dans les entreprises de Roumanie: enjeux, ralits, perspectives , in European Federation of National Institutions for Language 6th Annual Conference Language Use in Business and Commerce in Europe, Lisbon, 12-14 November 2008, Ed. Peter Lang, 2010, p. 123-135. 12. Cilianu-Lascu Corina, Deliana Vasiliu, Rodica Stoicescu, Options mthodologiques pour le franais de spcialit, Dialogos, nr.18, 2008, p.82-91. 13. Cilianu-Lascu, Corina et al., Mots, Expressions, Discours en Economie, (coordonator i co-autor), Bucureti, Editura Teora, 2005. 14. Defays, Jean-Marc, Le franais langue trangre et seconde enseignement et apprentissage, Mardaga, 2003. 15. Ferrari, De, Mariela, Langue et situations de travail : dcloisonner pour mieux articuler , n Le Franais dans le Monde, juillet 2007, p. 46-59. 16. Giraudy, Marie-Agns, Enseigner la communication de spcialit en entreprise Entre savoir-faire, langue et culture, n Le Franais dans le Monde, janvier 2004, p.81- 84. 17. Goullier, Francis, Les outils du Conseil de lEurope en classe de langue, Cadre commun et Portfolios, Paris, Didier, 2005. 18. Gros, Dominique, Analyse des TICE / Approche Fonctionnelle (manuscrit), CEPROFS, Mulhouse, 2002. 19. Ivanciu, Nina, Lascu-Cilianu, Corina, Lorentz, Maria-Antoaneta, Stoicescu, Rodica, Vasiliu, Delia, Droulement du stage dun tudiant roumain en conomie dans une entreprise francophone, Colocviul 44

internaional Franais sur objectifs spcifiques acquis et perspectives, n Buletin tiinific, nr.4/2007, Editura ASE Bucureti, p. 263-273. 20. Lehmann, Denis, Objectifs spcifiques en langue trangre, Paris, Hachette F.L.E., 1993. 21. Mangiante, Jean-Marc, Parpette, Chantal, Le Franais sur Objectif Spcifique : de lanalyse des besoins llaboration dun cours, Paris, Hachette F.L.E. 22. Mangenot, Franois, Penilla, Frdrique, Internet, tche et vie relle , n Le Franais dans le monde, no. 45 (janvier), 2009, p.82-91. 23. Motte, Michel, (2004), Les formations en FOS au regard des entreprises , n Le franais dans le monde, janvier 2004, p.157 168. 24. Mourlhon-Dallies, Florence, Quand faire, cest dire : volutions du travail, rvolutions didactiques ? , n Le Franais dans le Monde, juillet 2007, p.12-31. 25. Reinhart, Claus, Pour une application des trois comptences du CECR en classe : une synthse pragmatique des propositions de la pdagogie de projet et de lenseignement/apprentissage par les tches , n Le Franais dans le monde, no. 45 (janvier), 2009, p. 45-54. 26. Springer, Claude, La dimension sociale dans le CECR : pistes pour scnariser, valuer et valoriser lapprentissage collaboratif , n Le Franais dans le monde, no. 45 (janvier), 2009, p. 25-36. 27. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ing%C3%A9nierie_p%C3%A 9dagogique

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COMUNICRI PE SECIUNI

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FORMAREA COMPETENEI DE COMUNICARE N LIMBAJ TIINIFIC LA LICEENI DIN PERSPECTIV METODOLOGIC Victor MPU, cercettor tiinific, Sectorul Educaie Lingvistic, Literar i Artistic, I..E. Chiinu
ABSTRACT

The article presents the ways to develop the high-school communicative competences in scientific language such as: informative, cognitive aud pragmatic special capacities of verbal intelligence. The competence to summarize a scientific text involves the realization of 6 operational objectives. The evaluation of forming / developing of the competences will imply set of cognitive, communicative and verbal activities. Comunicarea este complex prin proces, forme, coninuturi, niveluri, prin diversitatea codurilor, canalelor, situaiilor, modalitilor n care se produce. Formarea competenei de comunicare n limbaj tiinific se realizeaz prin intercorelarea: 1) la nivel informativ cu stpnirea coninutului obiectului de comunicare; 2) la nivel cognitiv ca un instrument al gndirii; 3) la nivel pragmatic prin transmiterea mesajului de comunicare n situaia concret. CCL va comporta o finalitate dubl: a) cognitiv (de nvare); b) educativ-formativ (comportamental). Formarea/dezvoltarea CCL a liceenilor din punctul de vedere al naturii coninutului se delimiteaz: a) referenial; b) operaional-metodologic; c) atitudinal. Competena de comunicare n limbaj tiinific la liceeni n cadrul disciplinilor reale repereaz pe: 1) cunoaterea i utilizarea calitativ i 48 49

cantitativ-optimal a terminologiei tiinifice n cadrul disciplinei concrete; 2) nivelul vocabularului special; 3) cultura exprimrii; 4) capacitile creativitii verbale. Inteniile sau finalitile comunicrii au o finalizare dubl. Una este cognitiv de nvare de construire a sensului a ceea ce elevii ascult i citesc, i alta educativ-formativ, orientat la stimularea motivaiei, dezvoltarea intelectual, emotiv [1. p.5]. ntr-un articol consacrat pedagogiei comunicrii, Laureniu oitu menioneaz despre Contientizarea de ctre profesori, elevi, familie i societate a nevoilor i posibilitilor de comunicare eficient [8]. Unul dintre obiectivele educaionale de prim importan const n formarea-dezvoltarea inteligenei verbale, coraportate la calitile comunicrii orale i scrise la nivelul urmtorilor indicatori: - capacitatea de sesizare rapid a sensului cuvintelor, propoziiilor, frazelor de natur tiinific, artistic, tehnologic etc.; - capacitatea de exprimare verbal fluid din diferite condiii i situaii cu grad ridicat de solicitare i complexitate [4, p. 154]. Vocabularul nsuit const n a) lexicul tiinific special (n cadrul disciplinei concrete de studiu), adic terminologia domeniului); b) lexicul tiinific general presupune vocabularul n ansamblu i c) lexicul de uz general, utilizarea terminologiei n comunicarea cotidian. De aici rezult un vocabular tiinific adecvat, corectitudine terminologic, exactitate de sens, creativitate verbal, concizie, claritate a mesajului, coeren, logic etc. La formarea-dezvoltarea CCL noii termeni, vocabularul tiinific vor fi corelai prin noile noiuni, concepte, teorii prin comprehensiunea, nsuirea i aplicarea lor n contexte comunicative verbale i scrise. Descrierea unui fenomen, proces, legitate se va efectua printr-o utilizare corect i adecvat a terminologiei la nivel teoretic i aplicativ. CCL se formeaz n cadrul disciplinelor reale prin: 1) dialog oral-adresarea ntrebrilor conlocutorului; 2) dialog n form deschis (alctuirea rspunsului la ntrebri; autoprezentarea sub form de rezumat); 3) polilog (discuie-dezbatere n colectiv). 50

CCL se intercoreleaz la nivel pragmatic prin transmiterea mesajului de comunicare n situaia concret; la nivel cognitiv ca instrument al gndirii; i la nivel informativ prin stpnirea coninutului obiectului de comunicare. Intercorelarea se realizeaz prin: a) mobilizarea cunotinelor (terminologie, vocabular, limbaj); b) flexibilitatea metodei (oral, expozitiv, interogativ, scris, la nivelul limbajului interior); c) gndirea critic. CCL se raporteaz la dou perspective: 1) comportamental (praxiologic) situaie concret; 2) cognitiv (teoretic ca proces) - constant n timp. Progresul cognitiv general-funcional, realizat prin lectura textelor tiinifice, prin capaciti cognitive superioare evolueaz n competena de comunicare n general i tiinific n special. Lectura sau munca cu cartea, sursa tiinific, cu manualul pe parcursul formrii-dezvoltrii CCL, se realizeaz prin o activitate de ansamblu prin: explorare direct indirect (demonstrativ), demonstraia imaginilor real demonstraia imaginilor, demonstraia grafic [9]. La nivelul lecturii, procesul cognitiv se realizeaz prin: a) perceperea textului; b) anticiparea i identificarea mesajului; c) interpretarea i aprecierea lui. Procesul de nelegere a unui text tiinific debuteaz cu definirea (extragerea) termenilor necunoscui, stabilirea termenilor-cheie pentru a se putea nelege ntregul alineat, fragment, text integral. Operaiile realizate de elev n cadrul acestui proces presupun: 1) definirea i redefinirea; 2) traducerea i interpretarea; 3) diferenierea i explicarea; 4) aplicarea i utilizarea termenilor, textului noiunilor noi. CCL achiziionat va demonstra producerea textului (comunicare, rezumat, referat) prin respectarea parametrilor de limb ai textului tiinific. Competena de a rezuma un text tiinific, tiinifico-popular presupune realizarea a cel puin 6 obiective operaionale: 1) s neleag la prima lectur esena; 2) s ia notie; 3) s extrag ideile principale; 51

4) s argumenteze, s concluzioneze ideile principale; 5) s generalizeze cu expunerea propriului punct de vedere; 6) s autoevalueze, s evalueze n clas, grup. Obiectivele de referin au finaliti ale aciunii instructiv-educative n formarea-dezvoltarea CCL a liceenilor prin: 1) competena epistemologic (conceptual); 2) coninuturi i metodologii de dezvoltare/ formare, presupunnd: a) funcionarea limbajului tiinific ca sistem unitar; b) formarea premiselor de integrare social a tinerilor; c) dezvoltarea CCL ca o component a culturii generale. Rezumatul textului tiinific, elaborarea acestuia va repera pe 4 activiti de baz: 1) identificarea termenilor-cheie ai alineatelor; 2) omiterea informaiei de prisos; 3) stabilirea ideei principale prin formularea titlului (dac sarcina nu se realizeaz sub egida profesorului); 4) formularea ideilor (ideei) principale n form de teze, tez. Rezult c lucrrile de acest gen trebuie s reflecte: esenialul coninutului; termenii-cheie; evitarea detalizrilor; fraze concise, scurte, clare. n scopul formrii CCL va fi necesar ca elevii la treapta liceal s poat: s identifice surse de informaie tiinific; s perceap sursele de informaie i documentare; s fie capabili s evalueze gradul de relevan, utilizarea acestora; s-i dezvolte abilitatea de a opera o selecie dup necesiti n cadrul acestora; s prelucreze datele obinute n mod creator pe ct posibil (prin elaborri de rezumate, conspecte, ntocmirea unor fie de studii, referate, sinteze); s expun ntr-un limbaj tiinific adecvat, printr-o corectitudine lingvistic i stilistic oral i n scris [2]. 52

Referatul, ca un obiectiv de a forma competena de munc intelectual, const n elaborarea unei lucrri bazate pe cercetare individual a diferitor surse informaionale referitoare la o tem, la un capitol. Prin competena de a discrimina informaii noi se va recurge la: studierea textului (fragmentului, temei, problemei) n ansamblu, mprindu-1 n informaii, idei principale i auxiliare; formularea ntrebrilor proprii; gsirea rspunsurilor la ntrebri. Aici se circumscriu: selectarea riguroas a materialului faptic; esenializarea cunotinelor dup valoarea lor cognitiv; divizarea logic i consecutivitatea ideilor; argumentarea tezelor, concluziilor; formularea concluziilor pariale, concluzia (concluziile) general; evitarea cuvintelor parazite, golurilor de explicaie. Ca produs al unei cercetri mai ndelungate, referatul se realizeaz la sfritul unei uniti tematice (capitol, subcapitol). De ex: la Fizic Evoluia tabloului tiinific al lumii (cl.XII); la Biologie Biotehnologii tradiionale i moderne (cl.XII) la Chimie Mase plastice, fibre sintetice ntre avantaje, dezavantaje i consecine ecologice (cl.XII). O C.C.. la nivelurile verbal i scris va parcurge paii urmtori: 1) lectura de suprafa i aprofundate a textului tiinific (tiinificopopular); 2) nelegerea i analizarea textului; 3) cutarea i sistematizarea informaiilor (tem, subiect, aspect); 4) prelucrarea surselor suplimentare;5) proiectarea-schiarea-producerea unui text rezumativ; 6) formularea concluziilor; 7) redactarea textului propriu-zis; 8) schiarea (proiectarea) comunicrii orale; 9) prezentarea acestor lucrri auditoriului; 10) achiziii cu utilitate personal i social. n cazul utilizrii surselor suplimentare de informaie (texte integrale, fragmente de lucrri n domeniul disciplinei concrete, extrase, citate etc.), se vor ntreprinde urmtoarele activiti: 1) selectarea riguroas a materialului faptic; 2) sistematizarea ideilor principale (de baz) de logic, consecutivitate; 53

3) formularea de concluzii pariale (concluzie); 4) evitarea golurilor de explicaie, cuvintelor parazite, mbinrilor, frazelor cliee. CCL poate fi evaluat prin componentele discursiv i relaional. Astfel, componenta discursiv dup semnificare urmrete capacitatea de a prezenta auditoriului o descriere a obiectului sau a situaiei comunicative prin semne; dup utilizare se are n vdere modul n care mesajul (text, expunere, rezumat) este transmis i receptat prin logica adecvat (tiinific) n structurarea coninutului prezentat auditoriului. Componenta relaional presupune activitatea de comunicare ca form de integrare social, comportament, cooperare [1]. Evaluarea (autoevaluarea) nivelului de formare-dezvoltare a CCL sub aspect praxiologic va antrena un ir de activiti cognitive, comunicative, verbale prin: cunoaterea componentelor problemei; generalizarea, rezumarea ideilor; autoevaluarea i evaluarea reciproc; formularea ntrebrilor; prezentarea informaiei cunoscute; formularea coerent a ntrebrilor, concretizrilor, precizrilor; prezentarea oral a celor nvate, conspectate; observarea i comentarea (celor mai semnificative idei); nelegerea la lectur a textului tiinific; expunerea logic, clar, convingtoare, corectitudinea scris i oral; utilizarea adecvat a terminologiei tiinifice. Evaluarea lucrrilor elaborate de ctre elevi profesorul o va realiza prin: coninutul propriu-zis; respectarea cerinelor de baz fa de tipul concret de lucrare; concluziile i interpretrile; numrul de surse utilizate; coerena expunerii verbale i scrise. Textele tiinifice se adreseaz raiunii, scopul lor fiind de a descoperi adevrul. De aici e i formarea limbajelor pe domenii de cunoatere 54

tiinific, discipline colare, intercorelarea lor [10]. n acest context, CCL are ca obiectiv formarea limbajului adecvat, utilizarea lui n context integrator, transdisciplinar. Lucrrile scrise recomandate (rezumat, referat, sintez) ca: Protecia mediului: stare, proces, perspective. Cunoatere i ecosistem vor fi edificatoare ca realizare, eficien i importan personal i social.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

1. CERGHIT, I., NEACU I. Prelegeri pedagogice. Iai: Polirom, 2001. 2. CERGHIT, I. Metode de nvmnt. Iai: Polirom , 2006. 3. COSMOVICI A. Psihologie colar. Iai: Polirom, 2005. 4. CRISTEA, S. Dicionar de pedagogie. L.I, 2000. 5. CURRICULUM pentru nvmntul liceal. Biologie. Chiinu: tiina, 2006. 6. CURRICULUM pentru clasele a X-a a-XII-a. Fizic. Chiinu: tiina, 2006. 7. CURRICULUM pentru nvmntul liceal. Chimie. Chiinu: tiina, 2006. 8. DIDACTICA PRO , nr. l, 2002. 9. PERRENOUD, Ph. Metier d eleve et sens du travail scolaire, Paris: ESE, 1994. 10. PNIOAR, I-O. Comunicarea eficient. Iai: Polirom, 2008. 11. ERBNESCU, A. Cum se scrie un text. Iai: Polirom, 2001.

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CREATIVE PERFORMANCE APPROACH IN TEACHING ENGLISH TO ADULTS Galina BURdENIUC, profesor universitar, doctor habilitat, Catedra de limbi strine, Institutul de Formare Continu din Moldova Every job is a self-portrait of the person who did it. Autograph your work with excellence.
ABSTRACT

We have entered the new era when the fate of our planet fully depends on the level of our consciousness which is the source of all our ideas, actions, desires and thoughts. Speaking about changing instruction methods educationists mention only two strategies: 1. general changes must be made in the instructional environment including the material used; 2. the activities and the manner of use of materials must be modified. SCHEME -1
SPEECH COMMUNICATION

The article deals with a new approach to teaching languages the key note of which is students individualized learning and his creative activity in a collaborative team during the teaching process. The result of the teams activity is achieved through a mutual performance and individualized contribution of the participants. A professional knows that teaching, irrespective of the subject or discipline taught, is done not in the manner of an effective in-put followed up by checking and assessment, but by focusing on the development of the cognitive interest to research, personal finding. In other words, every teacher must teach students how to learn. The first concern of a humanitarian education is the students active cognitive outlook. No factual knowledge can substitute it. In the century of scientific synthesis a new educational paradigm is being gradually developed. It challenges reconsideration of approaches to teaching languages as well. Creative Performance Approach (CPA) developed in the Institute of Continuing Education represents new insights into learning as an individualized process, into basics of teaching oral communication springing from the socio-cultural aspect of authentic information exchange into the nature of teachinglearning goals and tactics of authentic communication simulation. 56

PURPOSE filling info gaps NATURE giving info asking for info
INFORMATION

SOMETHING NEW

Necessity PURPOSE Usefulness Interest Thurst for the unknown NATURE thoroughly selected new ideas, vocabulary, structures. 57

But these are the outwardly means to perfect the teaching process. The consciousness of the student remains intact when the teacher provides him with communicative opportunities only. The students inner world is responding when his brain has a relevant problem, when he discusses options, makes life-true decisions and establishes accountability and bears responsibility for what he does while working in a team. Not denying the importance of the two strategies mentioned above we must accentuate the indispensability of the Creative Performance Approach discussed further. As education of today focuses on professionalism- show not what you know but what you can do- CPA gives a possibility to get in-depth knowledge about the way it is done. So, what is CPA? 1. CPA is a theory of a creative personality formation through tasks which involve development of creativity, active thinking for productive cognition, research and discovery. 2. Personal creativity helps reveal natural capacities, the ability to find ones mission in this life, to set tangible goals and achieve them. 3. Creative Performance makes the whole learning process at school and universities a reflective awareness activity chosen not by chance but by a mind craving for research and discovery. 4. Creative Performance teaching and learning involve development of associative, imaginative, and systematic thinking. How to encourage active learning on the part of the students? How to create the environment that will encourage active learning? This can be accomplished by planning a general program that addresses the following elements: 1. Plan goals and objectives tailored to real principles and relevancy; 2. Give the students as many opportunities as possible to read, write, talk, and listen in various group structures; 3. Allow the students to think and discuss options, make decisions, and establish accountability for what they do when working with you; 4. Surround the students with print to build a literacy-rich environment; 5. Treat the students with respect and work to empower them as learners; 6. Use interesting and meaningful material and activities. 58

CPA is one of the possibilities to integrate the process of successful learning. A new insight into learning process terribly needs development. It was the greatest mistake of teachers to think that a foreign language should be taught likewise to children and grown-ups. What are the Basics of Creative Performance Approach? 1. Transparency of the activity system (as awareness of the activity inspires interest). 2. Double objective: a) pedagogical goal for teachers; b) Creative Performance based goal for students. 3. Springing board- communicative competence of the native speaker. 4. Communicative nature of any speech activity: a) Reading- for new info derived from the text; b) Listening- for new info derived through listening; c) Speaking- for new info conveyed through communicative functions. 5. Problem Solving through creative performance. 6. Come to grips with the unknown. Should everything or anything be pre-taught? SCHEME - 2 CONVERSATION What to teach? Topic May not know what Modality May not know how Function

Asking for information Asking for information

Teaching functions in a coherent creative performance rather than multiple isolated situations.

59

Function and not form is the primary framework for organizing and sequencing lessons; forms are taught through it. One function can have many different forms, and a variety of linguistic forms are introduced for each function, simpler ones being presented before more complicated. Curricula are organized around such functions as introductions; greetings and goodbyes; invitations; apologies and condolences; gratitude; complements and congratulations; requests, commands, warnings and directions; offers and asking for permission; advice and inventions; pleasure and displeasure; expressing ones opinion and so on. Communicative classroom is student centered: students are inter-actors working in pairs, triads, small groups, teams or in a whole group brainstorming, sharing, discussing, etc., while the teacher is a facilitator (initiator, organizer, advisor helping to make activities easier and more productive for the students) or a co-communicator. Cooperative relationships among students are encouraged which gives students a possibility to negotiate meaning. When students work in subgroups, the speaking time for each student increases. One of the basic assumptions of communicative approach is that students will be more motivated to study a foreign language as they will feel they are learning to do something useful with the language they study. Students are also given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions. This helps students to integrate the foreign language with their own personality and, thus, to feel more emotionally secure with it. (Littlewood) SCHEME - 3

Creative Performance Approach represents a deep insight into learning as an individualized process, on the one hand, into basics of oral communication springing from the socio- cultural aspect of authentic information exchange, on the other hand, and lastly, into the nature of teaching-learning goals and tactics. Look at scheme 2. What is individualized learning? Individualized learning presupposes creating an atmosphere of experimental learning allowing the student to conceptualize knowledge, apply it in practice and reflect it in experience. SCHEME - 4

1. a developmental process 8. making interest, variety predominant 7. acquiring the language incidentally while actually thinking 6. valuing attitude as much as aptitude and ability

2. Organisation of information into a meaningful network of knowledge 3. a decision making process 4. not just a matter of linguistic knowledge

LEARNING

CPA Individualized learning Socio-cultural aspect of information exchange

60

Authentic communication simulation

5. an emotional expirience

In other words, the process of individualized learning comprises eight interconnected processes. 1. smth new is acquired; 2. a new system of concepts appears as a result of personal reorganization of information; 3. a problem to solve should be the student activity goal; 4. it is clear that linguistic knowledge is not enough; 61

5. emphasis is laid on the process of solving the problem and not on learning; 6. intention, motivation, and interest; 7. thinking about what to say and not how to say; 8. making interest, variety predominant. But whatever the variety exists it will remain a mere variety before it represents a systemic whole, based on the interaction of outward management of the students activity and their inward selfmanagement if they have got the necessary tools. And it is the teacher who should supply them with those tools. CPA gives a possibility to integrate the content based instruction, collaborative learning and communicative interaction techniques to involve the learner into hear + see + speak + create + do + bear responsibility activity. Schematically it can be represented as follows. SCHEME - 5

The so-called intellectual act presupposes three interconnected stages. SCHEME 6 up up to to till into inside to on in till up to OUR BRAIN
Native Foreign prepositions

INTELLECTUAL ACT

prepositions

CPA

1. Program
Content-based instruction

Collaborative Communicative, learing Interactive Technologies

2. Actualization 3. Matching the result

Tool for selfmanagement

Hear + See + Comprehend + Bring home

Do + speak + + create

Hear + see + do + + speak + create + + bear responsibility

For example, the universally acknowledged phenomenon of interference exists. Methodology registers it, but very seldom offers a remedy. And the remedy exists in understanding the synthesized process of human thinking. 62

The target language in the classroom, English in our case, is a vehicle for communication, not just an object to be studied. Activities are done in it and directions for activities are given in the target language. Operating rules for class are not to speak the mother tongue and to resort to translation only when it is absolutely necessary. Whenever possible, authentic language (language as it is used in a real context, by native speakers) is introduced to give students an opportunity to develop survival strategies. Authentic verbal materials films, videos, TV, audio tapes and cassettes, and etc. help a non-native speaking teacher. Non-traditional texts advertisements, operating 63

instructions, etc. find their application as teaching materials. Authentic non-verbal materials, all kinds of artifacts and realia, are brought to class at large. Non-verbal behaviour is used, e.g. body language. All this introduces learners into the culture of the people who use the language natively. Traditionally, listening, speaking and accuracy were emphasized. While communicative teaching considers errors and mistakes as a part of learning process and skills are taught according to learners needs. Fluency is more important than accuracy errors are tolerated as a part of learning process, still fluency should not be encouraged at the expense of clear communication. Teachers control of the classroom involves assistance giving. Correction of mistakes is postponed; repeated and typical ones are taken care of later. In the communicative classroom, students have to use the language productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts. When working in pairs, for example, they are not supposed first to prepare something and then to perform it, they should start communicating at once. The ultimate criterion for communicative success is conveying a message the transmission and receiving of intended meaning. Communicative intent implies three elements: a) information gap; b) choice; and c) feedback. Students work with language at a discourse (conversation) or suprasegmental level (above the sentence), they learn how the sentences are bound together and are not confined to the word or even sentence level. It reflects real life situation which is not limited to naming things and stating facts. Scheme 6 shows that a speaking skill is developed at the level of utterance, where the student deals with speech and his main goal is to think about what to say, what sense to convey in the process of communication with an interlocutor. As is shown below the traditional approach develops a skill starting with a word, then a sentence and finally producing an utterance. That is why the arrow goes bottom-up. The communicative approach starts with an utterance and the arrow goes top-down. 64

Utterance

SCHEME - 7 Utterance

o m m u n i a t i v e

a p p r o a c h

t r a d i t i o n a l

a p p r o a c h

Sound, Word

Sound, Word

Let us see how it is done. It is done on the basis of algorithm of the students activity. What is algorithm? Algorithm is a list of instructions which are carried out in a fixed order to find the answer to a question, to solve a problem, to achieve a desired result etc. (Longman dictionary of English, p.27) Below a general idea of an algorithm is given.

Algorithm
1. Pedagogical goal teaching function, grammar, lexis; 2. Creative Performance Student Activity solving a problem; 3. Teachers Legend; 4. General objective (interesting, vague, challenging); 5. Possible solutions Brainstorming; 6. Concrete objective N1; 65

7. Conflict what to do, but do not know how; 8. Behaviour model (What to do and How to do); 9. Language Model + Pedagogical goal material necessary to discuss problem N1; 10. Small group formation uniting individual efforts; 11. Requisite; 12. Students team Speech Activity; 13. Checking up the solutions found (emphasis is made on the result of the students activity); 14. Solving the next concrete objective.

EXAMPLE Double objective Pedagogical Giving and asking for advice Creative Performance student activity
Youve won a million dollars at a lottery. What would you do with it? 1. Comunication problem How to spend a million? 2. Conflict You have the money but you dont know how to spend it to advantage. Purposes - personal - social - political - scientific 3. Behavior Model Ask for advice (consulting agency, a lawyer, a friend, the family). 4. Language Model To ask for advice - To take (follow) advice - To give some good advice. 5. Small group performance 6. Checking the result. 66

This is the example of teaching a topic based on a communicative functions: Convincing People and Asking For and Giving Advice. Theme of the lesson Travel agent Teachers Goal: Functions: 1. convincing people; 2. asking for or giving advice. Grammar: modal verbs can, may, must, should, need. Legend: Dear friends! Vacations are coming. We can spend them in an interesting way. For example, going somewhere. Let us plan such a trip today. General Creative Activity Goal: What should we do to arrange such a trip? Who should we turn for advice? Where should we go? Students Brainstorming: 1. traveling agency; 2. asking parents for advice; 3. do information study; 4. use friends experience. These are concrete activity goals the class will be trying to achieve. Concrete Goal I. So, let us go to a travel agency first. Problem we need advice how to arrange a trip during vacation. Conflict there are so many places we can go to, but we dont know what to choose. Behavioral model: What to do? Address the travel agency and ask for advice where it is better to go for a vacation. 67

How to do? Put down or remember what arguments convinced you. Language Model: you will need some formulas to use in the agency. What can I do for you? We need some information about going for a trip, arranging a trip, some places we can go for a vacation Where can we go? You may go to .Romania, Turkey, England, Italy. We cannot go to .because.It is.expensive, far We cannot take children..no transport.. Can you go to.because it is much cheapernearer, interesting.. Yes, we can. No, we cant/ cannot. Do we need to book a trip right away? No, you neednt. I think I must discuss it withmy parents/ my roommate/ my friend/ my teacher.. Excuse me, what can you recommend usto taketo buyto prepare? While dealing with vocabulary the teacher may introduce many other formulas (like apologizing), gestures, facial expressions, body language. Small Group Formation: Students discuss in pairs and in groups of three. Requisite: The students are introduces a list of sightseeing, places, a price list, leafletsetc. For example: Romania - 200 dollars; a three hour drive, mineral water; Turkey 300 dollars, a six hour drive, warm sea, excellent service; England 2,500 dollars, a three hour flght, interesting sightseeing, attending a Parliament Session; Italy 1,500 Euros, a three hour flight, interesting sights, visiting Vatican, swimming in the Mediterranean Sea. 68

Students Communication 3 minute talk. Checking up: Did the agent convince you? Where can you go? Why? Concrete Goal II. The best advice is usually given by the parents. Conflict: we plan some interesting trip, but we need some more money for it. Behavioral Model: What to do? Speak to your parents for advice what to choose. How to do? Put down your parents decisions about the lacking money. Language Model: Mum, I need your help. I may go to because it is. But I need some more money to go to. Why should you go to ? Why not to go to .it is much? You must earn the money you need You can borrow it from the bank/ friend/ neighbour You see father, I thought about going to.It is muchmoreless.. Yes, you may go to . No, you cannot go to .because You should remember that. Have you booked the trip already? I think you must Small Groups Formation: The teacher divides the class into groups of three students. Requisite: 69

The same as in the previous case. Students Creative Performance. Checking up: What did your parents advise you? What should you do about the money? The students answer: My father (mother) decided: I should earn, borrow/ I must go to/ I cannot go tobecause Concrete Goal III. Using friends experience. Conflict: All the arguments people gave didnt convince us. But a friends experience may be most convincing. Behavior Model: What? Speak to your friend. How? Remember what he said you should do. Language Model: What do you think I should do? I think you should not go to because it is . You may go to,but I You neednt hurry to book the trip. You cannot go to .because Why not buy a trip toIt is much/less/more But can I go to .? Youve been there, havent you? Yes, I have. But you must remember that You may be disappointed, because You must write them first Small Groups. Requisite. Other leaflets. Students Creative Activity. Checking up. What did your friend say you should do? Where did he advise to go? Why? 70

Questions. Evaluation. Praising students for good ideas, being active. Saying goodbye. In coherence with the requirements of the algorithm the following recommendations would be advisable for the teacher to follow. 1. Teacher must have two goals at a lesson pedagogical and students creative activity. 2. Every lesson must be a scenario of a purposeful activity. 3. Every activity should make sense for the student. 4. Only solving a true-to-life problem causes motivation, interest. 5. Only team work may result in intention to say something. 6. Teaching vocabulary and structures must take place in the course of communicative activity (when there is a need for them). 7. A legend, a role, a mask, helps the student relax and be creative. 8. Pre-teach as little as you can. Let the student guess and solve. 9. Any students point of view, idea, suggestion, decision matters. 10. Be serious, respect, and enjoy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Littlewood William, Foreign and Second Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, 1992. 2. Littlewood William, Language Variation and Seconds Language Acquisition Theory/Applied linguistics, v 2, no. 2, 1981. 3. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, 1999 4. Burdeniuc Galina, Creative Performance Approach as a New Challenge in Language Teaching/ Language Development and Teaching, (International conference), Bli, 2004

71


, - , ,
ABSTRACT

The article deals with the peculiarities of the intensification of language learning by means of combined training. And the main legislative acts that define the legal status of distance education in Ukraine. It determines the advantages and disadvantages of distance and traditional learning. The characteristics of full-time-distance model, developed for training full-time students. Keywords: language education, full-time form of training, distance learning, combined form, the model integration. , . , - . , (). , , 72

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- MOODLE, , , , , ; - Lotus Learning Space , , . , ; - eFront . eFront , , , , , , , .. .. - , , : - (), , ; ; , ; , ; - , 78

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1. . : . - [ ] : // http://www.lnu.edu.ua/ 2. . - [ ] : // www.udec.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua 3. .. (Blended learning) // : . . : . , 2010. . 1. . 2. . 141144. 4. .. - [ ] : http://www.nbuv.gov.ua/ 5. .. // . - ., 2005.

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LES PRINCIPES DE LAPPRENTISSAGE DES LANGUES ETRANGERES A ORIENTATION PROFESSIONNELLE Elena CEPRAGA, profesor l. francez, grad did.superior, sef catedr, Catedra de limbi moderne, Colegiul Politehnic, Chiinu
ReSUMAT

A nva, a studia o limb strin este un proces ce cuprinde persoana n integritate. Aceasta este o experien fundamental ce deschide noi dimensiuni de comunicare i de percepere de sine nsui i pe cei din jur. A nva o limb strin cu orientare profesional nu ofer numai unele segmente ale limbii adaptate la o specialitate i nu reduce nvarea la o noiune funcional avnd o aplicare direct. Acesta este un sector ce respect formarea specific i ambiana de lucru, comunicarea n diferite direcii i ramuri. A nva o limb cu orientare profesional poate oferi o experien concret de munc ntr-un context internaional, acela contribuind la dezvoltarea flexibilitii i mobilitii. nvarea unei limbi strine cu orientare profesional este reglementat de nite principii. Il y a de nombreuses tches quun apprenant doit accomplir ou doit tre en mesure daccomplir afin de faire face aux exigences des situations qui surgissent dans les diffrents domaines. Parmi de nombreux exemples, on peut utilement citer des exemples de tches dans le domaine professionnel. Les apprenants devront tre capables de dcliner leur identit, dappeler leur nom, de donner leur adresse et leur numro de tlphone, de dire leur date et lieu de naissance, leur ge, leur tat civil, leur nationalit, do ils viennent, ce quils font, de dcrire leur famille, de nommer leur religion sil y a lieu, de dire ce qui leur plat et ce qui ne leur plat pas, de dire comment sont les autres, de comprendre et solliciter des informations semblables de la part de leurs interlocuteurs. Ces spcifications trs concrtes de tches constituent des objectifs dapprentissage motivs et significatifs. Nanmoins, le nombre des tches est indfini. 82

Il faut amener les apprenants rflchir sur leurs besoins en termes de communication, les entranants ainsi une prise de conscience de leur apprentissage et lautonomie. Un employ naura pas parler franais avec ses collgues ou son patron de mme nationalit que lui, et pour la majeure partie de son travail, il utilisera sa langue maternelle. Par contre, avec des clients francophones ou des collgues franais, il devra tre capable de soutenir une conversation, en face face ou par tlphone, de mme quil aura comprendre des lettres, ou des tlex, y rpondre, ou encore lire certains documents professionnels simples en franais. Ces situations professionnelles impliquent lutilisation du franais formant lossature de ce travail (le but de ce travail). Une telle dmarche suppose que lobjectif premier recherch est dentraner les tudiants / les apprenants une utilisation aussi pertinente que possible de la langue dans ce qui est fondamentalement, au sens propre du terme, une situation de communication. Dans le cadre de lenseignement du franais langue de communication orientation professionnelle (sur objectifs spcifiques) on constate lexistence de trois grandes raisons dapprendre le franais : 1. pour sinformer 2. pour communiquer 3. pour acqurir un savoir nouveau dans un domaine Un mme apprenant peut avoir la fois des besoins de communication professionnelle prcis et des besoins gnraux, culturels ou autres, lis ou non lis sa spcialit. Nanmoins, ,, lenseignement des langues quel que soit le publicpoursuit toujours un double objectif : il ne convient donc pas dopposer langue de communication et langue de culture car cest seulement, en fonction du public, de la demande, de lobjectif assign, du contexte, que peut soprer le choix daccorder plus dimportance soit laspect communicatif soit laspect formatif/informatif .4
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Lapprentissage des langues permet aux apprenants de dvelopper leur potentiel et de prendre une part active lvolution de lEurope. Ces apprenants souhaitent utiliser les langues pour la vie quotidienne, dans des contextes o il est ncessaire de parler les langues des voisins pour exprimer des besoins communicatifs immdiats. Leurs besoins peuvent galement intresser leur vie professionnelle mais, du moins durant la premire phase, il a surtout t question des besoins langagiers dordre priv. Et notamment il faut les donner chacun, quel que soit son statut social et son parcours ducatif, la chance de pouvoir surmonter les barrires culturelles et nationales. Lapprentissage des langues a toujours t considr comme un processus qui stendait sur une vie entire, chacun devant avoir la possibilit damliorer sa qualit de vie en souvrant la communication avec des personnes et des cultures nouvelles. En consquence les niveaux seuls ont ultrieurement form la base dun largissement du projet, qui sest ouvert sur les besoins en communication dans le monde du travail. Lenseignement des langues orientation professionnelle (sur objectifs spcifiques) est le secteur qui a connu le dveloppement le plus rapide. Cette observation nest pas rellement surprenante si lon considre les dimensions internationales croissantes des phnomnes conomiques et la cration dun march mondial qui repose sur la coopration et sur une communication constante par-del les barrires linguistiques. Cette situation exige une communication efficace dans lindustrie et le commerce, un double titre. Dun ct, loffre en langue peut se situer un niveau trs fonctionnel. Dun autre ct, il est devenu de plus en plus vident que la comptence linguistique est un aspect important de la comptence professionnelle gnrale dans le secteur industriel et commercial. Cette comptence permet aux employs de travailler ensemble et de communiquer avec des collgues de plusieurs pays, mais aussi de se dplacer librement dun pays lautre. La priode de formation professionnelle est gnralement la phase durant laquelle lapprentissage du franais sintgre le mieux dans ce processus formateur. Cela est particulirement vrai si lon cherche 84

intgrer les savoir-faire professionnels, linguistiques et sociaux de manire prparer les jeunes au monde du travail et, paralllement, la vie en gnral. Il faut reconnatre que linternationalisation de lindustrie et du commerce fait la comptence en langue trangre un aspect de plus en plus ncessaire de la comptence professionnelle. Mais il est indispensable aussi de combiner un dveloppement personnel, une prise de conscience culturelle et des savoir-faire sociaux, et de rapprocher les comptences professionnelles et linguistiques. Ainsi, lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle devient partie intgrante dun processus qui stend sur la vie entire et combine des savoir-faire professionnels, un veil culturel et des aptitudes sociales. Les langues sur objectifs spcifiques sont devenues synonymes dun apprentissage novateur, coopratif et centr sur lapprenant: elles se sont orientes vers les aspects professionnels, mais sans se limiter aux exigences immdiates de lentreprise. Le but de lopration tait dintgrer les intrts et les motivations qui dcoulent de besoins langagiers dans la formation professionnelle ou dans le monde du travail et de les transformer pour en faire un souci gnral de communication dans la langue trangre au travail ou dans la vie prive. Lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle, situ entre les langues gnrales telles quon les enseigne lcole et les langues de spcialit enseignes en rapport avec certaines professions, a relev le dfi de donner aux jeunes situs linterface entre lcole et le travail les comptences langagires dont ils ont besoin pour amliorer leurs perspectives professionnelles tout en posant les fondements dune participation accrue la vie politique, sociale et culturelle. Lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle tablit donc une passerelle entre lenseignement secondaire gnral et la formation professionnelle et spcialise dispense dans les entreprises. Ds le dbut, les langues orientation professionnelle ont fonctionn par rapport aux besoins des apprenants et elles se sont proposes de leur donner les moyens linguistiques et culturels de participer aux processus de communication dans un monde de plus en plus international. 85

Aujourdhui, lapprentissage des langues trangres orientation professionnelle est rgi par les principes suivants : Cest un apprentissage 1. holistique; 2. centr sur lapprenant; 3. fond sur un contenu; 4. orient sur laction; 5. bas sur des projets; 6. coopratif; 7. interculturel; 8. rflectif orient vers lautonomie.

didentit, les dfis du monde du travail peuvent constituer le principal lment de leur demande.

3. Fond sur un contenu

Tout professeur sait comment lapprentissage des langues, aprs une phase initiale denthousiasme atteint souvent un plateau o la simulation en classe ne suffit plus maintenir la motivation et le dynamisme, si lon ne peut rattacher les processus dapprentissage la vie relle. Lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle offre prcisment de nombreuses chances dtablir ce lien avec le monde des apprenants, qui est pour beaucoup dentre eux celui du travail. La culture de la formation professionnelle se prte facilement un apprentissage des langues ancres dans une ralit: les activits professionnelles et lapprentissage sont lis des expriences concrtes souvent immdiates, qui permettent constamment dintgrer la pratique langagire dans des activits relles. Cest partir de contextes de lexprience quotidienne les apprenants construisent les relations entre le contenu professionnel et les tches linguistiques. Lapprentissage des langues ne se situe plus dans un pseudo-monde, car latelier de langues est souvent le vritable atelier dans lequel lapprenant travaille.

1. Holistique
Lapprentissage dune langue trangre est un processus qui concerne la personne entire, cest une exprience fondamentale qui ouvre de nouvelles dimensions de communication et de perception de soi-mme et dautre. Les langues orientation professionnelle noffrent pas seulement des segments troits de la langue adapte une profession, et ne rduisent pas lapprentissage une notion fonctionnelle ayant une application directe. Cest un secteur qui respecte la formation spcifique ou lenvironnement de travail, ces lments ayant souvent une influence sur le sentiment que les apprenants ont deux mmes et, par consquent, sur leur motivation et les buts personnels quils poursuivent dans lapprentissage de la langue.

4. Orient sur laction

La langue nest plus acquise par units isoles mais comme moyen de faire face des situations qui rendent la communication ncessaire. Dans lapprentissage professionnel, la communication authentique dans une langue trangre fait normalement partie du travail, titre dexemple: les lettres, le fax et le courrier lectronique avec des partenaires trangers, les modes dinstruction sur le maniement des machines et des produits, la planification en commun des projets sont autant doccasions dexercer les comptences en langue trangre. La nature mme de lconomie, aujourdhui de plus en plus internationalise, offre constamment des occasions dapprendre les langues. Ainsi, lactivit professionnelle et la langue trangre ne sont que les deux cts dune mme pice. 87

2. Centr sur lapprenant

Lapprentissage dune langue trangre part de lexprience concrte de chaque apprenant et, prenant en compte ses intrts et ses perspectives, il lui offre loccasion dlargir son champ daction mesure quil apprend trouver son chemin dans des activits nouvelles. Dans un contexte professionnel, cela suppose que lon associe les apprenants une recherche sur leurs besoins et souhaits en matire de communication, tels quils les ressentent dans leur vie de travail. Selon limportance que prend laspect professionnel dans leur sentiment 86

5. Bas sur des projets

Dans lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle, en effet, il nest plus ncessaire de simuler la ralit ou den reproduire lillusion, car, trs souvent, lorganisation du travail et de la formation offrent des contextes concrets immdiats: les tches langagires font partie intgrante des activits professionnelles, et il est indispensable de les accomplir pour pouvoir poursuivre son travail.

8. Rflectif
Lapprentissage dune langue trangre est peru de plus en plus comme une activit devant stendre sur la vie entire et qui dpasse de loin la scolarit obligatoire. Dans les langues orientation professionnelle, la prparation au travail individuel par le dveloppement dun savoir-apprendre est trs important, car le temps consacr en classe lapprentissage des langues est gnralement trs limit. Les apprenants doivent acqurir une certaine autonomie, qui leur permettra dintgrer dans leur apprentissage linguistique les dveloppements nouveaux qui interviendront dans leur domaine professionnel. Lvolution technologique menace les formes tablies dorganisation du travail, si bien que les jeunes ne peuvent plus fonder leur identit professionnelle sur la notion rigide dun mtier pratiqu durant une vie entire. Les jeunes souhaitent que lenseignement professionnel leur donne des orientations pour leur vie personnelle. Lducation professionnelle devient plusieurs titres une phase encore plus cruciale du processus dapprentissage, car les tablissements denseignement doivent faire face divers problmes: prsenter aux lves des formes dapprentissage continu et leur donner des qualifications essentielles utilisables de faon souple dans diffrents contextes de travail, mais aussi leur proposer des environnements dapprentissage qui leur permettent damliorer leurs savoir-faire personnels et sociaux. Ces nouveaux paramtres du travail, de la formation et de lducation ont une influence directe sur la manire dont lon peut justifier lapprentissage dune langue trangre dans un contexte professionnel. Les employs tant de plus en plus nombreux vouloir ou devoir trouver leur voie dans un monde plurilangue et pluriculturel de plus en plus complexe, ils sont entrans vers la diversit culturelle et le plurilinguisme. Ceci est une premire indication que les besoins de lindustrie et les souhaits individuels des employs, ne sont pas opposs mais, au contraire, quils convergent dans une mme direction. Lducation (y compris lenseignement professionnel) 89

6. Coopratif
Dans les langues orientation professionnelle, en revanche, les projets rsultant dun travail concret ou dactivit de formation contiennent une multitude de tches qui ne peuvent tre rsolues que par un vritable travail en quipe. Ces activits ont un effet sur le travail mme des apprenants, et, en outre, elles contribuent modifier fondamentalement la relation enseignants - apprenants. En effet, dans la mesure o les apprenants abordent les tches dapprentissage de la langue depuis leur domaine de comptence professionnelle, ils apportent dans le processus de ngociation leurs connaissances spcialises. Les enseignants doivent tre encourags ne pas chercher se mesurer avec leurs tudiants sur le plan des comptences professionnelles mais adopter plutt le rle de conseilleur linguistique et de facilitateur.

7. Interculturel
Llment interculturel de lapprentissage des langues trangres a des incidences sur les deux aspects des langues orientation professionnelle: la qualification professionnelle et le dveloppement personnel. Les langues orientation professionnelle donnent loccasion de repartir zro, avec une nouvelle motivation lie leur nouvel environnement de formation de travail. Les langues orientation professionnelle peuvent offrir une exprience concrte du travail dans un contexte international celle-ci contribue dvelopper la flexibilit et la mobilit, et, par l, mme, lutter contre la xnophobie. 88

donne la possibilit dapprendre et de travailler ensemble, propose aux apprenants un environnement dapprentissage pour le dveloppement de stratgie et de valeur qui leur permettent de dvelopper un sentiment didentit. Pour raliser ce but humaniste, lducation doit partir de lexprience des lves, leur donner loccasion de participer aux dcisions et leur enseigner les comptences ncessaires pour quils poursuivent leur apprentissage toute leur vie. Ainsi, le dveloppement personnel et les qualifications professionnelles ne sont plus opposition: ils se compltent. Les nouvelles formes dapprentissage des langues reposent sur des principes qui donnent aux apprenants loccasion de dvelopper paralllement ces deux aspects. Les approches pragmatiques constructivistes partent de lexprience et de la motivation des lves et insistent sur le fait que toute forme dapprentissage doit avoir un sens pour les apprenants. Ces principes de lapprentissage des langues trangres ont surtout t dvelopps dans le contexte de lenseignement des comptences langagires gnrales. Cest pourquoi il y a eu des hsitations pour les appliquer aux contextes professionnels, mais, nous sommes convaincus quils sappliquent aussi au monde du travail, peuttre mme encore plus qu lapprentissage scolaire. Tous ces principes de lenseignement/apprentissage des langues trangres correspondent aux exigences du Curriculum Educationnel5. [1. Goanac H. D. ,, Thorie d`apprentissage et acquisition dune langue trangre Paris, 1991 (p. 176) - p.1] [2. Curriculum naional. Program pentru nvmntul liceal. Limb i comunicare. Centrul educaional Pro Didactica; Fundaia Soros. Chiinu, - p. 5] 1. Dalgalian G., S. Lieutaud et F.Weiss Pour un nouvel enseignement des langues, Paris, 1981. 2. Dany M., C. Noe Le franais des employs. Paris, 1992. 3. Danilo M., J.-L. Penformis, M. Lincoln Le franais de la communication professionnelle, Paris, 1993.
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4. Galisson R. Dautres voies pour la didactique des langues trangres, Paris, 1982. 5. Galisson R. Le franais dans le monde, No.227, aot septembre, Paris : Hachette, 1989. 6. Galisson R, Dhier aujourdhui la didactique des trangres, France, 1994. 7. Goanac H. D. ,, Thorie d`apprentissage et acquisition dune langue trangre Paris, 1991 (p. 176). 8. Curriculum naional. Program pentru nvmntul liceal. Limb i comunicare. Centrul educaional Pro Didactica; Fundaia Soros. Chiinu.

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ONLINE ASSESSMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION: STRATEGIES TO SYSTEMATICALLY EVALUATE STUDENT LEARNING Cristina MARIN, asist.univ.dr., Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea din Craiova
ABSTRACT:

This paper acknowledges the challenges surrounding assessment techniques in online education a t the higher education level. It asks specifically How do we know our online students are learning. To get closer to answering this question with confidence various strategies ranging from participation techniques to online group work, peer and self-assessment and journals and portfolios are described. The role of online mentoring as a supplementary strategy is introduced. What Are Our Students Learning? How do we know our students are learning? That is one of the most challenging questions facing educators in all levels of formal schooling, from elementary to higher education to training assessing what learning is taking place proves to be a demanding task for all involved. On a continuum, we have such mechanisms as standardized tests on one extreme to looking at our students forces on the other to ascertain whether learning is occurring. Over the years various types of assessment models have been developed each proposing to measure learning better and more authentically than its predecessor and yet, whether we can still affirmatively answer than age-old question Are my students learning remains elusive. Schenk6 is correct in noting: assessing learning is difficult because we do not observe it directly but rather we observe its products or outcomes. In higher education today, for a variety of reasons, distance education in the form of online or web-based delivery has taken root as
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a popular, cost effective and pedagogically sound process of teaching and learning. Many studies have concluded with no significant difference phenomena, suggesting that there is no difference in the learning outcomes that occur in a distance environment versus on site. That may be so, and our students may be learning all the same, but regardless of environment a good educator will want to know what his or her students are learning and how do they process the information and learning objects from a course into knowledge. The good educator will want to know what works and why? Moreover, the good online educator will want to know how to use the online environment to promote student learning and how to adapt old strategies and adopt new strategies to faster online learning. To get at the root of these questions we must assess assessment strategies themselves in online environments. When considering online assessment one must reflect on instructional design what to include in the course and how to present it. Berge, Collins and Dougherty7 claim that instructional design focuses in analyzing what the course learning objectives are and how to present them to students. Design principles must take into account the necessary elements requisite to an online environment: syllabus, schedule, lectures (in text, graphic or video format) readings, discussion boards, synchronous chat function, quiz or test tool if relevant) and additional resources or materials. Visual learners benefit most from charts, maps, filmstrips, notes and flashcards. Auditory learners benefit most from tapes, videos lectures, notes and recitation. Tactile learners benefit from writing repetition construction, and display projects, note taking, analogy and study sheets.
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K.D,Schenk ,Institutional and Library Services for Distance Education Courses and Programs, Information Science Publishing, Arizona, 2002, p.77.

Berge, Collins, Dougherty, Distance Learning and University Effectiveness: Changing Education for Online Learning, Information Science Publishing, Arizona, 2002, p.89.
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The main goal of course design is to facilitate a learning environment where students can engage with materials and course content in a meaningful way.

Options in Online Assessment Strategies

Assessment, in any environment, must be systematically applied and consistent. Instructors are encouraged to provide students with a detailed discussion of the assessment tools used and the philosophies behind those tools, so students understand why certain assessment mechanisms are in place. By understanding the types of assessments students may see more clearly what it is expected of them and how they are to achieve course and learning objectives. Feedback from instructors in online environments is even more important than in onsite coursework to avoid students sense of isolation, confusion and apathy toward faceless and far-removed instructors and peers.

For many educators, portfolios are an attractive alternative to more traditional assessment methods. In particular, journals and portfolios are extremely useful tools for gauging student progress, as they are longitudinal and, thus reveal changes over time (usually throughout a semester). They, do, however, require a substantial commitment on the part of both students and the instructor. Students must think carefully about their learning experience that day or that week, articulate their reactions, and spend time reviewing previous entries to see hoe they are progressing as learners. Also, on the instructor side. Time spent reading and responding to student entries is significant. Portfolios or journals are only useful as learning assessments if the instructor commits to creating a dialogue with the students by asking questions of the entries, challenging assumptions, raising awareness, and so on, through the process.

Participation
Many Web courses rely on participation as a major component of assessment. A major problem arises when participation is not clearly defined or articulated. Typically, participation takes place in the form of discussion through asynchronous tools, such as bulletin boards. Of particular interest, the asynchronous nature of online courses allows peer citation to be a valuable strategy in promoting meaningful participation. Students can receive credit for citing others in their postings and assignments as well as receive credited for being cited.

Self-Assessment
Related to portfolio or journal use is the technology of selfassessment, yet portfolios or journals are but two tools where students can self-assess. The use of self-assessment is a significant technique in online education and fits with the pedagogical specificity of Web-based learning in general by shifting roles from audience to actors8. Because students are alone self-assessment can promote more active engagement with the course than simply sitting back and waiting a grade from ones instructor. Students must be comfortable with the idea of self-assessment as it fails if students cannot be honest with themselves and the instructor. In short, with self-assessment we are asking students to determine when they act as learners vis--vis some content. This is not always an easy task for students may not what dont know, of course. To help alleviate this problem the instructor must provide checklists, rubrics or inventories to help students assess themselves.
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8 Cavanaugh, Distance Education Quality. Success factors, practices, results. In R.Discenza, C Howard and K.D Schenk (Editors)

Portfolios and Journals

Portfolios and journals are both reflective collections. Portfolios are collections of students work over time and can include such things such as excerpts from a learning journal, papers exams, in-class writing, online discussion postings, peer assessment and the like , while journals more specifically focus on students impressions, feelings, thoughts, actions, surprises, frustrations, etc. 94

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Self-assessment must be guided by clear objectives. Students cannot adequately assess themselves if they are unclear about the goals and objectives of the lesson or content. There, again, it is imperative for the instructor to articulate what he or she wants students to gain from a particular exercise or reading. Students self-assessment also creates a dialogue with instructors whereby they cannot modify or revise their teaching. Self-assessment as a formal assessment technique opens the door to a more fluid teaching and learning environment, which coincides nicely with the structure of online environments.

Peer- assessment and GroupWork

The use of peer assessment usually raises fear among students, who are afraid of facing their friends the next week in class after issuing someone a bad grade. The online environments, part of this fear are mimized by the disparate nature of the students in Web-based courses, raising the utility of this assessment technique. Yet, because of this dynamic, another potential problem with peer assessment is the likelihood of inflated grades- no one wants to be known as the guy who gives harsh grades ti his online friends, after all, so a higher-than-deserved grade may be issued. Whether individuals are harsher in virtual environments is datable. Peer assessment does however, have the ability to encourage students to strive harder to complete assignments and participate more actively if they know their peers are according them. Thus, by its very nature, peer assessment may raise the bar of student engagement. Peer assessment online can take shape in a number of ways. Students can assess each others participation in online discussion, both synchronous and asynchronous, on assignments and on group projects. Use the following points in peer assessment: - it is best for students to make comments about their own strengths and weaknesses before hearing/receiving other peoples views. - identify strengths of work first before moving on to areas for improvement 96

- try to make comments descriptive rather then evaluative - give feedback based on concrete behaviour (examples rather than giving a general impression) - back up comments with evidence - make sure the feed-back can be clearly understood Instructors must be actively involved with peer assessment as well. They do not merely drop out the learning experience and allow their students to complete the grading task. The instructors role of mediator took effect with peer assessment as he or she must first provide guidance to the students as to assessment criteria and then work with both the assessor and the assessed to be sure the assessment was fair and systematic. Peer assessment becomes extremely valuable in group work. Typically, two major problems surround the use of group work: 1. Given their many responsibilities of job, family and school, ii is difficult for students to find time to meet in group outside the class. 2. Students are leery of having their individual groups dependent upon the abilities and efforts of others. While online students will typically not meet synchronously and physically due to their disparate locales, they will be meeting electronically through mail or discussion forums.] Students must worry, in this scenario, of non-responsive peers.

Online Mentoring
Online mentoring is not a direct assessment strategy, but another means through which the student experience student progress and learning itself can be gauged. Buchanan9 has suggested that online programs are matched with an advanced distance education student. Registration personnel or advising staff within a department or school can facilitate the exchange of names and e-mail addresses.
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Buchanan, Institutional and Library Services for Distance Education Courses and Programs, Information Science Publishing, Arizona, 2002, p.78.
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The mentor and the mente can communicate at their own convenience and on their own terms. In the general sense, institutions can gain knowledge about the student experience by offering the mentor and the mente short surveys inquiring about the mentor relationship and what it contributed to each individual. Online peer mentoring is a valuable and straightforward process that can contribute to what Maki10 calls institutional curiosity: Institutional curiosity seeks answers to questions about which students learn, what they learn how well they will learn and explores how pedagogies and educational experience develop and foster student learning. When institutional curiosity drives assessment, faculty and professional staff across an institution raise these kinds of questions and jointly seek answer to them, based on the understanding that students learning and development occur over time both inside and outside of the classroom.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

C. Berge, D.Collins , H.Dougherty: Distance Learning and University Effectiveness: Changing Education Paradigms for Online Learning, Information Science Publishing, USA, 2004 E. Buchanan: Institutional and Library Services for Distance Education Courses and Programs,In R. Discenza, C Howard and Schenk (Editors), 2002 C. Cavanaugh, C : Distance education quality. Success factors for resources, practices, results. In R. Discenza, C Howard and Schenk (Editors) (2002) P. Madden : 17 Elements of good online courses. Retrieved January th 5 , 2012 from www.hcc.hawaii.ed/intranet/committees/ FacDevCom/ guidebook/web-elem.htm

Conclusion
Online education provides us with many opportunities to implement novel and innovative assessment strategies. As with any good online course, the instructor must prepare ahead of time, be ready to revise and respond to students, and be ready to make a sound commitment to the learning experience. As educators, we must rise to the challenge to provide true learning opportunities for all. To succeed in distance education faculty members must be willing to change their teaching methods and their reward expectations. Distance learning is a good example of a student centered program, because it accommodates the lives and lifestyles of students who have jobs and families but wish pursue higher education. Designed properly, distance education classes can be at least as effective and, in some ways even more effective than face to face courses. In the future, as the quality of distance learning increases the primary factor for success will be the facultys commitment to excellence in teaching.
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Maki, Developing an assessment plan to learn about student learning , Information Science Publishing, Arizona, 2002, p.8.
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TYPOLOGY OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND WORD ORDER IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN TALES Svetlana TodoSICHUK, Masters Degree student, Moldova State University Viorica LIFARI, Doctor in Philology, Associate Professor
ABSTRACT

no subordinate clauses, which includes a single subject and a single predicate readily understood. It may be classified according to its purpose and based on structural scheme of two types. [2, p. 241 - 243] The Simple Sentence Structural scheme: I) TRANSITIVE SIMPLE SENTENCE = SUBJECT+ VERB+OBJECT; II) INTRANSITIVE SIMPLE SENTENCE= SUBJECT+ VERB

Svetlana Todosichuk and Viorica Lifari in the article TYPOLOGY OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND WORD ORDER IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN TALES used the works of A.Shubin, V.Sittel, as the base of the paper. The authors imply the hypothesis of universal structural features for the Simple Sentence and Word Order in English and Russian Tales. MA student Todosichuk and Doctor in Phylology Lifari study material which constitutes four English and Russian tales. They discuss Structure, Word Order and classification. The results proved that the grammatical structure of the Simple Sentence have similar rules in both languages. The implications are applicable for Russian students in understanding a Simple Sentence structure and avoid using appropriate Word Order. Noun, predicate, subject, verb, object, Simple Sentence, Tale, Theme, semantic analysis, syntactic analysis, SVO, VSO, OVS, VAloc The notion of the sentence has not so far received a satisfactory definition, which would enable us by applying it in every particular case to find out whether a certain linguistic unit was a sentence or not. The Concept of the Simple Sentence was studied by G.Curmie [6, p.1000], R.Jakobson [10, p.1002-1040], G.Vorontsova [7, p.302], M.Ganshina [8, p.428], E.Shubin [2, p.3-25], A.Sittel [2, p.3-25], B.Comrie [4, p.200], M.Blockh [9, p.5-20], etc. The Simple Sentence is notoriously difficult to define; numerous definitions have been offered and found wanting. The Simple Sentence has been studied primary from the point of view of its grammatical, or nominative division. The largest structural unit normally treated in grammar. In the study we use the definition given in the English Grammar by A.Shubin, V.Sittel, V.Prohorov that states: A Simple Sentence is a unite that has only one main clause and 100

E.Hoenshel [3, p. 202] said that the Word Order in English is flexible. A.Luelsdorf [1, p. 300] complained that in Russian it is inflexible. The novelty of the investigation lies in the analysis of sentences in tales in two languages and cultures. The topicality resides in the fact that the complex analysis of the Simple Sentence in translated variants will help us define a Typology of the Simple Sentence and Word Order in English and Russian Tales. The problem with syntactic and semantic analysis of the Simple Sentence and Word Order aimed at finding Typological structural features for the classification of the Simple Sentence in English and Russian Tales. Syntactic and semantic analysis of the Simple Sentence and Word Order is done with the help of N.Bulters task list for syntactic analysis and based on the scheme for semantic analysis at Moldova State University. The grammatical subject or predicate, the surface and paratextual structures, the cognitive and contextual information expressed by the components of the Simple Sentences in Tales were defined in 2012 year. Semantic analysis in most cases is a follow up critical theory derived from the sentence syntactic analysis. In the study they are done simultaneously. Thematic roles will be differently shown 101

as: Actor, Agent, Patient, ect. The research material is based on four Tales for analysis. The English Tales are: Johnny cake ( ) and Turnip (). The Russian Tales are: (The Gingerbread man) and (Speckled Hen). The English and Russian Simple Sentences in Tales are classified as declarative, imperative, negative, interrogative, exclamatory. The majority of the Simple Sentences in English and Russian Tales are declarative and have SVO Word Order, which is strict Accusative in transitive clauses. SVO is considered regular, it often changes to emphasize a different part of the English Simple Sentence. Russian SVO is common for transitive Simple Sentences too, but its number isnt too big in Tales. The independent clause stands alone as a sentence in both languages. The subjects are unnamed nouns in English and Russian. Russian changing the Word Order influences the nuance of the Simple Sentence meaning. It is used to emphasize a Simple Sentence element, to indicate an interrogative modality. In English tales SVO is highly constituent and unmarked, e.g. (1, 1a): E.g.: (1) She made some gingerbread man. [11, p.1] (1a) . [11,.1] Examples (1,1a) are declarative sentences. The direct objects (gingerbread man; ) are more closely related to the animate subjects (she; c) than verbs (made; ), rather than verbs (made; ). The participants (she; ) perform, control and effect he situations. The Theme begins at the beginning of the clause and includes the first participant of the clause. Every Agent is an Actor. Syntactic analysis shows that the Typology of the Simple Sentence and Word Order does not remain constant in tales. The English and Russian VSO are found in intransitive clauses, but the deep and the surface structures are the same, e.g. (2, 2a): E.g.: (2) Went rolling Johnny cake, towards the open door. [11, p.1] (2a) ! [11,.1] 102

The Russian VSO is characteristic of folk tales, while in English they are gender neuter. Generally VSO inversion is present in Russian simple statements (2a), while the English uses it to form general questions with limited SV, e.g. (3, 3a): E.g.: (3) Do you cry, Gingerbread man? No. [13, p.2] (3a) , ? . [13,.2] The English subject (you) and auxiliary verb (do) are inverted. The Russian objects may change VSO into OSV, e.g. (4): E.g.: (4) - . [14, .1] The direct object () is rendered in the transitive clause with the help of OVS. The simple subject is present and it can function as the main word in the imperative sentences, both in the English and Russian Tales. The verb ending is conjugated to show what time it is referring to. Imperative sentences arent active in Tales, but they can constitute the Simple Sentences types based on syntactic structure. The author can express commands in English by an imperative sentence made with the infinitive without to. The English and Russian subjects are animate. The lexical meanings of objects are the same. The English and Russian imperative sentences outline the authors intention with regards to the topics as well as to the actions that are named, e.g. (5, 5a): E.g.: (5) Dont eat me! [11, p.2] (5a) . [11,.2] Example (5a) is exclamatory sentence. Examples (5, 5a) address the reader and ask the zero alternant of you, that is elliptically to perform an action. The predicates are used in imperative form and no modal verbs are present. The locative elements express the place of specific action, e.g. (6, 6a): E.g.: (6) Come a little closer. [11, p.2] (6a) - ! [11,c.2] Example (6a) requires an urgent reaction. 103

Some Russian words cannot be understood, e.g. (7, 7a): E.g.: (7) , ; . [11,.1] (7a) ; ; . [11,.1] The expression of the words ( , ; , ) could have other meaning ( , ) havent equivalents in English. Such words contain a very specific meaning. Everybody should be very careful while translating them from Russian into English in order not to introduce false friends. The Simple Present tense in the Russian language corresponds to the English Simple Present tense and to the Present Continuous tense. The Russian present tense form is very simple in Tales. When compared to English, the Simple Present, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect Continuous forms do not exist in Russian. The subjects are agents. Such sentences purposes provide assertion with regards to the concept that is indicated by the questions. In Russian the indefinite gerund is not used. However, the English gerund form coincides with Present Participle, e.g. (8) which is close to the Russian Participle and adverb. It translates differently in Russian, e.g. (8a): E.g.: (8) Grandpa starts crying, grandma starts crying. [14, p.1 ] (8a) , . [14, .1] The Simple Past is common for four tales. It is mostly used as a tense frequent in old folk tales to express events that happened long ago in Russian. Whereas the English uses two past tenses: the Simple Past, e.g. (9) and the Present Perfect, e.g. (10): E.g.: (9) They had a Speckled Hen. [14, p.1] (9a) . [14, .1] (10) An old woman was baking. [13, p.1] (10a) . [13, . 1] 104

Russian uses only one Simple Past tense, and the rules are the same for both imperfective and perfective verbs. So the English Present Perfect sentence (10) corresponds to the Russian imperfective (10a). The verbs (was baking; ) need some temporal adverbials. The assertion made by the predicate. In order to find Typological features of the English and Russian Simple Sentences we chose those examples which had more similarities than differences. But in spite of visual similarities, they were not identical. It is explained by different grammatical systems of languages. Departures from the basic Word Order in Russian can be explained as syntactic mechanisms, while in the English it remained constant.

An attempt to compare English and Russian Simple Sentence patterns in order was made in this research. The purpose was to make it easier for Russian learners study English Simple Sentence by comparing it with the Russian one. The Typology of the Simple Sentence in English and Russian Tales was carried out according to its grammatical, structural, syntactic, semantic, lexical, thematic, statistic analysis, which obviously showed universal typological features. The results obtained in the study proved that the English Simple Sentence requires special attention when studying a foreign language because it differs considerably from ones native language. Thus, we can conclude that: 1) English and Russian Simple Sentences in Tales are indeed 105

simple and consist of one independent clause. Simple Sentences may be short and long and they correspond to reality in Tales. The sense relations between the words showed in grammatical structure of the English and Russian Simple Sentences by means of the word forms, Word Order and intonation. There are traditional and coined transition syntactic relations between the words in a Simple Sentence. 2) English and Russian Simple sentences are composed of one grammatical base in Tales. The English syntax allows fixed Word Order, while the Russian syntax is flexible. The traditional SVO Word Order in English and Russian are the same in Tales. SVO is preferred for English and Russian transitive clauses. It is strict accusative case in both languages. In English Tales SVO is highly constituent and unmarked. The English language places adverbial modifiers before the determined word. VSO inversion method, widely used in literature, is common for Russian simple statements, and for English general and tag questions. The Russian language places adverbial modifiers after the determined word. VSO is used to emphasize a Simple Sentence element and indicates an interrogative modality. OVS that rare occurs in English Tales is also found in Russian Tales. Typically the Russian objects turn VSO into OVS. Syntactic changes of the Simple Sentence level displays a functional substitution of the subject and the verb by placing modifiers. 3) Word Order provides classification of the Simple Sentences used for pragmatic purposes. Thus, there are a big number of declarative Simple Sentences which focus the readers attention to consider the assertation made by the predicate. The interrogative Simple Sentences provide assertation with regards to the concept of the Tale. Imperative Simple Sentences show the desire of the author with regards to the topic. They directly address him or her asking or giving a response. Exclamatory Simple Sentences show a strong feeling and express relief. 4) Simple Sentences in Tales are not easily understood. The lexical units carry specific meanings, which are sometimes confused. Tales use repetitions and incorrect usage of words, but the Tale demonstrates a tendency to bring the written word closer to the colloquial one. The complex semantic relations between the words are different. 5) The discourse 106

analysis demonstrates how the English and Russian languages organize thoughts into Sentences. Different group of words are united in Tales. In written versions of tales sentences are predominantly simple. They are in the active voice and include inversion, verbal phrases (the English gerund and infinitive in both languages), and nouns. The Simple Sentence expression preserves semantic and stylistic equivalence. Diverse Simple Sentences patterns are also found in languages as a result of linguistic change. When Russian language is in constant change that affects some patterns, as a result some constructions are VO, others OV, which is said to be inconsistent. The Past Simple tense distinguishes English and Russian Simple Sentences. 6) The statistic analysis represents the Simple Sentence as a basic unit of the English and Russian Tales. Statistically, the English and Russian words are following others and group into sentences. They share the initial ideas, structure and functions. Simple Sentences declare either positive or negative, either imperative or exclamatory, or interrogative and display no division. They belong to more traditional communicative types. Only grammatically correct Simple Sentences clearly express the meanings. Each positive Simple Sentence provides and reports explicitly a Typology of the Simple Sentence and Word Order, which do not remain constant. The principle of the Simple Sentence variety and usage of the independent clause is the main characteristics in Tales. English and Russian languages are rigidly confined within a limited set of patterns. It is true that many characteristics of Simple Sentences in both languages are strictly determined; yet change leads to inconsistencies in structure. It is clear that change is limited in English to the patterns available for specific structures, whether OV, or VO in translated variants SVO and VSO. Russian patterns are not limited and SVO, VSO and OVS Word Orders are found. Such principles govern both languages and gave the possibility for syntactic and semantic analysis, description, and understanding of Simple Sentence Structure. For future analysis it would be interesting to consider Typological models of other languages and to compare them with the English ones. The qualitative Typology offered in this paper should be fundamental 107

to linguistics and it can be appropriate for teachers of grammar, both practical and theoretical. English and Russian students have taken an intense interest in the languages they speak and write.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF USING VIDIO IN THE FOREIGH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM THE USEFULNESS OF VIDEO AIDS Rodica ACULoV, English teacher, LyceumM.Eminescu, Cimilia My experience as a teacher proved that wherever they live, teachers voice similar doubts, hopes, and problems. Teachers are deeply concerned about keeping abreast of the best, most modern methods of teaching, modern aids. Like many teachers, Ive wracked my brain researching, inventing, and adapting methods to help improve the comprehension of my students. Over eight years, Ive never discovered one single method that addressed the needs of all students. In this paper I will focus on the reason for using video materials by demonstrating their effectiveness as a learning tool. You will find the answer to the main question. How can video be used to improve students comprehension? I will try to prove that we can fulfill students expectations by using computers and different films as teaching aids and that this can be done even in a country like Moldova. Where computers are still relatively rare in the teaching process. Computer as the first partner in the learning process. The computer can be a partner for the learner to play educational games with or it can be used to generate examples, to illustrate certain operations, or to stimulate conversation. There are three models for computers use in language learning: [4, p. 12-13] 1. As a language teacher 2. As a stimulus for conversation 3. As an aid to cognitive development. I use computer as a stimulus for conversation and as aid to cognitive development. In our days pupils are very skillful and they can use it independently. 109

1. A.Luelsdorff. The Prague school of structural and functional linguistics. - Prague: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1994. 385 p. 2. E.Shubin, V.Sittel, V.Prohorov. Grammatica anglyiskogo yazyca. - Moscow: Prosveshenie,1968.-319 p. 3. E.Hoenshel. Hoenshels advanced grammar.-London: Longman Publisher,-1899.-300 p. 4. B.Comrie. Language universals and linguistic typology.-Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990 (original 1981). 275 p. 5. G.Curmie. A grammar of the English language.-Boston: University Press, 1978 (original 1931, 1935). 1045 p. 6. G.Vorontsova. Ocherki po grammatike anglyiskogo jazyka.Moscow: Izdatelistvo lit-ra na inostr.jazykah, 1960. 400 p. 7. M.Ganshina, N.Vasilevskaya. English grammar. - Moscow: Nijnii Shool.per. Publisher, 1964. 547 p. 8. M.Blokch. Theoretical English grammar. - Moscow: Vycshaya Shkola, 1983. 383 p. 9. R.Jacobson, M.Halle. Fundamentals of language.-USA: The Hague Press, 1956. 1050 p. 10. V.Korpov. Aspects of comparative typology of the simple sentence in Russian.-Voronezh: VSU, 1999. 160 p. 11. http://detskieskazki.net/ Johnny-cake (-) 12. http://detskieskazki.net/ Turnip () 13. http://detskieskazki.net/ (The Gingerbread man) 14. http://detskieskazki.net/ (Speakled Hen)

108

At my lesson I used different slide show presentations ( the best sights of England and Moldova, pictures of different animals and parts of their body for better understanding of the theme, or at Meals different tasteful pictures in presenting meals from different countries) . Another source for me is YOU TUBE for teachers ,by downloading films, songs I could fulfill the main objectives of the lesson and in the same time I made interesting lessons that could catch pupils attention. Film-motivator as the second partner in the learning process. This year I have commenced a project with XI-grade. We watched the film Pay it Forward is a 2000American drama based on the novel of the same name by Catherine Ryan Hyde. It stars Haley Joel Osment as a boy launches a good-will movement , Helen Hunt as his single mother and Kevin Spacey as his social-studies teacher. Trevor does a favor for three people , asking each of them to pay the favor forward by doing favors for three other people, and so on, along a branching tree of good deeds. I asked my students to think of an idea to change our world and put it into Action. To mentor someone, to offer to do pro bono work on a project where their skills are needed. I had inspired them to make a random of good things. I was pleasantly impressed by their work and results. We can motivate our students very well using a good film with good ideas. In general, motivation is the neglected heart of our understanding of how to design instruction [Keller, 1983, quoted in Dornyei, 2001: 116]. Many teachers believe that by sticking to the language materials and trying to discipline their refractory students, they will manage to create a classroom environment that will be conducive to learning. Nevertheless, these teachers seem to lose sight of the fact that, unless they accept their students personalities and work on those minute details that constitute their social and psychological make-up, they will fail to motivate them. Video materials as the third partner in the learning process I am a young teacher but I understand that teaching English in a place where this language is not native for people is very difficult process. So 110

a modern teacher needs to find new methods of teaching and motivation . Nowadays mass media play a great role in our life. People could not imagine their life without television, mobile telephone and Internet. The usage of the computer in teaching and education pupils in school is very actually now. I think that using video in the lesson is very effective for teaching speaking skill because video clips could give us a vivid picture of English language. Video material is a source of cultural aspect of English native speakers. It gives us a possibility to see and listen real language, to understand so called body language. Video connects the pupils with real world and shows the language in actions. It is perfect way that enriches the teachers materials. By the way video could help the pupils to cope with cultural barrier in learning English.[7,p.126-182]. I would like to speak about the usefulness of the visual aids in presenting and understanding of the lesson. A picture is worth a thousand words. Visual aids help make your instruction meaningful for students. Visual aids help you reach your objectives by providing emphasis in different way than speaking. Clear pictures , graphs, or models multiply your students level of understanding of the material presented ,and they can be used to reinforce your message, clarify points and create interest. Visual aids engage your students and require a change from one activity to another : from hearing to seeing and sometimes touching. They enable you to appeal to more than one sense at the same time , thereby increasing your students understanding and retention level. With drawings, posters, transparencies and other visuals ,the concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words but words plus images.[8,p.74-81] Golden Rules of Using Video Materials. Any videos accompanying your course book should be at an appropriate level of difficulty for the learners and relevant to the course syllabus. You need to find extracts that suit your teaching objectives ,and then design activities, and worksheets, for them. You should not use material simply because it is available , but it really serves your purposes. Ask yourself these questions. - Will the learners understand the material well enough, either 111

because they are familiar with the language used, or because the visual element makes it fairly clear? - Will the learners enjoy the material, because it is interesting , humorous , or relevant to their needs? - Do I have some really useful activities with which to exploit the material? - Is there any alternative way of achieving my teaching objectives more effectively or in less than with video? The tips listed should be taken into consideration in the selection and preparation of visual aids. Tips on Preparing Visual Aids Make sure your visual aids support your objectives before selecting the visual aid(s). Remember that visual aids are only tools for instruction. Too much emphasis on visual aids can distract from instruction. Asking yourself how visuals will help your students learn what you want them to learn will help you plan their incorporation. Each element of a visual aid (a single transparency or a page of a flip chart) - must be simple and contain only one main idea. Placing more than one idea on a single image confuses your students and decreases the impact of the visual. Keep visual aids BRIEF. Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aid will show. Do not read straight from your visuals. Ask your students to read or listen, not both; visual aids should not provide reading material while you talk. Rather, use them to illustrate or highlight your points. If possible, give students paper copies of various graphic aids used in your presentation. They will be able to write on the paper copies and have them for future reference. Remember the importance of variety. Using the same form of visual aid for every lesson decreases the effectiveness of that tool. Use variety to maintain student interest. Use local photographs and examples when discussing general 112

problems and issues. While a general problem concerning welding safety, for example, may elude someone, illustrating with a photograph or example of local welding practices can clarify the issue. Use charts and graphs to support the presentation of numerical information. Develop sketches and drawings to convey various designs and plans. When preparing graphics, make sure they are not too crowded in detail. Do not over-use color. See that line detail, letters, and symbols can be seen from the back of the room. If you have handouts, dont let them become a distraction during the presentation. They should provide reinforcement of your ideas and you should create opportunities for your students to refer to them during instruction. Handing them out after your lesson, decreases the likelihood that your students will actually read them unless required to do so. and in the beginning , there was : Planning When creating a lesson with video materials, its important to plan using the strategies listed below. Reed and Woodruff (1996) offer the following matrix for planning: Learner OutcomesWhat do you expect your learners to accomplish? Methods and Activities How will you convey the topic( lecture, discussion, hand-on activity?) Materials What audio\ visual , handouts, etc. will you use to support your instruction? Time About how much time will it take? Basically, simple visual aids are the best. If they help communicate your message and make it more clear to your audience, then they are very useful. A persons ability to remember what he or she learns can increase vastly through a combination of seeing and hearing information. A lecture as such is not audio-visual instruction ,but becomes so when the teacher uses slides, exhibits , or similar aids. A wide variety of audiovisual materials are used by the teachers in daily instruction. Students 113

have new interesting ways to practice vocabulary, reading, writing and comprehension creating the skills they will need for the future. With the rapid growth and spread of the Internet, English teachers have unprecedented access to large amount of alternate resources in order to make their classes lively and interesting. Authentic video is one such resource. [9,p.96-100]

learners would be interested to know how the video would progress especially if they havent watched it before. It will be worthy to mention the results of my students after the project Pay it Forward.

5. Inspires creativity
The video can be exploited in various forms in order to facilitate learners taste and interest and also the learning objectives. Often the textbooks would not have any pictures or if there are any would be limited in number which can dampen the spirit of the learners. However, when authentic videos are used, the visuals there can reinvigorate the classroom and spark conversation - a major end in the language classrooms. Using Video in the Classroom What are the practical implications of using video in the classroom? At the most basic level of instruction, video is a form of communication and it can be achieved without the help of language, since we often interact by gesture, eye contact and facial expression to convey a message. Video provides visual stimuli such as the environment and this can lead to and generate prediction, speculation and a chance to activate background schemata when viewing a visual scene reenacted. It can be argued that language found in videos could help nonnative speakers understand stress patterns. Videos allow the learner to see body rhythm and speech rhythm in second language discourse through the use of authentic language and speed of speech in various situations. Videos allow contextual clues to be offered. In addition, video can stimulate and motivate student interest. The use of visuals overall can help learners to predict information, infer ideas and analyze the world that is brought into the classroom via the use of video instruction. In a teaching or testing situation video can help enhance clarity and give meaning to an auditory text; it can create a solid link between the materials being learned and the practical application of it in a testing situation; the video can act as a stimulus or catalyst to help integrate materials or aspects of the language; videos can help manipulate language and at the same time be open to a variety of interpretations. 115

1. Presents real language in context

As mentioned in the introduction, the language that we often encounter in the course books might not be always the real language that learners hear around them. Authentic video, in a way, presents meaningful, real language in context thereby bridging the gap between the real world and the classroom. Because of the visual cues learners would find the language easy to follow and the contexts easy to identify with.

2. Facilitates language comprehension (and acquisition)

The language input in the video, as told above, has a context as well as visual aid which would facilitate learners comprehension. Moreover, through subtitles teachers can help the weaker students. This would reinforce the language heard. The principle here is the language comprehended leads to language acquisition.

3. Brings the real world into the classroom

The reality presented in the course book need not be always the immediate reality of the students. This sometimes can lead the students to feel alienated from the course books. However, the variety in the authentic videos available online can plug in this to an extent, especially when teachers handpick videos that suit the learners environment.

4. Is motivating
The course books often can be dull for the students. However, the announcement to watch a video can bring in some life and most of the learners would respond positively to the visuals. Furthermore, the 114

Arthur (1999) claims that: Video can give students realistic models to imitate for role-play; can increase awareness of other cultures by teaching appropriateness and suitability; can strengthen audio/visual linguistic perceptions simultaneously; can widen the classroom repertoire and range of activities; can help utilize the latest technology to facilitate language learning; can teach direct observation of the paralinguistic features found in association with the target language; can be used to help when training students in ESP related scenarios and language; can offer a visual reinforcement of the target language and can lower anxiety when practicing the skill of listening.[6,p.98-99] Video used in a classroom should be interpretive and to the point. The visual should show reasonable judgment and enhance comprehension, heighten sensory acuteness, and illustrate the target language being used. Practitioners should avoid the use of distracters, over-crowded or violent stimuli. Visuals are ineffective in the learning process when the visual is too small; when the visual or video uses stereotypes; when the visual or video is a poor reproduction; when the picture is to far away from the text illustration; when the video has irrelevant captioning; when the video or visual offers to much information related or unrelated to the picture; when the video or visual is poorly scaled; and when the picture is not esthetically meaningful. A visual cue may be accompanied by a written cue to focus on a lexical item being furnished. Videos can make the task, situation or language more authentic. More importantly, video can be used to help distinguish items on a listening comprehension test, aid in the role of recall, help to sequence events, as well as be adapted, edited or changed in order to meet the needs of the language learner [9,p.34-36]. There are some situations when video can be useful: - to introduce subject for debate; - to encourage conversation amongst students on given topic; - to improve writing skill, describing events in written; - to develop listening skill; - to introduce new vocabulary; 116

- to practice/consolidate a range of language points; - to show cultural aspect of the country. For the lesson you as a teacher could use different types of the video clips. For example the fragments of popular films, educational films, advertisements, the video of songs, cartoons, news etc.

The Stages of the Lesson

The plan of the lesson with video clip should have some stages:

1. Pre-viewing
In this stage you need to repeat the words or present new vocabulary of given film. You need to discuss some interesting facts about the clip. In this stage you can ask your pupils to predict what film will be about or to give appropriate title to the clip. Here you can use different methods like spider gram, problematic method, discussion, describing, creative work, vocabulary work.

2. While-viewing
The pupils watch the clip attentively and check their predictions.

3. Post-viewing
In this stage pupils can do different tasks based on the video. Everything depends on the goal of given video.

Interesting Activities
Here I want to present you some activities that you can give to your pupils working with video. Split viewing Some pupils see and hear a sequence; others only hear it. A variety of activities can then follow based on an information gap procedure. In this particular lesson who sees and hears the clip from Pearl Harbor are the eyewitness to the dramatic event, the others are journalists working for radio station who have to conduct a live interview. Students are not asked to pay attention to any specific details, dialogues but relay their experience of the scene they have 117

just witnessed to a horrified public. This is particularly good for past tenses and intermediate students. Prediction Video clip is shown with sound and picture but sometimes the picture stops. And during the pause the pupils try to predict what will be the end of the story, what the words of main heroes will be about. Jigsaw listening and viewing The class is divided into two groups. You ask one group to leave the classroom, but the second group watches the video without the sound. Then the first group returns to the class but the second leaves it. They watch the video again with sound but without the picture. After it all the groups are united and share their impressions about the content of the video clip. The pupils could do it in pairs. Charters study Working in groups the pupils write all the words associated with the heroes of video. Then they explain to the class why they think about this character in such a way. Vision on/Sound off Pupils view a scene with sound turned off. Then they predict the content of the scene, write their own script and perform it while standing next to the television. After the performances pupils watch scene again the scene with the sound on and decide which group was the funniest or nearest to the original. This is a very fun exercise. Good for intermediate pupils. Sometimes I show the video without the sound and ask the pupils about the content, who is the hero, where the action takes place, what the emotions of main heroes were. Then I switch on the sound and pupils check their predictions. For example in 11th Form on topic Problems and Solutions I have used a fragment of the popular and famous film Home Alone. After it the class gives the advices to the main heroes how to resolve their family conflicts. Watch and observe This is a good lesson for lower levels because pupils only have to focus on a minimum of spoken dialogues. The pupils watch a scene from 118

an advertisement or news that have a lot of things they see and therefore write in their vocabulary books. You can teach and test your pupils vocabulary by asking true or false questions and asking them to put events in order. When I have a topic about London I just ask the pupils to write down all paces of interests that they have noticed in London. Video dictogloss( dictation and glossary) This follows the dictogloss method of dictation and can easily be adapted to video lesson. The pupils watch a video a few times and write the main words and short phrases that a particular character says. Each group is given a character and is encouraged to listen and exchange information. This is usually works better if there are two charters in the scene. Working with someone from the different group, they then write the script for the scene, incorporating both characters. As they will not have managed to write down the whole script from listening exercises they will have to use their imagination and fill the gaps. This gives them an excellent opportunity to work in grammar. Video translation You need to find a film with subtitles in Russian language according to your topic, lesson plan. It could be better the video has a dialogue. The lexica should not be complicated for the pupils. Ask your pupils to translate the subtitles in English language. This task usually is very interesting for the pupils. The aim of this activity is not to translate the video as it was in original but to give their variant of translation. Show the video without the sound. When the first subtitles appear you stop the video then ask the pupils to write their translation. Explain the pupils that they need to avoid the literary translation. It is more interesting to present other variants, paraphrasing in English. After finishing this work ask your pupils to compare their translation with the translation of others pupils. They could correct the translations. Then all the class discusses the translations. Dont criticize these translations for the grammar mistakes or the pupils variants are not similar with original. Switch on the video clip again and check your translation in original language. Role play Prepare for the lesson a good video for example In a shop or In the restaurant. We have a lot of topics in 7th Form, 8th Form. You can 119

offer the pupils to play the content of the video and develop it, to add their details. In lyceum classes we use film just for getting appropriate information. The pupils play the role of witnesses. They watch the different life situations and tell to the class what they have seen. The video is shown usually without interruptions. For example I have used an interesting video about London. The topic Beautiful London is given in 11th Form. And it is difficult for the teacher to tell about the beauty of some famous places without seeing them. The pupils watched the video and named and they understood why they are worthy to be visited. Also I used video in 9th Form when we had the topic Health Hazards. The video was about the bad influence of smoking on people organism. This video shows the pupils what health hazards are. I usually ask the pupils the questions about the content of the video, where the action took places, who were the heroes of this video. The pupils need to have the geographical names, some complicated expressions and words. You can write them on the blackboard.

RefeRences

Conclusion
The teacher should be an expert or at least should be able to do, with ease whatever the students are expected to do. I hope that the material presented above will be helpful. Dont forget that a poem or a short story with a picture has more appeal then just a written text. The article illustrates the possible solutions with practical examples of how movies and video aids may be employed in the classroom in a manner which both facilitates language learning and further encourages motivation. In our days what really matters is how we use technology. Computers and different video materials will never substitute teachers but they offer new opportunities for better language practice. They may actually make the process of language learning significantly richer and play a key role in the reform of a countrys educational system. The next generation of students will feel a lot more confident with information technology than we do. As a result , they will be able to practice language skills more thoroughly and solve some language learning problems more easily. 120

Books: 1. Bean J.C.1996Engaging ideas: The professors guide to integrating writing ,critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Fracisco: Jossey-Bass. 2. Canning C.,Visual support and language teaching Arabian News(1998). 3. Coombe, C. and Kinney, J., Learning Center Listening Assessment, FORUM, 37:2, April-June (1999) : 21-23 4. Dornyei, Z. 2001.Teaching and Researching Motivation. England: Pearson Education Limited. 5. Dudeney, G. And N. Hockly.2007.How to teach English with technologyHarlow. England: Person Education. 6. Jupp T. C. and Arthur Guide Course in English Heinemann 1988 Students Book. 7. Hornby A.S.Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionaryof Current English the fiftjh edition1999. 8. Pascarel I.Dictionar englez-roman,roman-englez2003 Pontos CHISINAU. 9. Weaver. G.R. 1993Teaching aids and materialsp.126-182 10. Reed and Woodruff ,Matrix for planning (1996) Heinemann p.71-76 11. Weaver. G.R. 1993Teaching aids and materialsp.126-182 12. World book Encyclopedia(1996) vol12 Book Inc. Magazine or Newspaper: ForumEnglish Teaching vol49.Classroom activitiesby Denise Lowery. ForumEnglish Teaching vol47.Vidio Recording as a Stimulus for Reflection in Pre-Service EFL Teaching Training. By Natalia Orlova.

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OPIUNI METODOLOGICE PENTRU PREDAREA-NVAREA LIMBAJULUI PROFESIONAL ECONOMIC N LIMBA FRANCEZ Eufrosinia AXENTI, dr., conf. univ., Silvia NUA, lector superior, Mariana MoRARI, lector, doctorand, Catedra limba francez, Facultatea de Limbi i Literaturi Strine, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
RSUM

Le langage conomique professionnel reprsente une structure complexe qui se trouve dans un changement et enrichissement continu. Il dpend essentiellement des modifications et de lvolution du dveloppement conomique du pays. A la base de ce langage se trouve la terminologie qui comprend la totalit des termes de spcialit employs dans le domaine conomique. Lorientation conomique vers le bien-tre de la socit a dtermin les conomistes moderniser le langage conomique, cest pourquoi il est devenu ncessaire de former un systme linguistique spcialis qui servira aux besoins de linformation, de la communication et de la collaboration dans un domaine spcialis. nsuirea lexicului profesional-economic n limba franceza a devenit, n prezent, prilej de dezbateri metodico-didactice. Din practica noastr pedagogic, constatm c studenii nceptori ntlnesc dificulti de ordin comprehensiv n timpul studierii lexicului profesional, manifestate n nelegere greit, memorare de scurt durat i, respectiv, neaplicare n practic a termenilor. Lexicul reprezint, de fapt, o subcategorie a limbajului, fiind numit de unii cercettori metalimbaj sau vocabular. Lexicul profesional include un sistem lingvistic specializat, 122

menit s serveasc necesitilor de informare, comunicare i colaborare ntr-un anumit domeniu de specialitate. Cu alte cuvinte, baza metalimbajului profesional o formeaz terminologia, care, dup Constantinescu [3,p. 321], cuprinde totalitatea termenilor de specialitate folosii ntr-o disciplin tiinific, ntr-o ramur de activitate. Definirea traiectoriei i a coninutului de predare a limbajelor de specialitate nseamn, mai nti i-nti, analiza detaliat a acelor aspecte ale limbii-int, care constituie nucleul dur al iniierii n limbajul respectiv, pentru a identifica, mai apoi, modalitile de abordare i instrumentele necesare pentru atingerea obiectivelor stabilite pe termen scurt i a celor de lung durat. n funcie de publicul-int, practicienii limbajelor de specialitate vor lua n considerare o serie de factori, i anume: cadrul i condiiile de desfurare a procesului de predare/nvare, categoriile publicului-int, nivelul cunotinelor lingvistice ale studenilor, nivelul de pregtire profesional n domeniul vizat, n ali termeni, n ce mod va fi utilizat limba strin general i cea de specialitate. n aceste condiii, limba-int este utilizat, n primul rnd, ca instrument de predare a disciplinelor economice de specialitate i ca vehicul al unei culturi tiinifice, aparinnd patrimoniului internaional. n contextul dat, studenii pornesc de la descoperirea treptat a limbii franceze de afaceri, pentru a-i nsui ulterior limbajul n cauz, transformndu-l ntr-un instrument obinuit de nvare. n ali termeni, limbajul de specialitate este utilizat mai degrab n scopuri didactice dect n vederea unei comunicri imediate. Predarea/nvarea limbajului profesional economic implic o serie de tehnici ce constituie repertoriul abilitilor de predare care au drept rezultat modificri n structurile cognitive i afective ale studenilor. Exploatarea pedagogic a lexicului de specialitate de pe pista tehnic amelioreaz capacitatea studentului de a analiza i de a gndi, de a lucra cu diferite materiale televizate i documente autentice, care ofer multiple activiti de nelegere i exprimare oral i scris, de mbogire lexical, de perfecionare gramatical, astfel contribuind la acceptarea unei realiti exterioare i a culturii originale. n coala contemporan, utilizarea mijloacelor audiovizuale n practica educativ a devenit o ne123

cesitate, ele reprezentnd, practic, direcii pentru reforma nvmntului. Astfel, studenii de la Facultatea de tiine Economice se vor integra direct ntr-o situaie de negociere real, vor crea ntreprinderi, vor analiza grafice i tabele, graie documentelor iconografice i autentice, realizate cu ajutorul mijloacelor audiovizuale. Experiena a demonstrat c noiunile mai dificile, terminologia de specialitate, cuvintele necunoscute se asimileaz mai uor dac au la baz nite suporturi concrete, de aceea considerm necesar s demonstrm un ansamblu de strategii, tehnici audiovizuale, procedee de predare n baza unor teme de specialitate predate n cadrul leciilor de limba francez la Facultatea de tiine Economice. Tema I : discursul oral. Prezentarea unui produs Mijlocul audio-vizual: videocasetofonul, televizorul. demonstraia, discuia, observaia, lucrul individual, jocul de rol Activitile de atenie vizual i sonor, nsoite de texte orale, sunt necesare de a fi integrate n demersul pedagogului de limb strin. Momentul cel mai important este c studenii aud i vd n acelai timp diferite momente ale filmului. Este necesar de a ateniona asupra non-verbalului comunicrii orale: gesturile, mimica, comportamentul ocular, vestimentaia. Pentru a atinge obiectivele acestei teme, propunem spre analiz exploatarea unei secvene video de 02.24 minute, ce trateaz o publicitate. Strategii didactice:

Pentru a atinge aceste obiective, studenii sunt divizai n echipe conform disocierii imaginii video n trei planuri de viziune: gros plan, plan moyen, plan densemble. Groupes Gros plans Plans moyens Plans densemble Lucrul asupra imaginii fr sunet are dublul avantaj de a sensibiliza studenii la elementele non-verbalului de interpretare. Ei privesc aceast secven mut i ncearc s descrie decorul, s defineasc personajul, obiectele. Pe urm profesorul oprete imaginea (stop-cadru) pentru a atrage atenia asupra gesturilor, micrilor, mimicii care indic umor ori sentimente. Stop-cadrul se folosete de mai multe ori pentru a oferi posibilitate studenilor s noteze n gril. n continuare studenii ncearc s interpreteze coninutul mesajului i acest procedeu i ajut s neleag c sunt multiple modaliti de a exprima un mesaj i el nu convine oricrei situaii. De exemplu: Mixa-Bb, nouvelle formule, cest plus que jamais un moment de pure douceur. Le shampoing Mixa-Bb ne pique pas les yeux, doux pour les bbs, doux pour les mamans. [ 6] A II-a etap. Vizionarea mesajului cu sunet Obiective/sarcini didactice: - s compare limbajul produs cu cel televizat; - s prezinte oral un produs n faa auditorului; - s compun slogane pentru a prezenta un produs. La etapa a doua, studenii sunt orientai la alegerea oral a limbajului publicitar. Stilul publicitar e format din fraze-oc, din cuvinte magice care atrag cititorul pentru a-l transforma n client. Studenii sunt ndemnai s creeze creativ i ingenios, s ptrund n magia cuvintelor 125 Person- Gestes Symboles et nages et objets, mouvements sygnes dcor Texte Couleurs bande son

Publicitate
Prezentarea unui produs (ampon Mixa-Bb pentru copii) Tehnici de nvare: I etap. Prezentarea publicitii fr sunet. Obiective/sarcini: - s identifice personajele implicate, produsul reclamat; - s interpreteze textul publicitii: dup asocierile cu imaginile filmului; - s formuleze ipoteze asupra mesajului vorbitorilor. - s selecteze informaia-cheie, clasnd-o ntr-o gril. 124

care se bazeaz pe asocieri de idei, de sonoritate ce excit intelectul i provoac o plcere auditiv. n exersarea lexicului publicitar se propun sarcini de tipul [4]: a) din lista de cuvinte propuse, alegei cuvintele magice pentru un parfum feminin/masculin. - Amour, aimer, vie, bonheur. - Sant, beaut, libert. - Vritable, authentique, fort. - Premier, numro 1, meilleur. b) Gsii cuvinte ce asociaz pentru a crea un slogan sau dou unui produs francez. Exemplu: Avec Colgate, saveur et fracheur se conjuguent. c) Inspirndu-v de publicitatea vizionat, imaginai o publicitate pentru: - o main familial, foarte econom; - crem pentru ngrijirea tenului. d) Cu ajutorul informaiei din tabel, caracterizai un telefon mobil. Scriei cinci fraze cu caracter publicitar i de construcii diferite. Prezentai informaia n public. Tlphone portable NOKIA dimensions: 10 cm x 5 cm poids: 100 grammes prix: 600 F existe en 20 couleurs diffrentes Toate aceste exerciii vizeaz dezvoltarea capacitilor comunicative ale studenilor. Utilizarea n cadrul leciei a mijlocului audio-vizual deschide n faa studenilor noi orizonturi de cunoatere, multiple modaliti ce valorific exprimarea oral. n urma unor tehnici de predare a temei noi din aceast unitate (prezentarea tipurilor de discurs, relevarea sensului cuvintelor-cheie, exersarea lor n propoziii), profesorul trece la etapa vizionrii (vezi tabe126

lul 4) pentru a repeta anumite structuri ale limbajului, a imita gesturile personajelor, a caracteriza un produs, a antrena capacitile de regizor ale studenilor. Acces la aa tip de informaie studenii au numai prin intermediul exploatrii video. Discours types Prparatifs VIDO Recommandations

Tabelul 4. Structura leciei Eficacitatea n cazul dat depinde de miestria profesorului de a manevra cu aparatul video i de metodele i procedeele implementate cu ajutorul lui n cadrul leciei, dar i de atitudinea activ a studenilor, de dorina de a achiziiona cunotine att lexicale i gramaticale, ct i culturale. Finaliti. n urma acestor activiti, studentul poate: utiliza corect stilul publicitar; crea o publicitate, slogane; prezenta, caracteriza un produs. Tema II : Ngociation Mijlocul audio-vizual: videocasetofonul. Strategii didactice: demonstraia, exerciiul, dialogul Filmul cu durata 03.32 minute trateaz tema respectiv, unde studenii au posibilitatea de a descoperi mecanismul funcionrii ntreprinderilor franceze i de a nelege mai bine comportamentul cultural al oamenilor de afaceri n timpul negocierii asupra unui produs. [ 6] Activitile pedagogice de atenie vizual i sonor se claseaz n cteva etape. nainte de vizionarea filmului, profesorul explic cuvintele necunoscute ce in de registrul economic, prezint prile participante la masa rotund. Exemplu: dlai (m), bureautique (f), logiciel (m), volet (m), cblage (m) etc. I etap. Reperajul informaiei Obiective: - s identifice caracteristicile comportamentale ale persoanelor participante; 127

- s observe i s relateze despre strategia abordat de negociatori. Studenii vizioneaz secvena fr sunet i, n corespundere cu obiectivele propuse, claseaz informaia n tabel: a) b) c) d) e) f) Information Bruno Ripoche, le vendeur, entre et serre la main. Grard Dupont, lacheteur, crit qch. B.R. commente le devis G.D. pose des questions B.R. utilise une calculette G.D. donne a B.R. une carte de visite. Vrai Faux

4. Les prix mentionns a) taxes comprises sont des prix b) hors taxes c) parfois taxes comprises, parfois hors taxes 5. Grard Dupont a) ne peut pas seul dcider de lachat du matriel b) peut, seul, dcider de lachat c) peut, seul, dcider de lachat dune partie du matriel b) Notai materialul propus (n ordinea n care M. Ripoche l prezint lui M. Dupont). Dsignation ............................... ................................ ................................ Quantit ................................ ............................... ................................

Aceast activitate mobilizeaz atenia studentului asupra situaiei propuse pentru analiz, asupra potenialului imaginii mobile, dar mute i aceasta numai datorit calitilor tehnice ale mijlocului utilizat. A IIa-a etap. nelegerea mesajului vizionat Obiective: - s selecteze corect informaia; - s noteze evenimentele n ordine cronologic. a) Vizionarea secvenei video cu sunet. Studenii primesc cte un minitest, format din cinci itemi cu trei variante de rspuns. Sarcina lor este de a alege afirmaiile corecte. a) diminuer le nombre de connexions Vax prvues b) augmenter le nombre de Vax prvues c) supprimer les connexions 2. Lacheteur a) demande une remise b) ne demande pas de remise c) demande implicitement une remise 3. Le vendeur utilise un a) vrifier une information ordinateur pour b) impressionner lacheteur c) recalculer le devis 1. Lacheteur souhaite

Activitile ce in de nelegerea informaiei vizeaz verificarea coninutului dup o vizionare complet (imagine i sunet) a secvenei. Itemii, pe care studenii i consult nainte de vizionare, permite n mod egal de a orienta atenia spre anumite aspecte eseniale ale mesajului. Aceste exerciii in att de ordinul general al sensului, ct i de cel particular. A III-a etap. Exploatarea secvenei video Obiective: - s utilizeze corect termenii de ordin economic; - s gseasc expresiile echivalente cuvintelor-cheie. n urma vizionrii cu sunet, studenii au sarcina de a completa dialogul cu cuvinte-cheie date: a) budget (prix / revenu donner / prter / consentir) - Il y a un problme: je dispose seulement dun _____________ de 145.000 francs pour ce projet Est-ce que vous pourriez nous ______________ une remise de 5% ? b) marge / prix / solde 129

128

- cela mest trs difficile, notre ________________ est trs faible sur ce genre de produits. c) Regsii expresiile echivalente: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. rgler comptant un devis un acompte le solde finaliser marger une remise T.T.C. H.T. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) avec les taxes prendre un bnfice ce qui reste payer une rduction de prix somme, hors commande payer tout de suite sons les taxes une tude des prix donne terminer

Activitile ce in de exploatare au scopul de a-l face pe student s descopere funcionarea discursului de afaceri, s pun n eviden elementele cele mai caracteristice de natur lexical, gramatical i comunicativ. A IV-a etap. Comunicarea Obiective: - s negocieze inspirndu-se din secvena video; - s utilizeze noiunile-cheie specifice negocierii n comunicare. La aceast etap putem propune o serie de activiti orientate spre dezvoltarea competenelor de comunicare: a) Formai un dialog ntre M. Dupont i M. Ripoche dup schema: metteur codage Message dcodage Rcepteur

Le client: il dfinit sa situation de famille, sa profession, ses gots, etc. il devra respecter ce profil au cours de lentretien. c) Dup imaginaie, inventai un obiect care este de nevndut. Exemplu: ochelari fr sticl, nclminte fr ireturi, o main fr motor. Pregtii argumentele respective: descriptif du produit; ses avantages pensez aux objections. Activitile pedagogice din ultima etap au ca obiectiv de a-i face pe studeni s practice comunicarea profesional att n mod oral, ct i scris. Datorit imaginii video, studenii au luat cunotin de eticheta comportamentului de afaceri, au observat atmosfera n care se petrece o negociere, i-au format o atitudine vizavi de aceast activitate profesional. Jocurile de roluri motiveaz studenii spre creativitate i originalitate, i ajut s aplice lexicul necesar n situaia concret. Finaliti. Studentul poate: utiliza corect cuvintele-cheie; negocia; convinge prin argumentri. Aadar, analiznd structura strategiei didactice a acestei uniti (vezi tabelul 5), observm c profesorul recurge la utilizarea mijlocului audio-vizual n momentul oportun, cnd situaia nu poate fi descris verbal. Pentru a acumula noi achiziii de nivel profesional ntr-o limb strin, studentul are nevoie s perceap real o situaie de negociere, s observe toate subtilitile limbajului verbal i non-verbal, ns aceasta este posibil numai prin vizionarea unui document autentic i exploatarea potenialului pedagogic. Ngociation Ngociation types stratgies Tabelul 5. Structura leciei VIDO Conditions de russite

vendeur

acheteur

b) Angajai o negociere ntre agentul imobiliar i cumprtorul unui apartament. Ambele pri pregtesc convorbirea: Le vendeur: il prpare la description de lappartement, sa situation, son prix il prpare son argumentaire (avantages pour convaincre) 130

TEMA III: ntreprinderea Mijlocul audio-vizual: casetofonul Strategii didactice: discuia dirijat, brainstormingul, lucrul individual, comentariul 131

Propunem spre analiz la aceast tem dou dialoguri mici ce trateaz afacerile comune dintre ntreprinderea Gripoux i ntreprinderea Paragem. I Dialog [7] Obiective: - s determine cuvintele-cheie ce in ce noiunile ntreprindere, pia, afaceri; - s comenteze graficele, reieind din coninutul mesajului. a) audiere nainte de a trece la audiere, profesorul prezint studenilor grila pe care urmeaz s-o completeze. Socit Gripoux Qualit des produits Prix des produits Travail des commerciaux Parts de marche b) audiere Pentru a nelege mai bine starea de lucruri n aceste ntreprinderi i, ndeosebi, importana pieei n afaceri, profesorul traseaz la tabl dou grafice, dup care studenii ascult nc o dat dialogul. Socit Paragem

n urma audierii, studenii comenteaz graficele formnd fraze pe baza lor. De exemplu: Le premier graphique de la socit Gripoux montre une augmentation forte des ventes. n cazul dat audierea este valorificat prin utilizarea materialului vizual: gril, grafice. Feed-back-ul se realizeaz imediat prin activitile de comunicare. Studenii comunic n grup, dispun de o libertate psihologic n elaborarea ideilor proprii privind comentariul exerciiului. I Dialog. Audiere [7] Obiective: - s compare prin argumentare aceste societi; - s expun prerea proprie asupra activitii ntreprinderilor date; - s propun sugestii privind ameliorarea situaiei din societate Paragem. n calitate de suport vizual, profesorul propune grila urmtoare i indic sarcinile respective: a) S compare avantajele societii Gripoux vizavi de societatea Paragem, reieind din coninutul dialogului audiat. Avantages Socit Gripoux Socit Paragem

Qualits des produits Prix des produits Force des ventes Parts de marche

b) Rspundei i justificai rspunsul: A votre avis, Franoise Vittel apprcie-t-elle Isabelle Mercier? Selon M. Barnier, Isabelle Mercier doit-elle aller en Suisse? Pourquoi? c) Scriei o list de sugestii pentru societatea Paragem n scopul ameliorrii situaiei de afaceri n Suedia. Activitile variate, ce axeaz n jurul obiectivelor, au scopul de a perfeciona cunotinele studenilor, de a-i orienta spre o utilizare att 132 133

pertinent, ct posibil a limbii de origine. Studenii descoper i achiziioneaz un savoir-faire global prin intermediul audierii, producerii orale, exprimrii orale, scrisului care constituie pri componente ale comunicrii. Corelaia obiectiv-metod-mijloc eficientizeaz procesul de nvare-evaluare i contribuie nemijlocit la nsuirea perfect a mijloacelor i tehnicilor de comunicare. Finaliti. Studentul poate: comenta informaia redat prin grafic; structura coninutul unui document audiat; comunica activ utiliznd idei proprii; propune sugestii i ntreine o discuie despre economia de pia (produs, vnzare, concuren). Formarea competenelor de vorbire oral i scris ncepe cu formarea competenelor de audiere, fiindc vorbirea i audierea sunt dou pri interconexe ale vorbirii orale. Utilizarea repetat a mijlocului audio-vizual n cadrul leciei de limb francez (vezi tabelul 6) faciliteaz strategia didactic, studenii asimileaz mai uor i mai bine structura limbajului de origine, ptrund mai profund n sistemul de afaceri n formarea competenelor de comunicare, dar i de specialitate. Autour de lentreprise AUDITION Activits des entreprises AUDITION

REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

1. Boco, M., Instruire interactiv, Ed. Eurodidact, Cluj-Napoca, 1998, 218 p. 2. Borcoman, R., Terminologie i limbaje economice, Chiinu, 1999. 3. Constantinescu, G., dicionar de termeni lingvistici, Bucureti, 1998. 4. Moldovanu, G., Savoir communiquer dans les affaires, Chiinu, 1999, 97 p. 5. Moldovanu Gh., Paradigma derivaional terminologic, parte integrant a paradigmei derivaionale complexe. n: Probleme de lingvistic general i romanic, Vol. I, Chiinu: CE USM, 2003, pp. 47-50. 6. Ninan, Cl., Le franais des affaires par la vido, cassettes vido, Didier, Paris, 1993, 112 p. 7. Tauzin, B., Comment vont les affaires?, cassettes audio. Paris, 2000, 179 p.

Tabelul 6. Structura leciei E de menionat c printre activitile practice de nvare a terminologiei de specialitate n limba strin, o mare importan se acord activitilor de autoevaluare care permit de a situa studentul n centrul propriului potenial lingvistic. ncrederea n sine, motivaia nalt pentru a depi un anumit nivel de competene fac parte din rezultatele cele mai fructuoase ale acestor activiti. n concluzie, este important s menionm c domeniul examinat este vast i necesit conjugarea eforturilor specialitilor, lingvitilor i a profesorilor de limb n vederea elaborrii mecanismelor inerente, proprii fiecrui limbaj de specialitate i a exerciiilor adecvate n ordinea creterii gradului de dificultate a acestora. 134 135

USING CROSSWORD PUZZLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES Nadejda BACIMANoVA, MA, Chair of Applied Modern Languages, Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova
ABSTRACT

Cuvintele ncruciate reprezint nu numai o opiune captivant rspndit de a petrece timpul liber, dar de asemenea i un instrument de predare/nvare efectiv n domeniul de formare n general i n cel de predare a limbajelor de specialitate n particular. Articolul dat descrie succint istoria apariiei cuvintelor ncruciate, pune n atenie valoarea lor educativ-instructiv, motivele pentru a le folosi n procesul de predare/nvare, precum i efectul lor sporit. De asemenea articolul conine cteva descrieri ale modalitilor de utilizare a cuvintelor ncruciate n predarea limbajelor de specialitate (exemplele sunt oferite n limba englez). Crossword puzzles are said to be the most popular and widespread word game in the world. They are popular pastimes for many people. There are many reasons why people play crossword puzzles. They are fun to play, entertaining and challenging. Puzzle solving is also a way to keep the mind flexible. Many people find them relaxing while others use them for educational purposes, including teaching foreign languages for specific purposes.

word game. His crossword puzzle appeared on December 21, 1913 in a Sunday newspaper, the New York World. It differed from todays crosswords in that it was diamond shaped and contained no internal black squares. During the early 1920s other newspapers picked up the newly discovered pastime and within a decade crossword puzzles were featured in almost all American newspapers. In this period crosswords began to assume their familiar form. Ten years after its rebirth in the States it crossed the Atlantic and re-conquered Europe. The puzzles popularity continued to build throughout the rest of the 20th century. Today, crossword puzzles can be found in every major alphabetbased language, all over the world, including the Internet. Some are even computer generated. Thus, Arthur Wynnes mental exercise has become a national and international institution.

Educational and instructional value of crossword puzzles

It didnt take long for teachers to see the educational and instructional possibilities of these word puzzles. Nothing tests your knowledge like a crossword puzzle. Using this tool, students can solve ready-made puzzles designed around grade appropriate topics. Solving a crossword puzzle can teach new words, the meaning and spelling of those words. Students can also jump into the drivers seat and create their own puzzles. This develops big-picture thinking. To create a puzzle from scratch, students must demonstrate deeper knowledge of the topic and the words that will serve as the puzzles answers. To be able to solve or to make a crossword puzzle in a second language shows a high degree of skill and knowledge therein. Thats why it has become an important and effective teaching/ learning tool as well as fun activity. Crossword puzzle unquestionably plays a prominent role in education in general and in foreign language teaching in particular, helping expand vocabulary and increase language skills. Educational and instructional benefits of using crossword puzzles can generally be described in the following way: First of all, crossword solving involves several useful skills including vocabulary, reasoning, spelling and word attack skills. To solve any crossword puzzle, students must be able to 137

The history of crossword puzzles in brief

It is considered that the first crosswords appeared in England during the 19th century, although similar puzzles have been around in different forms since Egyptian times. The English crosswords were of an elementary kind and aimed mostly at a juvenile audience. Then they did not become a craze for adults. In the United States, however, the puzzle developed into a serious adult pastime. The first known published crossword puzzle was created by a journalist named Arthur Wynne from Liverpool, and he is usually credited as the inventor of the popular 136

identify and understand the terms being used. This often involves acquiring new vocabulary and terminology. It can also involve making differentiations between similar words or phrases. Correctly deciphering a crossword also requires exact spelling, which for students may mean practicing dictionary skills. Other important skills required for completing these puzzles include making inferences, evaluating choices, and drawing conclusions. Another benefit of using crossword puzzles in the classroom is that they are associated with recreation, and can be less intimidating for students as review tools. Students who might normally balk at practice tests, flashcards, or review sessions with the teacher find crossword puzzle solving to be much less threatening and more like game play. Puzzle solving is a much more active type of learning, and will engage students with the material more than passive types of review techniques do. Crossword puzzles also have the advantage of appealing to different learning styles. Visual learners often have strong puzzlesolving skills, and feel great satisfaction when they complete one. Auditory learners enjoy step-by-step reasoning, so they also benefit from the sequential steps of completing a crossword. Even kinesthetic learners enjoy the multi-task strategies required to solve a crossword. Finally, crossword puzzles have the benefit of being customizable to study content. Puzzle creation software and websites are abundant, and easy to use, so teachers can create curriculumspecific crosswords with little trouble. Whether you are studying management, marketing or accounting, a crossword puzzle with subject-specific vocabulary can be created with ease and in short amount of time.

Crossword puzzles allow students to refresh the vocabulary they learnt, as well as learn some new words on a topic. While solving a crossword puzzle, students may have to do some research. Memorizing vocabulary is a tedious chore. Crossword puzzles can help make it easier and faster. Crossword puzzles test understanding and memory of a words definition as well as spelling. Crossword puzzles can be used to explore synonyms, antonyms, or other types of words. While making crossword puzzles by themselves, learners employ communication strategies like paraphrasing, substituting one word for another in order to negotiate a shared meaning. Crossword puzzles can be used in the classroom to support, extend, and enrich your instructional goals. They help students develop word analysis and critical thinking skills and improve vocabulary and comprehension. The puzzles also provide opportunities for students to evaluate, analyze, synthesize, and summarize information and experiment with language. Thus, crossword puzzles are good for reinforcing vocabulary study, for finishing up any sort of unit study which has new and unfamiliar vocabulary. Besides, students like to deal with them. So, activity based on crossword puzzles can be useful, interesting and enjoyable with minimum preparatory work for the teacher (taking into account the possibility of making crosswords online).

Modifications of using crossword puzzles in ESP teaching

1) The first and the simplest way is to use proper usual crossword puzzle on the topic that is currently studied by the students. Students just read the clues and fill in the gaps with appropriate words. (see appendix 1: crossword puzzle revising money vocabulary) 2) Another variant is to provide students with the crossword with the answers, so the students have to write/say the corresponding clues. (see appendix 2: crossword puzzle revising basic accounting notions) 3) It is possible to deal with an oral crossword puzzle. Only give your students the puzzle without clues. Communicate the clues orally. In a foreign language class this can be an excellent listening activity. 139

Reasons for using crossword puzzles in ESP teaching

Besides educational and instructional reasons for using crossword puzzles at the foreign language lesson, there are also some other reasons specific just for this field of teaching. Some of them are described below. 138

Tell students to fill in what they can and then repeat the clues once more. 4) There is a variant where students dont just read and fill in the words. Its the jigsaw activity variety accomplished by pairs of students (see appendix 3). Each pair of students has the puzzle, one with part A containing half the solutions, and the other with part B containing the rest, i.e. every student has a crossword with only half of the solutions. Each partner should ask for help with missing words (e.g. Whats 6 across?), another student helps by giving clues for the words. It is advisable to write the instructions for the activity on each handout since students may forget or not understand the teachers oral instructions. In addition, before handing out the puzzle, explain to the students that the goal is to complete it in pairs without looking at their partners copy. Stress the importance of giving ones partner feedback on the initial definition by asking more questions to allow the students to narrow the possibilities and negotiate meaning. While students are working in pairs on the main task, the teacher can circulate, acting as a facilitator when needed, noting down recurrent language problems that can be cleared up later on the board as a follow-up activity with the whole class. 5) Its a good idea to give ready-made crosswords to the students, but even a better idea is to have students work together or individually to create own crossword puzzles based on the studied material. This activity can be organized both in the classroom and at home (given as homework). It is possible to put it into practice in the classroom in the following ways: This variant suits better for students individual work: they are suggested to make their own crossword puzzles on the basis of the key word given, that is or refers to the topic studied. The procedure is the following: the teacher writes the key word on the blackboard (either horizontally or vertically) (1); the students make their own crosswords, i.e. they provide their own words containing every letter of the key word (see appendix 4); all the words should correspond to the topic suggested by the teacher (2); the students explain the clues for the 140

words from their crossword to other students (3); other students guess the right word (4). Another option is to have students in small groups work together to create crossword puzzles, which they will give to another group to solve. 6) Play a crossword puzzle game. Divide the class into two teams and flip a coin to determine which team goes first. Write a word on the board relating to the topic whose words you would like to review. Have the first student of the first team go to the chalkboard and write a word that uses one letter of an existing word in the crossword. If the word fits and is correctly spelled, then give one point for every letter of the new word. Then, go on to the first student of the other team. If the word is incorrect, erase it and go to the opposite team. Of course, all the words should relate to the topic announced by the teacher. It is possible to think of some other ways of using crosswords in the classroom; everything depends on teachers creativity and desire to use them.

When to use crossword puzzles

Teacher-made crossword puzzles take little time when created online, but the returns are great. They allow for differentiation, a focus on specific vocabulary, and they can provide a good intellectual challenge for students. Puzzles are usually fun and engaging and can be used in a variety of ways and at different stages of the lesson: at the beginning of a lesson as a preview to vocabulary; during a lesson: (1) as a listening guide, whereby students fill in the answers as they hear the word and the definition; (2) as a reading guide which students use to fill in while they are reading, using glossaries, dictionaries, context clues and other strategies for key vocabulary words; at the end of a lesson as a review of the key terms; for homework to practice and learn new vocabulary. How to make crossword puzzles Crossword puzzles for use in the language classroom are really quite easy to create. First, make a list of words on the topic whose vocabulary you want to revise or discuss. Make sure your students are familiar with 141

these words. Then search for a letter common to two words and you are off. Its surprising just how quickly a pattern resembling a crossword puzzle emerges. There are many sites that allow teachers to create crossword puzzles. Some of them are: http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/ crossword/ http://www.eclipsecrossword.com/ http://en.puzzle-maker.com/ http://www.crosswordpuzzlegames.com/create.html http://worksheets.theteacherscorner.net/make-your-own/ crossword/crossword-puzzle-maker.php Sophisticated crossword puzzles of newspapers are not your goal. So try to make your puzzle understandable and teachable for your students. For foreign language learners, a teacher might fill in the first letter of some of the words if the puzzle is too challenging for some students. The students shouldnt have any obstacles in understanding the clues and guessing the words, in contrast, the crossword puzzle should be as simple as to be able to promote effective vocabulary work and developing communicative skills.

Teacher-created crosswords can include word banks, or not, depending on the level of students language skills. Teachers can use simplified or sophisticated language when writing the definitions, depending on students needs. For less/more proficient learners, the teacher can create an easier/ more difficult puzzle using fewer/more words. While many teachers will want to create a puzzle with the important terms from the lesson or unit, others might focus on antonyms or synonyms. To help a student or group of students review specific vocabulary, generating a personal crossword puzzle for them allows for matching the words as well as the skill level to the student. How crossword puzzles help Being an effective teaching and learning tool, crossword puzzles help both teacher and students in a variety of ways (according to Paul J. Hamel) [4]. Crossword puzzles help students: build research skills using a dictionary; develop dictionary skills; develop writing and spelling skills; have fun in doing challenging vocabulary building assignments; improve reasoning, spelling, deciphering, and word attack skills; keep their minds active; learn new words on the topic; make inferences, evaluating choices and drawing conclusions; refresh and help retain the vocabulary they have learned. Crossword puzzles help teachers: extend their lessons; keep their students interest; provide extra homework or classroom assignments to improve foreign language skills; provide pronunciation practice; provide additional methods of vocabulary building; reinforce new vocabulary words; use a review tool that is less intimidating and threatening than tests. 143

To make or to take?
If you want to use a crossword puzzle at your lesson there are two options available: its possible to find a ready-made one or to make your own. Crossword puzzles can be found in newspapers, magazines, in crossword puzzle books, textbooks and they vary in complexity and difficulty. Nowadays there are many great online teaching resources. But the materials do not always make a great fit and they often need to be modified. Its actually not easy for teachers to alter a crossword puzzle that someone else has produced without access to the file. The solution is to create own crossword puzzles and there are some compelling reasons why a teacher would want to do so. Teachers can have control over which vocabulary is used in the puzzle, ensuring that the key content words are used. 142

Conclusion
Crossword puzzles have endured as a favorite pastime because they are appealing to all ages, they can be completed in a rather brief period of time, and solving them provides a sense of accomplishment. This type of activity is intrinsically motivating, because students generally want to solve the puzzle and find the missing words. Crossword puzzles are good simply for this because students tend to be motivated to do them but also because they give students a chance to practice a highly useful real-world skill: explaining words (or the converse, figuring out a word from a definition). They will need to do this if they are speaking with someone in English; they will also need the converse when they use English-English dictionaries. Also, crossword puzzles are student centered in that each pair can work independently, which frees the teacher to circulate and observe their English. For all these reasons, crossword puzzles make a terrific educational tool that can be used to test students knowledge, expand their vocabulary, develop oral and written communication skills, and generally increase students level of proficiency in English for specific purposes.
REFERENCES: 1) Brief History of Crossword Puzzles. [last accessed date: April 11,

4, 2011. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012]. http://naomimigliacci. suite101.com/using-crosswords-in-the-classroom-a369476 6) Teaching with Crossword Puzzles. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012]. http://www.vocabulary.co.il/article.php 7) TEFL Speaking Activity: The crossword Puzzle. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012]. http://www.tefllogue.com/in-the-classroom/tefl-speaking-activitythe-crossword-puzzle.html 8) WHARTON, Glenn. Crossword Puzzles: One Way to Improve Communication Strategies. Forum. 1995, nr. 1, vol. 33, 47-48. Appendix 1. Money vocabulary.
1 2 3 4 5

7 8

9 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 1

1 4 1 7 1 8 2 0 2 1

1 5

1 6

2012].

1 9

http://www.crosswordtournament.com/more/wynne.html 2) Crossword Puzzles. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012]. http://www.readwritethink.org/parent-afterschool-resources/ games-tools/crossword-puzzles-a-30183.html 3) English lesson plans with crossword puzzles. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012]. http://english-lesson-plan.com/info/103/ 4) HAMEL, Paul J. ESL Photo Crossword Puzzles. June 2010. [last accessed date: April 11, 2012].http://www.eslworksheetsandlessonplans. com/files/ESL_Photo_Crossword_Puzzles_Sample_Lessons_.pdf 5) MIGLIACCI, Naomi. Using Crosswords in the Classroom. May 144

2 2

Across: 1. Get money for doing a job. 4. Metal money. 6. Have to pay back money you borrowed. 8. Pay to use something (like an apartment or a DVD). 9. Put money into the bank. 10. Use money to buy something. 12. ________ card. A card that lets you borrow money. 14. Ask someone to give you money and promise to pay them back later. 15. Money left to a waitress for good service. 18. Give someone money that they will pay you back later. 19. Give money in exchange for goods. 20. Give goods in exchange for money. 21. Spend money on things you dont want or need. 22. Money that the government gets every time you make a purchase. Down: 1. Trade one countrys currency for another countrys currency. 2. Have the ability to pay for something: can _____________. 145

3. Money you pay to the bank in order to borrow money. 5. Keep money in the bank. 7. Take money out of the bank. 11. ________ card. A card that withdraws money directly from your bank. 12. A countrys money. 13. Money you get back when you buy something. 14. Paper money. 16. ________ someone back; Give money that you owe someone. 17. Bills and coins. 19. Use money to gamble. (The answers: 1. Earn. 2. Afford. 3. Interest. 4. Coins. 5. Save. 6. Owe. 7. Withdraw. 8. Rent. 9. Deposit. 10. Spend. 11. Debit. 12. Credit. 13. Change. 14. Borrow. 15. Tip. 16. Pay. 17. Cash. 18. Lend. 19. Buy. 20. Sell. 21. Waste. 22. Tax.) Appendix 2. Accounting crossword.
1

I N G

T
10

U P R N A I
11

P V A T O U I C C H E R

E C E I P T

12

U V

B O

L I

13

I N

Appendix 3. Part A:
1 2

L O

A n
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c H e c K I
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n G

D E
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2 3

B U N T
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B I N T c R
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c e

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L
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A c c O U n T
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A C

O O K K

G
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U D I T I N 146
5

I n T

E R e s AT M
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R G C E D I O L R c I A J
8

L E D E
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P A

c 147

Part B:
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s A V I N G S
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THE USE OF DIGITAL STORY AS A FORM OF STUDENT`S INDIVIDUAL WORK

4

c A R D

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B O R R O W

c O L L 7 A T E R 13 A L
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B A N K

Svetlana BUREA-TITICA, dr. st., Catedra limbi moderne, Universitatea de Stat din Tiraspol
ABSTRACT

Appendix 4. Examples of the crossword puzzles created by the students at the lessons. c o n s r i p r o f e m o n r e l o s c d c b a 148 o e o r B U S I N E S S m p i t u m k t t y o M O n e Y s i n e s s m a n e r

Povestirea digital este o tehnic didactic eficient n evaluarea lucrului individual al studentului, care va contribui la dezvoltarea competenelor lingvistice i cunotinelor metodologice de predare a limbii strine. Activitatea de alctuire a povestirii digitale devine un proces complex prin multitudinea aciunilor necesare pentru crearea sensului narativ, ceea ce face posibil reflectarea studentului asupra cunotinelor de care dispune ca viitor profesor. Astfel, povestirea digital favorizeaz gndirea critic i angajeaz studentul ntr-o activitate interactiv generatoare de competene. Individual work is an important part of student activity at Methodology of Teaching English Language. Once students get the task they will process and settle the task problem for example Teaching Writing, Reading Comprehension, by self each student alone. The conditions for a good individual work are the student motivation, selfcontrol ability and efficient increase of needed knowledge. Digital story making on a given methodological theme of teaching English Language is a proper form of individual work that will fulfill all needs. What is a digital story? According to the Center for Digital Story it is a short, first-person video narrative created by combining recorded voices, still and moving images, and music or other sounds. Also a new way of presenting personal information, defined as a digital explanation, a pedagogical technique of the 21st century that allows students to employ higher order critical and creative thinking skills [1]. So digital story can be an efficient form of presenting students individual work at MTEL course and the knowledge product will be assessed through digital storytelling content and presentation level. 149

r e p r e n e u r u r c e s o d i s i t t y

r a r d s

i c k

The process of composing a digital story is a complex cognitive process of meaning making and reflecting on existing and needed knowledge. The use of digital storytelling as a way of student`s individual work assessment can become a form of reflecting on what they know and need to know as future teachers of foreign language. Presenting a specific teaching case study for example Styles of learning, students need language knowledge, creativity and innovation skills, and not only. So from this point of view digital stories provide a record of student`s thinking and are precious in assessing student progress toward Methodology of Teaching English Language curriculum. Creating digital stories as individual tasks may attract and motivate students to get into writing unconsciously. So, digital storytelling may motivate and encourage students who dont like writing or who have no confidence in writing. So for those students who like less writing, working at their story script, involuntary will develop increase and practice writing skills because the process of digital storytelling begins similarly to the traditional writing process and includes brainstorming or topic selection and drafting. After students have to transcribe titles, translate thoughts into words, work with different sentences using their computer. Students need a variety of skills in order to accomplish the creation of a digital story. The efficiency of digital story comes from the multiple actions that a student must accomplish in order to make up it. The basic steps that students perform are: Basic Steps of a Digital Story.

Fig. 1 150

Some scholars see storytelling as a catalyst for language learning [1]. The increase of foreign language knowledge in a communicative style of learning will focus our Methodology of Teaching English Language course on foreign language communicative competence development. Students working with digital storytelling productions are exposed to various forms of foreign language input, example through studying literature, information related to the content of their theme, or through listening to the teacher or to their mates, or even to their own recordings. According to Vivian Cook, the ultimate goal within communicative language learning is to use the language adequately for communicative purposes. Active use of the language is the key word [2]. In digital storytelling used at the Methodology of Teaching English Language course besides didactic knowledge, another main goal is academic foreign language studying. In foreign language storytelling processes students might develop their communicative competence precisely by negotiating meaning. The digital story becomes a form of student-centered discourse. Ko et al advocates that creating a studentcentered discourse and engaging in negotiation of meaning with students, students are able to experience comprehensible input and produce comprehensible output, which rarely happens in teacher-centered discourse [4]. Language output is related to the written and spoken narratives in making digital stories. Although the ultimate purpose of digital storytelling is to tell the story to the audience, story writing is also important. A good script makes the digital story more effective and successful. Robin stresses story writing, describing how people usually spend more digital time, other than the story itself, searching for images and audio files to present their stories. However, he emphasizes that the process of selecting a meaningful topic and writing the story about the topic is the most important process in digital storytelling. When students pay more attention to the writing process, they will have the ownership of their stories. Likewise, students will be motivated and engaged in the process of digital storytelling. Finally, although digital elements are important, writing should not be neglected, because it is an essential part of digital storytelling. Some researchers stress the writing 151

process in digital storytelling [3]. Researches like Ballast, Stephens and Thompson has verified the effectiveness of digital storytelling in improving students writing skills. Digital story making develops the critical thinking of students. Critical Thinking Activities.

So digital story becomes an useful didactic tool or as upper mentioned a pedagogical technique of the 21st century that allows students to employ higher order critical and creative thinking skills as well as writing, technology, interview, information collection and transformation, presentation, research and not less main communicative competence. The use of digital story as a form of student`s individual work assessment brings many benefits to students in skills acquiring area and teaching process. Skills and Benefits used in creating a digital story.

Fig. 2 Storytelling process supposes planning, information collection, information transformation and story editing. This is a complex cognitive process that supposes analysis, interpretation, interference, explanation, reflection, self-regulation and evaluation. These actions provide student the wisdom chain (data-information-knowledge-wisdom) confirm Eric Rusten and Susan Schuman. Combining digital storytelling and critical thinking defines an important pedagogical frontier. To sum up, I`ll list benefits to students gained in the process of composing a digital storytelling: - greater engagement; - reinforces writing and encourage seeing writing as a process; - improve critical thinking; - improve digital literacy skills; - improve foreign language learning; - increase communicative competence. 152

Fig. 3 The given way of assessment at Methodology of Teaching English Language convey course material using a wider array of communication tools than text alone and allows demonstrate an activity, illustrate a concept from teaching process, or present a content in engaging way. The digital storytelling use in the student`s individual work assessment can be seen as an efficient way of improving foreign language and methodological knowledge. The activity of composing a digital story is a complex cognitive process of meaning making and reflecting on existing knowledge as a future teacher. In this sense digital stories provide a record of student`s thinking and can be used in assessing student progress toward Methodology of Teaching English Language. 153

The mentioned way of assessment will develop and increase student`s foreign language skills, as well as analysis, critical and thinking skills. The digital story elaboration provides students with opportunities to write and reflect creatively upon teaching foreign language process.
REFERENCES:

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TAILOR MADE CASE STUDIES IN ESP CLASSES Marcela CALCHEI, MA, Moldova State University
ABSTRACT

1. Language and Cognition: The second language users. In V. Cook and Bassetti, Psychology Press, 2010; 2. Robin, B. R. Digital storytelling: A powerful technology tool for the 21st century classroom. Theory Into Practice, 2008, 47, p. 220-228; 3. Sadik, A. Digital storytelling: A meaningful technologyintegrated approach for engaged student learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 2008, 56, p.487-506.; 4. Silvia Rosnthal Tolisano, How-to-Guide. Digital Storytelling. Tools for Educators., http://www.langwitches. org/blog.

Studiul de caz este o tehnic complex care este folosit n predarea englezei de afaceri, ns n cazul englezei predate studenilor ce fac parte din domenii economice foarte specifice, profesorii sunt nevoii s elaboreze materiale didactice relevante domeniului. Articolul studiaz aspecte teoretice legate de elaborarea materialelor de ctre profesori i structura cazului de studio.

ESP Material Development Pedagogy

ESP teachers are ore most often endowed with more roles that EFL teachers due to the fact that besides teaching and linguistic competence that they need to acquire and practice, these practitioners also need to self-instruct in the field their students work. Thus for these teachers it is paramount to know the subject-mater, carrier content or informative content within the specific area of knowledge that the learners possess in their native language. Besides due to some economic reasons publishers tend to ignore some limited markets hence publishing materials in the most common ESP area such as business. Therefore ESP teachers become frequent developers of teaching materials that would fit their students linguistic and professional needs. The materials that are developed by practitioner are termed as in-house materials or tailor-made materials, home-grown materials, internal materials, self-designed materials, locally produces materials and home-made materials. The most common term used in scientific literature is tailor-made materials. Tailor-made material refers to any material developed by a particular teacher or groups of teachers for a particular course or particular group of students and with the resources available at a particular time. [1,150] 155

154

Tomlinson states that tailor-made materials (learning materials such as textbook or some authentic materials) can be designed from scratch or they can be adapted from ready made materials for the need of some particular students. [9, 11] Tailor-made material are important for ESP classes as they permit the teacher to meet the needs of the students (especially the non-traditional students such as those who study English as part of their professional development process), motivating them and facilitating the learning process by teaching them how to say (language input) base on already known material (content input). The material development process is writing creative and it is difficult to impose any limits though from the evaluation point of view it is considered that it can and should be guided by certain methodological and linguistic aspects and objectives. Thus according to Ana Maria Bocanegra-Valle, professor of English at Cazid University, Spain, there are a number of issues that must be taken into consideration when developing material: the target carrier content; the topics relevance for the target students; the learning objectives; the consistency with the curriculum; the target communicative competences; the target language structures and functions; the necessary equipment and technology and their availability; the recycability of the language input; timing; authenticity of the materials used (receptive materials) and of the task. According to Evan Frendo who has been working in corporate language training all other the world, the writing of tailor made materials include assessment of the learners needs, deciding on priorities, identifying and analyzing language items, working out pedagogical approaches, deciding what sorts of activities to use, 156

making decisions about layout etc, and evaluating or piloting early or draft versions. [4,46] Jesus Garcia Laborda summarized the factors that shape the kind of materials used in ESP are: 1) topic or specialty 2) learners situation 3) general and specific proficiency in the language of study at entry and exit levels 4) the students previous educational and cultural experience 5) types of skills to be developed (whether reading or writing or speaking or listening) 6) expected outcomes of learning goals. [5,103] Hence the process of developing tailored made materials encompasses specific stages namely: Stage 1: Establishment of the target competences and learning objectives; Stage 2: Selection of authentic materials; Stage 3: Design/development of integrated tasks based on the first and second stages; Stage 4: Implementation; Stage 5: Pilot testing and reflection; Stage 6: Revision. One of the main characteristic of this process is it circular character as in the case of ready-made materials there are evaluators whose job is to evaluate the material from linguistic and methodological points of views, whereas in that of tailor-made materials the author of the product is the evaluator thus after the fifth stage it is important to review the material. This stage will improve the designed material and also will make the teachers reflect upon the experience and as a result based on the made conclusion grow professionally. Moreover is can reduce the teaching risks and improve the teaching quality.

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oriented approach which views the language learners as social actors who develop general and particular communicative competences while achieving their everyday goals. For ESP field authentic materials are valuable as they carry not only the content but also the linguistic peculiarities of specialized texts that are genre bound hence the entails the terminological, collocational and discourse features of these types of texts. But at the same time the authentic test may hamper the comprehension of the authentic materials by the students and distort the discourse and linguistic features of the text. Thus, ESP authentic text can be an impediment but authentic tasks will always help students deal with these difficulties as students are experts in the content area of their interest. Tailor-made material development process is a complex process that entails a lot of aspects that need to be taken into consideration (language input, content input, learning objectives and competences and available resources and materials) and stages that materials should go through to meet the specific need of ESP students.

Case Study
Case Study is a term that has been treated differently since its appearance At the beginning it was considered as a method, whereas in the recent literature is categorized just as an activity or technique. The Case Study Method (CSM) was adapted from the Harvard Business School approach to teaching content. The CSM is an instructional method using the partnership between the teacher and the students where the teacher assumes the role of the facilitator of a discussion rather than the sole provider of unidirectional information and the students practice, test, confirm, extend and contest existing concepts in the classroom as it would be the case in the real world. According to Karim S. Rebeiz the attributes of good and effective business cases are: (1) pedagogical utility; (2) original; (3) well-written: Good cases should have impeccable and yet simple 159

Figure 1. The Process of Developing Tailor-Made Materials. Furthermore, there is another issue that is pertinent to the process of material design and that is the issue of authenticity. Authenticity refers not only to the texts (written or oral) that are used in class and textbooks but also to the tasks that students perform in class. Scientists debate the use of authentic and adapted texts for the learning and teaching purposed in ESP textbooks and classes. The authentic tasks and materials are promoted heavily by Communicative Language Learning and by European Common Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR). The CEFR adopts an action 158

language. More importantly, they have the right structure in terms of the flow of ideas and the connection between one paragraph and the next. In other words, the effective case studies should make sense to the audience; (4) stimulating: They should include an interesting plot with a beginning and a middle section. More importantly, there should be drama and suspense involving a clash of ideas and, at times, a clash of people; (5) decision-forcing; (6) call for the generalization of practical learning; (7) relevant to the students; (8) situational dependent: The nature and complexity of the cases depend on a number of factors including the maturity of the students and the size of the class; (9) based on a current topic; (10) containing sufficient details and additional background materials when needed. [7, 595] ESP borrowed this method and adapted it for its goals. Most of the cases consist of business problems that must be solved by the students using discussion, role-plays or simulations. The rationale behind case studies is that they offer hand-on experience which allows students to practice and apply both their content knowledge and linguistic competences. Frances Boyd mentions that case study method fits a major goal of professional education: providing a sheltered situation in which students ca practice reflection-in-action while playing the role of a professional. [2,734]. Hence CSM entail development of communicative and professional competences such as presentation, negotiation, teamwork, information gathering, professional writing skills, etc. Thus case method is a tool not only for teaching English but also for professional development. Currently case study is considered a technique as role-plays and simulations are. The reason is that a method in methodology of teaching foreign language has to have more theatrical grounds specially linguistic and psychological. Hence case study can be used only as a technique 160

in the methodology of teaching foreign languages and definitely as a method in teaching contents. According to Evan Fredo case studies are suitable for all types of business English learner (except perhaps for those still at a low level of English language competence), because the information needed to address the problem is normally included in the data provided, although with some pre-experience groups additional background information may be necessary. [4, 56]The ready made material writers refuse this point of view as even in elementary level textbook we can fin study case that do not require high English proficiency to solve them (e.g. Market Leader: Elementary Business English). Thus, it quite possible to start using case studies at the A level classes, as long as they require using language output that was already practiced before introducing the specific case study. Most case studies that are published in textbook are related to the business domain but especially for in-company training, case studies should emulate the real requirements of the job. Thus ESP teachers have to design tailored case studies that would mirror the situations that are relevant for the students but this process requires a lot of time and effort that teachers will need to invest. Hence teachers can design tailored made case studies, adapt ready made materials or use the case studies that textbook offer. To design a ca se study that would be relevant for students especially for in-company trainings, teachers need to study the materials that could be provided by the company itself as the company can offer enough linguistic material for class. The structure of an elaborate case study should have the following components: Stage 1: Background: in which the students are given background information about the company that can include authentic texts, pictures, graphs, videos, audio material etc. Stage 2: Problem Statement: the students are presented the problem to be solved through audio recordings, charts and graphs, texts etc. Stage 3: Decision Making: the students discuss and negotiate the problem using either just group or classroom discussion; simulation 161

or role play. Moreover this is the moment when student must use communicative formulae that fit the discourse context. Stage 4: Conclusion: that can either include a comparison between the decision that the students came to and the decision that was taken by the authentic company or reporting the decision and the rational behind it in one form or another, for instance in a PowerPoint Presentation, e-mail or telephone conversation. The materials that could be used in designing case studies can be taken from a website and either projected or printed. Moreover, very often companies in the Republic of Moldova do not have an English version of a document; in this case students can study a document in their native language that they will have to interpret it in English. But such case should be avoided and the teacher can find a UK or US based company that has a similar profile and use the information place on their website. An example of a case study could be the following

Conclusion:
Write a draft of a bid for the wireless carriers. Include the following element: 1. Description of the company. 2. The services that you request. This kind of case study could be used both for advanced and elementary students, as it requires mostly dealing with numbers. But the problem is that neither company provides the English version for their business solutions. But a teacher can always use a companies based in English-speaking countries. Moreover, this case study could be used both for training students from communication and insurance industries. In conclusion, tailor made materials are a solution f r ESP classes and especially for in-company English classes where the curriculum has to the oriented to the students and companys needs. Moreover this is a technique that incorporated linguistic, communicative, strategic and pragmatic competences that are related to foreign language acquisition and specific professional competence performed in the foreign language.
REFERENCES:

Background:
Allianz Group is an insurance company that decided to enter the Moldovan market. At this point they are establishing their business in Moldova. Study their website and present the image that they would want Moldovan market to have of them. https://www.allianz.com/en/about_allianz/index_neu.html

Problem statement:
Before establishing their business Allianz Group needs to sign some contract with wireless carriers. Study their offers. Moldcell http://www.moldcell.md/eng/business Orange: http://orange.md/?p=2&c=2&sc=215&l=1 In groups of three decide which carrier offers the best plans for business that would both fit the image of their company that they want to project and their budget. Take into consideration: the price for voice calls, data plans and phone and devices provided. 162

1. Bocanegra-Valle, Ana, Evaluating and Designing Materials for the ESP Classroom, in English for Professional and Academic Purposes, Radoppi Amsterdam/New York, NY, VI/2010, 237 pp., p143-169. 2. Boyd, Frances A, Business English and the Case Method: A Reassessment in TESOL Quarterly 25,4/1991, pp. 729-734 3. Cotton, David, David Falvey, Simon Kent, and Irene Barrall. Market Leader: Elementary Business English Harlow, England:,Pearson Education, 2007. p. 160. 4. Frendo, Evan, How to Teach Business English, Harlow, Longman, 2005, 162 p. 5. Garcia Laborda J. Revisiting Materials for Teaching Languages for Specific Purposes, in The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies,17.1/2011, pp. 102-112. 163

6. Harwood, Nigel, What Do We Want EAP Teaching Materials for?, in Journal of English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 4/2005, p. 149-161. 7. Rebeiz K. An Insider Perspective on Implementing the Harvard Case Study Method in Business Teaching in US-China Education Review, 5/2011, p. 591-601 8. Rodgers, Drew. Teaching ESP-B and Business Communications with the Case Study Method. 1993. 12 p. 9. Tomlinson, Brian. Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 2003, p.544.

EUROPEAN STANDARDS OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES Radadiana CALCIU, PhD Lecturer, Liliana dELLEVoET, Lecturer, Laura Mihaela MURESAN, Prof.dr., The Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
ABSTRACT

Quality Assurance has become a key element in educational institutions. We will exemplify this assumption by presenting two case studies, which are based on our experience as university professors, teachers of adult learners, teacher trainers, managers of a language centre, QUEST (The Romanian Association of Quality Language Services) and EAQUALS (The European Association of Quality Language Services) inspectors. The first case study builds on the endeavours of a team of ASE teachers trying to introduce common assessment criteria, standardizing the Writing item of the achievement test, in line with the CEFR and ELP-approach, while also facilitating the students improving their self- assessment and peer-cooperation skills. The other case study describes a Language School, which is facing multiple problems. By using the EAQUALS SelfAssessment Handbook these problems may be identified and solutions can be found by all the actors involved in the educational process.

Introduction
The teaching of foreign languages has undergone dramatic changes over the past decades and continues to change constantly. As providers of linguistic services and professionals how can we keep up with all these changes and be sure that we are going in the right direction, by doing the right thing both at personal and institutional level? An example of how teachers can find inspiration and support in enhancing the quality of the educational processes are the 164 165

QualiTraining projects, developed within the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of Europe, which are aimed at the consolidation of a quality culture in education by providing the framework and the tools for facilitating the implementation of quality principles and procedures at grassroots level. The ASE Case Study Within the QualiTraining Framework To illustrate the QualiTraining approach in action in a real-life context, we shall describe briefly a case study focusing on Standardising Testing, designed and implemented as a miniproject by a group of Business English teachers, at the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest, several of them are also involved in academic management and adult education activities at the PROSPERASE Language Centre in Bucharest, too. (the detailed description of the entire project can be found in : Dellevoet, L. & Muresan, L., (2010). Implementing QualiTraining in the Business Writing Class at the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest A Case Study, The Proceedings of the International Conference on Languages for Specific Purposes: Languages as a Lifeskill - New Perspectives on LSP Teaching and Learning, Bucuresti: Editura ASE, 2010) The projects aim was to introduce change in the area of testing, i.e. to standardise the Writing item of the achievement test at the end of the second semester of the academic year 2009-2010, by using common assessment criteria, in line with the CEFR and ELP-approach, while also facilitating the students improving their self- assessment and peer-cooperation skills. There was a real need for standardization in our university because of the great number of teachers, using different teaching materials to cover the approved syllabus, that would inevitably lead to having different criteria for evaluating the students performance. So, in order to increase the reliability of testing and the reflection of how the learning objectives have been achieved, the experiment was worthwhile.The process as such spread over a whole semester (four months), and included several stages and steps. 166

The first stage started by identifying the area to focus on, formulating the main objectives and planning the whole process, designing the time frame and outlining the expected outcomes. This was followed by a meeting with all the teachers involved in teaching the targeted 2ndyear students at the Faculty of International Business and Economics, who were distributed in 10-12 groups (of 20-25 students each). At this faculty the students level of English is high (B2-C1), and the main purpose of the foreign language classes is to help them improve their communication skills, with a focus on both speaking and writing for business and academic purposes. The main purpose of the meeting was threefold: 1. to choose one type of writing for business included in the agreed syllabus for the second semester of the current academic year to become the focus of the teaching/learning process; 2. to make a selection of relevant materials which could be used in the teaching process 3. to agree on specific evaluation criteria for writing, to be used in the standardized test. The second stage involved designing a first draft of a standardised item for the Writing test, as well as a (Self-)Evaluation Grid for Report Writing. In parallel, in order to ensure the transparency of the testing process, students were informed in due time, during the teaching activities, about the evaluation criteria to be used in order to assess their achievement in writing. Student self-evaluation and peerevaluation activities were introduced in class by all teachers involved in implementing the change, in order to raise the students awareness about the required standards. Besides these activities, teachers also provided students with on-going feedback on their performance, so that throughout the semester the students became fully aware of the areas in which they had to improve before the final test in order to be able to get the highest mark (10) that would correspond to a total of 10 in the (Self)-Evaluation Grid below:

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(Self-)Evaluation Grid Report Writing Description Aspects to be Corresponding evaluated to the CEFR - C1 level Structure and The structure layout and layout are appropriate for a business report (title, headings, subheadings, organization of ideas into paragraphs) Content All parts are appropriately covered. The text includes relevant facts, information and ideas. The ideas are sequenced in a logical way. The ideas are supported with adequate arguments. Factual information and opinions are kept separate from each other. Self- Peer Teacher Marks asses- asses- Assessment sment sment 2

The message is easy to follow. Each paragraph has a clear central topic which is developed. The cohesive devices (connectors, reference, substitution) are used flexibly Lexical A wide range of appropriate resource vocabulary is used. Correct spelling and word formation (although there may be minor, nonsystematic errors) Grammatical A wide range of grammatical resource structures, used flexibly, with a high degree of accuracy, which is maintained consistently. Although there are only nonsystematic errors, they do not reduce the communicative effect. Coherence and Cohesion

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Register and style

The register (level of formality) is consistently appropriate for the intended readership. The text is written in a concise and clear manner (appropriate level of detail)

As proof of the fact that the students were made aware of their own role in improving the process, many of them made pertinent suggestions which are indeed worth taking into account. Most of the comments referred to the necessity of insisting on the preliminary activities to writing a report, such as analyzing several models together with the teacher, whom they expected to point out the main aspects to be considered. Choosing an adequate case study and understanding all the details of the situation was also pointed out by the students as essential for writing a good report.

Total

10

The third stage involved piloting the test with three of the groups by different teachers, followed by exchange of experience and perceptions of how it went, consulting and revising it. The fourth stage consisted in: administering the test and marking it according to the agreed evaluation criteria; student self- and peer-assessment; multi-perspective evaluation of the process. The final stage included analyzing the results and drawing conclusions, with a view to preparing the ground for more extensive implementation in the next academic year. To round-up the process, a synthesis was prepared for presentation to the international project partnership of the LLP-project Innovative Practice in Adult Language Education (2nd IPALE Project Meeting, Bucharest, 20-21 May 2010). Student responses on the feedback forms revealed their appreciation of the fact that they had been given the assessment criteria beforehand, the usefulness being ranked by the majority as 4 on a scale from 1 (least useful) to 5 (most useful). The teachers feedback was considered as essential, and it ranked higher (mostly 4 and 5) than peer assessment (3 and 4). 170

Project outcomes
Important ingredients of introducing and managing change as a dimension of quality assurance in language education in this academic environment were consultation and reaching common decisions among the members of the teaching team, familiarising students with the (self-)assessment criteria, encouraging peer-review and co-operation, consolidating an open atmosphere, based on mutual trust, conducive 171

to multi-directional feedback-giving and allowing for the transparent comparison of self-/peer-/teacher assessment outcomes. In a nutshell, a quality culture based on open communication and everybodys willingness to learn from each other - teachers and students alike. Here are the main aspects reported by teachers, on the basis of their own perceptions, as well as on an analysis of student work and feedback on the process: (a) Outcomes for teachers: A positive effect on teaching A common understanding and standardized application of evaluation criteria Better cooperation among the teachers involved in this miniproject (b) Outcomes for students: Transparency regarding evaluation criteria More focused learning / improving writing skills for business purposes Practicing self- and peer-evaluation Receiving standardized feedback on their writing skills from the teacher at least once during the semester Better results in the final test. As a final conclusion, this approach has contributed to the personal development of all those participating in the project: teachers and students, and to consolidate the quality culture of our academic environment.

Awareness Raising of Quality Assurance at Institutional Level

Another important event on how to deal with quality issues in an educational context was the first ISQALE (Improving Standards of Quality in Adult Language Education) meeting in Sofia in December 2011. This partnership project emphasizes the benefits of the cooperation among partners from five different countries with a view to develop unified requirements for quality assurance in language schools in line with the common European Standards, while still catering for the specific regional needs. 172

In front of 70 teachers of foreign languages, members of OPTIMA (The Bulgarian Association of Quality Language Services), the coordinator of the project, the Romanian team gave a presentation on the EAQUALS (The European Association of Quality Language Services) Quality Criteria and Self-Assessment Guides and Handbooks with a focus on teaching/learning. We insisted more on how these documents can be used for self-reflection and self-assessment. Teachers were given some handouts from the EAQUALS Self-Assessment Handbook, i.e. examples of questions related to teaching, and the quality criteria under 1. Teaching (1. Approach and content, 2. Teaching methods, 3. Course Participants needs and learning) in the EAQUALS Inspection Scheme were projected on the screen. Teachers were asked to reflect on the problems that might appear or already were existent in their schools and whether quality criteria would help them identify the problems and make the appropriate decisions to solve them. Teachers with different backgrounds, teaching all age groups from kindergarten to university, in private or state schools, having a different range of experience and knowledge of quality instruments acknowledged the fact that by using them consistently, it would help schools improve their quality standards. Self-assessment tools are valuable for individual teachers, too, to reflect on ones own teaching and identify strengths and weaknesses, and by taking the right course of action, this would eventually lead to development. We also designed and administered the following activity based on a case study, where the Self-Assessment Handbook proved to be userfriendly and effective in identifying the main problems The Sunshine Language School was facing: Read the Sunshine Language School case study and identify 3 problem areas. With your partner(s), see if you can relate the problems identified to quality criteria and questions on the first two pages of the EAQUALS Self-Assessment Handbook. If necessary, add also other questions to the checklist. 173

Case study:
Students are impressed with the school when they make initial enquiries and when they enrol. The school is very flexible about meeting their requirements (e.g. hours of classes, appropriate level, wide range of courses). Fees compare favourably with other schools in the town in fact, several schools with fewer facilities are more expensive. Once student start classes, however, several begin to feel disappointed. Most of the teachers are well qualified and experienced. They are friendly to students in class, but they often seem exhausted and the classes arent very dynamic. Teachers only use the coursebook which can get very boring. There are mixed levels in classes and students often have quite different needs. [] Sometimes teachers arrive late for the beginning of classes they explain that the school has four sites and they have classes on the different sites. At the end of the lesson they are usually in a rush to their next class, so its difficult to ask individual questions about language problems, progress, etc. Sometimes no teacher appears at all! [] In these cases the school doesnt make up the lesson. On other occasions, when the Director of Studies knows a teacher is going to be away, the lesson is taught by a substitute teacher. These teachers sometimes arent as experienced as the normal teacher, and they give one-off lessons not connected to the work students have been doing in the previous lessons. When students or the parents of younger learners, try to discuss their concerns with the Director of Studies, they find she is difficult to get hold of as she is very busy and moves between sites. (Activity inspired by the Inspector Training course conducted by Hilary Maxwell-Hyslop and Martyn Ellis for QUEST Romania; adapted by Radadiana Calciu & Laura Muresan for the OPTIMA workshop and Grundtvig ISQALE-Project Meeting, Sofia, 2-3 December 2011) The audience got involved in the activity and found more than three problems. One teacher suggested that the school should change its name, as Sunshine Language School is completely inadequate for a school that does not offer quality services and makes students, parents and teachers unhappy. 174

Here is an example of an identified problem : Teachers only use the coursebook which can get very boring. Teachers attending the OPTIMA conference used the EAQUALS Self-Assessment Handbook handouts and suggested more than one question that would check whether the quality criteria in the case of the identified problem above have been met. e.g: 1.11 Do teachers use a variety of techniques []? 1.13 Is the choice of resources [] appropriate in relation to the students age, level and course profile? 1.14 Do teachers take account of interests and needs of individual learners in a group? By analysing the answers to these questions those involved in the running of the school, for example: managers, should offer training courses to teachers on how to plan lessons, on diversification of materials and tasks to be used in the classroom, on taking into account students needs, etc.

Conclusions
The two activities described in this paper can raise awareness on how quality principles and procedures can be dealt with at grassroots level. All the actors involved in educational processes are responsible for improving the teaching/learning experience by introducing change and innovation in their working environment. The standardisation of the Writing item of the achievement test in the first case study enhanced marking objectivity and gave a more comprehensive view of students achievement, while the second case study demonstrated how the use of self-assessment and quality assurance instruments can lead to personal and institutional development. They also reflect how fruitful international projects can be by inspiring examples of best practice and promoting a quality culture in the educational context.

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RefeRences

THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL ESP TEACHING olga CALINA, lecturer, Chair of Applied Modern Languages, Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova
ABSTRACT

Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Canbridge University Press. EAQUALS-ALTE (2000). The EAQUALS-ALTE European Language Portfolio, Milano: Lang Edizzione Muresan, L., Heyworth, F., Mateva, G., Rose, M. (2007). QualiTraining - A Training Guide for Quality Assurance in Language Education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Dellevoet, L. & Muresan, L., (2010). Implementing QualiTraining in the Business Writing Class at the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest A Case Study, The Proceedings of the International Conference on Languages for Specific Purposes: Languages as a Lifeskill-New Perspectives on LSP Teaching and Learning, Bucuresti: Editura ASE, 2010 EAQUALS (2010). Self Assessment Handbook, Version 1.2.2010, (available on request from the EAQUALS SECRETARIAT, www. equals.org)

Nowadays, due to the importance of English for successful communication in the business world, English for Business and Economics (EBE) is in high demand. Teaching EBE, which is part of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), represents a challenge for teachers as they are trained first as General English (GE) teachers. So their mastery consists in understanding where ESP and GE overlap and in transferring various ideas and teaching methods from GE classes to ESP classes together with using the modern and interesting teaching techniques specific to economic subjects yet appropriate for the ESP course. With the accelerating rate of globalization, business exchanges are carried out across the border. This fact stresses the importance of mastering professional foreign languages, which has become one of the crucial competences for most professions and presents an important competitive advantage for professionals from all walks of life. Nowadays, due to the importance of English for successful communication and exchange of information in the business world, English for Business and Economics (EBE) is in high demand and most teachers will be asked to teach an EBE class at some point. Besides, taking into account that the number of people choosing different universities of economics as their target for future career has been substantially increasing, EBE has become one of the most desired courses that meets the need for Business English talent. EBE is part of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which in its turn is part of a more general term English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (see Annex 1). From the early 1960s, ESP has grown to become one 177

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of the most prominent areas of English as a Foreign Language teaching (EFLT). Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham and Aston University in the UK). But in this case we understand that ESP teaching is taught to native speakers of English. Traditionally, more than 80% of teachers in Europe are native speakers of the language they teach. But if to speak about the Republic of Moldova, it is not an English-medium country and English is a foreign language both to the language teacher and his students. The vast majority of the English language teachers in our country are trained first as General English (GE) teachers. So, when they deal with the situation when they have to teach ESP for the first time in their lives they encounter some difficulties: this is the moment when they feel what it means to challenge the teacher authority. Feeling quite competent teaching GE, because they are familiar with the most topics covered in GE textbooks, now they have to discover alien territories for them that cover different topics on Economics and Business and have hard time preparing for their lessons. To conduct a meaningful lesson, the mastery of the content is essential for the ESP teachers. Besides their expertise in EFLT, they should be also specialists in Economics or any other field or purpose for which the English language is taught. The specificity of ESP does not only involve vocabulary. Every area (in our case it is Economics and Business sphere) has its own terminology, and this in itself constitutes an extremely rich field of research with obvious connections with Translation Studies. Special terminology and subject-matter have turned ESP teaching into an interdisciplinary activity, often requiring the collaboration of experts form other fields. Some people blame EBE teachers that they teach Economics in English rather than English for Economics. But the specificity of ESP teaching also requires that we, EBE teachers, train our students in particular comprehension and production skills, where the focus is not so much on their learning economic terms in English, but rather on their improving their ability to process and generate economic and business information in English. 178

Deciding to teach ESP means that the teachers workload will double. It is important for the ESP teacher to be curious about and interested in all aspects of business, because one of the best ways for the ESP teachers to unlock the students motivation and learning potential is to show that they can relate to the students questions, such as how the companies work, the organization procedures, marketing strategies, financial planning, problem-solving, new technical developments, new products launching, etc. At the same time the ESP teacher should be able to identify the current language level of the student and to select materials and tasks that are appropriate in level as well as in context. He/she also needs to be able to set course objectives and design course program. In order to achieve this it is essential for the teacher to have in-depth knowledge of the language system in terms of skills functions, structures and vocabulary. Another challenge the ESP teacher can face is the fact that the students for whom the EBE course is designed may have different command of English ranging from those who have sound knowledge of English to those who know very little English. This is usually the result of the latter having had only a few years of English at secondary school or having systematically failed the subject there. Students with this profile feel at a loss and are understandably reluctant to study a subject which they had hoped they would never encounter in their lives again. In this case they only hamper the progress of the rest of the class, overburden the teacher and do not get any real advantage out of their efforts. Thats why this kind of students should firstly follow a complete and thorough course in GE and only when they can prove that they have reached at least intermediate level in English they can be enrolled on the EBE course. Of course, there are courses of Business English for beginners, but 85% of the content of these courses is based naturally on GE. According to the tree of ELT adapted from Hutchinson and Waters, 1987 (see Annex 1) we can see that ESP and GE are two different branches, though, in my opinion, ESP should be based on GE at least for people to whom English is a foreign language, whether they are 179

teachers or students. Of course, there are some differences between ESP teaching and GE teaching: English for Specific Purposes General English (GE) (ESP) specialized vocabulary general vocabulary business correspondence general writing skills texts based on specific subjects texts based on general information course objectives aimed at course objectives aimed at expanding business knowledge developing reading, writing, and enriching economic culture speaking and listening skills of the students key language necessary to key language necessary to participate in an increasingly communicate with people international business and work of different international environment backgrounds is not taught according to any is taught according to the preordained methodology general ELT methodology At the same time there are some things that ESP and GE have in common. These are grammar and functions, everyday English, small talk, travel vocabulary. The mastery of the ESP teachers consists in understanding where ESP and GE overlap and in combining the specificity of ESP with this overlap. This insight will help the ESP teachers to find the key to successful ESP teaching. Many scientists admit that the ESP teachers work involves much more than teaching. In most cases the ESP teacher becomes more like a language adviser and consultant. He/she should provide students with the adapted materials or write his/her own materials for the course because the majority of published materials are unsuitable and are designed primarily for native speakers of English. He/she should cooperate with economic subject specialists or be this kind of specialist himself/herself, however at the same time not to try to teach this economic subject itself 180

but rather generate real communication in the classroom on the grounds of the information from that economic subject. Care should be taken that the ESP classes do not precede the topics in the special subjects, as this can lead to the lack of motivation of the students. Usually they are more confident and motivated to discuss in English the topics they are aware of in their native language. Another motivation for the students will be the interesting classes. But almost everyone with experience in an ESP classroom can tell of the boredom of certain economic and business topics. As the beneficiaries of the EBE course are primarily the first-year students, they do not realize yet the importance and necessity of some topics for their future career and rate them as very boring (e.g. business correspondence, financial management, inflation, etc.). And if the students are asked what they would rather learn: EBE or GE, the majority of them would prefer GE to EBE because they remember their GE classes at school that used to be more interesting due to a more relaxed atmosphere at the lessons, the usage of games and songs by the school teachers. Thats why the EBE teachers should analyze the reasons why their courses dont meet the students learning needs more fully and try to find the solution to this problem, which lies primarily in choosing the teaching methods that would suit the students needs in the best way and in teaching both language and content simultaneously within their classrooms. Any ESP teacher should understand that the students who come to his/her classes, no matter how good their English is, are still novice at EBE. In order to motivate them to study the course, the ESP teacher should find out how motivated the students are to study Economics in general. So, the first question given to the students should be about the reason for their choice to study at the university of economics and where the students would like to apply the acquired knowledge in the future. The role of the ESP teacher is to explain to the students that the ESP course they are going to study will facilitate their success in professional life and will help them communicate and cooperate with foreign partners and within multinational companies. 181

Another task of the ESP teacher is to transfer various ideas and teaching methods from GE classes to ESP classes together with using the teaching methods specific to economic subjects yet appropriate for the ESP course. Thus, for teaching specialized vocabulary there can be used the following methods from GE classes: 1) The students are divided into several groups. Their task is to create a chain of words. Each new word should start with the last letter of the previous word. The words should be connected with the topics studied, e.g. Forms of Business Ownership. The group that manages within a limited time to have the chain with the largest number of words wins. e.g. Business>>shareholder>>revenue>>employer>>remunerati on>> and so on. In order to make this task more challenging the teacher may ask the students to create a word chain in which the last two letters of a word form the first two letters of the next. e.g. Enterprise >> service>>certificate>>tenancy>>cycle>>lend er>> and so on. Word chains help students with their spelling because they encourage them to recognize possible letter combinations. 2) The teacher gives some words used to describe people and their attitudes towards money. The students should put them into the proper category: a miser / an overspender / generous / cheap / a cheapskate / giving / tight / a tightwad / thrifty / frugal / a spendthrift / stingy. saves money positive connotation negative connotation 3) The teacher dictates a statement by giving each word of this statement through definitions. After the students have put it down, they should comment on it. We use it in order to form the negative imperative Dont 182 spends money

The synonym for the verb to allow after which the bare infinitive is used let Possessive pronoun in the second person your The person who is in charge of an organization manager The synonym for to be aware of know The antonym for this that Second person personal pronoun you Present Simple of the verb used by Hamlet are Comparative degree of the antonym for bad - better Finish the statement. So, the students say whether they agree or disagree with the statement: Dont let your manager know that you are better than him. The teacher can also give this task to the students. They may be divided into two groups and each group should dictate their statements through definitions. 4) Other tasks with the vocabulary that arouse the students interest may be that the students are required while reading a text connected with economic subject to find the economic terms and to compile crosswords with them or to put down the meanings of these words into the following table: Word interest (n) Meaning in GE Meaning in EBE the feeling that you have the extra money that you when you want to know pay back when you borrow more about sth money or that you get when you invest money principal (n) person with the highest money lent or invested authority in an organization, on which interest is paid esp. in colleges outstanding (adj) exceptionally good, not yet paid, done, solved excellent (e.g. about a debt) draft (n) a rough written version a written order to a party of sth that is not in its to pay money to sb final form 183

The difference in meanings of the same word will make the students understand the economic and business terms much better. By teaching content there may be used the following methods which correlate with the methods used in teaching economic subjects: 1) Reciprocal Teaching Technique is a very good instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of a text which is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing the text, generating questions concerning the read text, clarifying the unknown economic terms from the text, and commenting on the information read. The teacher divides the class into 4 groups and assigns each of the four tasks to each group. This method makes the reading of a text more concentrated and constructive, the students assume the role of a teacher, which leads to an interesting group learning experience. 2) To engage students in interesting discussions or to encourage them to think for themselves and share their ideas with others a technique called Pyramid Teaching can be used: the teacher organizes the students into pairs and makes them discuss a question or a problem to reach a consensus (e.g. What causes what: unemployment causes poverty or poverty unemployment?). After 5 or 10 minutes each pair joins with another pair and forms a group of 4 students to reach a consensus. Those groups of 4 then double up and so on. This technique will involve every student and develop confidence in discussing their ideas with their peers. Its not hard for them to talk to each other and once they have already expressed and clarified their ideas, its easier to talk in larger groups. Every time the group is expanded the ideas are seen from more points of view. The students will see how their ideas need to be improved and they will all take responsibility for the final product. This technique teaches the students that two heads are better than one and stimulates teaching through cooperation. 3) Such methods specific to economic subjects as role-play, simulation and SWOT analysis can be widely used in ESP classes. For example, the students ca role-play the dialogues between a bank officer and a client who would like to open a bank account or would like to take 184

a loan when studying the topic Banking. The idea is that role-plays provide a more creative and realistic way both of enabling students to demonstrate and practise their skills and for observers to provide immediate feedback. Simulation method can be used, for instance, when studying the topic Business Negotiations: the students are divided into two groups, each learns the rules of its own culture. Then representatives from one culture have to visit the other and attempt to negotiate in order to conclude a contract to mutual advantage. SWOT analysis technique may be used when teaching the topic Forms of Business Ownership. The students should analyse different forms of starting their own business (e.g. Sole Proprietorship, Partnership, Ltd, Plc, LLC) by writing strengths (advantages), weaknesses (disadvantages), opportunities (businesss potential achievements), threats (businesss potential losses). Students may also do this task by inquiring of their relatives or friends who already have their businesses about the fact how they function in real life and what challenges they are faced with. As to the case study method, I wouldnt opt for this method as a successful one for the ESP course. Despite its advantages of a) allowing the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice; b) encouraging active learning; c) providing an opportunity for the development of key skills such as communication, group working and problemsolving, and d) increasing the students enjoyment of the topic and hence their desire to learn, still this method is the prerogative of the teachers who teach economic subjects and not English. As case studies need accurate subject information and not all ESP teachers are experts in subject matters, in economics, the tasks as case studies may lead to confusion and misunderstanding. 4) In order for ESP not to be limited only to classroom activities, the lessons can be tinged with excursions to museums and exhibitions. For example, when the topic Money is taught, the teacher can take the students to a museum where they can enjoy the exhibition of numismatics. After that they should write a review of what they have seen sharing their opinions with the rest of the class. Of course, the 185

teacher should give the students in advance the guidelines for writing a good review. 5) And last but not least is the attempt of the teacher to adjust his/ her classes to the students needs, to project different tasks onto the communicative situations that take place in the students real life. Obviously, it is not possible to do it with all the economic and business topics that are on the syllabus, but still this teachers strategy will make the students be more interested in his/her classes and will make them understand different economic and business concepts and issues more fully. Thus, when the teacher speaks about optimization in management, which means finding a balance between two conflicting goals, he/she should give an example to the students that they should find optimization between their studies and work; speaking about the characteristics of a good manager, the teacher should also ask the students about the characteristics of a good teacher, as many of the students are not employed yet and the teacher for them is the person who knows how to manage them, to motivate, to lead and to control them; explaining the topic of short- and long-term financing, the teacher should ask the students about the kind of financing they get from their parents, whether it is a short- or long-term one and to underline that the importance of financing for the company is the same as the importance of financing for the students themselves; discussing competition in the market between companies, the teacher may draw the attention of the students to the competition that exists between them at the university or in their life in general, and so on. To sum up, I would like to say that being an ESP teacher is hard work taking into account all the challenges this teacher encounters during his/ her lifetime activity. The students expect him/her to be not only a good English teacher but also to be a good economist or any other subject specialist depending on the ESP course he/she is delivering. Besides, this teacher should apply much more creativity and ingenuity to his/her 186

classes than a GE teacher due to the fact that the ESP course is full of topics bordering on boredom for the students. The ESP teacher should always be aware of the recent events in the world of business and be open to different new teaching techniques and strategies that will help him/her hold the key to successful ESP teaching.
RefeRences

1. Helsvig, Jurate. ESP Challenges for Learners and Teachers in Regard to Subject-specific Approach. 2010, p. 244-247 www.gd.kauko.lt/files/konferencijos_straipsniu_rinkinys.pdf 2. Hutchinson, Tom, Waters, Alan. English for Specific Purposes A Learning-centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, - 183 p. 3. Netiksiene, Nijole. Teaching English for Specific Purposes. 2006, p.80-82 www.coactivity.vgtu.lt/upload/filosof.../n_netiksiene_ filologija_nr_4.pdf 4. Nunes, Maria Adelaide. Teaching English for Specific Purposes: the GUTs To Do It. p. 255-262 www.ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/6088.pdf 5. Sierocka, Halina. The Role of the ESP Teacher.//The Teacher. 2008.- 2(56).- p.33-37 6. Sticu, Manuela, Stru, Ozana. Teaching Business English Useful Tips and Strategies. p. 330-332 www.fse.tibiscus.ro/anale/ Lucrari2009/055.%20Staicut,%20Straut.pdf 7. Zhu, Wenzhong, Liao, Fang. On Differences between General English Teaching and Business English Teaching. // English Language Teaching. 2008. Vol.1, 2.- p. 90-95

187

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS DURING THE ACCESS CLASSES Corina CEBAN, profesor de limba englez, Liceul Teoretic Vasile Alecsandri, mun. Bli
ABSTRACT

Proiectul ACCESS este o modalitate nou i o oportunitate pentru elevii din familii defavorizate din Republica Moldova. n martie 2011 s-a dat startul acestui proiect n 4 localiti-pilot din ar (Bli, Rezina, Ungheni i Ceadr-Lunga) cu aportul Guvernului SUA. De dou ori n sptmn participanii la proiect se adun n incinta Coliorului American din fiecare localitate numit. Avantajele acestui proiect constau n situaiile concrete de comunicare n care snt implicai elevii de ctre profesor, asistentul FLEX i moderatorul leciilor Skype. Elevii au posibilitatea s studieze detaliat att gramatica englez, ct i civilizaia Statelor Unite. The English Access Microscholarship Program provides a foundation of English language skills to non-elite, 14 - 18 year old students through afterschool classes and intensive summer learning activities. Access Microsholarship Program is an innovative opportunity for teenagers from economically disadvantaged environment to learn English. The program allows them to benefit from free foreign language courses in Bli and other regions of Moldova and to develop intercultural skills and communication. This program is implemented and funded by U.S. Government in the American Corners from Ceadr-Lunga, Ungheni, Bli and Rezina. Participants attend classes two times per week for two years, receive all necessary educational materials and during last summer were invited to a leadership camp. Program graduates who will attend classes regularly, showing good success in English, appropriate behavior and active participation in all activities will receive special certificates from the U.S. Embassy. 189

Annex 1. The Tree of ELT (Adapted from Hutchinson and Waters, 1987) 188

Native speakers of English modify their language according to their situation, just as we would do in our own language. This is the very reason of meeting twice a week with ACCESS students and give them the possibility to realize the way of speaking English. Unless they have constant exposure to English over many years, they cannot expect to do this. The trick therefore is to choose the best English for universal speaking purposes and to recognize other versions of English, so they are not at a disadvantage. Choosing different types of communicative activities, I try to develop all four skills. Before this project had started, I asked my students some questions and the answers were amazing: What initiate you to join this program? All the students answered that they wanted to learn and improve their English communication skills. Do you speak English in your daily life? More than 70% said seldom except 30% responded that they only speak it during the English lessons. Why dont you speak and communicate in English with friends? All of them gave similar answers related to shyness, afraid to make mistake, and be ridiculed at and lack of confidence. Based on these students and the above-mentioned three preliminary questions feedback, the conclusion was carried out with the following assumptions: 1. The students prefer to learn in small group among close friends. 2. The students feel more comfortable by learning in a less intimidated environment with less pressure. Oral English, also known as spoken English, is the form of English that is used when people are speaking to one another. It is important that a person who is learning to speak English practice using the language. The more a person practices her skills, the more easily spoken English will come. There some rules that the students were accustomed to and try to respect[2]. 190

Listening is important to learning spoken English. We practice as much as possible listening and dont forget the golden rule to listen at least twice. There is a quiz at the end of each listening segment that tests comprehension. Part of learning spoken English is in understanding how English words are formed. Students watch small authentic videos and notice the mouths and tongues of native English speakers carefully. They observe how much the mouth is opened to say certain words and imitate what they see. Some students rent movies over the weekend from the American Corner. They try to follow the story line of comedy shows. Watching TV shows and movies allows them to hear English used in conversation. No pressure of having to respond in English lets them concentrate on simply understanding what is being said. Understanding how English is used in conversation help them to better communicate in the studied language. There is always a competent person who can help them, I mean the FLEX assistant, the English instructor or the librarian from the American Corner. Sometimes the students repeat the alphabet as well as the sounds that accompany every letter. Knowing what sounds the letters make help them formulate English words more accurately. As homework, the students have to read out loud for twenty to thirty minutes every day. They read easy books that were written for children. Reading simple books takes away the frustration of sounding out hard words. It is important that instructors or FLEX assistants fully equip students with the skills needed to communicate effectively in the target language so that they can share and exchange their ideas, feelings, opinions, etc. Data collection techniques include field notes, audio and video recordings. The students oral production is possible due to the 191

teachers efforts to provide students with topics and activities closely related to their particular interests and needs. Likewise, the teacher creates an appropriate learning environment in which students are challenged to use English in meaningful ways. The main goal when handling speaking in class is to help the learner to produce fluent and accurate language appropriate to the speech situation. To attain this goal, the learner receives comprehensible input to act on in order to activate and develop his/her own learning mechanisms. However, the concept of comprehensible input is not enough in itself to explain the development of foreign language learning [2]. Learners also have opportunities to interact with other speakers and to negotiate meaning through interaction. Through teachers and peers oral feedback, learners refine and improve their oral production. Similarly, through error correction, students incorporate new language elements from the correct forms of the teachers responses. We prove that getting students to ask questions and give information to each other is a useful way to maximize students talking in class. These give-andtake exchanges of messages enable students to use English in real-life communication. Checking answers (to homework, as well as exercises done during the lesson) is a part of class often as boring, slow and not all that engaging for anyone. Naturally, we check these answers for a variety of reasons, such as for noting student progress, not for marking and in order to check if the students have understood the language point in question. I dont want to get too deep into methodology here, but rather to dispel the notion that it is our duty as teachers to check every answer to every exercise the students have done, and also to offer a few possible ways suggested by Richard West, as to how we can make this whole process more engaging and beneficial for the learners [3].

1. Let the learners compare their answers first.

Speaking from experience as a language learner, appreciate the opportunity to have a look at the partners answers to make sure you werent completely off the mark (and so didnt have to worry so much about making a fool of myself when called upon). By letting the students compare their answers, it means theyll have more confidence in them (and so they will be more likely to volunteer them) and also gives them an opportunity for the learners to use English to explain why they chose answer A instead of B, etc. This is, for me, the golden rule of checking answers in class: we have my students using English in their discussions / comparisons of their answers. In general, students are often resistant to this at first, but if I can get them use to it then comparing answers later becomes an opportunity for the students to speak and use many of the language structures theyve learned in class.

2. Alternate between asking for volunteers and nominating students to give the answer.
There are students who dominate question / answer time. This is a way to simply get more (if not all) of the students involved in the process of checking answers.

3. Random Order
Instead of just going through the questions linearly (i.e. 1,2,3,4,5), elicit the answers to the questions randomly. This hopefully keeps the students alert, and helps prevent them from simply anticipating what question they are likely to get.

4. Let the students decide which questions to answer

A variation of the above- nominate a student and let him decide which question to answer. This is good for weaker students, as it allows them to answer questions that they are more confident they have correct. 193

192

5. Let students nominate each other

Easy and fun to do-nominate the first student, then allow this student to choose who will answer the next question. Variations of this include using a ball in class (the student throws the ball to the student they want to answer next).

Step a little towards the person who is speaking or who you are

6. Just give the students the answers

Simply give the students the answers on a handout or put it on the blackboard or OHP, and give the students time to check their answers and ask questions. If there are no questions, then move on. So anytime I can get the students to reflect on their mistakes and examine why they got a particular exercise wrong (e.g. due to a difference between Romanian and English, or are they possibly confusing two different structures that are similar in appearance, such as Used to and be used to, etc), I am not only helping them notice the language point in question and approach similar tasks more effectively in the future, but also giving them the tools to become more reflective, autonomous, successful language learners. It didnt take me much to get my students feel comfortable when coming to ACCESS classes. There are some tips suggested by Alex Case [1] for making students feel like they are getting individual attention which I try to impliment in my classes: Face people and make eye contact, e.g. when they are the person talking, or when collecting and giving out worksheets and homework. Give out worksheets individually. Learn names as quickly as possible and use them as often as you can. Move around the class. Make sure your attention includes the people at the edges and back of the class. 194

speaking to. Join in pairwork and groupwork discussions (but not if doing that might disrupt their train of thought, make them self conscious about being overheard by you in other discussions, or mean interrupting someone who doesnt often speak). Give students who missed previous classes copies of things they missed, preferably with their name written on their copy. Alternatively, give them instructions on how they can get copies for themselves or find other ways of practising that language. Recommend self-study resources that are suitable for the class or specific students due to their level, weaknesses or personal priorities. Mention the classs strengths and weaknesses based on the level check results or your analysis (but trying to be positive!). Chat to people who finish quickly. Get feedback from each person or group on how difficult and/ or useful an activity was. Engage in individual written communication, e.g. sending pen friend style letters or emails backwards and forwards (maybe just one class per term, giving your replies in dribs and drabs or moving onto them writing to each other to stop it getting overwhelming). Ask them to keep a diary or learning diary and read and comment on it (ditto). Mention things that happened in previous classes, e.g. presents people gave you or each other, or unexpected interruptions the class went through. Say why you chose a particular article or topic, e.g. I know someone/ most of you are interested in or got you all talking last week. Mention when something in the class is different to usual, e.g. people sitting in different places or more boys than girls for once. 195

REFERENCES

1. Case Alexander U., Organizational Communication. Approaches and Processes, sixth edition, Texas University Press, pp.21-23 2. Lumsden Gay, Communicating In Groups And Teams, Wadsworth,2004, pp.91-92 3. West Richard, Introducing Communicative Theory. Application and Theory, fourth edition, pp.47-48.

METODE TRADIIONALE I COMPLEMENTARE DE EVALUARE CONTINU A PERFORMANELOR STUDENILOR LA LIMBA ENGLEZ CA DISCIPLIN DE CULTUR GENERAL N CADRUL SISTEMULUI DE NVMNT SUPERIOR Cristina CERNEI, magistru n Filologia Limbii Engleze, Catedra de limbi moderne, Liceul Teoretic Petru Rare
ABSTARCT

This article reflects the assessment process as viewed and analyzed from various methodological perspectives. The modern performance assessment is based on a long-run progressive teacher-student relationship based activity. As technology takes over the modern society, the students face the difficulty of learning based on traditional methods and techniques. Linguists and pedagogical scientists have come up with a diverse list of performance assessment strategies that reflect methods and techniques useful to use in classroom activities and perform the competences leading to the successful realization of educational curriculum. The outcome of a rich methodological assessment is a graduate student that can handle the modern society requests of engagement. Evaluarea n nvmntul superior, dintotdeauna, a fost un capitol esenial. Aderarea nvmntului superior din Republica Moldova la Procesul de la Bologna presupune extinderea competenelor stipulate de standardele de formare profesional devenind o evaluare a cunotinelor studenilor. Schimbrile eseniale care se produc n universitile din Republica Moldova vizeaz ameliorarea metodelor i tehnicilor de evaluare n scopul realizrii unor corelaii eficiente ntre predare - nvare - evaluare i pentru a atinge dezideratele propuse n vederea formrii unei personaliti autonome, libere i creatoare. n viziunea pedagogului Jinga, I. [15] evaluarea continu se aplic pe tot parcursul desfurrii procesului de 196 197

nvmnt. Ea este implicat n proces, rolul acestei evaluri este de diagnosticare i ameliorare, evaluarea continu surprinde pulsul desfurrii procesului de nvmnt, resursele favorizante, ca i eventuale perturbaii ce intervin n mecanismele sale, iar, prin interveniile pe care le sugereaz, prentimpin acumularea unor deficiene ce s-ar putea solda cu dereglri mai profunde. Evaluarea continu dupa Cerghit [10] este efectuat de ctre profesor i, eventual, de student a performanelor, a temelor i proiectelor realizate n cadrul unui curs. Controlul continuu presupune c evaluarea este integrat n curs i contribuie, n mod cumulativ, la rezultatul final. Evaluarea continu apreciaz mai bine creativitatea i diferitele aptitudini, ns este n mare msur dependent de capacitatea profesorului de a fi obiectiv; n cel mai ru caz, ea poate s transforme viaa studentului ntr-o curs cu obstacole i s devin un comar birocratic pentru profesor, se menioneaz n Cadrul european comun de referin pentru limbi [6]. n viziunea pedagogului V. rcovnicu [22], principalele metode de evaluare a randamentului nvrii, a activitii i comportrii studenilor sunt: observarea, chestionarea oral, lucrrile scrise i lucrrile practice. 1. Observarea. Profesorii pot controla nivelul pregtirii i comportrii studenilor, observndu-i. E. Macavei [18] considera c observarea curent supune observrii interesul, dorina de a nva limba strin, efortul de a progresa, ntr-un cuvnt, participarea la actul nvrii. n cadrul predrii limbii engleze, observarea curent este prezenta la fiecare or, unde studenii, personificnd i vorbind la o tem de conversaie, ofer profesorului posibilitatea de a analiza nivelul de asimilare, nelegere a temei de studiu, astfel denotnd un anume nivel de performane acumulate. 2. Chestionarea oral. Controlul cunotinelor studenilor se efectueaz temeinic i sistematic cu ajutorul chestionrii orale. Prin examinarea oral se poate constata ce cunotine posed studenii, ce deprinderi de vorbire, ce goluri i confuzii au n cunotinele lor, n nelegerea noiunilor etice i estetice, se pot depista cauzele acestor lipsuri, susine Cristea S. [12]. Chestionarea individual are rostul de a particulariza evaluarea, de a verifica pe fiecare ins, de a-i cunoate i recunoate per198

formanele. Chestionarea este curent i se efectueaz constant i continuu, la fiecare lecie, seminar, or de laborator sau atelier. n asimilarea unor reguli de linii generale instructive la nvarea limbii engleze, studenii sunt supui contactului direct cu profesorul. La momentul acestei chestionri-interviu, profesorul verific fiecare student i cunotinele acestuia. Aceast metod poate avea loc n mai multe ipostaze. Acest interviu poate avea loc ntre profesor - student, sau profesor-studeni, sau student-student. n urma acestei metode, studenii pot fi evaluai continuu i la fiecare or. 3. Lucrri scrise. Prin lucrrile scrise de control poate fi verificat, n cadrul unei singuri ore, ntreaga grup de studeni. Lucrrile de control curent nu sunt anunate, iar tema, care se d studenilor pentru a o dezvolta n scris, se alege din lecia de zi. Lucrrile scrise asigur un grad mai mare de obiectivitate, n apreciere i notare sunt mai convingtoare i pentru examinai i pentru examinatori. Verificarea scris favorizeaz, de obicei, firile timide i pe cei care se exprim oral cu dificultate, susine Cartaleanu, T [8]. Lucrrile de control au o importan deosebit in evaluarea performanelor studenilor la limba englez. Lucrrile de control permit evidenierea cunotinelor i aptitudinilor de scriere, nelegere a deprinderilor gramaticale i stilistice a limbii engleze. Exemple de lucrri scrise pentru evaluarea limbii engleze a studenilor pot fi considerate urmtoarele: dictarea; expunerea; dictarea - comentariu; expunerea-rezumat; eseul; comentariul; compunerea pe tem fix; compuneri pe tema liber etc. 4. Lucrri practice. La unele obiecte de nvmnt, cunotinele studenilor i, mai ales, priceperile i deprinderile lor pot fi controlate prin lucrri practice. Un asemenea control d posibilitatea profesorului s constate i gradul n care studentul tie s aplice cunotinele n practic, considera Creu, C [11]. La limba englez lucrri practice pot fi considerate practicile pedagogice ale studenilor desfurate n coli. Studenii sunt impui s-i implementeze toate cunotinele acumulate la pregtirea leciilor. O alt metod poate servi ora de studiu, cu ajutorul jocului de rol, dramatizarea. 5. Verificarea cu ajutorul testelor docimologice. Dup E. Maca199

vei [18], testul docimologic este instrumentul conceput i realizat pentru a controla obiectiv modificrile produse n comportamentul studentului de regimul universitar. Aceste modificri sunt: cunotine, deprinderi, capaciti, aptitudini. Dup natura lor, sunt dou categorii de teste: teste obiective - standardizate, validate, etalonate - create de grupuri de specialiti i teste create de profesor, susine Platon, C. [19]. Testele obiective sunt de mai multe tipuri. Dup natura randamentului, sunt: - teste de cunotine sau de inventar, ce pun n eviden cantitatea i varietatea cunotinelor; - teste de nivel sau de dificultate, ce constat i msoar gradul de cunoatere, gradul aptitudional la care a ajuns studentul; Dup finalitatea aprecierii, sunt: - teste de maturitate ce msoar nivelul achiziiilor comportamentale care permit realizarea unei aciuni (ex. Testele pentru nvarea cititului, scrisului); teste diagnostico-analitice pentru a descoperi deficienele particulare i cauzele lor; teste prognostice - au rostul de a recomanda predicii, de a prevedea evoluia celui care a fost examinat. Drept test docimologic la limba englez poate fi considerat testul de evaluare scris a cunotinelor, alctuit din itemi, al cror tip i numr oscileaz de la caz la caz. Dup pedagogul Cabac V., [5] itemi obiectivi: itemii cu alegere dual; itemii cu alegere multipl; itemii de tip pereche, itemi semiobiectivi: cu rspuns scurt; cu rspuns deschis. Spre deosebire de metodele tradiionale, care realizeaz evaluarea rezultatelor academice obinute pe un timp limitat i, de regul, cu o arie mai mare sau mai mic de coninut, dar oricum definit, metodele alternative de evaluare dup Jinga I., Petrescu I., Gavota, M., [16] prezint cel puin dou caracteristici: pe de o parte, realizeaz evaluarea rezultatelor n strns legtur cu instruirea/nvarea, de multe ori concomitent cu aceasta; pe de alt parte, ele vizeaz rezultatele academice obinute pe o perioad mai ndelungat, care au n vizor formarea unor capaciti, cum ar fi obinerea de competene i, mai ales, schimbri n planul intereselor, atitudinilor, corelate cu activitatea de nvare. Dup cercettorul Radu T. [21], dintre ele putem meniona: Referatul. Se pot diferenia dou tipuri de referate: referat de investigaie tiinific independent, bazat pe descrierea demersului unei activiti desfurate n sala de cursuri i pe analiza rezultatelor obi200

nute; referat bibliografic, bazat pe informarea documentar, biografic. Pentru limba englez referatele pot fi folosite pentru o dezvoltare mai generala i mai aprofundat a cunotinelor si deprinderilor studenilor si performantele acestuia. Studenii pot participa la conferine studeneti la limba englez practicnd metoda referatului. Investigaia se poate formula i sub forma unor teme pentru acas, dar definitivarea se va face n sala de cursuri, prin comentarea concluziilor. Drept investigaie poate fi considerat orice tem dat pentru o cutare de informaii aditiv temei de lucru in sal. Drept exemplu poate fi considerat tema Travelling, studenii anului [2] nti au avut de investigat, de cercetat, de analizat i de prezentat informaii despre unii dintre cei mai vestii i importani cltori-cercettori ai lumii. Studenii anului patru au avut nsrcinarea de a prezenta informaii despre scriitorii americani ai secolului 19, inclusiv operele lor. Proiectul constituie o metod complex de evaluare, individual sau de grup. Subiectul este stabilit de profesor, dar dup ce se obinuiesc cu acest tip de activitate, studenii nii vor putea propune subiectele. Drept proiect la limba englez a fost propus tema: Commuting. Studenii anului nti au avut de proiectat un drum de la o destinaie la alta n form de desen, aceasta fiind prima parte a proiectului. Cea de a doua parte a proiectului a fost de a caracteriza drumul proiectat al colegului, folosind ct mai multe cuvinte pe tema propus, Travelling. Proiectul constituie o metod complex de evaluare, individual sau de grup, recomandat profesorilor pentru evaluarea sumativ, constat pedagogul Cuco, C. [13]. Subiectul se stabilete de ctre profesor, dar, dup ce se obinuiesc cu acest tip de activitate, elevii nii i vor putea propune subiectele. Cercettorul Voiculescu, E. [24] sugereaz c proiectul reprezint o activitate mai ampl, care ncepe n auditoriu prin definirea i nelegerea sarcinii eventual i prin nceperea rezolvrii acesteia, se continu n afara orelor pe parcursul a ctorva zile sau sptmni timp n care studentul are permanente consultri cu profesorul i se ncheie tot n auditoriu, prin prezentarea n faa colegilor a unui raport asupra rezultatelor obinute i, dac este cazul, a produsului realizat. Proiectul poate fi individual sau de grup. Proiectul presupune o serie de ac201

tiviti, realizabile preponderent n grup, cum sunt: identificarea unei probleme, teme, subiect (acestea pot fi oferite de profesor sau lansate de studenii nii, n virtutea intereselor profesionale pe care le au sau i le formeaz). Este important ca subiectele pentru cercetri i proiecte s fie proaspete (s nu se reia acelai set de teme de cercetare din an n an) i s aib tangena cea mai clar cu formarea profesional i disciplina predat; culegerea, prelucrarea i organizarea informaiilor lrgate de problema sau tema aleas; elaborarea unui set de soluii ale problemei; evaluarea soluiilor i luarea deciziilor. Metoda proiectului presupune parcurgerea unor pai de la pregtirea acestuia la evaluare: 1. Pregtirea proiectului - profesorul, mpreun cu studenii, va decide cteva repere care se pot formula prin ntrebri ce pot dirija dimensiunea evaluativ; a) pe ce se va centra demersul evaluativ: - pe produs final? - pe proces? - pe ambele? b) ce rol va avea profesorul: - consilier permanent al studentului? - doar evaluator final? - coordonator al ntregii activiti? c) care este statutul resurselor implicate n derularea proiectului: - sunt puse de la nceput la dispoziia studentului? - sunt identificate pe parcurs? - sunt comune pentru toi studenii? d) exist o anumit structur: - propus? - impus de profesor? - aleas de studeni? e) exist nite caracteristici ale produsului final obligatorii pentru toi studenii? 2. Stabilirea ariei de interes i a tematicii proiectului - discutat i negociat ntre profesor i studeni (Trebuie s fie adecvat relevanei scopului i obiectivelor pe care proiectul i le propune din perspectiva specificului disciplinei respective). 3. Stabilirea premiselor iniiale, cadrul conceptual, metodologic, datele generale ale investigaiei, tipul de informaii de care au nevoie. Studentul poate s-i stabileasc un set de ntrebri eseniale care vor fixa elementele-cheie ale proiectului. 4. Identificarea i selectarea resurselor materiale (altele dect cele date suport). 5. Precizarea elementelor de coninut ale proiectului (pentru prezentarea n scris sau oral) - Pagina de titlu (tema, autorii/autorul, clasa, coala, perioada de elaborare) - Cuprinsul (titlurile capitolelor, subca202

pitolelor, subtemelor etc.) Argumentul - Dezvoltarea elementelor de coninut (pliante, postere, diagrame, citate, desene, cntece) - Concluzii (elemente de referin desprinse din studiul temei). Capacitile care se evalueaz n timpul realizrii proiectului dup pedagogul Strunga, C. [20] pot fi: a) capacitatea de a observa i de a alege metode de lucru; b) capacitatea de a msura i de a compara rezultatele; c) capacitatea de a utiliza corespunztor bibliografia; d) capacitatea de a manevra informaia i a utiliza cunotine; e) capacitatea de a raiona i utiliza proceduri simple; f) capacitatea de a investiga i a analiza; g) capacitatea de a sintetiza i a organiza materialul; h) capacitatea de a realiza un produs. Proiectul poate avea o conotaie teoretic, practic, constructiv, creativ. El se poate derula ntr-o perioad mai mare de timp, pe secvene determinate dinainte sau structurate circumstanial. n funcie de particularitile studenilor, acesta poate s includ i componente ludice. Portofoliul prezint o tehnic de evaluare care presupune stocarea un ir de materiale elaborate, realizate, selectate i perfecionate de student pe o perioad de timp, considera C.Cuco [13]. Portofoliul stimuleaz creativitatea, ingeniozitatea, perseverena i originalitatea studenilor i poate fi realizat individual, de un student, sau de un grup de studeni; de aceea, portofoliul este o tehnic ce ofer oportuniti excelente pentru combinarea reuit a activitii individuale cu activitatea colectiv. Dupa Callo, T. [7] el se constituie din elemente diferite, ca forme de transmitere a informaiei i a mesajului: fie de informare i documentare independent, referate, eseuri, pliante, prospecte, desene, colaje, care pot constitui subiectul unor evaluri punctuale, dar nu n mod obligatoriu. Portofoliu prezint cartea de vizit a studentului, prin care profesorul poate s-i urmreasc progresul i s-1 ajute pe student s se autoevalueze. La limba englez n portofoliu pot fi incluse materialele efectuate ale studenilor depuse pe parcursul anului de studiu. De exemplu, anul nti a fost adus la cunotin cu faptul c la finele anului de studiu trebuie s prezinte toate proiectele de lecii, referatele, lucrrile de baz pe parcursul anului. Studenilor li s-a cerut s fac o pagin introductiv a portofolilului, numit Who Am I Today (Cine 203

sunt eu azi?). Pe parcursul semestrului, rezultatul completrii portofoliului cu informaii i lucrri, studentului i se va cere s se autoevalueze, cernd comentarii i de la colegi, astfel nct studentul i va observa propria cretere profesional, iar profesorul va nota creterea nivelului de performane instructive. Observarea sistematic conceptul pedagogic de evaluare a procesului de nvmnt reflect o realitate complex, de natur sociologic i psihologic, obiectivat la nivelul activitii didactice. Analiza sa implic, pe de o parte, o perspectiv sociologic, relizabil n termeni de sistem, care vizeaz situaia programelor, manualelor i instituiilor de nvmnt, determinat la nivelul politicii educaiei; pe de alt parte, perspectiva psihologic evideniaz faptul c evaluarea procesului de nvmnt reflect calitatea sistemului sau unei pri a sistemului educaional. Astfel, teoria i practica evalurii eficiente opereaz o distincie metodologic ntre aciunile de msurare i de apreciere, proiectate i realizate la nivel de sistem i de proces. La nivel de sistem, considera Calin, M. [9] urmrete gradul de realizare a finalitilor macrostructurale, iar la nivel de proces urmrete gradul de realizare a obiectivelor microstructurale. Aceste aciuni complexe sunt determinate de mai muli factori, i anume finaliti macrostructurale; corelaiile profesor-elev, rezultatele i performanele; corespondenele pedagogice; operaiunile de msurare i apreciere; instrumentele oficiale instituionalizate pentru consemnarea rezultatelor. Ca rezultat al acestor relaii, cercettorul Lisievici P. [17] implic trei componente interdependente: 1) controlul; 2) aprecierea; 3) notarea; aceste interdependene urmeaz n forme de evaluare determinate de perioada de studiu care sunt: a) evaluarea iniial ce diagnostic nivelul de pregtire la nceputul anului; b) evaluarea curent ce asigur pregtirea sistematic i continu, pentru realizarea feed-back-ului; c) evaluarea periodic ce verific gradul de restructurare a materiei n module informaionale mai mari; d) evaluarea final ce verific structurarea n sisteme informaionale a capacitii de sintez privind cunoaterea ntregii materii de studiu. Prin colaborarea acestor criterii, putem concluziona c evaluarea se realizeaz pe tot parcursul unui 204

demers pedagogic. Datorit acestor factori, evaluarea performanelor studenilor este actual i foarte ntrebat de ctre pedagogi. Acest interes a provovat formarea a mai multor feluri de evaluare a performanelor studenilor. Cercettorul Cuco C. [13] ne propune urmtorul tabel drept ilustrare a acestor tipuri subsecvente: Tradiionale Metode i instrumente de evaluare Probe orale Probe scrise Probe practice Observarea sistematic a elevilor Investigaia Proiectul Portofoliul Tema pentru acas Tema de lucru n clas Autoevaluarea

Complementare

Tipurile menionate sunt n continu resemnificare i extensie. Metodele complementare sunt n permanen folosite i profesorii sunt mai moderni i doresc folosirea acestor metode mai activ dect anii precedeni. Caracterul acestor metode complementare implic arsenalul instrumentar mai bogat dect cel tradiional. Ele permit profesorului s structureze puncte de reper i s adune informaii asupra derulrii activizii sale, utiliznd instrumente ce se adecveaz mai mult la specificul situaiilor instructive-educative. O metod alternativ de evaluare a performanelor studenilor la limba englez, ce implic un interes sporit din partea studenilor, i o folosin mai activ din partea profesorului universitar este metoda observrii sistematice a comportamentului studenilor. Aceasta este o prob complex ce se bazeaz pe urmtoarele instrumente de evaluare: 1) fia de evaluare; 2) scara de clasificare; 3) lista de control/ verificare. 1. Un posibil model de fi de evaluare cuprinde urmtoarele: a) General data on the student: name, surname, age; b) Age particularities: thinking, language, imagination, memorz, attention, etc.; c) 205

Abilities and interests; d) Affective features; e) Temperament features; f) Attitude towards: - self; - school and its obligations; - colleagues: g) Abilities, capacities, interest evolution. 2. Scara de clasificare indic profesorului frecvena cu care apare un anumit comportament. Scrile de clasificare pot fi numerice, grafice, descriptive. Se va rspunde la ntrebri de tipul: a. At what degree do students participate in discussions? - never; - rarely; - occasionally; - frequently; - always. b. At what degree the comments made where in connection to the discussed topics? - never; - rarely; -occasionally; frequently; - always. 3. Lista de control indic profesorului faptul c un anumit comportament este prezent sau absent, ca de exemplu: Students attitude towards learning Yes No Followed the instructions Asked for help when needed Cooperated with the other students Waited for his turn to use the material Shared the material Tried new activities Finished the activities Turned back the equipment used Cleaned his/her working place Pentru folosirea listelor de control: se completeaz cu X n dreptul rspunsului adecvat; pentru ca rezultatele s fie relevante, se folosesc cel puin dou dintre instumentele prezentate; se completeaz informaiile asupra comportamentului studentului din timpul activitii didactice. Metoda observrii sistematice a comportamentului studenilor este o metod foarte eficient pentru a evalua performanele studenilor la orice disciplin. Studenii sunt evaluai n conformitate cu nivelul de pregtire i de interes fa de obiectul evaluat. 206

Autoevaluarea permite aprecierea propriilor performane n raport cu obiectivele operaionale preconizate. Cu acest scop, studentul va nelege mai bine obiectivele i coninutul sarcinii pe care o are de realizat, modul n care efortul sarcinii este valorificat. Vogler, I. [23] considera c pe lng aceast modalitate implicit a educrii capacitii de autoevaluare, profesorii pot dispune i de alte ci explicite de formare i de educare a spiritului de evaluare obiectiv. Iat cteva posibiliti dintre ele: autocorectarea sau corectarea reciproc; autonotarea controlat; notarea reciproc; metoda de apreciere obiectiv a personalitii. Evaluarea n nvmntul superior prezint un mare interes pentru toi profesorii moderni, deoarece sistemul de nvmnt modern pune un mare accent pe latura evaluativ a performanelor studenilor, considernd-o deziderat al timpului.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Arachin V.D., pc Kypc 2, ediia Vlados, 2001, 516 p. 2. Arachin V.D., pc 1, ediia Vlados, 2001, 257 p. 3. Blndul, V.C. Demersuri teoretice i practice n evaluarea progresului colar. Volumul 3. Aplicaii practice ale evalurii progresului colar la disciplinele rurale. Oradea: Editura Universitii din Oradea. 2007. 132 p. 4. Bonta, I. Pedagogia. Bucureti: ALL Educaional, 1995. 350 p. 5. Cabac, V. Evaluarea prin teste n nvmnt. Teorie aplicaii. Bli: TMSS-R Moldova, 1999. 263 p. 6. Cadrul european comun de referin pentru limbi: nvare, predare, evaluare. Strasburg: Diviziunea Politici Lingvistice, 2003. 274 p. 7. Callo,T. Educaia comunicrii verbale. Chiinu: Litera, 2003. 148 p. 8. Cartaleanu, T. Cosovan, O. Succesul demersului didactic la limba romn. Competene. Creativitate. Chiinu: Supliment al revistei Didactica Pro, 2002. 117 p. 207

9. Clin, M. Teoria educaiei.Fundamentarea epistemic i metodologic a aciunii educative. Bucureti: ALL Educional, 1996. p. 139. 10. Cerghit, I. Metode de nvmnt. Romnia: Polirom, 2006. 315 p. 11. Creu, C. Psihopedagogia succesului. Iai: Polirom, 1997. p. 229. 12. Cristea, S. Dicionar de pedagogie. Chiinu Bucureti: Litera, 2000. 398 p. 13. Cuco, C. Pedagogia. Iai: Colloquim Polirom, 2002. 464 p. 14. Evaluarea studenilor n contextul procesului Bologna Chiinu: UPS Ion Creang, 2006. 110 p. 15. Jinga, I. Manual de pedagogie. Bucureti: ALL Educional, 1998. p. 463. 16. Jinga, I. Petreseu A. Gavot ,M. tefanescu V. Evaluarea performanelor colare. Bucureti: Afeliu, 1996. 199 p. 17. Lisievici, P. Evaluarea n nvmnt. Bucureti: Aramis, 2002. 304 p. 18. Macavei, E. Pedagogia. Idei pedagogice contemporane Bucureti: Aramis, 2001. p. 352. 19. Platon, C. Evaluarea calitii n nvmntul universitar. Chiinau: 2005. 274 p 20. Strung, C. Evaluarea colar. Timioara: Editura de Vest, 1999. 238 p. 21. T. Radu, I. Evalauarea n procesul didactic. Bucureti: Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, 2000. 343 p. 22. Trcovnicu, V. Pedagogie general. Iai, 2002, 464 p. 23. Vogler, I. Evaluarea n nvmntul preuniversitar. Bucureti: Polirom, 2000. 286 p. 24. Voiculescu, E. Factorii subiectivi ai evalurii colare. Bucureti: Aramis, 2007. 192 p.

PREDAREA CORESPONDENEI DE AFACERI N LIMBA ROMN N CADRUL UNUI PROIECT SOCIAL (studiu de caz) Cristina CoRNoVAN, profesoar de limba romn, American Language Center
ABSTRACT

This research presents a study case realised within the social project Single mother, designed especially for social vulnerable mothers from Moldova. The title of the course is Business romanian with lexico-grammatical aspects, which was developed by the author of this researh. Its a new course and thats why I intend to share as from my own experience as from the difficulties that I faced during its realisation. There will be presented the structure of the course, some methodological aspects, as well as the achievements and the challenges that appeared during the teaching process; all these being included in the Moldovas socio-political context. n contextul orientrii europene a Republicii Moldova, limba romn, ca obiect de studiu, capt o importan tot mai mare, ndeosebi n rndul populaiei vorbitoare de limb rus. Procesul i metodele predrii acestei discipline implic anumite schimbri pe de o parte, precum i o serie de provocri, pe de alt parte. Schimbrile sunt cu att mai mari cnd vine vorba de populaia matur, vorbitoare de rus din Moldova. Pe lng faptul c predarea limbii romne n colile ruse nu a avut mult vreme o structur integrat i eficient, nsui subiectul predrii acesteia reprezint deseori n Moldova (post-socialist i pre-european) un subiect delicat, naionalist i, de cele mai multe, ori politizat. Acest aspect poate fi sesizat la modul practic, n momentul n care te vezi nevoit s le predai propriilor conaionali propria lor limb (pentru care de multe ori nu este manifestat un interes adecvat), fr a le putea oferi un spaiu pentru a pune n practic cele studiate i fr posibilita209

208

tea de a putea demonstra utilitatea acestor studii. Iar gratuitatea acestor cursuri face misiunea predrii i mai dificil. Prin urmare, respectivele aspecte delicate fac subiectul acestui studiu de caz, care i propune s prezinte o situaie concret de predare cu victoriile i dificultile inerente acesteia. Cursul de limb romn, pe care l predau, se desfoar la Centrul Internaional de Training i Dezvoltare Profesional (n continuare ICTPD) din cadrul centrului evreiesc KEDEM. Respectivul curs poart denumirea: Corespondena de afaceri n limba romn, cu aspecte lexico-gramaticale. Beneficiarii cursului sunt mame social-vulnerabile din Moldova, cu vrste cuprinse ntre 23 i 65 de ani, acestea fiind absolventele cele mai bune ale trainingului Single mother, desfurat la ICTPD timp de cte 8 sptmni, din februarie 2011. Trainingul social Single mother are ca scop instruirea gratuit a 30 de mame social-vulnerabile ntr-o perioad de 8 sptmni pentru specialitatea de Assistant Manager. Cursul de baz conine mai multe discipline, inclusiv traininguri psihologice, corespondena de afaceri, drepturile femeilor toate n limba rus. Cursul de limba romn este cel mai ndelungat i const din 72 de ore academice. Dup cum nivelul grupelor este, de obicei, nceptor sau elementar, cursul conine elementele gramaticale de baz ale limbii romne i temele cele mai funcionale att pentru viaa de zi cu zi, ct i pentru prima perioad a aflrii la serviciu, aspecte predate prin metode interactive. Cunotinele studentelor snt evaluate cu ajutorul testelor scrise i n baza rezultatelor cele mai bune absolvente beneficiaz, de asemenea gratuit, i de cursul de Coresponden de afaceri n limba romn, cu aspecte lexico-gramaticale. n momentul n care a aprut ideea crerii unui asemenea curs, prima i marea problem, cu care m-am confruntat, a fost lipsa materialelor didactice pentru predarea att a corespondenei de afaceri n limba romn, ct i a limbii romne n general. Am folosit, ca surs principal, Cultura comunicrii a lui Alexei Palii i Gramatica limbii romne n tabele, editat n 1998. Cu aceast ocazie am constatat c n afara perioadei imediat postcomuniste, nu s-a mai editat nimic serios i actu210

alizat n acest domeniu. Astfel, n ajutor mi-a venit internetul, unde am gsit manuale mai vechi, scanate i expuse pentru vizualizare. A fost nevoie s adaptez, pentru partea de gramatic, informaia dup ultimele modificri ale DOOM, pentru a fi n pas cu timpurile. Pentru partea de coresponden de afaceri, recunosc c am trecut prin aceeai mare nedumerire cnd a trebuit s-mi rspund singur la ntrebrile referitoare la standardele actuale de ntocmire a scrisorilor oficiale. Cum se ntocmete corect o cerere? Mai scriem totui titlul CERERE sau totui ne raliem la standardele internaionale? Dumneavoastr se scrie sau nu cu majuscul? Este funcional predarea cererii de ofert n Moldova? Apropo de cererea de ofert. Aceast tem implic att un aspect administrativ, ct i unul cultural. Pentru c studentele au auzit de acest termen pentru prima dat n cadrul orelor noastre; i nu din lips de informaie, ci pentru c n Moldova, o ar att de mic, unde practic toate afacerile se fac nu de la companie la companie, ci de la om la om, snt, probabil, uniti cazurile n care este nevoie de o cerere de ofert pentru a afla preurile unor mrfuri. De obicei, totul se rezolv printr-un telefon. Dup ce am decis exact care teme vor face obiectul cursului, am creat primele trei lecii experimentale i am nceput predarea lor. Aici am avut parte de alte surprize. n primul rnd, pentru studente a fost aproape un oc faptul c am ncercat s comunicm prin cuvinte ceva mai elevate dect ceea ce fcusem la cursul de baz i aici a trebuit s fac fa unei reacii de rezisten sau chiar de respingere a materialului nou. Primele obiecii au fost c ele au nevoie de romna vorbit n strad, pentru a convieui confortabil cu vorbitorii de romn n societatea noastr, i nicidecum de o romn de afaceri, orict de elementar ar fi ea. La acest capitol se impune o parantez de proporii, pentru a nelege mentalitatea, felul de a gndi i dificultile cu care se confrunt un vorbitor de rus n Republica Moldova. Avnd n vedere faptul c n cadrul activitii mele la ICTPD am cunoscut deja 210 femei, n majoritatea lor vorbitoare de rus, am luat cunotin mai ndeaproape de problemele lor, de barierele, frustrrile, succesele i victoriile lor. i de 211

aceea mi permit s fac nite generalizri, deoarece snt aproape sigur c, dac mai cunosc alte 200 de femei, mi vor spune aceleai lucruri. n plus, dificultile mele n predarea acestui curs deriv nemijlocit din dificultile lor. De aceea consider c o detaliere a acestora este nu doar util, ci i necesar. 1. Un vorbitor de rus n Romnia va comunica n romn, uneori chiar fluent, pe cnd n Moldova practic niciodat. Acest fapt are dou cauze: - un vorbitor de rus n Moldova tie c oricnd poate primi rspuns la orice ntrebare n limba rus (cu excepia cazurilor cnd ntlnesc vreun tnr, nscut dup 1989, care efectiv nu cunoate deloc limba rus), pe cnd n Romnia nsui contextul l impune s se conformeze. - un vorbitor de rus n Moldova nu este motivat s nvee limba romn (sau cel puin, de stat) pentru a funciona deplin n viaa social. Atta timp ct vor exista inscripiile n bilingv, tirile, publicaiile, emisiunile n limba rus, vorbitorul acestei limbi se va descurca n toate sferele vieii i nu va avea nevoie s nvee limba romn. 2. Majoritatea participantelor la cursurile de la ICTPD au nvat cndva limba moldoveneasc n colile sovietice, dar n afar de nvarea pe de rost a poeziilor, nu au rmas cu niciun fel de cunotine de gramatic a limbii romne. De aceea pn i exprimarea unor idei elementare de obicei se face cu multe greeli n structurile de baz ale limbii, de unde se poate deduce c, trecute prin civa ani de coal, ele rmn la nivelul nceptor (locuind ntr-o ar, care cel puin teoretic vorbete limba romn). 3. O alt piatr de ncercare o constituie chestiunea naional (sau chiar naionalist), aprut dup desfiinarea blocului socialist. Din cauz c o bun bucat de timp au existat (i mai exist nc) disensiuni ntre vorbitorii de rus i cei de romn, chiar dac acum problema nu mai este att de acut, vorbitorii de rus resimt o anumit barier de comunicare (cum o numesc ei nii). Acest fenomen se manifest prin faptul c o persoan vorbitoare de rus nu se poate exprima n romn, chiar dac tie c va spune ceva corect. i aceast barier are n viziunea mea, cteva cauze: 212

- cnd Moldova a devenit stat independent i s-a pus acut problema nvrii limbii romne, o parte din populaia vorbitoare de rus a resimit acest fapt ca un afront la limba rus, vorbit de ea i, prin urmare, din principiu nu a vrut s o nvee; - o alt parte a ncercat s vorbeasc romna, dar s-a confruntat cu rsetele celor din jur i cu diverse comentarii gen: nti nva i apoi vorbete!, de unde a reieit un alt comportament; - o parte din vorbitorii de rus nu au mai vorbit de atunci deloc n romn, iar o alt parte triesc cu ideea c n momentul n care va putea vorbi perfect i fr greeli n romn, abia atunci va ncepe s vorbeasc. 4. O dificultate specific pentru categoria vorbitorilor de rus, participant la cursul de Coresponden de afaceri, cea a mamelor social vulnerabile, este i faptul c nainte de acest curs, majoritatea din ele au fost i continu s fie casnice, timp n care nu doar c nu au studiat limba romn, ci au pierdut i nsui exerciiul nvrii. Prin urmare, procesul de predare-nvare, dar mai ales cel de asimilare a materiei deseori se desfoar cu dificultate. i aceast dificultate apare indiferent de vrsta participantei la curs. n acest context i pe acest fundal psihologic i emoional, studierea limbii romne n cadrul cursului sus-menionat este cu att mai dificil cnd intervine i elementul gratuitii acestor cursuri, deoarece studentele nu se simt motivate s depun eforturi pentru a reui. i totui exist studente care muncesc foarte mult i care reuesc s asimileze att partea de coresponden de afaceri, ct i cea de gramatic. Deci care snt motivele pentru care o vorbitoare de rus, o mam singur (sau o soie), fr serviciu, simte nevoia s participe i s studieze Corespondena de afaceri n limba romn, cu aspecte lexico-gramaticale: Majoritatea respectivelor studente au decis s se angajeze, iar legislaia Republicii Moldova presupune ca persoanele angajate s vorbeasc fluent limba romn; iar acolo unde e vorba despre un post de Assistant Manager, s i scrie corect n romn, s poat redacta o scrisoare de afaceri etc. 213

 Multe dintre ele au copiii la colile sau grdiniele romneti i resimt aceast caren cnd se vd nevoite s i ajute copiii la temele pentru acas. La o anumit etap a vieii lor, intervine i aspectul psihologic: Noi locuim n Moldova i e ruine s nu vorbeti limba statului n care trieti, dac ar fi s citez o replic des auzit n timpul cursurilor. n plus, aceast ruine se manifest i fa de propriii copii care ajung s cunoasc i s neleag mai bine dect ele informaia din jur. Dar chiar i cele care au studiat cndva n coal limba moldoveneasc ajung s recunoasc faptul c limba romn vorbit acum n Moldova, nvat de copiii lor la coal sau grdini, difer considerabil fa de ceea ce au studiat ele cndva. Iar limba pe care o vorbesc acum, mbuibat de calchieri ruseti i construcii gramaticale incorecte, are nevoie de o mprosptare i o re-sistematizare. n plus, orientarea pro-european a Moldovei i spune i ea cuvntul, fiind resimit de ctre studentele proiectului discutat ca o accentuare tot mai mare a importanei limbii romne n toate sferele vieii din Moldova. Structura cursului Corespondena de afaceri n limba romn, cu aspecte lexico-gramaticale reflect noiunile de baz ale textului oficial i ale corespondenei de afaceri primare, precum i anumite teme gramaticale, ce vin n continuarea cursului de baz a proiectului Single mother. Cursul este alctuit din 11 lecii, fiecare dintre ele coninnd o parte ce vizeaz corespondena de afaceri i o alta ce ine de o tem gramatical. Structura sa este urmtoarea: 1. Elementele scrisorii de afaceri. Genul masculin i feminin. 2. Corespondena personal. Genul neutru. 3. Tipurile scrisorilor de afaceri. Articolul nehotrt (reguli de utilizare). 4. Formule standard n textul oficial. Articolul hotrt (reguli de utilizare). 214

5. Cererea. Cazul genitiv i articolul genitival. 6. Scrisoarea de intenie. Cazul vocativ. Verbele reflexive. 7. Invitaia oficial. Imperfectul. 8. Cererea de ofert. Modul imperativ. 9. Oferta. Modul condiional. 10. Comanda. Pronumele personal n cazul dativ. 11. Termeni frecveni n textele oficiale. Pronumele personal n cazul acuzativ. Structur respectiva a fost conceput n conformitate cu necesitile absolventelor cursului de baz. De exemplu, pentru partea gramatical, din cauz c terminaiile substantivului s-a dovedit a fi cea mai complicat tem n cursul de baz, am simit nevoia unei reveniri la genurile substantivului i la articolele hotrt i nehotrt, pentru o mai profund nelegere a acestora. Temele urmtoare reprezint continuarea studiului gramaticii, nceput n cursul de baz. Pentru partea de coresponden de afaceri, m-am axat pe aspectele cele mai importante pentru activitatea studentelor i anume: forma general a scrisorilor, att personale, ct i de afaceri i formulele de adresare utilizate n ambele cazuri. n alegerea actelor i scrisorilor oficiale pentru a fi incluse n curs, am reieit la fel din funcionalitatea lor pentru grupul vizat i le-am ales pe acele ale cror probabilitate de a fi folosite n viitor este cea mai mare. Pentru c a scrie corect o cerere este necesar nu doar pentru o secretar, iar o scrisoare de intenie este foarte important n momentul cutrii unui serviciu (CV-ul este studiat i chiar realizat n cadrul proiectului de baz, de aceea nu am revenit la el). ncepnd cu lecia 7, am inclus scrisorile cele mai importante pentru activitatea unei secretare ntr-un birou: invitaia oficial (inclusiv modalitatea de a o confirma i de a o refuza), cererea de ofert, oferta i comanda (care fac parte din procesul de funcionare a oricrei companii n cadrul vieii ei comerciale). n plus, textul include o lecie video i dou lecii audio. A fi vrut s fie mai multe, dar nu sunt dintr-un motiv destul de banal: nu exist resurse audio sau video potrivite pe care s le gsesc n Chiinu. n librrii nu are niciun rost s caui, n crile care au materiale audio nu 215

am gsit dialogurile potrivite, iar pe internet, cu toate eforturile de documentare i cutare, nu mi-a fost de folos nimic, cu excepia youtubeului i site-ului oficial al PRO TV. n plus, este greu s gseti pn i o tire potrivit, care s nu conin elemente politizate, crime, violuri etc. n general, dac ar fi s vorbim despre reacia studentelor n timpul cursului de Coresponden de afaceri, a sublinia dou tipuri de comportamente: - o categorie care i dorete s nvee (pentru serviciu, pentru copii, pentru a nelege tirile sau pentru a fi apt s rspund pe strad ntr-o romn corect), care se strduie s vorbeasc, dar creia i vine greu s se exprime. Acest lucru se ntmpl din cauz c studentele respective nu au unde s practice toate cele nvate, tot anturajul lor fiind vorbitor de rus. Dac e vorba de cineva care vorbete romna, cu ele la fel va vorbi n rus i le va spune Cu mine vorbete mai bine n rus, c nu reueti n romn (dei, dac ar fi s citez exact: Zi n rus c n moldovneasc nu poi). Iar dac va gsi pe cineva doritor s le ajute, de obicei le va corecta formele corecte nvate la curs cu cele incorect vorbite n Moldova. - alt categorie care nu vrea s practice sau s studieze ceea ce li se propune n cadrul cursului i care rspunde mereu n rus la ntrebrile mele n romn, sub pretextul c: - e prea dificil; - nu are nevoie de aceste lucruri pentru viaa de zi cu zi; - are nevoie doar de dialoguri la magazin, la pot, la medic etc.; - pentru scrisorile de afaceri exist modele pe internet i n afar de cteva lucruri utile, restul e o pierdere de timp; - n plus, n Moldova nu se scriu scrisori de afaceri, pentru c totul se rezolv la telefon, prin cineva. Trebuie s amintesc nc o dat c aceste cursuri sunt gratuite i poate de aceea atitudinea fa de ele este de multe ori uor neserioas, aici fiind vorba i de nerealizarea temelor pentru acas sau de absentarea de la ore (n special la cele de coresponden oficial). Orele lor preferate rmn a fi cele de gramatic, pe care studentele nsei le consider utile pentru sine. Dei nc nu a existat tem nou 216

unde s nu existe comentariul c este dificil i de ce este nevoie de attea reguli sau excepii? sau Cine inventeaz i complic aceste lucruri?. Cu toate acestea, fiind oameni maturi, ele prefer s li se explice gramatica, pentru a o nelege, ceea ce nu au reuit s fac n anii de coal, cnd erau nevoite s nvee i s recite poezii pe de rost. Pentru a nltura aceste obiecii i a obine eficien din lecii, eu fac tot posibilul s implic fiecare student n cadrul fiecrei activiti, s asigur o atmosfer relaxant i, acolo unde este posibil, ntotdeauna amuzant, pentru a destinde atmosfera, indiferent dac e vorba de gramatic sau de textele oficiale. n acest sens, au fost create i leciile audio i video, care s-au bucurat de un real succes. Prin urmare, obiectivele acestui curs sunt ca studentele, la absolvirea lui: - s-i mbogeasc bagajul lexical i semantic; - s citeasc fr greeli un text; - s poat traduce un text din romn n rus i invers; - s fie capabile s neleag un text de dificultate sczut i medie, ce ine de corespondena oficial; - s neleag mesajul dintr-un material audio sau video n limba romn; - s fie capabile s discute n baza textului, formulnd idei proprii; - s poat rspunde la ntrebri n baza textului sau materialului audiovideo; - s elaboreze un text cu caracter informal (scrisoare, invitaie, felicitare); - s poat ntocmi un text oficial n limba romn, dup toate rigorile (cerere, ofert, comand etc.); - s foloseasc n mod corect, n comunicarea oral sau scris, temele gramaticale studiate n cadrul cursului. Studentele vor putea s aplice cunotinele acumulate n urmtoarele domenii: - n vorbire, prin folosirea structurilor lexico-gramaticale corecte; - n audierea mesajului transmis pe cale oral, prin nelegerea mesajului transmis; 217

- n citirea textelor scrise, formale sau informale, prin nelegerea corect a mesajului; - n elaborarea textelor scrise, formale sau informale, prin folosirea sctructurilor de baz corecte. Studentele vor putea s integreze abilitile dobndite n urmtoarele sfere sociale: - n relaiile cu instituiile statului (prin intermediul cererii); - n relaiile cu angajatorii (CV-ul, scrisoarea de intenie); - n relaiile cu partenerii de afaceri (cererea de ofert, oferta, comanda); - n relaiile personale (invitaia, felicitarea, scrisoarea, e-mailul). Metodele de lucru folosite n cadrul orelor snt urmtoarele: Citirea cu voce tare a textelor; Traducerea textelor noi; Brainstorming-ul; Conversaia; Elaborarea textelor cu caracter personal i oficial; Descoperirea i deducerea definiiilor; Exerciiul; Jocuri didactice lexicale (sinonime, antonime); Jocuri didactice semantice (expresii); Jocuri didactice gramaticale; Jocurile de rol. Metodele enumerate sunt aplicate prin: 1) folosirea materialului didactic variat: fie, cartonae, plane de diverse forme, culori i mrimi; 2) explicarea noiunilor noi din limba romn i evitarea traducerii acestora; 3) recurgerea la lucrul individual, n perechi, n grupuri mici sau mari, precum i brainstorming-ul de grup; 4) predarea interactiv a structurilor gramaticale. Evaluarea studentelor este realizat att n cadrul fiecrei lecii, ct i prin intermediul testelor scrise. Aadar, n cadrul cursului de Corespondena de afaceri n limba romn, cu aspecte lexico-gramaticale, vorbim despre: 218

1. Evaluarea formativ: - observarea curent a comportamentului participantelor i a nivelului lor de asimilare a materiei studiate; - verificarea temelor pentru acas la fiecare lecie; - fie de lucru; - probe de autoevaluare. 2. Evaluarea sumativ: - dou teste n cadrul cursului; - un test final, care decide dac studenta va primi sau nu diploma. n urma realizrii i predrii acestui curs, pot spune c am nregistrat anumite succese, dar, n acelai timp, mai rmn o serie de provocri care i ateapt rezolvarea i crora trebuie s le rspund. Din ceea ce consider eu a fi succese, a meniona faptul c: reuit s distrug stereotipul legat de limba romn i n timpul am cursului studentele mrturisesc c nu mai au nicio rezisten fa de ea, ba dimpotriv, au dorina de a continua s o studieze i dup curs; reuit s distrug stereotipurile legate de nsui procesul de pream dare-nvare i s le art c limba romn poate fi studiat realmente i prin metode diferite de nvare pe de rost a poeziilor, fr explicarea gramaticii; reuit s sistematizez i s prezint informaia ntr-un mod n care am nimeni nu a mai fcut-o n viaa lor pn acum (dup spusele lor); acest mod, am reuit s le clarific multe din nelmuriri, printr-o n prezentare foarte disecat a temelor gramaticale; reuit s le prezint i s le sistematizez, printr-un material viam zual explicit i diversificat, toate momentele din temele studiate la care trebuie s atrag atenia; limbajul ceva mai elevat din acest curs le-a fcut s poat privi tirile n limba romn (ceea ce pn la curs studentele nu fceau deloc) i le-a motivat s vrea s o fac i n continuare. Ceea ce rmn a fi nite reale provocri pentru mine i cu care tiu c m voi confrunta i n cadrul tuturor grupelor viitoare snt urmtoarele: 219

o nu reuesc s le fac s vorbeasc limba romn, s le nltur acea barier de comunicare; astfel, chiar dac multe dintre ele scriu excelent n romn, completeaz testele fr greeli, neleg absolut totul, totui nu pot s vorbeasc n aceast limb; o nu pot s le ofer un teren de practicare a celor studiate pentru c, fie n cercul lor nimeni nu vorbete romna, fie o vorbete incorect; o pn i pe strad, atunci cnd studentele ncearc s foloseasc cele nvate la curs, ori nu snt nelese, ori snt corectate n moldoveneasc; o dei poate suna puin amuzant, cnd vine vorba de femei mature, dar nu reuesc s opun rezisten mentalitii lor colare, n care important este nota i nu cunotinele; i chiar dac am nlocuit notele cu procente, chiar dac am accentuat i continuu s accentuez latura funcional a nvrii i, culmea, chiar dac i ele snt contiente de aceste lucruri, oricum m confrunt la fiecare evaluare cu tendina penibil de a copia de la vreo coleg sau din propriile conspecte. Cu toate acestea, consider nsi ideea cursului un succes, pentru c dificultile aprute pe parcurs snt mai degrab de ordin psihologic, social, dect metodologic. i, probabil, pentru a-i putea demonstra utilitatea real, este nevoie de puin timp, pn cnd limba romn va deveni nu doar majoritar, ci singura vorbit n instituii, pe strad sau la televizor; pn cnd cei care o vorbesc vor nceta s rd i vor ncepe s-i ajute pe cei care ncearc s-o vorbeasc; pn cnd rusizmele vor deveni o chestiune de mauvais ton i romna corect i curat nu va mai suna ciudat n urechile nimnui; pn cnd ne vom schimba mentalitatea i vom nelege c reuita limbii romne n ara noastr depinde de fiecare dintre noi, c structurile corecte, nerusificate, care pot fi nelese de romnii de pretutindeni sunt o responsabilitate personal a fiecrui cetean din Moldova, limba creia trebuie s o vorbim. Iar marea provocare pentru noi toi ar fi s rspundem la ntrebarea: Cnd se va ntmpla aceasta? 220

DETERMINRI PSIHOLINGVISTICE I PSIHOPEDAGOGICE ALE ABORDRII COMUNICATIVE N PREDAREA LIMBII ENGLEZE Luminia dIACoNU, lect. univ., magistru, doctorand, Angela CHIoSEA, lect.sup., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

The emerging National Qualifications Framework imposes the development of competences as one of the most important objectives for vocational education and training My paper deals with the subject of communication - means and purpose in education, From the very beginning I underlined the importance of communication in case of teaching foreign languages for specific purposes. taking into consideration the objectives, aims and long-term purposes of the Foreign Language for Specific Purposes Course the thorough academic study of a foreign language and the development of communicative abilities in favour of a professional language .Ccommunication in the educational context is instructive, it builds up personalities, develops abilities, stimulates inter- and intra-communication, cognitive interactivity. I set my conclusions in the context of applied academic didactics and the requirements of the European linguistics policy. Conform Cadrului European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi, nvarea i utilizarea unei limbi cuprinde un ir de aciuni ale persoanei care, n calitate de actor social, i dezvolt un ansamblu de competene generale, dar, mai ales, competene de comunicare bazate pe exploatarea mijloacelor lingvistice. Utiliznd competenele de care dispun n contexte i condiii variate, n conformitate cu diferite constrngeri ale mediului n vederea realizrii activitilor comunicative, se va produce receptarea i producerea textelor la anumite teme asupra unor domenii specifice, aplicnd strategiile cele mai adecvate pentru ndeplinirea sarcinilor didactice. Controlul acestei activiti de ctre interlocutori 221

conduce la consolidarea i perfecionarea competenelor, iar activitile comunicative implic exerciiul competenei de comunicare lingvistic ntr-un domeniu determinat, pentru recepia i/sau producerea unui sau mai multor texte n vederea ndeplinirii unei sarcini didactice [1, p. 15]. Depind capacitatea lingvistic ce const n utilizarea corect a limbii literare, L. Iacob afirm c prin competen comunicativ se nelege suma aptitudinilor n care cunotinele lingvistice i socioculturale snt indispensabile. Autoarea include, pe lng capacitatea de a stpni materialul verbal, necesitatea de a disciplina i coninuturile para- i nonverbale deopotriv cu stpnirea regulilor de plasament contextual i a regulilor interaciunii mutuale, al principiilor de politee i de ritualizare comunicaional. Spre deosebire de aceast viziune, A. Arutionov susine c competena de comunicare este priceperea de a realiza aciuni verbale de codificare, decodificare i dezvoltare a informaiei. n opinia lui T. Callo competena de comunicare poate fi dobndit prin parcurgerea unor multiple etape [2, p. 88]. Competena comunicativ este capacitatea de a informa i a modifica lumea, de a formula scopuri i a le atinge, cumulnd ntregul ansamblu de abiliti personale: a ti; a ti s faci; a ti s fii; a ti s devii [2, P. 88], un evantai de comportamente comunicative, o utilizare strategic a limbii ntr-o anumit comunitate [2, p. 96]. Un alt punct de vedere n ceea ce privete competena comunicativ, exprim M. Canale i M. Swain, ce identific patru dimensiuni ale competenei comunicative: gramatical, sociolingvistic, discursiv, strategic. O investigaie recent a competenei comunicative a realizat L. Bachman, care include n competena comunicativ dimensiunile: organizaional ce include att pe cea gramatical, ct i pe cea textual; pragmatic ce vizeaz att competena sociolingvistic, ct i cea locuionar. [4, p.98]. n aceeai ordine de idei, Littlewood W. prezint anumite abiliti pentru o comunicare de succes: (a) studentul trebuie s obin un grad nalt de competen lingvistic. Acest fapt nsemnnd c trebuie s-i dezvolte competene de a utiliza sistemul lingvistic pn n punctul n care s fie capabil s foloseasc n mod spontan i flexibil mesajul pe care vrea s-l transmit; (b) studentul trebuie s diferenieze 222

ntre competena lingvistic i cea comunicativ; (c) studentul trebuie s dezvolte abiliti i strategii de a folosi limba cu scop comunicativ, s nvee a utiliza feedback-ul pentru a-i aprecia succesul, dar i insuccesul folosirii unei limbi strine [7]. Dupa cum am menionat mai sus, calitatea cunoaterii unei limbi este confirmat de patru deprinderi comunicative: de audiere,vorbire, scriere i citire. Receptarea i vorbirea snt procese interactive care se afecteaz reciproc. Vorbirea este o deprindere a limbajului expresiv n care vorbitorul folosete simboluri verbale pentru a comunica, n timp ce receptarea este o deprindere a limbajului receptiv, care implic interpretarea acestor simboluri. Scrierea este, de asemenea, o calificare a limbajului expresiv, n care scriitorul folosete simboluri pentru a comunica n scris, n timp ce lectura este o deprindere a limbajului receptiv care implic interpretarea acestor simboluri. Receptarea i vorbirea i, de asemenea, citirea i scrierea au fost abordate ca subiecte separate n cadrul curriculum-ului universitar i, de obicei, au fost predate ca o serie de competene distincte; cu toate acestea, anul 1980 i nceputul anilor 90 au adus un alt punct de vedere. Receptarea i vorbirea i, de asemenea, citirea i scrierea snt acum considerate interactive i fac parte din procesul de mbuntire a comunicrii n limba strin. Predarea universitar, bazat pe strategiile comunicative, implic exerciii cu caracter verbal (comunicativ). n aceast ordine de idei, E. Pasov, evideniaz dou tipuri de exerciii, verbale-comunicative i verbale. Cele verbale-comunicative snt special organizate pentru formarea deprinderilor. Pentru acestea snt caracteristice repetrile unor tipuri de uniti lexicale, succesiunea lor n timp. Exerciiile verbale presupun povestirea textului, descrierea unui tablou/obiect, caracterizarea unei persoane, comentariile operelor i a citatelor etc. [5, p. 303]. M. L. Willbrand & R.D. Riecke n Teaching oral communication (1983) a definit comunicarea oral ca proces de interaciune prin auz i mesaje vorbite ntr-o varietate de situaii, iar instruirea, care integreaz receptarea i vorbirea n diferite situaii, a fost numit abordare comunicativ a predrii limbilor strine. n aceast ordine de idei, I. Neacu menioneaz c comunicarea oral vizeaz, n esen, dou sfere intim 223

corelate: nelegerea i exprimarea oral susinnd ideea c n procesul de comunicare oral studenii trebuie s fie capabili: (a) s acioneze eficient n situaii ce reclam exprimarea oral de idei i sentimente, fr blocaje generate de inhibiii involuntare; (b) s posede un vocabular univoc i adecvat pentru fiecare din variatele reflectri sau relaii sociale; (c) s ating o rigoare minim acceptabil n construcia frazeologic, evitnd soluii de continuitate sintactic, elips sau repetiii inutile; (d) s dispun de capaciti crescute de reflectare asupra utilizrii potrivite a cuvintelor de legtur; (e) s comunice coerent o situaie, n funcie de un anumit scop, pe baza observaiei i a seleciei celor observate; (f) s posede modurile de organizare expozitiv, precum i resursele orale i gestice apte s poteneze mesajul; (g) s utilizeze diferite forme de argumentare i resursele didactice corespunztoare; (h) s expun, s argumenteze i s dezvolte dezbateri constructive etc. [5 , p. 256]. A. Howatt distinge ntre o strategie complex i una mai puin complicat de predare comunicativ a limbii: strategia, mai puin complicat, care a devenit o practic, mai mult sau mai puin, obinuit n ultimii zece ani, subliniaz importana de a furniza studenilor oportuniti de folosire a limbii engleze n scopuri de comunicare i, prin urmare, ncearc s integreze o varietate de activiti ntr-un program mai larg de predare a limbii. Strategia complex a predrii comunicative a limbii susine ideea c limba este dobndit prin comunicare, astfel nu este vorba de o cunoatere inert a limbii, ci de stimularea dezvoltrii a nsui sistemului limbii. n cazul n care primul ar putea fi descris prin a nva s foloseti limba englez, cel din urm ar putea fi descris prin folosirea limbii pentru a nva [5, p. 279]. Scopul predrii comunicative a limbii poate fi realizat prin intermediul diferitor activiti de comunicare. n opinia lui W. Littlewood scopul activitilor comunicative const n creterea motivaiei studentului de a nva o limb strin (7, p. 17). Abordarea comunicativ stimuleaz valorizarea experienelor comunicative din viaa real [2, p. 39]. Prin urmare, studenii trebuie s simuleze diverse situaii cu scopul de a formula diferite ntrebri corespunztoare. Atenionm c aceste activiti nu trebuie s 224

simuleze viaa real, dar trebuie s fie ct mai aproape de viaa real, iar tema subiectului trebuie s fie bazat pe un anumit coninut, pe o anumit tem sau proiect, sau o combinaie a celor trei. Aici putem face referire la W. Littlewood care a separat abordarea comunicativ n activiti precomunicative i comunicative [7, p.20]. Activitile precomunicative se divizeaz n: activitile structurale exerciii gramaticale i activitile cvasicomunicative dialoguri situaionale, dialoguri deschise, diverse liste de vocabular. Aceste activiti snt pentru studenii primului an de studii, atunci cnd accentul se pune pe sistemul lingvistic iar studenii nu au posibilitatea de a transpune n practic cele nvate. Activitile pre-comunicative snt o modalitate eficient i convenabil de revizuire a sistemului lingvistic, precum i furnizarea unui vocabular i informaii ce in de cultura L2. Aceast etap, de altfel considerat a fi un principiu al educaiei pentru comunicare, numit precomunicativitatea, justific o pregtire prealabil a comunicrii, care este necesar att n procesul de predare-nvare a L1, ct i al oricrei alte limbi [1, p. 63]. n unul dintre studiile sale, Arutiunov A. susine c este absolut necesar a motiva i a individualiza etapa precomunicativ a activitii educaionale. Activitile comunicative vizeaz: (a) activiti comunicative funcionale i cer studenilor s utilizeze resursele lingvistice pentru a depi un decalaj de informaii sau a rezolva o problem [2, p.18], (b) activitile de interaciune social cu scopul principal de a oferi studenilor posibilitatea de a folosi limba ntr-un context social adecvat, pentru a crea o varietate de situaii i relaii sociale, cum ar fi locul de munc, toate discutate n pereche, n grup, fcnd diferite simulri i jocuri de rol [1, p. 50]. Considerm c aceste activiti implic studenii ntr-un conflict socio-cognitiv, iar cutarea i elucidarea rspunsurilor necesare pentru rezolvarea problemelor duce, n mod inevitabil, la dezvoltarea competenelor comunicative. Aadar, activitile comunicative includ orice activiti ce ncurajeaz i cer studentului s vorbeasc i s asculte pe ali colegi, integrndu-se activ n comunicare. Aceste activiti au scopuri reale de a cuta informaii, de a depi obstacole, de a discuta despre persoana 225

proprie, i de a nva despre o anumit cultur. Chiar i atunci cnd o lecie este orientat spre dezvoltarea abilitilor de scriere i citire, diferite activiti comunicative trebuie s fie incluse n cadrul leciei. Mai mult dect att, cercetrile viznd predarea limbilor strine au demonstrat c studenii capt mai multe cunotine atunci, cnd predarea se desfoar ntr-o atmosfer mai dinamic dect ntr-un mediu de predare tradiional. Analiznd punctele de vedere ale lui P. Hawarth i W. Littlewood referitor la predarea comunicativ a limbii, am ajuns la concluzia c aplicnd activitile precomunicative ale lui Littlewood W., studenii vor nva s foloseasc limba, pe cnd aplicnd activitile comunicative, studenii vor folosi limba pentru a nva. Conform Cadrului European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi, numeroase activiti comunicative, cum ar fi conversaia sau corespondena, de exemplu, snt interactive, adic participanii snt rnd pe rnd locutor(i) /scriptor(i) i destinatar(i). n cazul n care vorbirea este nregistrat sau n cazul radioului sau al textelor scrise, locutorul nu se afl n prezena destinatarului pe care s-ar putea chiar s nu-l cunoasc i care, oricum, nu poate rspunde. n aceste cazuri, evenimentul comunicativ poate fi considerat: vorbirea, scrierea, audierea sau citirea unui text [1, p. 53]. Cadrul European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi divizeaz activitile comunicative n 1. Activiti comunicative productive (orale i scrise)- utilizatorul / studentul produce un text oral sau scris recepionat, n principiu la distan, de unul sau mai muli auditori sau lectori, de la care nu se cere un rspuns. 2. Activiti comunicative receptive (orale i scrise)- utilizatorul / studentul recepioneaz un text de la un locutor sau de la un scriptor, n principiu la distan, i nu este obligat s rspund. 3. Activiti comunicative interactive reprezint o situaie n care utilizatorul /studentul angajeaz un dialog fa n fa cu un interlocutor. Textul dialogului este alctuit din enunuri produse i recepionate respectiv i n alternan de fiecare parte. 226

4. Activiti comunicative de mediere schematizeaz dou situaii: (a) traducere utilizatorul /studentul recepioneaz un text de la un locutor sau scriptor absent, ntr-o limb sau un cod, i produce un text paralel ntr-o alt limb sau un alt cod pentru alt persoan, auditor sau lector deprtat. (b) interpretare utilizatorul /studentul joac rolul de intermediar n cadrul unei activiti interactive fa n fa ntre doi interlocutori, care nu au n comun aceeai limb sau acelai cod; el recepioneaz un text ntr-o limb i produce alt text, care corespunde celui original, n cealalt limb [6, p. 84] n cercetrile comisiei The National Reading Panel, lansate n aprilie 2000, se stipuleaz c caracterul esenial al nsuirii eficiente a unei limbi const n ct mai mult lectur, se prezint strategii de comprehensiune (tehnici pentru a ajuta studenii s neleag ceea ce citesc, cum ar fi sumarea celor citite pentru o mai bun receptare a mesajului). De menionat aici c comisia face referire numai la liceeni i nu la studenii instituiilor de nvmnt superior. Considerm, n aceast ordine de idei, c buna receptare a mesajului poate funciona eficient i la nivel universitar, deoarece neglijarea vocabularului n predarea limbilor strine conduce la formarea barierelor de comunicare [6, p. 88]. Robinson A. menioneaz c lexicul este temelia capacitii de a gndi i de a mprti gndurile altor persoane, fiind instrumentul care mbuntete capacitatea de a nelege ceea ce se ntmpl n jur [2, p. 1]. Dac studenii trebuie s in pas cu creterea rapid a cunotinelor, nu putem continua organizarea curriculumului n compartimente discrete, acestea fiind substituite de cerinele ce se bazeaz pe material transdisciplinar generalizat [3, p. 23]. Apelm, n aceast ordine de idei, la opinia lui V. Mndcanu, care susine c tehnologiile, spre deosebire de metodele de predare, conin elementul principal garantarea nivelului minim de nvare i asigurarea rezultatelor pozitive prin optimizarea procesului de instruire:(a) timpul cheltuit pentru nvare; (b) ritmul nvrii; (c) miestria i nivelul profesional al pedagogului; (d) motivaia de cunoatere a studentului; (e) mijloacele consumate pentru 227

obinerea rezultatelor raportate la scopul propus ntr-o cultur nalt a interaciunii profesor-student. Aceti factori, susine autorul, snt determinani n proiectarea i promovarea abordarii didactice comunicative [5, p. 462]. Vom continua comunicarea cu o comparaie scurt, absolut necesar ntre metodele de nvmnt tradiionale i cele moderne, n scopul nelegerii importanei folosirii celor din urm. n excesul de informaie cu care societatea actual se confrunt, sistemului de nvmnt i se atribuie rolul dificil de a forma personaliti, care s tie s disting informaia preioas de cea mai puin util, de a extrage esenialul din general. Un element-cheie este faptul c cunoaterea trebuie s fie funcional, util; nvei nu doar pentru a ti i a stoca o serie de informaii din diferite domenii, ci nvei pentru a face, pentru a folosi ceea ce tii, pentru a aplica ceea ce ai acumulat, n folosul tu i al celorlali. A ti ce s faci cu ceea ce ai nvat este dezideratul major al nvmntului modern [2, 4]. Dac n nvmntul tradiional, principalele metode le constituie conversaia, expunerea, demonstraia, metodele centrate pe profesor, transmiterea de cunotine, nvmntul modern solicit aplicarea metodelor active i interactive, a celor care dezvolt gndirea critic. Studentul este mai mult avantajat dac dispune de metode moderne de predare, innd cont de faptul c instituia l formeaz pentru via, eventual pentru un viitor loc de munc. Studentul se adapteaz unor anumite cerine, iar daca el a fost format prin metode tradiionale, cu greu s-ar acomoda ntr-un loc de munc, unde cerinele sunt de tip modern. Prin urmare, noi considerm c o lecie de limb strin trebuie s devin o aventur a cunoaterii n care studentul s participe activ, s fie implicat n procesul de predare, de nvare i de evaluare, nct disciplina s devin autodisciplin a muncii i interesului, asigurat de satisfacia cooperrii. Rolul profesorului va consta mai mult n cel de stimulare i dirijare, el trebuie nu numai s organizeze spaiul i activitatea, ci i s participe alturi de studeni la elaborarea cunotinelor; s serveasc drept model n legturile interpersonale i s ncurajeze interaciunile cooperante dintre studeni. 228

n acest context, inovaia prin intermediul noilor tehnologii n nvarea limbilor strine nseamn a cuta strategii mai eficiente de predare dect cele folosite n prezent. Cercetrile realizate n acest domeniu sugereaz ideea c predarea gramaticii i a vocabularului nu snt suficiente i nu conduc la formarea unor competene lingvistice de comunicare profesional n limba englez [1, p. 15]. Din perspectiva predrii comunicative, necesitile i aspiraiile studenilor comunic ntr-un fel sau altul despre calitatea procesului de predare-nvare i accentul se pune pe folosirea limbii n activiti comunicative. n acest context, profesorii trebuie s fie creativi, energici, deschii noilor strategii de predare [2, p. 77]. De obicei, programa analitic prescrie o schem, nvarea ns depinde esenial de interaciunea profesorstudent i de strategiile i activitile didactice aplicate. G. Nagaraj n lucrarea English Language Teaching: Approaches, Methods, Techniques, susine c o program analitic/curriculumul disciplinar cu scop comunicativ va pune pe prim plan studentul, avnd urmtoarele caracteristici: va fi formulat cu scopul de a ajuta studentul s ating competene comunicative, ceea ce nseamn s foloseasc limba corect; inta principal este studentul, profesorul fiind intermediarul ntre cunotinele teoretice i student; curriculumul disciplinar bazat pe comunicare, ceea ce valorific materiale autentice; sarcinile didactice elaborate snt orientate spre un scop; activitile comunicative au scopul de a face studentul fluent i corect n utilizarea limbii-int [6, p. 44]. Considerm c pentru implementarea cu succes a activitilor comunicative, este necesar dezvoltarea curriculumului cu scop comunicativ. n opinia lui D. Nunan, curriculumul este un concept complex i un termen utilizat n mod diferit [8, p. 14], potrivit lui Stenhouse L., acesta include: a) n planificare: principii de selectare a coninutului; principii de dezvoltare a strategiilor de predare; principii de a lua decizii referitor la secven; principii de a diagnostica abilitile studenilor. 229

b) n studiul empiric: principii de studiere i evaluare a progreselor fcute de studeni; principii de studiere i evaluare a progreselor cadrelor didactice universitare; ghiduri de implementare a diferitor curriculumuri. c) n relaia de justificare: formulare inteniei sau scopului curriculumului accesibil n scrutinitatea critic [2, p. 5] . A. Vizental propune obiectivele-cadru ale curriculumului pentru predarea comunicativ: (a) dezvoltarea abilitilor productive i receptive pentru a permite studenilor s decodeze i s produc mesaje, orale i scrise, n dependen de contextul comunicativ; (b) dezvoltarea reprezentrilor culturale i universul afectiv al studentului; (c) dezvoltarea abilitilor de munc intelectual. E necesar s menionm, n acest sens, unul dintre aspectele lingvisticii comunicative i anume, modernizarea tehnologic care prevede: a) nvarea gramaticii n condiiile unei nsuiri afective; b) dualitatea asimilrii fenomenelor gramaticale (contient i incontient) c) specificarea gramaticii implicite, cu o selecie riguroas a materialului ce permite formarea competenelor linguale (precomunicative) fr prea mult teoretizare static; d) flexibilitatea secvenelor de operaionalizare a materialului gramatical, fiecare avnd un obiectiv specific cu o finalitate comun: informativ-intuitiv (modele de text); informativ-contient (comentariu minimal); intuitiv-verbal (formarea abilitilor de utilizare) analitico-contient (analiza aprofundat) contient-verbal (utilizarea n comunicare, formulnd independent contexte verbale); analitico-generalizatoare ( sistematizarea final); creativ-verbal (utilizarea liber n actul comunicativ) [8, p. 108-109]. 230

Predarea comunicativ, spre deosebire de alte strategii de predare, este interpretat diferit de ctre experii n domeniu. Potrivit lui M. Aslam, aceast strategie este rezultatul nemulumirii pe care au exprimat-o profesorii fa de metodele tradiionale de predare a limbilor strine, axate mai degrab pe produs, dect pe procesul de nvare a unei limbi [6, p. 54]. n opinia lui Richards J. C., scopul strategiilor comunicative este de a dezvolta competene de comunicare [7, p. 155]. Avnd n vedere cele relatate mai sus, considerm necesar a apela la teoria limbii ca comunicare, de unde, n opinia lui G. Rickheit, H. Strohner ncepe, de fapt, abordarea comunicativ n predarea unei limbi [2, p. 17], scopul fiind a dezvolta ceea ce D. Hymes (1972) a numit competen comunicativ. Hymes D. a inventat acest termen cu scopul de a face un contrast ntre limb, ca mijloc de comunicare, i teoria competenei dezvoltat de N. Chomsky care susinea c prima preocupare a teoriei lingvisticii este prezena unui ideal emitor-recipient, aflai ntr-o situaie de conversaie absolut omogen, care i cunosc limba perfect i care nu snt afectai de condiiile gramaticale irelevante, precum limita de memorie, distracie, lips de concentrare, interes i greeli [7, p.3]. Pentru N. Chomsky, esena teoriei lingvistice este de a caracteriza abilitile abstracte pe care le posed emitorii, cu ajutorul crora pot s formuleze fraze corecte din punct de vedere gramatical. D. H. Hymes consider steril acest punct de vedere n ceea ce privete lingvistica, susinnd c teoria lingvistic necesit a fi vzut dintr-o perspectiv mult mai larg, unde ar fi vizate att comunicarea, ct i cultura. Teoria lui D. Hymes despre competena comunicativ este o referire la ceea ce ar trebui s cunoasc emitorul pentru a fi competent n actul comunicrii. n opinia lui D. Hymes, o persoan care dobndete competen comunicativ, obine n acelai timp att cunotine, ct i abilitatea de a folosi limba n diferite contexte. Autorul sugereaz c competena lingvistic este numai un component al competenei comunicative. Analiznd opiniile lingvitilor, observm faptul c acetia trateaz diferit teoria limbii, contribuind indirect, la orientarea spre tehnologiile 231

comunicative de predare a limbii engleze. Un alt teoretician, demn de a fi citat pentru punctul su de vedere n ceea ce privete natura comunicativ a limbii, este H. Widdowson care, n lucrarea Teaching Language as Communication, prezint o perspectiv a relaiei dintre sistemele lingvistice i valorile lor comunicative n text i discurs [4, p.78], centrndu-se asupra actului comunicativ i punnd accentul pe abilitatea de a folosi limba n diferite scopuri. Constatm c natura comunicativ a limbii, despre care ne comunic Widdowson H., este o combinaie a teoriei comunicative dezvoltate de N. Chomsky i competena comunicativ a lui D. Hymes. Instruirea comunicativ presupune, evidena tuturor caracteristicilor personalitii prin care se pot crea condiii pentru comunicare: apare motivarea comunicativ, se asigur orientarea scopului comunicrii, se formeaz relaii interpersonale, susine Dm. Patracu [5, p. 302]. Diferena dintre metodele tradiionale de predare-nvare-evaluare a limbilor strine i abordarea comunicativ rezid, n opinia lui J. Harmer (2001), n diferena dintre urmtoarele dou contexte: a nva limba pentru a o folosi i a folosi limba pentru a o nva. F. Boers, Lindstromberg S. (2008) susin c dezvoltarea treptat a vocabularului (care, n opinia lui I. Coteanu . a., nu este nc suficient explorat) n limba strin studiat este partea fundamental a procesului de nvare a unei limbi strine. Cu toate acestea, o perioad lung de timp, vocabularul a fost printre aspectele neglijate n predarea limbilor strine [8 p. 219], fapt care, n opinia lui J. Morgan, M. Rinvolucri, este simit i de ctre studeni [7, p. 5]. Potrivit lui R. Carter (1987), aceast neglijare a fost cauzat de doi factori principali: (1) accentul a fost plasat n mod tradiional pe gramatic, deoarece a fost, deseori, considerat c vocabularul ar putea fi asimilat n mediul lingvistic exprimnd L2 i (2) exist o percepie, precum c raporturile sintactice pot fi eficiente prin intermediul lexicului, dat fiind faptul c aceste raporturi snt teoretic infinite. Prin metoda comunicativ, studenii folosesc limba n comunicarea real, n situaii concrete i astfel o nva, prin metoda tradii232

onal, ns studenii doar acumuleaz cunotine pe care urmeaz s le foloseasc apoi n anumite situaii de comunicare. Comunicarea ntr-o limb strin depinde nu att de cunotinele individului n domeniul limbii respective, ct mai ales de capacitile acestuia de a le utiliza. De subliniat faptul c, ntr-o limb strin, forma oral sau scris, comunicarea e posibil doar dac persoana deine o bun competen comunicativ. Lund n considerare ideile anterior expuse, susinem opinia lui Richards J. potrivit creia predarea comunicativ nu este o metod de predare cu activiti bine stabilite n clas, ci o strategie a fiecrui profesor n parte [2, p.83]. Scopul predrii comunicative este de a echipa studenii cu abilitatea de a comunica [7, p.1], prin urmare ajut studenii s obin competen comunicativ [2, p.69], iar activitile de predare i nvare dureaz atta timp, ct studenii snt implicai n diferite procese comunicative cum ar fi schimbul i negocierea diferitor informaii [id. p76]. n aceast ordine de idei, aderm la punctul de vedere al lui J. Richards & T. Rodgers (2001) referitor la predarea comunicativ, completnd cu punctul de vedere al lui W. Littlewood, care afirm c comunicarea este un mijloc de nvare a unei limbi prin care studenii, incontient, nva regulile gramaticale n practica comunicrii [7, p.1]. J. Richards, T. Rodgers subliniaz faptul c predarea comunicativ, mai degrab dect practicarea competenelor lingvistice, este o modalitate mai bun de a nva o limb strin [8, p.72], implicnd studenii n comunicare. n principiu, profesorul acioneaz ca un facilitator i un participant independent [id., p.77] i toate materialele de predare au, n primul rnd, ca scop promovarea comunicrii [id., p.79], astfel, toate cele patru deprinderi ale cunoaterii unei limbi, snt nvate ntr-un mod integrat. K. Morrow (1977) difereniaz apte trsturi de baz ale situaiei comunicative. Autorul face referire la: (a) comunicarea bazat pe interaciune, (b) imprevizibilitate, (c) context, (d) performan, (e) autenticitate, (d) scop, (e) comportament. 233

Astfel, literatura de domeniu relev o serie de avantaje referitoare la predarea comunicativ a limbii: se axeaz mai mult pe comunicarea sensurilor [7, p.16] i mai puin pe formele lingvistice care urmeaz a fi nvate, prin urmare, se face posibil un transfer de cunotine i abiliti din sala de clas n lumea real (7, p.78-79); prevede practicarea tuturor capacitilor de folosire a unei limbi [7 p.17]; activitile n clas snt adesea concepute s se concentreze asupra sarcinilor de completare care snt dirijate prin intermediul limbajului sau schimbul de informaii, altfel spus, aceste activiti creeaz condiiile n care studentul se angajeaz ntr-o utilizare deliberat a limbii [4, p. 33]; motivaia studenilor pentru nvare este mai stimulat; permite acestora s nvee limba englez n mod natural; poate crea un context ce susine nvarea [7, p.17]. n acelai timp, analiza literaturii de specialitate a permis constatarea anumitor dezavantaje rezultate din predarea comunicativ: n primul rnd, nu este posibil de a simula toate comportamentele comunicative la ore [7, p.79]; o gam larg de funcii ale comunicrii snt nerealizate; nu conteaz ct de autentice snt activitile de comunicare, cele mai multe dintre ele snt departe de situaiile din viaa real; n al doilea rnd, deoarece este prevzut dezvoltarea simultan a celor patru dimensiuni ale cunoaterii unei limbi strine (lectura, scrierea, audierea i vorbirea), rolul profesorului este mai puin dominant n predarea comunicativ, iar, ca rezultat, studenii pot avea dificulti n realizarea sarcinilor didactice. E. Mes consider c principalele dezavantaje ale predrii comunicative snt: (a) poate fi abordat numai de profesori foarte competeni n domeniul limbii engleze; de multe ori exist posibilitatea ca profesorul s nu poat explica un anumit cuvnt sau mbinare de cuvinte, din cauza c nu se permite folosirea limbii materne; (b) pune accent pe comunicarea oral, scrisul i lectura nefiind ndeajuns dezvoltate; (c) metoda nu poate avea succes n cazul n care n aceeai grup exist studeni cu diferite niveluri de cunoatere a limbii strine; (d) nu poate fi folosit pentru nceptori [3, p. 56]. 234

n aceast ordine de idei, remarcm faptul c pn n prezent nu exist o metodologie specific recomandat predrii limbii engleze. Aa cum am demonstrat mai sus, cele mai multe cercetri sugereaz utilizarea unei game largi de strategii. Punctul terminus al cursului trebuie s aib n vedere rspunsuri la ntrebarea cum putem mbunti activitatea? Nu este suficient s constatm, trebuie s mergem mai departe i s dezvoltam demersurile ntreprinse i pe cele viitoare, s mbuntim activitatea, s informm participanii despre rezultatele obinute i ce este de fcut mai departe (programe compensatorii/ programe de progres). Evaluarea este inseparabil legat de proiectare. deoarece, pe de o parte, programul de instruire i educare trebuie s prevad criteriile, indicatorii de performan, instrumentele pentru control i, pe de alt parte, rezultatele evalurii constituie baza relurii procesului instructiv-educativ. Este important stabilirea, nc din faza de proiectare, a tipurilor de efecte urmrite la studeni i contientizarea de ctre acetia a ateptrilor din partea lor, a felului cum vor fi evaluai, a criteriilor de evaluare, fapt care le va stimula motivaia i le va dezvolta competenele de autoevaluare.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Bradea, Livia-Otilia. Integrarea limbilor strine n educaie i instrucie, Cluj-Napoca 2000: 2. Cadru European Comun De Referin Pentru Limbi: nvare, predare, evaluare. Chiinu, Tipografia Central, 2003. 3. Chomsky, N. Current Issues Linguistic Theory. London, 1964. 4. Coles, M.; Oates, T. Cedefop. European reference levels for education and training. An important parameter for promoting credit transfer and mutual trust (study commissioned to the QCA,London). Luxemburg: Office for Official Publication of the European Communities, 2004. 5. Descy, P; Tessaring, M. Cedefop. Training and learning for competence. Second report on vocational trening research in Europe: 235

executive summary. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publication of the European Communities, 2001. 6. Eurropean Commission. Towards a European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning.Commission staff Working Document. Brussels, 2005. 7. Ionescu, Miron, Radu, Ion (coord.). Didactica modern, Ediia a II-a revizuit, Cluj-Napoca, 2001. 8. Pnioar, Ion-Ovidiu. Comunicarea eficient. Metode de interaciune educaional, Iai: Editura Polirom, 2003. 9. Slama-Cazacu, Tatiana. Introducere n psiholingvistic, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1962. 10. Slama-Cazacu, Tatiana. Cercetri asupra comunicrii, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1973.

ENSEIGNEMENT / APPRENTISSAGE DU FRANAIS DE SPECIALIT EN ALBANIE : BILAN ET PERSPECTIVES Eldina NASUFI, Dr., Dpartement de franais Universit de Tirana Silvana VISHKURTI, Dr., Centre des langues trangres Universit polytechnique de Tirana
ABSTRACT:

The reflection about the practices of teaching and learning of the French for specific purposes at the university it is a new domain in Albania. We have to work and motivate a heterogeneous public of students because they have different skills in the foreign language. The French for specific purposes it a common axis of work where everyone can find its self in different ways. In this article we will make a presentation of the teaching of French for specific purposes in Albania and we will explain its characteristics through an example of a project of interregional collaboration.

Introduction
La multiplication des changes et de coopration entre lAlbanie et le reste du monde met en avant la ncessit de connaitre plusieurs langues trangres. Depuis lintroduction du systme de Bologne ainsi que la professionnalisation des enseignements, les demandes en langues en Albanie sorientent vers une approche pragmatique base sur leur utilisation en contexte professionnel. Le rle des langues dans lapprhension des disciplines non linguistiques savre important dans le cadre des pays comme Albanie qui souhaitent rattraper le temps perdu tout dabord par lappropriation des dernires avances des autres pays dans les domaines conomique, social et culturel. Mais louverture du pays envers lextrieur sest accompagne dun changement rapide du rapport des langues au niveau pr- universitaire. Actuellement cest langlais qui est considr comme la premire langue vivante trangre, alors que le franais continue dtre enseign comme deuxime langue obligatoire cot de litalien et de lallemand. 236 237

1. Particularits du FOS en Albanie

Il y a trs peu de lyces techniques en Albanie, donc, les demandes en FOS apparaissent tard, que ce soit au niveau universitaire ou bien, aprs linsertion professionnelle des jeunes dans le monde du travail. Lenseignement du franais dans le cadre universitaire rvle quelques spcificits : Premirement, puisque le public universitaire se manifeste assez htrogne du point de vue de la matrise de la langue, il a t jug utile de procder une mise niveau de leurs connaissances avant de les introduire dans lapprentissage du franais de spcialit. Deuximement, lapprentissage de la langue dans les filires techniques seffectue pendant la premire anne du cycle de la licence. Ainsi, cette situation ne leur donne pas la possibilit de rflchir sur leurs besoins en langue dans le domaine professionnel. Cest la raison pour laquelle les cours de langue constituent en mme temps pour eux une initiation dans le domaine propre de leur spcialit. Troisimement, les enseignants de langues se voient obligs de dispenser leurs cours un public appartenant une grande varit de filires techniques (vingt peu prs) ayant des formations et des demandes assez diffrentes en langues. Ainsi, ils se trouvent dans limpossibilit de sapprofondir dans tous les domaines professionnels desquels viennent les tudiants. Par consquent, il arrive que dans les classes de franais se regroupent des tudiants faisant partie de filires diffrentes. A cette difficult sajoute un volume horaire assez rduit qui ne dpasse pas les 86 heures de cours en classe. Cette contrainte horaire ne permet pas lenseignant de raliser les deux objectifs quil sest fix : combler les lacunes des tudiants en langue tout en les initiant la connaissance des documents de spcialit qui leur seront utiles dans leur profession future. Donc, le niveau des tudiants en langue de mme que la contrainte horaire constituent de grandes entraves un apprentissage efficace de la langue qui tient compte galement de leurs intrts linguistiques aussi bien que professionnels. 238

A partir de cette analyse, nous pouvons conclure que lenseignement du FOS en milieu universitaire sapparente plutt lenseignement du franais de spcialit. De plus, les demandes en formation sont formules dans la majorit des cas par linstitution scolaire et non par les tudiants. De toute faon, les orientations mthodologiques ainsi que les documents proposs visent une initiation au domaine de leur spcialisation, indpendamment de leur niveau en langue. Les comptences les plus travailles sont celles de la comprhension crite et dexpression orale portant sur des documents professionnels. Lintroduction, les dernires annes, des manuels relatifs au franais des affaires a veill leur curiosit sur le mode de fonctionnement de mme que des rgles qui rgissent la communication dans des entreprises.

2. Franais de spcialit versus FOS

Nous pensons que les cours de langues seront attractifs et intressants sauf si lenseignant adapte son enseignement aux besoins des tudiants en langue et leurs intrts professionnels. Cest lenseignant dtre souple et de profiter de cette libert pour encourager les tudiants raliser des progrs en franais tout en lutilisant dans le domaine professionnel. Linstauration dune telle relation pdagogique ne prsuppose pas seulement des tudiants qui savent formuler leurs besoins en langue, mais galement des enseignants qui, par la formation dont ils disposent, sont en tat de rpondre aux demandes de leurs tudiants, qui plus est, de les devancer mme [1, p. 62]
2.1. Attentes des enseignants envers la mise en place des cours de FOS

La majorit des enseignants de franais qui travaillent luniversit ne possdent pas une formation spcifique dans le domaine du FOS, mais sy sont orients soit par vocation personnelle, soit par la pression dun public demandeur dchanges professionnels rels ou virtuels, raliss par le truchement dune langue diffusion internationale, en loccurrence, le franais. Cest pourquoi, la formation de formateurs qui 239

puissent assurer la formation continue des enseignants dans ce domaine demeure une ncessit imprative. Dautre part, la rflexion sur les pratiques de classe doit tre permanente, de manire identifier les rsistances des tudiants face leur objet dtude pour ensuite leur procurer les moyens les plus efficaces et les plus complets de les vaincre. Avant de parler dun travail autonome des tudiants, il faut tout dabord aider les professeurs de langue faire preuve dinitiative et de ralisme dans lapplication des programmes quils se sont fixs. Le fait de doter les enseignants de moyens divers auxquels ils peuvent recourir pour faire constater aux tudiants leurs progrs et les aider tous selon leurs besoins et objectifs maitriser le franais, savre primordial. Lautonomisation du travail denseignant consiste principalement dans le choix des mthodes selon les groupes - classes auxquels ils enseignent et qui ncessitent des dmarches diffrentes de travail. Ainsi, les tudiants de certaines facults sont traditionnellement beaucoup plus faibles que ceux des technologies de linformation et de la communication o vont les meilleurs pas seulement en mathmatiques, mais aussi en langues. Une conception des cours par strates selon le niveau et les exigences des publics vis--vis du franais joue un rle important dans lorientation de mme que la frquentation de cette langue par les tudiants luniversit. Un bon nombre de cours sur cette langue se droulent galement dans le Campus Numrique Franais afin de sensibiliser les tudiants un apprentissage diffrent de la langue o ils combinent la langue, la profession et les recherches sur les nouvelles technologies. Cest une attitude qui deviendra une normalit dans leur futur travail dingnieur et qui leur permettra de comprendre limportance du franais comme moyen de recueil et dactualisation de linformation scientifique dans leur milieu professionnel.
2.2. Renouvellement des cours de FOS par une dmarche projet

comme lAlbanie, la Rpublique de Moldova en collaboration avec des universits franaises Montpellier et Clermont-Ferrand. Ce qui est caractristique pour les deux pays comme le ntre et Moldova, cest quil sagit dun systme ducatif en transition et les professeurs sont obligs tout le temps sadapter des circonstances pas toujours trs favorables pour lenseignement du franais en gnral et par consquent du FOS. Donc il faut proposer sans cesse des contenus qui se superposent et qui amliorent ceux existants dans des contextes qui prsentent les mmes caractristiques et les mmes problmatiques en profitant galement des institutions offrant des programmes consolids et ayant une plus longue exprience dans le domaine abord. Problmatique- combler les insuffisances des tudiants par une changes dexpriences et travail en commun. Le public des tudiants qui vont tirer profit de ce projet, surtout pour les tudiants albanais, devra voir ces cours comme un effort rel de la part du corps professoral de leur dispenser des 11enseignements qui prennent compte une dimension trs importante dsormais de lenseignement des langues, savoir les nouvelles technologies. Cela ne fera que diversifier les moyens daccder plus facilement aux cours de FOS et de rendre plus motivant le travail sur ce sujet. Elments composant le projet; Programmes/formation des enseignants/ rendre les cours de langue attractifs- utilit du franais dans leur profession future. Pendant la ralisation de ce projet les professeurs membres de lquipe et tous ceux qui seront intresss suivre les formations prvues dans les universits du projet, pourront approfondir leurs connaissances et les recherches et devenir ainsi plus attrayants pour leurs tudiants. Lobjectif sera davoir aussi parmi les tudiants une plus grande sensibilisation sur lutilit du franais pour leur profession future.

Objectifs rnovation de lE du/en franais par une collaboration au niveau rgional- mener en avant la reforme dans les universits. Ce projet vise la mutualisation des formations en FOS dans les pays 240

Conclusion
Lvolution du franais de spcialit dans lenseignement suprieur en Albanie est en partie tributaire des actions et initiatives personnelles 241

des professeurs de langues qui ne peuvent pas travailler en solitaire pour raliser leurs objectifs universitaires en langues. Assurer des collaborations des degrs divers qui dpassent le cadre de linstitution et qui stendent sur des partenariats au niveau interuniversitaire, national ou rgional, permet de senrichir par un regard extrieur que cela apporte sur le travail quotidien de chacun nous. Linteraction qui se ralise ces niveaux cre un rythme motivant qui aide simposer aux ralits et sefforcer de les changer.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE CITE ET CONSULTE

CREATIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING READING FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES Evghenia FLoREA, Ph.D., Taras Shevchenko State University, Tiraspol
ABSTRACT

Bourguignon, Claire. Enseigner/apprendre les langues de spcialit laune du Cadre Europen Commun de Rfrence. // Cahiers de lAPLIUT. -2008. -Vol. XXVII N 2.- P.40-48. James A. Coleman. Lvolution du mtier denseignant de langue de spcialit une perspective internationale. // Cahiers de lAPLIUT.2008.-Vol. XXVII N 2.- P. 22-39. Kromidha, Esmeralda. Franais sur objectifs spcifiques: le cas albanais. // Franais sur objectifs spcifiques acquis et perspectives, Bulletin scientifique. -2007-Nr. 4-. -P. 82-88. Moirand, Sophie. Enseigner communiquer en langue trangre.Paris : Hachette, Coll. F, 1990. Stoean Carmen Stefania. La formation lenseignement du franais spcialis en milieu universitaire. // Synergie Roumanie. -2009.- -N 4-, P.59-70.

The aim of teaching students to read texts for specific purposes is to give them the power to acquire thought from a written text. For making students successful readers it is better to provide them with a variety of reading strategies and skills and to teach how to use them in their reading practice. One of the most important tasks for English teachers is to motivate students to improve reading comprehension skills as it requires concentration and good study techniques. It will teach students to read faster and to understand the material they read more exactly. Academic reading is of great educational significance as reading is a means of communication and helps students get useful information they need from printed materials and in accessing Web-based information which is very popular nowadays. Reading develops students intelligence, enriches their knowledge of the world around them and facilitates useful practice in further reading especially the books in their future profession. When the students master a set of reading strategies and skills, they will be able to understand what they read and that reading is not a passive process. R .Oxford defines learning strategies as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, and more transferable to new situations [5: 8]. Especially it may concern the strategies in teaching reading. The problem of the right choice of strategy implies that while reading the students should be able to choose different approaches to a particular situation. Reading is very much an individual process. One of the main problems that a teacher must take into account is the variety of different 243

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Stoean Carmen Stefania. La formation lenseignement du franais spcialis en milieu universitaire. // Synergie Roumanie. -2009.- -N 4-, P.62.

242

perceptions and different ways of completing one and the same task. As there are different types of learners according to the theory of Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligences [7; 3:32], it may be turned to an advantage of using individual approach as one of the educative features at the lessons of a foreign language. In spite of the differences in learning styles and ways, the students use the same strategies in the learning process, though in different situations in different ways and manners. The strategy for a specific task such as, for example, reading implies that the students should be taught not only the facts known from the material for reading but they should be taught effective ways to see and to solve problems. Students should be involved in real true-tolife experiences that may help them in defining and choosing different approaches to particular situations themselves. Creative approach to teaching reading is effective as it teaches students to interact with the material from texts and to bring their own ideas, questions and analyses to their reading. It is also effective for teaching the students to deal with problems and it helps them be progressed in their studies. Besides its very useful to have close ties with the specialists of the specific chairs or departments. They may advise choosing the necessary literature and the material studied at the corresponding stage. It makes them be sure in using their reading skills without anybodys assistance. It provides a foundation so that higher levels of comprehension connected with their future profession may be reached. Such kind of extensive reading is in fact more effective in advancing language skills than even direct classroom instruction [4:37]. Creative approach to reading texts connected with the future profession is motivating and reasonable thanks to combining different subjects within one lesson. This approach has a number of advantages, among them working at specific vocabulary and grammar material, then giving good opportunities for combining knowledge got from the texts in a foreign language and the material learnt from the specific disciplines and subjects. 244

But this approach may have some disadvantages as well. Therefore teachers should keep them in mind as, for example, concentrating on several subject areas at once may weaken the accents on those subjects and make it impossible to go into detail. For this reason, the teachers should not present new material in several subject areas simultaneously, but rather bring that one which must be practiced at a given lesson. The reasons to read in a foreign language should be the same as those for reading in own language for getting new information or for pleasure. Therefore teachers should try to help students learn to read for the general meaning (skimming) or to pick out specific information (scanning). So such training activities as pre-reading, while-reading and postreading are of great importance and help. Pre-reading tasks deal with prediction of an idea of the text on the basis of its title, pictures or commentaries which accompany the text. Reading tasks consist of prediction of the contents of each paragraph in a turn reading only its sentence and defining how it coincides with the idea predicted from the title. Different variants of the contents of the text with corresponding exercises may be proposed. As the post-reading task students derive from all the predictions the most correct one. It is clear and evident that the students use all the knowledge adopted and all the skills formed in order to get desirable result. The best way to check the result achieved is to ask students to find the sentences reflecting the time of the action in the text or the problems which are taken up in the text. There must be developed the skills of reading and skimming quickly for an overview of the material, handling unfamiliar words in context and spotting the key terms of a reading passage. The organization of teaching skimming while reading texts requires working out of a special complex of exercises. As skimming reading is based on singling out from a great number of printed information, unimportant and secondary information must be excluded. While teaching independent reading an important role is played by such exercises which are directed at development of anticipation, 245

understanding of the main idea, singling out of the main and secondary information, and the skill must be formed to see structural - semantic organization of the text. Reading for pleasure (extensive reading) is essential for practicing and applying reading skills and for developing all areas of language skill as well. Many students have never learned to enjoy reading for pleasure (reading extensively) in English, yet everybody knows that to be a good reader, it is necessary to read a lot. However before reading extensively, students must first come to realize the significance of reading extensively, and then the habit of reading regularly for pleasure may be developed. While in-class intensive reading guided by the teacher its reasonable to develop definite skills. To read a text students must possess the ability to grasp the contents of the text. The students must be taught to compare, to contrast, to guess and to foresee the events. Many traditional reading activities mean this approach and in it there lies a difference between extensive and intensive reading. Intensive reading is an activity in which students led by the teacher in a class group carefully read, examine and analyze a text or a short story or other reading material assigned by the teacher. Many traditional reading classes use this approach almost exclusively. Reading is a complex process of language activity and a complicated intellectual work. Reading is not only an aim in itself, it is also a means of learning a foreign language. There are two ways in which reading is used in academic course: learning to read and reading to learn. Not less important strategy to get students to focus on the information of the text is the classroom practice of purposeful reading. Academic reading course includes both reading to learn (emphasizing activities that stress comprehension of the subject matter content) and learning by doing activities that call for utilization of the ideas in the text. Reading to learn strategies deal with the text at hand exclusively and emphasis is given to close reading of a text, often paragraph by paragraph. Learning to read strategies take the student beyond the text. They are commonly found in learning skills literature and on learning skills Web 246

sites. They include finding the main idea. In order to facilitate finding the main idea, prediction activities often precede the act of reading. The goal in reading informational texts is to obtain the main idea which is a strategy used to teach students to read, in other words, learning to read. As a rule students after finishing schools come into our classrooms with widely differing background knowledge and experiences. Very often when working with how to find the main idea and how to identify supporting details, teachers spend more time explaining why a sentence is the main idea and why the supporting details help understand that main idea than they do on focusing on the information of the text. The successful work depends on the material used. In the classroom the teacher needs to be able to predict how the students interpret the text in order to help the students construct the meaning of that text. Reading to learn is students ability to get information from a text and then use that information to complete a task [1]. As to purposeful reading its a strategy used in getting students to access information, in other words, reading to learn. The reading purpose has not only an effect on the comprehension process, but also makes a great effect on the final conclusion that students make when reading. Having a reason to read and understand a text also plays an important role in the readers motivation, interest and manner of reading [4]. It means that reading helps in using the information to accomplish a task of some kind but not only focusing on the information in the text, not only making sense of that information. Together with deciding what information is important to know, teachers must create learning opportunities that allow students to explore these concepts more deeply and fully [1, p.287]. Speaking about purposeful reading a teacher may use and develop some activities by focusing attention on a single question or concept in a series of readings, such as [4]: - more concretely determine if students have understood the text; - observe the students abilities in connecting the information from the text with their future profession; 247

- have the students discuss the various ways the students interpret the text in relation to a single concept, expressing their own attitude and opinion. In short, purposeful reading will focus the students on the pieces of information they need to perform the task presented to them. One of the most important tasks for English teachers is to motivate students to take up the reading habit. Teachers must see that their students understand the great benefits of reading for vocabulary development, spelling improvement, grammatical accuracy, writing and content organization. Students should know that people who read widely are far more apt to excel in their future education. Students must be sure that there is pleasure in reading when exploring the worlds beyond their own experience. Some reading strategies can help students become better readers in English: - before reading look at the title of the text and guess what it is going to be about; - define the overall meaning, general outline and main points in the text; - try to get a general idea of the meaning of the text using any techniques you can; - read the text, often paragraph by paragraph, sometimes taking notes while reading; - read the text more than once; each time you read look for more information; - ask questions based on the headings and looking through the text; - try to focus on understanding the main ideas, not small details even if there many unknown words; - analyze the meaning of the text with the help of the brief notes on the main points moving into discussion activities; - try to use a dictionary as little as possible or only for the most important words. Thus this approach will teach students to read faster and to understand more. And it will provide them with specific reading strategies for being independent and efficient readers in English. 248

Of course both teachers and students must first see the great value in reading. But there are problems to overcome to make reading a reality. There may be a number of reasons for this: lack of motivation, lack of budget for new materials, an overloaded curriculum to cover in class, lack of interest in the text, poor linguistic skills and may be the present electronic games that so easily take youth away from reading. Perhaps the teachers best efforts will only help young people understand the value of habit of reading. The skills needed for reading are a basic acquaintance with the English spelling, sentence patterns and high frequency English vocabulary. The habit requires the skill of processing parts of sentences rather than merely separate words. There must be developed the skills of reading and skimming quickly for an overview of the material, handling unfamiliar words in context and spotting the key terms of a reading passage. While in-class intensive reading guided by the teacher its needed to develop such skills. To read a text students must possess the ability to grasp the contents of the text. The students must be systematically and regularly taught to compare, to contrast, to guess and to foresee the events. Theres another strategy to get students to focus on the information of the text is the classroom practice of purposeful reading. The idea of purposeful reading is connected with the question how to develop a purpose. Purposefulness makes difficult readings more accessible and it gives the students possibility to make films, podcasts and video casts more accessible to them. As a result students are more able and interested to use these classroom materials constructively in the tasks that they are asked to perform. Furthermore, the readings, both short and long, films, podcasts and video casts may be successfully chosen to support the motivating purpose of learning the language. Helping students develop reading comprehension abilities is one of the most important goals in the reading classroom. At the same time, teaching reading comprehension creates some problems. One of them is how to teach reading comprehension skills. The common practice in reading instruction involves teachers asking students to read the text and then checking their understanding using comprehension 249

questions. This standard approach can be very useful if the teacher and the students realize why certain answers to questions are strong and right responses, thus analyzing ways to comprehend the text. However, teachers are often satisfied to review student responses simply as right or wrong answers. In these cases, teachers accept comprehension rather than teaching reading comprehension skills. There are several ways to focus directly on the teaching of comprehension. Comprehension questions can be useful if they lead to a class discussion about what the text means and if information in the text is explored for greater understanding. Strategy training is another way to provide comprehension instruction. Asking students to engage in predicting, clarifying, goal setting, questioning, summarizing, reviewing and noting text organization all done while discussing the meaning of text information will provide effective and real comprehension instruction for students. Theres another practical suggestion that will make the effort more successful. Teachers should not expect the students to understand the main idea of the text after the first reading. That rarely happens. During the process of discussing the contents of the text, students may have to read a text not once, working on the relationships between ideas and details proposing false statements, sorting out some details and then asking if they are true or false. Finally, students may prove why their way of comprehension is clear, simple, effective and acceptable comparing what is true and what is false. Finally, similar activities provide strong foundations for more complex post-reading tasks such as summary writing, storytelling, main idea recall, and integrating information across texts. Integrating this sort of complexity in language classrooms motivates students because they are able to carry out more complex assignments and tasks successfully. When students are given specific directions to do a task for a specific and understandable purpose, they are more actively involved. Active involvement and participation in different activities is important for effective teaching and learning. Sometimes students will have to go back a few times to sort out what they read 250

and find necessary information, they are given a chance to check their understanding, interact with the text multiple times, analyze the relationship between ideas, and put pieces of information together. As a result, they comprehend much more by considering the information at a deeper level. Such work increases motivation for students, as they are engaged in finding multiple levels of meaning within the text. More over, it incorporates higher level thinking skills; students move from literal comprehension towards analysis, interpretation and evaluation. Finally, it teaches useful skills that students can apply in a variety of academic and professional situations, such as when writing course papers or diploma thesis and using specific sources of professional literature in a foreign language. Students skills in reading for specific purposes may be developed by using computer-based reading instructions which accommodate students with different learning styles, abilities and interests. They help students practice different reading skills at the same time. Online instruction has the advantage of combining several technologies such as online forums, online webinars, e-mail, word processing, Internet resources, and language learning Web sites that provide additional activities and opportunities to practice specific reading skills [2:133]. The computer-mediated and internet programs are aimed at informing, teaching, influencing, and entertaining the students. Teaching programs are also aimed at developing reading skills and habits. The students may use an online course with Nicenet (www.nicenet. org) [6]. Nicenet is a free online course management system that can be used for delivering any course material online. It is easy to use and students can access it at any time. Nicenet has the following tools: a) conferencing (online forums); b) Web site link sharing; c) document posting; d) scheduling, and e) personal messages and group e-mails. Prior to online instruction, the students computer literacy skills must be assessed through questions about their ability to use the Microsoft Office programs, Internet, e-mail, chat, and so on. Besides, instructions on how to use certain course tools are posted in the Conferencing section. 251

Initiating online instruction by posting a welcome note in Conferencing and by asking the students to introduce themselves are very helpful. In addition, Web sites related to the reading skills covered in class may be added every week in the Link Sharing section. Exercises that required the students to find the main ideas, identify details, guess word meanings from context and other tasks may be posted. The total number of conferencing messages posted by each student and activeness of participation must be calculated. So, students who use a combination of in-class and online reading instruction make higher results in reading development. The use of online instruction can be a powerful tool for improving students reading skills and attitudes. It raises high level of reading practice. The students enjoy it and believe that it helps them learn. Various techniques may be applied including the use of pictures, even role-plays, word-association activities, text discussion with examining the title, subtitles and other visual support materials for motivating the students to want to read the text. Thus, the ways of teaching creativity while reading in English classes will help develop and stimulate creative thinking in classes of English with students learning for specific purposes and teachers of a foreign language have to bring classes as close to students as possible and try to be creative themselves.
REFERENCES.

SELECTING AND DEVELOPING MATERIALS FOR TEACHING ESP Ana GOREA, PhD, associate professor, Applied Foreign Languages Chair, Academy of Public Administration
ABSTRACT

Predarea Englezei in Scopuri Specifice este un domeniu curent n metodologia predrii limbilor strine, care devine din ce n ce mai popular graie faptului c cunosctorii de limb englez doresc s-i aprofundeze cunotinele pe care deja le posed ntr-un domeniu specific profesional. Cu prere de ru, piaa de carte nu ofer manuale de limb englez n aa domenii nguste de specializare cum ar fi Administrare Public, Relaii Internaionale, Drept Constituional i Drept Administrativ. n asemenea condiii, profesorului i revine sarcina de a selecta, planifica i preda engleza profesional cu maximum beneficiu pentru instruii, astfel fcnd fa provocrilor. Key words: ESP, communicative competence, actional competence, specialized texts.

Introduction
Presently, many people around the world use the English language in their jobs. Their success or failure may depend on their ability to communicate fluently, to read the latest scientific and technical international publications, to correspond by e-mail, in short, to possess proficient language skills. For this reason, the foreign language instruction of the students at university level should be focused and based on the field of their qualification.Teaching in a content-based context, the instructor is faced with several challenges at the top of which is how to find an appropriate balance between the language and the content to be taught. This becomes even more difficult when he/she lacks the necessary teaching materials. 253

1. Alexander P.A., Jetton T.L. Learning from text: A multidimensional and developmental perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 2000. 310 p. 2. Explorations in Second Language Reading. / Edited by Roger Cohen. - TESOL, Inc., 2009. 206 p. 3. Gardner Howard. Five Minds for the Future. / Re-Imagining TESOL, Program Book, TESOLs 44th Annual Convention and Exhibit. Boston, Ma., USA. 2010. 284 p. 4. Krashen Stephen. The Power of Reading, 2-nd ed., Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 2004. - p. 37. 252

ESP textbooks in such narrow specializations as International Relations, Public Administration, Public Management, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Management of Government Information Systems are put at the disposal of the English language teachers from Moldova neither by the local nor the international book market. Confronted by this situation, the ESP instructor is entirely responsible for the curriculum and its implementation. In this paper I would like to share my experience of teaching ESP to adult learners who are highly motivated to practice English as it applies to their professional goals.

Theoretical Background
The methodology of teaching foreign languages, like any other field of human activity is in permanent evolution and practitioners should keep up the pace and adapt to the new advancements. In my opinion, the research which is constantly moving onward depends on the increasing demands and needs of the present-day learners. That is why it is of paramount importance for the instructor to be able to adapt to the new requirements and to face more and more challenges. Today, we cant teach by using the same approaches as several decades ago. But it is a fact that we need to develop the learners communicative competence. A brief summary of the evolution of communicative competence will clearly indicate where the language teaching is placed today. The term communicative competence was introduced by the anthropological linguist Dell Hymes [5] further developed by M. Canale and M. Swain [1] and M. Celce-Murcia [2]. Dell Hymes argued that in addition to linguistic competence, supported by Noam Chomsky [3], the learner also needs socio-linguistic competence, i.e. rules for using language appropriately in context. This marked the start of the communicative approach to language teaching in reaction to grammar translation and audio-lingual approaches. To the linguistic and sociolinguistic competences proposed by D. Hymes, the researchers M. Canale and M. Swain [1] added the strategic competence, i.e. the ability to compensate for problems or deficits in communication and to do various types of planning. Later, they added 254

the discourse competence, the ability to produce and interpret language beyond the sentence level. M. Celce-Murcia et al. [2] added the actional competence, i.e. the ability to comprehend and produce all significant speech acts and speech acts sets to the communicative competence. The actional competence signifies that the learner has knowledge of how to perform speech acts and speech acts sets in the target language involving interactions such as information exchanges, interpersonal exchanges, expressions of opinions and feelings, problems (complaining, blaming, regretting, apologizing, etc.), future scenarios (hopes, goals, promises, predictions, etc.). The changes in the language teaching traditions arise from the learners needs. Today teachers are dealing with a contingent of students that are computer literate, are largely exposed to the English language through such channels as Internet, a multitude of various interesting TV programs, music, YouTube, etc. Naturally, many difficult issues for the teachers in the past are entirely excluded, as nowadays students have the possibility to observe real life language situations that can be watched in their authentic environment. There is no need to lengthy teaching of the core of grammar from simple to complex, to elaborately practice the articulation of sounds, or to give various cultural explanation of how the language is used in different situations by the natives. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages [4] describes that learning a foreign language represents a combination of linguistic, social and pragmatic competence that has been followed not only by the European community but, as publications prove, outside the continent as well. Within this framework, communication is regarded as the ability to use the correct linguistic structures but also in the appropriate contexts. Languages for Specific Purposes are an area of study within the larger area of Applied Linguistics research which overlaps with other fields of linguistic analysis. ESP has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching. It examines the way in which members of particular discourse communities use language varieties 255

(genres) to communicate in their pursuit of common professional or work-related goals. Resulting from the current research of ESP, the highest priority is to give the students the necessary tools for language creative use depending on their professional needs. The textbook writers rapidly accept the new principles of teaching by applying the ideas into practice, where the communicative competence becomes the goal of language teaching in order to develop the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication.

The learners and their needs

In my case, the learners are people of different professions who in their daily activities are faced with the challenge of exchanging information and establishing relations with speakers of other languages. Whatever their cultural background they communicate in English, which is considered to be todays lingua franca of the academic, cultural and professional world. However, intercultural communication means something more than making use of a lingua franca to communicate with other people. The learners have to use English when they communicate on the phone, when they write e-mails, reports or other required papers, when they work on joint international projects, when they have visitors from abroad, shortly in various professional settings. Thus, cultural sensitization and communicative competence in English are two fundamental social needs that have to be emphasized in the course of English for Specific Purposes because in their daily activities the learners practice communication in a fully contextualized way. It is well-known that each learner is different and retrieves information in a different way according to his/her previous experiences, attitude, motivation, cultural and personal background, but also in relation to the instructional context in which teaching/learning takes place. I have to deal not just with adult learners but with highly experienced professionals. They are master degree students qualifying in Public Administration, Management, Management of Government 256

Information Systems, Constitutional and Administrative Law, International Relations, who in their majority have benefitted of general English courses at their work place or had the possibility to spend some time in the English speaking environment. The number of hours differs depending on the type of learning; full time students have 60 direct contact hours and part-time students - 24 hours. The level of their language proficiency is rather high, I would describe it as corresponding to level B2 or C1 (in some cases even C2) of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The teacher is constrained by the fact that in the few hours that h/she has at the disposal should do anything possible to be of utmost use and to build on the students already formed skills. Such issues as motivation, attitude, responsibility which teachers encounter in other educational settings are excluded. The question that arose was what to teach and how to guide the students, so that the English language course promotes learning and is meaningful. The greatest challenge for me was what content to choose from the large variety of topics that they study in various disciplines of their qualification.

Selecting the content

As an ESP teacher I found myself in the situation, when I was expected to produce courses that exactly match the needs of the learners in a very limited time. At the beginning, when I started to teach at the Academy of Public Administration, I was disappointed because of lack of materials to teach from. But in the course of teaching I realized that we dont really need a voluminous textbook filled with lots of topics that are not always related directly to the professional needs of our learners. That is why I started thinking of how to select the content to teach in order to accommodate the learners needs. Another positive thing about this is that from year to year we may have learners with different needs that is why being creative the teacher may adjust the content to the exact needs of the given learners. In order to select the most interesting topics to be included in the short language course, I studied the institutional curriculum of the given 257

categories of learners, the textbook that they study from in their native language and compiled the list of topics. Having decided on the topics, I arranged them so that they come in a logical order. So, for the specialty Constitutional and Administrative Law (the 24 hour course) I included the following topics: Introduction to Law, Sources of Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, the Rule of Law, Constitutional Principles, Independent Judiciary, Court System, Legal Aspects of Administrative law, Common Law, and Rights. For the specialty Management of Government Information Systems (34 hours) I chose the following major topics: Need for Information, Government Information, Information Systems, Information Management, History of Management Information Systems, Management of Information Systems, Information Management Staff, Information Management Challenges, Database Management Systems, Document Management Systems, Sharing of Government Information, Electronic Management Identity and Security, Appropriate Use of Government information. As observed, these are topics that are directly connected with the learners professional interests. For other specialties I did the same thing.

Developing the teaching materials

Considering my students and their needs, it seemed important to me to create a language course, in which meanings could be recognized through tasks, in order to develop awareness about the language. Working on the materials, my purpose was to transform the learners needs into the production of language related to their subject matters. So, I devised courses in which the tasks come out of each other as a continuum necessary to internalize and process language. The next task, I was faced with after deciding on the content to be taught, was how to design each content unit. Here, I had in mind the principles that the activities should involve real communication and that the tasks should be meaningful, because language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. So, the primary concern when making up the activities and thinking about the 258

tasks was that the activities are selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns). The priority at this level of language proficiency for me was that learners acquire the language, rather than learn it. Language acquisition is referred to as unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using language for real communication as described by St. Krashen [6, p. 23], which comes through using language communicatively, rather than through practicing the language skills. At this level students do not concentrate at remembering rules, but on creating utterances during spontaneous language use, i.e. on skill development. This is the level in my learners when they are involved in the automation of grammar rules so that they convert into fluent performance through constant training. The main objectives in developing the materials to be taught in my case were to: Accommodate individual learning needs; Offer the specific ESP terminology; Integrate content in the already existing linguistic competence and view language as a means of expression; Develop an interpersonal relationship for expressing ideas and judgments; Meet the extra-linguistic needs of the target learners. Sample of a unit outline The next step was to decide on the format of a unit to suit the objectives. The format of a typical unit in the developed courses consists of the following: 1) discussion questions, 2) vocabulary, 3) reading and reading comprehension tasks, 4) video fragment on the same topic, 5) individual creative tasks. Discussion questions include tasks that explain the key related concepts of the given topic, enumerate some scientific facts in the field, require expressing personal attitudes and opinions, to comment on a quotation, to list what the learners know or what they have studied 259

on the topic, etc. The aims for the discussion points are: to incite the students interest, to introduce into the topic, to initiate a discussion around the topic, to raise awareness, to elicit information or opinions, etc. Most importantly, the discussion questions represent a stimulus for language acquisition in a free and easy way. The vocabulary section focuses on the essential terms and phrases needed in communication on the topic. Some vocabulary units may already be familiar but they will represent the focus of the unit. The challenge here lies more in the correct pronunciation, than on the familiarity with the notions. So, the vocabulary is listed for learning, reviewing or previewing the content. The vocabulary units are material or activity related and also include collocations of various types (verb object provide access, handle capacities, to observe the law, set objectives; adverb-adjective technologically driven, mutually intelligible; adjective-noun on-request service, pressing demands, etc.), word formation (deliver, delivery; achieve, achievement, achievable), phrasal verbs (set up, shore up), prepositional phrases (to be aware of, to adhere to, to be in charge of). The vocabulary list is followed by various exercises such as: match the word with the definition, true of false, complete the gaps with appropriate words, multiple choice, etc. Reading. The purpose of the texts chosen for reading is to present information on the topic and include the key vocabulary to be practiced in context. The texts are not read or discussed in class. They serve as basis for the following individual task. The purpose of the texts is to activate students prior knowledge on the topics from the disciplines studied in their mother tongue. They will also serve as basis for the exam preparation. In working on the text students should recognize the terms, personalize the text and apply the information to their own work setting, compare and contrast the information contained in the text, which usually describes the situation in English speaking countries, with the situation in Moldova. I urge students to underline the key words defining the described notion, classify information, or make lists, etc. when they read the texts. 260

In choosing the texts I was guided by the following: they should be authentic (taken from specialized textbooks, journals, articles); they should not be long or difficult but to correspond to the proficiency level of the students; they should only serve as an impulse to further use of the language; they should fit into the curriculum; they should help students accurately interpret the meaning; they shouldnt contain many challenges for students (difficult language structures, complex syntax, long paragraphs, etc.); the texts should clearly represent the information and aid students; they should offer intellectual, aesthetical and emotional satisfaction. Video. The video is looked upon as a cultural product that is why the purposes for the video fragments were for the students to listen and observe the non-verbal behavior, to mark the pronunciation and intonation, the way in which the speech is organized and structured, to take notes and, report on what was heard and watched, to summarize, to develop students interpretative abilities, to encourage conversation. In selecting the video materials for the given topic, I was guided by the following: the speaker on the video should be a native, the pronunciation should serve as a model; the presented content should be clear and accurate from the scientific point of view; it should serve as basis for further discussion or completing an individual task. The videos could also serve as an opportunity to brainstorm tasks and activities to be presented to the whole class, to develop learning strategies such as predicting, identifying main idea and supporting details, or serve as an example for personal presentation, etc. Individual tasks require that learners do a variety of creative activities in which they make use of all their linguistic and actional competences. They are tasks mediated through language that require information sharing embedded in what they do in their work at the moment. Here are some examples of such tasks for the students specializing in Management of Government Information Systems: write a paragraph about how you benefitted of information in a given situation; make a presentation on how information is organized, stored and accessed in the department where you work; write an e-mail 261

to your boss to suggest better ways to store or dispose of records; speak about the evolution of computing technology and its impact on human development, etc. Samples of individual tasks for students specializing in Management may be to: write SMART objectives for your company, draw and present the SWOT analysis of the company you work for, speak about the roles and characteristics of a manager that you know, draw the organization chart of the institution in which you work and comment on who is accountable to whom in the given hierarchy, etc. I would like to point out that this activity that takes most of the time in a lesson. The others are included in the unit for linguistic support. The question may arise whether I pay attention to grammar in my lessons. I do only when I detect a problem. I spend the least needed time to remedy the problem and sent to students by e-mail additional exercises that they may practice in their free time. For such learners to focus on grammar there is no need. More important is to develop their speaking and writing skills. Being restricted in time, the units contain none of the usual dialogues, drills, or sentence patterns but get to the point and arm the students with necessary terminological vocabulary, specialized texts and video fragments based on the discussed topic of the unit and which serve as basis for further creative use of language. In the pre-teaching phase, my role is to collect and to organize the resources to meet the set objectives, and when teaching in the classroom, my role is reduced to guiding and facilitating the communication process between all participants in the classroom and the various activities and texts. But in all the phases, the most important role is that of researcher and learner. The carried out work contributed a lot in terms of my own acquiring appropriate knowledge and abilities in the ESP fields, as well as in actually observing my students nature of learning and use of language skills. 262

CONCLUSIONS

Having observed the learners behavior and the acquisition of the language in class I come to the following conclusion: Integration of language and content helps develop students transversal skills and learning strategies needed in the field of their qualification, because mastering of only grammar and phonology results in linguistically accurate but socially dysfunctional oral communication; The elaboration of learner-oriented tasks based on an informative specialized text leads to effective further use of language skills needed in a variety of social situations; Materials and tasks should be created keeping in mind the learners current needs; Well-designed tasks predispose and accelerate the process of creative use of language skills, thus excluding inhibition and overcome communicative anxiety; In accomplishing a task the ESP learner relies on the mother tongue previous familiarity with the discussed in the foreign language notions and builds on the presented information. Concluding, I would like to point out that when we teach in an ESP setting we should remember that language is a medium for learning content and content is a resource for mastering the language. Our task is to select materials and create tasks for classroom use that will incite the interest of the learners in such a way that they will wish to excel in their endeavor of conquering new linguistic knowledge and professional competence.

263

RefeRences

1. Canale M, Swain M. Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1, 1980, pp. 148. 2. Celce-Murcia M, Drnyei Z, Thurrell S. A pedagogical framework for communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. In: Issues in Applied Linguistics 6 (2), 1995, pp. 535. 3. Chomsky Noam Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press. Cambridge, 1965. 4. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre_EN.asp 5. Hymes D. (l972) On communicative competence. In: Pride JB, Holmes J (eds) Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1972, pp 269293. 6. Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Pergamon, Oxford, 1981.

PREDAREA-NVAREA LIMBII ENGLEZE DIN PERSPECTIVA OBIECTIVELOR PEDAGOGICE Adela GUU, lector superior, Catedra de limb englez, Universitatea Pedagogic de Stat Ion Creang
SUMMARY

The aims and objectives of teaching and learning foreign languages cannot be made without considering the needs of the students or society, activities and tasks they must perform and powers or strategies they need to apply or develop to this effect. General objectives guide the English teaching-learning process of students toward training intellectual and communicative, sociolinguistic and instrumental competences. In other words, the skills referred can be viewed as outcomes of English teaching learning process. Scopurile i obiectivele predrii i nvrii limbilor strine nu pot fi formulate fr a se determina nevoile studenilor i ale societii, sarcinile, activitile i operaiile pe care trebuie s le efectueze studenii n vederea satisfacerii acestor nevoi, precum i competenele sau strategiile pe care ei trebuie s le aplice sau s le dezvolte n acest scop. De aici este clar c utilizatorii Cadrului European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi vor examina i determina cu precizie, n funcie de caz, locul rezervat sarcinilor, activitilor i strategiilor n programa lor de predare/nvare a limbii [1, p. 118]. Cercettorul Vl. Pslaru susine c studiul limbii ofer ample deschideri formrii unei personaliti libere n baza obiectivelor educaionale specifice, care indic performanele ce urmeaz a fi atinse de ctre studeni n dezvoltarea lor comunicativ i care s satisfac trebuinele de dezvoltare a studenilor i nu acumularea de informaii despre sistemele limbii [2, p. 277]. Obiectivele generale orienteaz procesul de predarenvare a 265

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limbii engleze la studeni spre formarea competenelor intelectuale i comunicative, sociolingvistice i instrumentale. Cu alte cuvinte, competenele numite pot fi privite ca finaliti ale procesului de predarenvare a limbii engleze. Procesul de nvaretransmitere de cunotine de limbi strine nu reprezint dou procese diferite. Ele snt intr-o relaie interdependent. Este o interaciune continu ntre profesori i studeni, ntre cel ce transmite mesajul i ntre cel care-l primete i decodific, iar o activitate educaional poate fi considerat ca modern n raport cu sarcinile pe care i le propune, n funcie de cile i mijloacele prin care se realizeaz. Obiectivul unei activiti de nvare moderne este acela de a angaja studentul ntr-un mod activ, n transmiterea informaiilor. O or de curs, n care se utilizeaz o tehnic nou, nu este neaprat modern. Ca sa fie modern, lecia se cuvine s aib un coninut adecvat, riguros tiinific, organizat de pe poziiile unei orientri interdisciplinare, cu obiective bine stabilite. n ceea ce privete stabilirea obiectivelor generale trebuie avute n vedere, conform teoriei elaborate de W. Rivers [3, p. 340], 6 clase. Acestea sunt: 1) dezvoltarea puterii intelectuale a studenilor prin studiul limbii strine (valoare formativ); 2) creterea interesului studenilor pentru cultura rii a crei limb o studiaz (de asemenea valoare formativ); 3) nelegerea funciilor limbii i contientizarea studenilor cu privire la mecanismele de funcionare a limbii strine; 4) nvarea studenilor de a citi ntr-o limb strin i a o nelege, a o decodifica. Dei cititul a fost neglijat sau s-a trecut prea repede i uor peste aceast competen, ea este totui una important; 5) a-l face pe student s neleag mai bine viaa, cultura, obiceiurile i tradiiile poporului a crui limb o studiaz; 6) asigurarea studentului cu procedee i metode care s-l fac s comunice oral i n scris cu un vorbitor nativ. Dei n programele noastre obiectivul primordial este cel de-al aselea, toate snt importante. Pentru realizarea obiectivelor, profesorul 266

trebuie ct mai mult posibil s cunoasc particularitile de vrst, nevoile i interesele celor care studiaz limba strin. Analiza dezvoltrii strategiilor didactice de predarenvare a limbilor strine (engleze) ne-a permis s deducem urmtoarele prevederi ca temeiuri de proiectare a unor strategii didactice interactive n cadrul cercetrii date: nvarea limbilor strine are un caracter activ i interactiv; Studierea gramaticii se realizeaz n plan funcional; nvarea limbilor strine se axeaz pe formarea competenelor comunicative; Crearea situaiilor motivaionale apare drept component obligatorie a oricrei strategii didactice de predarenvare a limbilor strine. Este tiut faptul c vorbirii i se atribuie sensul unui mod de formare i formulare a gndului personal, care depinde de urmtorii factori: specificul individualitii vorbitorului; condiiile comunicrii (raporturile de rol); caracterul comunicrii (cui este adresat gndul). Observm c vorbirea este condiionat de comunicare, limba i vorbirea fiind mijloace i condiii ale comunicrii. Scopul nvrii unei limbi strine, n opinia lui . ubin, este de a stpni o activitate tehnica comunicrii sau tehnica schimbului de informaie, indiferent de faptul dac snt acumulate cunotine despre limb ca o sum de fenomene. nvarea limbii presupune nvarea activitii comunicative n limba dat. Pentru realizarea cu succes a obiectivelor trasate, se impune crearea urmtoarelor condiii: [4, p. 7] amplificarea permanent a orientrii comunicative n cadrul leciilor de limb englez; pregtirea psihologic a studenilor pentru vorbire, care permite la maximum s intre n rol, mobiliznd prin aceasta toate aspectele activitii psihice; sporirea rolului studenilor la controlul vorbirii colegilor i la autocorectarea deficienelor de vorbire. Remarcm c nu exist o prere comun n elaborarea unor tipuri specifice de exerciii n predarea unei limbi strine prin citirea textului. 267

Cercettorii n domeniu menioneaz exerciii care vizeaz dezvoltarea competenei cognitive i de comunicare. Prin urmare, la fiecare or de limba englez e necesar un nceput pe care l dirijeaz obiectivele. Strategiile de predare nvare, n acest context, joac un rol primordial. Ele contribuie la operaionalizarea obiectivelor i maturizarea psihologic a studenilor. S-a demonstrat c procesul de nvmnt este un sistem deschis de autoreglare. n acest aspect, se asociaz procesul de nvmnt cu noiuni ca sistem organizat, cunoaterea noiunilor elementare, predarea principiilor generale ale tiinei sau, n sfrit, reflectarea structurii elementare a unei anumite discipline tiinifice. Pedagogia are ca obiect de studiu educaia, n cadrul creia, desigur, instruirea ocup un loc important. Vom observa ns c educaia nu poate fi redus ntotdeauna la activiti simple, precum memorarea sau formarea unor deprinderi intelectuale, ea vizeaz, atunci cnd este privit din punctul de vedere al unei trepte de nvmnt, formarea unor deprinderi i competene, adic profesionalizarea, n opinia lui F. Oran [5, p.88]. n nelegerea actual a educaiei este necesar ca orice subiect s acioneze raional, s priveasc real spaiul aciunilor sale i s selecteze atent resursele pentru realizarea obiectivelor. ntr-un proces de predare nvare sau n orice proces de predarenvare, coexist mai multe tipuri de obiective, n mod expres trei: 1) coninutul unui program de nvmnt; 2) dezvoltarea capacitilor intelectuale; 3) formarea de atitudini ambele perspective. Dezvoltat de numeroi autori i aplicat n cele mai diverse domenii, teoriile existente n domeniul nvrii limbii engleze i-a demonstrat eficiena att n ceea ce privete explicarea structurii i funcionalitii unei activiti, ct i n structurarea unor modele ideale de activitate i, n consecin, n luarea unor decizii adecvate de ameliorare a unui tip de activitate. Din aceast perspectiv, orice fenomen sau activitate, prezentnd o structur relativ complex, poate fi considerat un sistem care funcioneaz ca urmare a elementelor care l compun i care se manifest prin interaciunea acestor elemente componente. 268

Unul dintre cele mai importante criterii pentru definirea i ordonarea strategiilor l constituie gradul de dirijare sau de autonomie conferit studenilor n procesul nvrii. Din acest punct de vedere, strategiile se nscriu pe un continuum de la nvarea riguros precis, controlat de profesor, la nvarea prin descoperire, trecnd prin diferite forme intermediare de predare i nvare. n cadrul de referin, care trateaz chestiunile ce in de nvarea, predarea competenelor n domeniul limbilor strine, care se vrea transparent, coerent trebuie s se bazeze i s reflecte o viziune de ansamblu cu privire la utilizarea i nvarea limbilor. Se constat, de asemenea, c predarea limbilor ar trebui s aib ca rol autodirijarea celor care nva, care const n a-i nva s nvee limbile independent, dezvoltnd o atitudine reflexiv n raport cu modul studenilor de a nva, cu ceea ce tiu i cu necesitile lor, s ajute studenii s menin motivarea pentru limb i pentru limbi, consider J. Beacco [6, p.65]. Astfel, pentru a exemplifica i a concretiza cele menionate, subliniem faptul c afectivitatea are i ea o funcie informaional, care determin direcia activitii, orienteaz atitudinea prin semnalizarea i anticiparea intelectual a gradului de energie, de efort solicitat n actul de satisfacere i echilibrare a individualitii vizavi de o sarcin sau situaie / problem. Iat de ce profesorul trebuie s utilizeze cu suplee categoriile taxonomice ale fiecrui domeniu, s ierarhizeze i s relaioneze n chip logic obiectivele operaionale, s contientizeze faptul c fiecare obiectiv cognitiv are i o component afectiv, motivaional i atitudinal, dup cum diferite substructuri afective, diferite motive, interese, atitudini valori, convingeri etc. au i componente intelectuale. n contextul analitic abordat, aderm la opinia privind necesitatea analizei multifuncionale a obiectivelor de nvare a limbii engleze, realizat prin aplicarea unor criterii variate asupra aceluiai obiectiv i integrarea tipurilor principale n structuri ierarhice, pe baza principiilor menionate n paginile anterioare. De asemenea, vom considera util pentru activitatea concret a profesorilor, remarca potrivit creia 269

clasificrile snt gndite ca scheme elastice, care se acomodeaz la structura particular a obiectelor de nvmnt, precum i tendina i experiena deja dobndit de a elabora scheme clasificatoare proprii diferitor discipline colare, pornind de la taxonomiile existente, adaptate n chip flexibil. n acest context este important deplasarea investigaiilor n direcia relevrii unor implicaii ale obiectivelor pedagogice asupra conceperii i desfurrii activitii didactice [5, p.12]. Aplicabilitatea, adic potenialitatea practic a operaionalizrii obiectivelor, solicit fiecrui cadru didactic analiza acestora, prioritar sau din perspectiva instruirii, sau din perspectiv psihologic, urmrind permanent interdependena celor dou perspective la nivelul corelaiilor funcionale dintre competene. I. Radu consider c aceasta este util pentru activitatea concret a profesorilor taxonomiile fiind gndite ca scheme elastice care se acomodeaz la structura particular a obiectivelor de nvmnt [7, p. 91]. Astfel pot fi identificate obiectivele concrete / operaionale n contextul propriu fiecrei taxonomii n variante apropiate de cele pe care le sugerm n continuare: 1. Obiective definite prioritar din perspectiva instruirii n procesul de nvare a limbii engleze consemneaz: a) obiective de stpnire a materiei (date, reguli, fapte, locuri etc.); obiective de transfer operaional (disciplinare, intradisciplinar, transdisciplinar); obiective de exprimare (n rezolvarea unor probleme sau situaii-probleme de comunicare, creaii, compuneri, compoziii); b) obiective care vizeaz dobndirea unor: competene intelectuale (a identifica, a clasifica, a seleciona anumite fenomene lingvistice); strategii cognitive (a sesiza, a rezolva, a crea - probleme, situaii problem); informaii logice (a defini, a enuna, a raporta, a relaiona, a corela); deprinderi psihomotorii (a executa o aciune verbal); atitudini cognitive / fa de cunoatere i de nvare (a alege o anumit cale de cunoatere / bazat pe memorie, gndire convergent-divergent, raionament inductiv-deductiv-analogic, inteligen general-special, creativitate general-special). 270

2. Obiective definite prioritar din perspectiv atitudinal: a) obiective cognitive: cunoatere (a defini, a recunoate, a distinge) nelegere (a redefini, a reorganiza, a explica, a demonstra, a interpreta fenomene lingvistice, verbale-comunicative) aplicare (a aplica, a utiliza, a alege), analiz (a identifica, a deduce), sintez (a generaliza, a deriva, a sintetiza, a formula sintetic opinii, preri, viziuni), evaluare critic (a valida, a decide, a argumenta, a emite judeci de valoare / a evalua critic, conform unor criterii de maxim rigurozitate); b) obiective afective: receptare (a diferenia, a accepta afectiv valorile lingvistice ale limbii studiate) reacie (a rspunde, a aproba, a susine afectiv), valorizare (a argumenta, a dezbate, a specifica, a susine sau a protesta - afectiv), organizare (a armoniza, a organiza afectiv), caracterizare (a aprecia, a dirija, a schimba, a rezolva, a colabora, a rezista afectiv); c) obiective psihomotorii: percepere (a percepe o micare), dispoziii (a avea dispoziie fizic i psihic pentru realizarea unei activiti de vorbire etc.). Motivaia privind studierea i posedarea limbii engleze este generat, susine G. Grdinari, de anumite condiii de ordin afectiv, care determin necesitatea cognitiv-comunicativ, valoarea educativ a coninutului didactic i activitatea personal a studentului.Formarea motivelor cognitive-instructive este legat de organizarea corect a activitilor didactice. Se are n vedere aici modalitatea de orientare a studentului n achiziionarea limbajului i consolidarea scopului profesional pe care el l urmrete. Dup cum observm, abordarea domeniului cognitiv se constituie drept un cadru de referin care este aplicabil la structura particular a disciplinelor de nvmnt. A proiecta obiectivele educaionale n spiritul acestei idei nseamn a lua n considerare att dimensiunea informativ a educaiei, ct i pe cea formativ i a specifica comportamente cognitive adecvate pentru fiecare clas de obiective verbale-comunicative. Un rol important l are i domeniul afectiv, elaborat de D. Krathwohl, ce adopt drept criteriu de clasificare interiorizarea. El distinge ntre 271

cinci clase de obiective, care marcheaz etape posibile n asimilarea i practicarea unei valori [7, p. 127]: a) receptarea informaiei lingvistice i verbale; b) reacia (studentul caut, simte satisfacie n raport cu aceste informaii); c) valorizarea (studentul le preuiete, le prefer); d) organizarea (studentul le conceptualizeaz, le sedimenteaz); e) caracterizarea (verbalizarea informaiei l definete pe student, i exprim personalitatea). Cu toate c exist multiple dificulti n privina aplicrii acestor orientri la coninutul disciplinei de nvmnt, concluzia unanim acceptat este aceea c obiectivele pot servi la sensibilizarea profesorilor fa de diversitatea actelor de comportament posibile n domeniile cognitiv, afectiv i psihomotor i c ele ne sugereaz mijloacele (itemii testelor) cu ajutorul crora pot fi msurate actele respective. n nelegerea actual a educaiei, orice subiect trebuie s acioneze raional, s priveasc real spaiul aciunilor sale i s selecteze atent resursele pentru realizarea obiectivelor. n acest context, proiectarea pe uniti de nvare are urmtoarele caracteristici: - constituie un cadru complementar de realizare a proiectrii, nenlocuind proiectul de lecie, putnd fiina ca modalitate suplimentar de proiectare curricular ce se poate adecva unor situaii specifice de nvare; - presupune o viziune asamblist, integralist, unitar asupra coninuturilor care urmeaz s se edifice plenar n actul de predarenvare-evaluare; - reprezint o matrice procedural ce permite ntr-o msur mai mare integrarea, corelarea unor ipostaze didactice modeme (metode, resurse, mijloace); - constituie o incitare pentru profesor, implicndu-l creativ n raportarea elementele curriculare. A operaionaliza obiectivele nseamn a le formula n termeni comportamentali, care exprim ceea ce trebuie s fac sau s realizeze studentul la sfritul unei secvene de instruire n etapele i operaiile date. (Tabelul 1) 272

Etapele proiectrii didactice ETAPELE

Tabelul 1

OPERAIILE nainte de a face orice altceva, stabilii ct mai concret cu putin ce va ti i ce va ti s fac studentul la sfritul activitii Precizarea Verificai dac ceea ce ai stabilit este n consens cu obiectivelor recomandrile curriculumului Verificai dac ceea ce ai stabilit este realizabil n timpul disponibil Analizai i selectai coninutul nvrii Analizai i organizai n secvene de reper competenele Analiza de nvare a studenilor resurselor Analizai resursele materiale disponibile Alegei metodele de nvmnt potrivite Alegei materialele didactice necesare Alegei mijloacele de nvmnt de care avei nevoie Elaborarea Combinai metodele, materialele i mijloacele n strategii strategiei didactice fixate pe obiective operaionale Imaginai n ntregime scenariul desfurrii activitii didactice Elaborarea sistemului Elaborai sistemul de evaluare a instruirii (testul formativ, de evaluare evaluarea calitii i eficienei activitii) a activitii Necesitatea proiectrii pe uniti de nvare a fost dat i de faptul c noile programe universitare nu mai snt programe analitice, adic nu mai prezint o descriere detaliat a coninuturilor i a numrului de ore alocat fiecrui coninut. De asemenea, nu prevede n mod strict ore/ lecii introductive, de predare, de evaluare etc. Coninuturile actualei programe permit intervenia mai mare a profesorului n structurarea 273

acestora i n adaptarea lor la particularitile studenilor cu care lucreaz. Acest fapt face ca i responsabilitatea profesorului fa de actul didactic s creasc. n aceste condiii, profesorul trebuie s aib o viziune de ansamblu asupra ntregului curriculum alocat unui an de studiu. El trebuie s identifice unele teme majore, n jurul crora s organizeze coninuturile predrii. Spre deosebire de proiectarea tradiional centrat pe lecie, proiectarea pe uniti de nvare are mai multe avantaje: - creeaz un mediu de nvare coerent, n care ateptrile studenilor devin clare pe termen mediu i lung; - implic studenii n proiecte personale de nvare, pe termen mediu i lung; - implic profesorul ntr-un proiect didactic pe termen mediu i lung; - d perspectiv leciilor, printr-o relaie nelinear ntre ele, situndu-le n secvene diferite ale unitii de nvare. Astfel, lecia devine o component operaional pe termen scurt a unitii de nvare. Problema structurrii i operaionalizrii obiectivelor pedagogice n sistemul de nvmnt curricular a devenit prioritar n teoria i practica instruirii moderne. La predare-nvare obiectivele devin obligatorii, de o necesitate a asigurrii competenei i reuitei studenilor. Operaionalizarea riguroas i corect a obiectivelor educaionale este posibil dac: a) finalitile generale ale procesului educaional n ansamblul su vor fi suficient precizate de profesor; b) obiectivele generale (transdisciplinare) ale instruirii vor fi corect stabilite n raport cu finalitile pregtirii unui specialist modern de profil, care ai vrea s v nvee; c) obiectivele curriculumului specializat (disciplinar) vor fi concordate cu concepia disciplinei, obiectivele-cadru i de referin, cu coninuturile didactice, cu activitile de predare-nvare i cercetare. 274

Sistemul de operaionalizare a obiectivelor operaionale solicit un mare efort la nceputul instruirii. Cu timpul, ns, se transform ntr-o competen intelectual care va reduce substanial ntregul efort mintal de proiectare didactic. Astfel, raiunea procesului de nvare, a interaciunii dintre profesorstudentelev, n situaia limbilor strine, competenelor de comunicare n limba englez i profesionale, const n a produce schimbri favorabile n mentalitile, atitudinile i comportamentele interlocutorilor, de a forma i a dezvolta creativ personalitatea studenilor. Motivaia fiind clar, este limpede c posedarea limbilor strine poate fi rodul numai a unei activiti lingvistice contiente, intensive. Deoarece fiecare studiu i are un obiectiv bine precizat, trebuie s stabilim foarte clar, care este direcia, domeniul spre care vrem s ne orientm cunotinele noastre de limbi strine. O limb strin o cunoatem, de fapt, de abia atunci cnd o putem folosi; prin folosire numai cunotinele noastre devin eficiente. Foarte des s-a pus problema corectitudinii limbii utilizate de cei ce nva. n aceast privin, n ultimul timp se constat o atmosfer mai relaxat, mai tolerant, avertizndu-se c cei ce sufer de frica de a grei cu greu vor nva, cci indispensabil este numai claritatea exprimrii, pe cnd corectitudinea este de dorit. Succes poate avea nvarea numai cnd este consecvent, struitoare, constant. Prin consecven, perseveren este determinat jumtate din succesul nvrii. Predarea-nvarea limbii strine a fost n mod tradiional prins ntre dorina de a crea o imagine a universitii prin exprimarea ntr-o limb de larg circulaie i ntre nevoia de a pstra propria aplicabilitate a operaionalizrii obiectivelor pedagogice.

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REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

Comitetul Director pentru Educaie, 2003, p. 118. 2. Vl. Pslaru, Principiul pozitiv al educaiei. Studii i eseuri pedagogic, Civitas, Chiinu, 2003, p. 277. 3. W. Rivers, Teaching Foreign Language Skills, University Press, Chicago, 2010. p. 340. 4. .. , , , , 1972, . 7. 5. F. Oran, de la pedagogie la tiinele educaei. Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Galai, 2007, pp. 88, 12. 6. J. C. Beacco, M. Byram, Ghid pentru elaborarea politicilor lingvistice educative n Europa. Consiliul Europei: Diviziunea pentru politici lingvistice, 2003. p. 65. 7. I. Radu, L. Ezechil, Didactica teoria instruirii, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2006, pp. 91, 127.

1. Cadrul European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi, Strasbourg:

HOW TO DEAL WITH CIVIL ENGINEERING TRANSLATIONS Ionela IoNIIU, asis.univ.dr. Universitatea Ovidius, Constana Cristina Mihaela ZAMFIR, asis.univ.dr. Universitatea Ovidius, Constana
ABSTRACT

Traducerea unui text tehnic este un proces complex din punct de vedere lingvistic i cultural. Ca rezultat direct al fenomenului de globalizare, nvarea limbilor strine devine o necesitate pentru numeroase categorii socio-profesionale. Articolul analizeaz diverse strategii i tehnici de traducere directe sau oblice (ex. calcul lingvistic, mprumutul, adaptarea, echivalena etc.) pe care le exploatm i exersm n timpul procesului de predare-nvare a limbii engleze. Articolul este, totodat, un experiment care reflect nu numai utilitatea dicionarelor i glosarelor de specialitate, dar i atitudinea studenilor implicai vis--vis de aceste mijloace metodologice. Rezultatele acestui experiment reflect att avantajele utilizrii acestor tehnici precum mbogirea vocabularului de specialitate i promovarea bilingvismului, ct i dezavantajele acestora precum ambiguitatea lexical i structural. Key words: borrowing, calque, adaptation, lexical ambiguity, structural ambiguity. Technical translation or research in language for specific purposes (LSP) has been considered for a long time as a field of the exact sciences. Any message within a technical or scientific discourse field includes both subject-relevant information and some implicit references to the cultural background of the person speaking. Scientific and technical knowledge has always been regarded as a commodity throughout history and the communication of this information through translation has played a tremendous role in development of both human

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civilisations and the advance of science and technology. However, not until the last 100 years or so has the full force of translation been brought to bear on the transfer of scientific knowledge. In fact, since the turn of the century science has become increasingly dependent on the translator for its development. If we consider only physics, medicine or chemistry could the scientists have the same huge impact they had if their writings hadnt been translated? Dealing with texts is central to our personal and professional experience. We read fiction and non-fiction, newspaper articles, manuals for electrical appliances, package inserts for medications, we surf the Internet. And we usually do not even notice that these texts are translations. We only notice when they are bad. Good translations read as if they were original texts. Thats what makes them professional. Translating a technical text is an intellectually demanding process. In a nutshell, this is what happens: translators detach themselves form the surface features of the text, capture the meaning of the text to be translated and re-formulate it. This involves taking into account the expectations, knowledge base and cultural background of their potential readers. Technical translation is usually intended for specialized technical audiences (engineers, technicians, programmers). Thats why the technical translations should be highly understandable. Optimally, the translator will be educated in the subject matter, or at least highly familiar with the technology and its terminology. One of the common complaints made by readers of technical documentation is that the material is not written clearly. A poor technical translation can lead to system failure, or at the very least a lot of frustration on part of the reader. Therefore technical translations require the skills of a professional who is specialized in the subject document. Many technical translators are former engineers, lawyers and scientists. But technical knowledge is not enough, though. Outstanding language and writing skills are needed to enable the translator to convey technical content from one language into another in a clear and precise manner. 278

One of the great myths of technical translation is that it is all about specialized terminology. It isnt that surprising really because it is one of the first things that strikes most people when they look at a technical text. But is it really such a problem? One say that terminology accounts for a mere 5-10% of a typical technical text. Traditionally speaking, translators have only been interested in terminology but unless youre actually a terminologist, to reduce technical translation down to the level of a purely terminological issue is downright blinkered and misses the point completely. This approach, however, had a huge impact on supporting the hypothesis that technical translation is a mechanical activity that anyone with a grasp of two languages can do. Moreover, if you ask any experienced technical translator theyll probably tell you that its not technical terms themselves that cause most problems, but the way those terms fit into sentences that cause the problems. To tell the truth, depending on the subject area and the language pair you are working with, specialized terminology is sometimes (though not always) the easiest part of a text to translate. Differently stated, its the things in a text that arent terminology-related that pose the greatest challenges. Nevertheless, there are two real issues at stake here. The first one is the tendency to become obsessed with the specialized terminology in a text which is perfectly understandable to a certain extent, particularly in the case of trainee translators or if you are less familiar with the subject area you are concerned with. When training to become a translator it is sometimes easy to become fixated on finding the best specialized dictionaries or glossaries because you might think those specialized terms are a great challenge. Subsequently, this leads to the second point which is where should people go to find terminology. Some would tell us to look in a dictionary. With technology, for example, evolving so quickly new terms are emerging while others fall out of use and traditional dictionaries cannot be manufactured quickly enough to be completely up-to-date and somehow the expected result is that dictionaries will 279

contain words which are never used while omitting new terms which are used frequently and you can never be sure which of the possible words suggested by a dictionary is the right one. In the absence of detailed contextual information, using a dictionary can sometimes turn into a lottery. Therefore I advise my students to forget about dictionaries, as they should be treated just a last resort and that instead of searching for the ultimate specialized dictionary, they should find reliable parallel texts which contain technical terms, which is always much more useful because you get the translation as well as the collocation and other stylistic information. As we all know, a good translation is not usually just a question of translating each word in turn of the source text into the target language. Nor does it (often) consist, however, of the translators ability of skimming through the source text, putting it aside and then jotting down the general idea of it in his or her own words in the target language. In between the two extremes there is a wide variety of techniques or strategies, which translators will use more or less intuitively for any given text. Some say that the more tools the translator has, the better he or she is prepared to generate an accurate and idiomatic text in the target language. Translation techniques, which are countless, were condensed to just seven in an increasing order of complexity. The direct translation techniques, namely borrowing, calque and literal translation, are used when structural and conceptual elements of the source language can be transported into the target language, whereas the oblique translation techniques, namely transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation, are used when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language cannot be directly transported without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistic elements of the target language. Oblique translation techniques require that the translators have an in-depth knowledge of both languages involved in the translation process. For instance, transposition requires that the translators know that it is possible to replace a word category in the target language without altering the 280

meaning of the source text. Modulation, which is perhaps the most complex of all the techniques, requires that the translators know the mechanics of both source and target languages as well as their respective inherent qualities. Through modulation, the translator generates a change in the point of view of the message without altering meaning and without generating a sense of awkwardness in the reader of target text. Modulation is often used within a same language. For instance, the expressions it is not difficult to show and it is easy to show are examples of modulation. They both convey the same meaning although they do not have the same stylistic value. This type of change of point of view in a message is what makes a reader say: Yes, this is exactly how we say it in our language. The basic approach to academic training for translators seem to remain unchanged from the time of the School of Scribes in ancient Egypt. Student translators are given short texts to translate, then their translations are evaluated by teachers, and finally the translations are discussed in great depth and detail among all the students in the class and the teacher. Variations occur in the length of the assignment, though 500 or 1000 words per week seems to be average, the subject matter in the assignment, including but not necessarily limited to business, financial, legal, medical, computer-related, civil engineering or political material, and the direction of the translation, with some programs requiring students to translate both into and out of their native language, while others choose to have students translate exclusively into their native language. In essence, translation training then consists of giving students plenty of time to do very short translation assignments, then analyzing those assignments in every last detail, and ultimately discussing the nature of their work, with an extreme focus on student errors. In other words, students get to make mistakes that have no ramifications in their professional careers, and presumably they learn from their mistakes, as well as acquiring familiarity with terminology and various kinds of source materials. 281

As a teacher I spend a lot of time correcting student translations, and I encounter many errors that result form both comprehension and production problems. For the most part, the comprehension errors result form a lack of understanding of the subject field, rather than a lack of understanding of the foreign language. A considerable number of production errors also occur, mainly, to a lack of competence in the specialized target language. Personally, I have encouraged my students to do some background reading in order to become familiar with the subject field before starting the translation as it will help them increase their understanding of the subject field and thereby make fewer errors resulting from lack of subject comprehension. Popular science texts and magazines are sometimes helpful in providing explanations of key words or concepts in a given field. Specialized publications including books, textbooks, journals, manuals and papers -, can be valuable sources of specific technical information. It is worth nothing that specialized dictionaries are generally easy to find; however, a common drawback is that concepts are often treated in isolation and it is difficult for a non-expert student to draw out the implicit relations between them in order to get an overview of the subject field as a whole. When choosing participants for my experiment, I had several criteria in mind: 1. To try to improve the quality of students translations. 2. The participants should not be entirely novice, but rather should be familiar with the basic principles of translations. 3. Because the experiment is not intended to help students improve their foreign language skills, I wanted to make sure that the participants already had a reasonably good grasp of the source language (in this case, English), hoping that this would minimize the number of errors caused by linguistic comprehension problems. 4. The participants should feel comfortable with the general subject area, but should not be true experts on the specific subject matter of the text. 282

Similarly, when choosing the texts for translation I had several criteria in mind: 1. The texts should treat a subject field that falls within both our general area of interest and expertise, and also that of the students (as described above). 2. The texts should be specialized, but not highly technical because the participants are students and not professional translators. Because I was relying on the good will of the students who volunteered their time to participate, I felt the texts should cover a subject coherently without exceeding 500 words in length. Bearing in mind these criteria, I choose two extracts form an article on cement which appeared in the Romanian magazine Misiunea Casa in January 2007. This is a popular magazine so although its contents are specialized, they are not highly technical. The first text (113 words) was a description of the way Elastocem operates. The second text (159 words) contained a brief description of a new building material and a discussion about the advantages of this new material. I felt these texts were suitable because they dealt with a general area with which the students were comfortable and familiar (i.e. building materials), but it was not a subject that they had dealt with specifically in either of their classes, so the concepts, terms and discourse style would not be immediately familiar to them, and therefore I anticipated that they would have to make use of the resources provided (lexicographic resources such as Oxford English Dictionary and three specialized dictionaries and glossaries relating to building materials). The source texts used in the experiment are listed below: 1. Elastocem este un produs bicomponent: componenta A: amestec de pulberi de ciment, materiale inerte selecionate i aditivi hidrosolubili specifici; componenta B: polimeri sintetici n dispersie apoas. Utilizri ale Elastocem: a). hidroizolarea pardoselilor interioare din beton, ap sau zidrii interioare pe care se monteaz apoi placaje ceramica sau acoperiri PVC; b). impermeabilizarea interiorului ba283

zinelor i rezervoarelor de ap, a teraselor, balcoanelor, piscinelor nainte de placarea lor cu gresie, faian sau piatr natural; c) protecia prin pcluire fa de agenii agresivi din atmosfer a structurilor elastice din beton armat, care snt expuse riscului de microfisurare la ncrcare i a tencuielilor i betoanelor care prezint fisuri datorate contraciilor de ntrire. Odat cu trecerea timpului v vei convinge c banii nu vor fi cheltuii n zadar i c v vei recupera investiia. Ca i dumneavoastr, constructorii au interesul de a folosi materiale de cea mai bun calitate. Primele consecine favorabile din punct de vedere financiar sunt un consum mai mic de mortar pentru mbinare i economie de material la tencuieli. n plus, banii pe care i economisii pot fi utilizai pentru alte etape de antier. n cazul compartimentrilor interioare nu sunt necesare ziduri mai mari de 15-20 cm, ns atenie la izolarea fonic a camerelor. Probabil c nu dorii s auzii ce se ntmpl n camera de alturi. 2. Imaginai-v c gunoiul se poate transforma n case noi. Un inginer constructor din Marea Britanie, Dr. John Forth, a inventat un material de construcii, alctuit, n cea mai mare parte, din deeuri care sunt refolosite: zgur de furnal, sticl reciclat, cenu i reziduuri din evile de canalizare. Deeurile sunt presate n blocuri paralelipipedice, denumite de ctre inventatorul lor Bitublocks. Acestea vor revoluiona industria construciilor; potrivit inginerului Forth. Bitublocks, sunt de ase ori mai rezistente dect bolarii de beton tradiionali, fabricarea lor necesitnd mai puin energie. Substana care asigur liantul dintre materialele componente este bitumul, care ajut la compactarea i obinerea blocului. Bitublockul devine mai dur dect betonul. Acest proces permite utilizarea unei proporii mai mari de deeuri n locul cimentului sau al cleiului. Potrivit estimrilor, noul material de construcii poate utiliza aproximativ 400.000 de tone de sticl pisat i 500.000 de tone de cenu n fiecare an. Planurile inventatorului se ndreapt ctre crearea unui Vegeblock, utiliznd doar reziduuri vegetale. 284

For the purpose of this experiment, all students were translating out of thier native language (Romanian) into their foreign language (English). They were given 30 minutes to translate each text and they were also asked to comment on the usefulness of the monolingual resources they had at their disposal. Translations were assessed for the following broad categories of errors: 1). comprehension errors, specifically errors resulting from a lack of comprehension of the subject field; 2). production errors including choice of terms, nonidiomatic constructions, grammatical errors and incorrect register. In the first text, most of the students had difficulty grasping one of the concepts: protecia prin pcluire, fa de agenii agresivi din atmosfer a structurilor elastice din beton armat which should be logically translated: protection against aggressive atmospheric agents by plastering elastic reinforced structures. Proposed translations of the sentence sounded like: 1). protection through plastering from aggressive agents of elastic structures from reinforced concrete. 2). protection by plastering against the aggressive agents from atmosphere of the elastic structures of reinforced concrete. A number of general trends came to light during the analysis of the data. I noticed that for each of the five categories of errors, the students using specialized dictionaries made fewer total errors. For three of the categories, namely subject field comprehension, term choice and nonidiomatic construction, the improvements were reasonably significant. For the remaining two categories, grammatical error and incorrect register, the improvements were marginal. With regard to grammatical error, the majority of errors made by students seemed to result from word order, rather than from a lack of information. When dealing with the second text, students encountered several unknown, technical terms which without support might have turned into subject field comprehension errors; for instance the Romanian terms zgur de furnal, deeuri i cenu were translated cinders (which applies to sport field), garbage an dashes instead of furnace slag, waste disposal material and clinker. 285

In addition to doing the translation using conventional resources, the students were asked to comment on the usefulness of these tools. There were some feelings of dissatisfaction regarding the information provided by conventional resources. The most common frustration was the type of information the students were looking for was not found in these resources. Some of the students complained that they didnt find the monolingual dictionaries very useful in this situation because they didnt really provide them with the specialized terms relating to cements or bitublocks. The only information they provided was a very basic and broad definition of the concepts. Others argued that they didnt find the specialized dictionaries very useful for this type of exercise. Some of the words they looked up were not listed (e.g. pcluire) or the information was insufficient. Fewer agreed that the technical dictionaries werent of great assistance as the terms were either very broad of very technical (like the engineering dictionary). Those students who did find the dictionary useful indicated that it was helpful in the following ways: the concordances were useful for determining the exact sense of a particular word regarding the subjects of cements, considering they dont know much about them. Some found the concordances useful for helping them decide on an appropriate term (e.g. hydroinsulating as an equivalent for hidroizolare). Other students found the frequency information very useful for helping them choose two possible terms (e.g. adhesive vs. glue) whereas others found the dictionary useful as a means of verifying or confirming that a term did in fact exist or that it was being used correctly.

The results of this experiment showed a general trend towards improved quality translation for the categories of subject-field understanding, correct term choice and idiomatic expression. Although there was no significant improvement in the categories of grammatical error and incorrect register, I was happy to notice that they didnt contribute to a decline in performance either. I hope to eventually expand this study to include experiments involving other text types on various subject fields.
REFERENCES:

Concluding remarks
On the whole, this experiment appears to have been successful in supporting my hypothesis that specialized lexicographic resources can be a useful means for students translating into foreign languages. Students using a dictionary have access to a greater amount of data, which they can interrogate more easily. 286

ARNOLD, D., BALKAN, L., HUMPHREYS, R. L., MEIJER, S. & SADLER, L., Machine Translation: An Introductory Guide, Blackwell/NCC, London, 1994. Online at:http://clwww.essex.ac.uk/MTbook/ or http://clwww.essex.ac.uk/MTbook/HTML/. BAKER, M., In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, London, Routledge, 1992. BRUMFIT, C.J & JOHMSON, K., The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching, Oxford University Press, 1979. CATFORD, J.C., A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Oxford University Press, 1965. FAWCETT, P., Translation and Language: Linguistic Theories Explained, Manchester: St Jerome, 1997. FOLKART, B., A Thing Bound Approach to the Practice and Teaching of Technical Translation, Meta, 29 (3), pp. 229-246, 1984. HAMER, J., The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, 1991. HUTCHINS, W.J & SOMERS, H.L., An Introduction to Machine Translation, Academic Press, London, 1992. MCALESTER, G., Teaching Translation into a Foreign Language Status, Scope and Aims-, in C. Dollerup and A. Loddegaard (Eds), Teaching and Interpreting: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, pp. 291-297, 1992. 287

NEWMARK, P., A Textbook of Translation, New York, PrenticeHall, 1988. SCRIVENER, J., Learning and Teaching, Heinemann, 1994. SYKES, J.B., Chapter 3: The Intellectual Tools Employed, in C. Picken (Ed), The Translators Handbook, (2nd ed.), London, Aslib, pp. 35-41, 1989. TRAHAN, W.E., Translation and Interpretation Techniques as Tools for Advanced Language Study, ADFL Bulletin, 1978.

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TERMINOLOGICAL, GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL DIFFICULTIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES dumitru MELENCIUC, Assistant professor, English Philology Chair, Moldova State University
ABSTRACT

Chaque fois quon se trouve ltape dune recherche il est une question de bon choix de mthode afin que le rsultat soit fiable et bien vrifiable. Les tudiants ayant opt pour lapprentissage des langues modernes se rendent souvent compte du fait quentre les langues trangres et celle maternelle il y a des ressemblances et des divergences faciles ou difficiles tre observes mais qui peuvent faciliter ou rendre plus difficile le processus dapprentissage de la langue respective. Il est dsirable de crer de condition de recherche sur des sujets concrets pour que les tudiants puissent saisir eux-mmes la spcificit de chaque langue en le comparant aux autres. The metalinguistic units used in the process of teaching/learning grammatical categories and put forward by linguists should be analyzed, to make it easier for students and teachers to clearly understand the material on the subject. We compare terms and often find a discrepancy in denoting particular categories and in the naming of concepts. Thus, the terms continuous, durative, progressive, imperfective, imperfect, dynamic, expanded, extended aspect, etc. are in many cases regarded as synonyms. A clear distinction should be made to distinguish categories from grammatical, and categorial forms. We should clarify whether the terms denote the same object or they are used to indicate that a grammatical form may express several categorial forms. We might replace the term continuous/non continuous aspect in English with perfective vs. imperfective, but the term perfective is used to indicate a categorial form of aspect, while perfect denotes anteriority, and then the system is less convincing than the opposition of continuous/non295

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continuous. Taking the opposition of perfect aspect vs. progressive aspect in the example He had been reading his book for two hours before I came back, we should explain that we cannot have two aspectual categorial forms expressed simultaneously a finished and an unfinished action! Perfect here expresses grammatical anteriority supported and intensified by the lexical anteriority marker before. Anteriority is the main meaning of all the perfect forms. A finished action can be expressed both by perfect and non-perfect forms: I have written a letter and I wrote a letter to him. Both actions are finished. Perfect forms in the oblique mood do not always express anteriority: He said he would have come earlier yesterday if he had known; El a spus c ar fi venit (venea) mai devreme ieri, dac ar fi tiut (s fi tiut, dac tia). Here we have an action in the past not connected with the present moment. The past perfect form in the indicative mood is polysemantic: it expresses an anterior action to a moment or action on the axis of time, or an anterior action in the future from a moment in the past in clauses of time and condition. In Romanian condiionalul and optativul are expressed by homonymous forms. In grammar books they are given as one categorial unit: condiional-optativul. Their meanings can be expressed by several grammatical forms (imperfectul modal, conjunctivul), which are polyfunctional and formally belong to different moods. Grammatical forms can be polysemantic, synonymous, homonymous and antonymous. [12, 85-91] Thus, conjunctivul in Romanian can express lexical and grammatical supposition, necessity, order, command, insistence: He might have been there. El ar fi putut s fie acolo. I insist (order) that he should be present. Eu insist (ordon) ca el s fie prezent.. Condiionalul and optativul in Romanian are expressed by several synonymous polyfunctional forms: If I had had time I (should) would have come to help you yesterday - Dac aveam timp, veneam s te ajut ieri; (imperfectul modal in both cases); Dac a fi avut timp a fi venit s te ajut ieri; (optative, conditional); S fi avut timp a fi venit (veneam) s te ajut ieri (conjunctivul in the secondary clause). In the given example had had time expresses a simple past action not anterior to another actio and it is homonymous to had had time used to express anteriority 296

to real and unreal actions in the future and past. [12, 92-100] Past conditional (perfect form) in English has several homonymous forms: suppositional mood (in the first person), future perfect in the past indicative mood, the modals should and would plus perfect infinitive. For example: He would have come, but he had no time; I should have read the book but I could not find it; I should have come earlier; He promised that he would have come before the beginning of the meeting. There are different interpretations of mood and modality, often attention is paid either to the form or to content without taking into consideration the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy; grammatical, lexical-grammatical, lexical means of expressing the corresponding categorial forms of mood. More compact systems of two or three categorial forms (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) usually combine under one term several meanings. The term subjunctive in some grammar books embrace the forms of subjunctive I (Long live the queen! I insist that you be here in time), subjunctive II (If I were you; If I had had time yesterday.), suppositional (I insist that he should be present at the conference), which express completely different categorial meanings. The forms of present potential in Romanian (voi fi cntnd, s fi cntnd, ar fi cntnd, a fi cntnd, etc. used in colloquial style.) can express durative aspectual: 1) Se spune, c el ar fi avnd multe lucruri interesante; Dac el ar fi avnd aceast carte, l-a ruga s mi-o mprumute. The forms of prezumtivul or potenialul prezent in Romanian have much in common with those available in the indicative mood in the earlier Romanian and identical with the continuous aspectual forms used in English, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, Lets take some examples from the History of Moldovan Grammar, by prof. V.Marin (Chisinau, 1970), quoting sources of XVII-XIX centuries [9] and proving the fact that we deal with various categorial forms of mood in the continuous aspect. For example: Era ca oile rtcindu. Au fost avndu prieteug mare cu Ptru Vod. [9, 36,123] Erau trecnd printr-o pdure mare i deas.; Au fost dormind la bisearica lui svetin Benedict. [9, 83] i era mergndu i apropiindu-m ctre Damascu, ntru ameadz... [9 ,90] martorului tu nsumi era stndu[ 9 ,91] 297

The durative action here produces a stronger metasemiotic effect on the reader or listener than the imperfect forms. Various durative constructions in Romanian, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese are subservient to the lexical and lexical-grammatical aspectual means and are used in emotional speech for expressivity and emphasis in actions developing in time, intensified by the interaction with lexical and suprasyntactic prosodic means. Thus, in the Spanish expressive discourse the continuous forms are often preferred: Estoy hablando (I am talking). Estoy mirando (I am looking at) estas revistas. Juan est comiendo (Juan is eating). Mara est escribiendo una carta (Mary is writing a letter). Los pasajeros estarn llegando (are arriving) a su destino. Ayer estuve repasando (I was revising) la gramtica. Hemos estado nadando (We have been swimmingfor thrww houra; notm de 3 ore) tres horas. Maana estar trabajando (I will be working) todo el da en la biblioteca. [19, 222-224] In Italian: Marcovaldo stava portando a spasso la famiglia.( At that time Marcovaldo was getting out for a walk with his family. Pietro sta leggendo un libro.( Peter is reading a book.) [21, 167] The continuous forms are often accompanied by lexical durative intensifiers like todo el dia interacting with the lexical continuous meanings of the verbs. In Romanian these examples are expressed by imperfectul, constructions with gerunziu or contextual and lexical durative means. The Portuguese construction estar+gerundio also expresses a continuous action: Eu estou estudando na Universidade. (I am studying at the University); Ele estava lendo quando ela me chamou. (He was reading when she called me); Amanha estaremos preparando toda a documentacao. (Tomorrow we shall be preparing the documentation.) [20, 324] In Spanish, Italian and Portuguese there are other constructions with gerundio expressing aspectual duration. Lexical and grammatical duration in French and German is expressed by imperfect forms, constructions with present participle, grondif and lexical means: He represented for her the reality of things. His conscious was echoing Fleurs comment on Anna Bergfelds letter. Sa conscience rptait lcho des commentaires de Fleur la lettre de Annie Bergfeld. Contiina i repeta ecoul comentariilor lui Fleur la scrisoarea Anei 298

Bergfeld. [12, 134] The French imparfait is rendered regularly into English by continuous forms and by past indefinite with lexical duration, though the former are more expressive than the latter. In German, the absence of the continuous forms is compensated by Imperfect and constructions with Partizip Prsens, which normally express a durative aspectual meaning. Er kam lachend die Treppe herunter. He came laughing down the staircase. El venea rznd njos pe scar Er erreichte schwimmend das andere Ufer. He reached the other bank swimming. A ajuns inotnd la cellalt mal. [17, 76] Thus, the confrontation of metalanguistic systems and grammatical forms disclosed phenomena of polysemy, homonymy and synonymy that should be taken into consideration in teaching and learning a foreign language. Categorial transposition is attested in both English and Romanian. Regulation and simplification of redundant grammatical forms is observed in both languages. The abridged terminology as a sociolinguistic factor. The increased productivity of abbreviations and shortenings is caused by the high tempo of development of the human society and the need to express compactly the constantly growing volume of information. The acronyms, initialisms, in general, and other abridged units (fusions, clippings, etc.), in particular, have an impressing development in all the fields of human activity and gradually come into usage in all the languages of the world. The evolution of acronyms in various functional styles often is accompanied by a metasemiotic even humorous usage of compressed units. Names of institutions, organizations, etc. are purposely chosen to sound more attractive and produce an emotional impact on people. The subjective character in creating new abbreviations is increasing in the fields of science, politics, economy and various social life activities, especially in internet communication. If in printed dictionaries in 1990ties there were up to 400 000 abbreviations, at present in internet we observe an unusual process of compiling huge dictionaries of acronyms and abbreviations in general from 500 000 up to 4 million entities! A multitude of blogs invite internet users to contribute with new acronyms and especially with bachronyms.[23] 299

More and more elegant, fashionable and super compressed units come into being, jovial, euphonic, recognizable in form, related to some well-known names, that would make the new appellation superior, attractive, interesting and people would get eager to know more of the object or phenomenon in question. In advertising, names of companies, organizations, associations, programs, projects may intentionally correspond to well-known historical persons, constellations, continents, cities, deities, social-political movements, etc, which would make the appellation more attractive and bring success. The subjective character in the formation of metaphorical acronyms, expressing ameliorative connotations are used in advertising, economy, politics, science, military field, social activity, etc. The huge number of new technical terms in most fields of science and technology are assimilated, and people get familiar with them, much more rapidly in highly developed societies, where people have the knowledge and money to learn the latest inventions, wonders of the new technologies, scientific discoveries, machine and devices to be used in everyday activity. Double compression abbreviations is a very good example of discourse economy. Laser in about 500 word combinations may be and is often re-abridged. Thus, in Acronyms and Initialisms Dictionary [2] we find: LIF - Laser Interference Filter; LFL - Laser Flash Lamp; LID - Laser Intrusion Detection; LIED -Laser Initiating Explosion Devise. In other dictionaries we can find some more (16): LMI - Laser Microfilming, Inc., LVIS - Laser View data Information Service. Thus, the acronym laser here is further compressed as a component part of new abbreviated lexical units. The new terms can be abbreviated to initialisms, including acronyms, in various publications. In the internet Nato Textbook ([27] we find 68 abbreviations with letter N representing the acronym NATO, like in SNLC Senior NATO Logisticians Conference;. In some examples there even 2 compressed abbreviations. STC SHAPE Technical Centre Centrul tehnic SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe); NACMO NATO ACCS (Air Command and Control System) Management Organisation; NAPMA NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) Programme 300

Management Agency, [27] In FACES (FORTRAN Automatic Code Evaluation System), FOS (FORTRAN Operating System), FRUGAL (Frugal) (FORTRAN Rules Used as General Applications) we discover that F is the abbreviation of FORTRAN/Fortran which is a blending of formulation translation. While in case of INFOR (Information Network and File Organization; Information-Oriented Language; Information Processing and Operational Research; Institut for Nyttinggorade and Forsknings Resultat; Interactive FORTRAN) - in the last combination FORTRAN is represented not by F, but by FOR. All possible hybrids are found in the language: CoSIRA (Council for Small Industries in Rural Areas). In PIPs (Project Information Packages) the plural number was preserved in Packages. While in PLANES (Programmed Language-based Enquiry System) Language-based is reduced only to LAN a clipping in order to get a specific acronym.. [16] Most of the acronyms are created to resemble a certain existing linguistic unit for the reader to identify it, express some metasemiotic connotations, making it more attractive. The creation of abbreviated units and their metalanguage, the compiling of numerous dictionaries in the domain are part of a continuous social and linguistic phenomenon. Homonymous combinations. Analyzing the Internet (and most voluminous) Acronym Dictionary we discover an unexpected high number of homonyms of many abridged units: AA 3396 definitions, AB 3195, ABE 318; AC -6701, 27 ACRONYM definitions, ACROSS 21, ACRA 205, ACT 2223, ADA - 956, BABA 187, CAN -867, CAP 3143, CAT 2044, CATS 1180; LAB 340, CIA 98, DA 917, DIG -26, LASER - 137, LASE 58, MP 592, SAC -290. RAPID -32, POD 105, POM 77, POP 107, ORION -7, etc. [23] LB may correspond to: laser beacon, laser beam, laser blanking, laser bomb, laser bonding, laser burst. [12] The intentional use terms is found in many abbreviations, some of the elements are left aside to get an acronym identical to a given name. Metaphorical homonymy is flourishing in all the functional styles of the English language and this is being borrowed into other languages, including the method of formation of humorous slang backronyms, etc. 301

There are plenty of acronyms homonymous to the existing units. They may be intentionally chosen in order to compress information and form certain emotional associations. The homonymy of abbreviations, and especially of acronyms, is incredibly high. Some of them have more than seven hundred and more homonyms and many of them are used to provoke either positive or negative connotations. According to Wikipedia a backronym or bacronym is a phrase constructed purposely to form a desired word. They may be invented with serious or humorous intent, or may be a type of false or folk etymology. Taboo words are also used to form acronyms. The term is a portmanteau or a blending and defined as a reverse acronym.[25] False acronyms are also created. Thus, the distress signal SOS is believed to be an abbreviation for Save Our Ship or Save Our Souls, Survivors On Ship, Swim Or Sink, Stop Other Signals. But it was chosen because of the simple Morse code representation: three dots, three dashes, then three more dots. [25] Many, companies or their products, may be the target of multiple humorous backronyms: thus, Ford (the car company founded by Henry Ford) may stand for First On Race Day (positive impressions) and Fix Or Repair Daily and Found On Road, Dead by people not pleased with the product.[25] In the Internet Russian language sites we find humorous backronyms made up by Russian speakers: - ; ( ) 1. ; 2. !; - ; - .[24] Slang abbreviations can be expressed by the combination of figures and letters and there are units expressed by combining some other signs existing in the language. As to acronyms which are witty and humorous, they have been made up and placed in internet sites or blogs by really creative people. Useful lists and even dictionaries are available in the net to be enjoyed and contributions from all the visitors are accepted. That is why enthusiastic people managed to create a specific acronymic and backronymic metalanguage that gradually may be accepted by the official printed dictionaries of 302

abbreviations. Here we find 41 abridged lexical units of ACRONYM and ACROMYMS: A Clever Re-Organization Nudges Your Memory; A Comical Reduction Of Nomenclature Yielding Meaning; A Company Reaching Out to New Youthful Markets; A Completely Random Order Never Yields Meaning; A Concise Recollection Of Nomenclature Yielding Mnemonics; A Concise Reduction Obliquely Naming Your Meaning; A Contrived Reduction Of Nomenclature Yielding Mnemonics; A Contrived Reduction Of Nomenclature Yielding Mostly nonsense; A Crazy Reminder Of Names You Misplaced; A Cross Reference Of Notes Yielding Messages, etc.[23] Having analyzed quite a number of online abbreviations we have to mention the fact that most internet blogs and dictionaries use and accumulate abridged units belonging mostly to the colloquial stylistic layer, corresponding to various social contexts. Lets take some slang examples: AEAP - As Early As Possible, AFAIC - As Far As Im Concerned; AFAICS - As Far As I Can See; AFAICTAs Far As I Can Tell; AFAIK- As Far As I Know; AFAIR- As Far As I Remember;ASAP As Soon As Possible; BABY- Being Annoyed By You; BEG- Big Evil Grin; HAK- Hugs And Kisses; HAND- Have a Nice Day; HAR Hit And Run; NATO - No Action, Talk Only; WAD Without A Doubt;NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization - compare with NATO in Normal Army Tea Order (white with 2 sugars); NOTB None of Their Business; Stab Stupid Territorial Army Bastard. Offensive; AOB alcohol on board; FOS found on street (unidentified dead homeless person); GOK - God Only Knows; HONDA - Hypertensive, Obese, Non-compliant, Diabetic African-American.[26] We have analyzed a number of colloquial abbreviations which are not classified as offensive slang and having quite a specific emotional connotation. Many of them are not found in the official printed dictionaries, but they exist in the Internet communication used by a considerable number of people and we should study the given metalinguistic system as part of a continuous communication process. We discover discrepancies in the metalanguage, interpretations and classifications of certain lexical, grammatical or lexicalgrammatical phenomena. We should confront different terminological 303

systems and try to explain the difference in meanings of the terms to make it easier for students to better understand the material on the subject. It is well known that one of the main stumbling blocks in rational categorization is the lack of a firmly established relationship between the actual phenomena and their names. The specific language of lexical categories cannot be taken for granted and metalinguistic work cannot be regarded as merely making an inventory of terms. It is mainly a question of discovering whether there is any real difference in the various approaches and theories, or whether it is purely a terminologic difference, mere conventions on this level. Often the very approach to categorization may be untenable in the sense that the researcher fails to keep clearly apart the object of analysis and the metalanguage - the words and expressions used when people talk about the object language. We often find a large number of different terminological units and we must compare those systems and try to understand why the terms were introduced. [14, p.104] If we compare all possible abbreviated lexical units we discover to our amazement that only in English there exist various approaches and interpretations in defining a variety of lexemes used in the field, like for example, shortenings, curtailings, abridgment, abridgement, contractions, telescopoing, shortenings, to telescope, abbreviate, curtail, shorten, contract, blend, blendings, fusion, adhesion abbreviations, acronyms, initialisms, abridged words, brachionymy and brachiology are occasionally used (brachi- means short), cutting-down, shorten. [10]. Some of the terms are used to denote exactly the same thing and some others differ. It is not a question of choosing between this or that term, but the question of approach to categorization. Various approaches bring to different meanings of some of the terms and serve as a source of confusion for the students of the English language. Most of the terms are part of the international vocabulary in the result of the process of globalization borrowing. A great number of units are being constantly created and entering the usage: Cf. the French apocope, apherese , truncation, siglaison, (acronymy) acronymie, mot-valise, port-manteau, initialisme, - all of them in scientific sources 304

are united in the generic term abbreviation. Lately linguists have often used the term brachionyme. In French the terms brachiology, brachiographie (Brachiographie term of Greek origin registered in 1835), brachionymie, brachionyme are actively used. [4, 109]. The meaning of brahiologie in Romanian has a narrower meaning than in French, the language it was borrowed from. In Romanian brahi- is also mainly used in the field of medicine, for example: brahial, brahicefal, brahicefalie, brahipod. Most of these terms have been borrowed from French. [4, 109]. The fact that the new terms brachiology, brachiographie, brachionymie, brachionyme become more popular in French can be proved by the fact that they are found in more and more linguistic publications. Let us give some examples. A. Ceas in his work Brachiographie et oralit (1990) quoting from Marie T. Cabre Terminologie et traduction [5, 145-156] gave an exhaustive explanation of the given term. On the other hand the Canadian linguist Marie T. Cabre remarks the notional area of reduction of lexemes, giving a formula: sigles-initialism-acronyms-abbreviations. The scholar considers the abbreviation as a particular case of reducing the volume of a lexeme. The author states the need to renovate the exiting terminology.[4] Lexicographic sources express an ambiguous attitude towards the introduction of terms in the linguistic usage. On the other hand the linguists have started to use the new term not only in French but even in some other languages. Le Dictionaire de la langue francais de Pierre Robert (1994) mentions the term brachiologie [14, 1842). A generalizing term like brachiologie in French should help avoid the phenomenon of homonymy, polysemy we come across so often. The creation of abbreviated units and their metalinguage, the compiling of numerous dictionaries in the domain are part of continuous social and linguistic phenomenon. Their existence is due to the important function they have in communication in globalization process. The increased productivity of abbreviations and shortenings, both in formal and informal styles, is caused by the accelerating tempo of development of the human society and the need to express concisely a permanently increasing amount of information. 305

REFERENCES:

1. ABBYY Lingvo 10, 2004 ABBYY Software Ltd. 2. Acronyms and Initialisms Dictionary- Michigan, 1998 3. Bauer L. English Word-Formation - Cambridge, 1984 4. Cabre Marie T. Terminologie, theorie, methode et applications Quebec, Canada, 1998. 5. Ceas A. Brachiographie et oralite. Paris, 1990. 6. Crystal. David An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages. - London 1992 7. Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne. Univers encyclopedic. Bucureti, 1996. 8. Dictionaire de la langue francais. - Paris, 2004 (Grand Robert 8 volumes). 9. Marin V.Z. Gramatica istoric a limbii moldoveneti. Lumina. Chiinu, 1970. 10. Melenciuc D., Zbant Ludmila, Oxana Constantinescu. Peculiarities of Acronyms and. 11. Melenciuc D., Macarov O. The Process of Acronymisation in Modern English. Chiinu, A USM, 2005. 12. Melenciuc D. Comparativistics. Chiinu, CEP USM, 2003. 13. Multilingual Electronic Dictionary, Version 10. 14. Robert Pierre. Le Dictionaire de la langue francais. - Paris, 1994. 15. Sawoniak, Henryk. New International Dictionary of Acronyms in Library and Information Science and Related Fields. - Munchen; London; New York; Paris, 1976 16..Sawoniak, Henryk, Maria Witt. New Intemational Dictionary of Acronyms in Library and Information science and related fields / Mnchen; London; New York; Paris; Saur, 2d Ed.. 1988. 17. Savin Eilia. Gramatica limbii germane. - Bucureti, Editura Maina de scris, 1996. 18. ., E. . - Mo, 1963. 19. ... . - Mo 1990. 306

20. ., . . - : , 1984. 21. Ka ., T. . , 1981. 22 E., A., . . - Mo, , 1988. 23. Acronym Geek - Largest Database of Acronyms and Abbreviations http://www.acronymgeek.com/ 24. http://itaka.stv.ru/wiki/ 25. Backronym - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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TEACHING ADOLESCENTS THROUGH WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION olga MoRoZAN, magistru, doctorand, Catedra de limbi strine, Institutul de tiine ale Educaiei, ACCELS
ABSTRACT:

As far as the adolescents represent the age group to use the Internet most frequently, the educational process might adopt a new approach, the one of Web-based Instruction in which students will be able to acquire new knowledge and develop new competences in English by performing the content tasks such as developing and implementing online projects, creating digital books, poems, posters, etc. in a particular academic content, but only using online tools. To this extend, the web tools encourage students creativity, innovation, critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, communication, collaboration, and digital competence. Web-based instruction (WBI) can be viewed as an innovative approach for delivering instruction to a remote audience, using the Web as the medium. According to Smith and Ragan [12], Instruction is the delivery of information and activities that facilitate learners attainment of intended, specific learning goals, and the medium is the physical means by which the instructional message is communicated. Designing and delivering instruction on the Web requires analysis and investigation of how to use the Webs potential in concert with instructional design principles. The following definition of WBI incorporates the issues raised above: Web-based instruction (WBI) is a hypermedia-based instructional program which utilizes the attributes and resources of the World Wide Web to create meaningful learning environment where learning is fostered and supported. [Khan,7] The World Wide Web can be used to provide instruction and instructional support. Web-based instruction offers learners unparalleled access to instructional resources, far surpassing the reach 308

of the traditional classroom. It also makes possible learning experiences that are open, flexible, and distributed, providing opportunities for engaging, interactive, and efficient instruction. [Kahn, 7] Phrases such as flexible navigation, richer context, learner centered, and social context of learning, are used in the literature to describe Webbased instruction. Furthermore, cognitive-based theories of learning have extended the design and delivery of Web-based instruction, applying the technical nomenclature to instructional practices. [Bonk, Dennen, 1] Indeed, Dills and Romiszowksi [3] have identified more than 40 instructional paradigms seeking to advance and improve the online learning experience beyond the traditional classroom, or Computer-based Instruction. Unlike the fixed resources in conventional CBI (in form of educational software), Web-based instruction can be conveniently modified and redistributed, readily accessed, and quickly linked to related sources of knowledge, thus establishing a backbone for anytime, anywhere learning. [Fletcher, Dodds, 4] A WBI learning environment should include many resources, support collaboration, implement Web-based activities as part of the learning framework, and support both novice and expert students (Sherry & Wilson) through a series of its components and features that can be conducive to learning environments. For example, e-mail, newsgroups, conferencing tolls, etc. can jointly contribute to the creation of a virtual community. To be specific, WBI programs include features such as: being interactive, multimedial, including online search, online resources, allowing electronic publishing, cross-cultural interaction, being learner-controlled, convenient, self-controlled, authentic, environmentally friendly, non-discriminatory, providing ease of use, online support, ease of coursework development and maintenance, collaborative learning, online evaluation, virtual cultures, etc. These features will allow all students, especially adolescents, who are the most frequent users of the Internet, to perform their instructive activity by satisfying their psychological needs of socializing, learning new things and entertaining; thus, solving a major problem of todays education - how to motivate adolescents to study? 309

The adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and maturity. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Recognizing and understanding the unique developmental characteristics (traits associated with human growth) of adolescence and their relationship to the educational program (i.e., curriculum, instruction, and assessment) and to the structure of the school (e.g., flexible scheduling, advisory programs, and team teaching) are central tenets of gymnasium and high-school grades education. During this period of development, youth exhibit a wide range of individual intellectual development, metacognition (the ability to think about ones own thinking), and independent thought. They tend to be highly curious and display a broad array of intereststhough few are sustained. Typically, young adolescents are eager to learn about topics they find interesting and useful, favor active over passive learning experiences, and prefer interactions with peers during educational activities. [Kellough, Kellough, 9] Similarly, they are increasingly able to consider ideological topics, argue a position, question adult authority, and appreciate sophisticated levels of humor. [Stevenson, 14] Moral/ ethical development is associated with a persons growing ability to make principled choices. Young adolescents tend to be idealistic and possess a strong sense of fairness in human relations. [Scales, 10] The emotional and psychological development is characterized by the quest for independence and identity formation. It is a time when young adolescents seek their own sense of individuality and uniqueness (Knowles & Brown, 2000). They are searching for an adult identity as well as adult acceptance, while striving to maintain peer approval. [Kellough, Kellough, 9] They have a strong need to belong to a groupwith peer approval becoming more important as adult approval decreases in importance. [Scales, 10] As they search for a social position within their peer group, young adolescents may experiment with slang and alternative behaviors. Young adolescents tend to emulate esteemed peers or non-parent adults and prefer to make their own choices, yet the family remains a critical factor in final decision-making. [9] Generally 310

speaking, the adolescents deserve educational experiences and schools that are organized to address their unique physical, intellectual, emotional/psychological, moral/ethical, and social developmental characteristics and needs; all these being potentially provided by Webbased instruction. To be specific, the features WBI contains allow adolescent students to: [Khan, 7] 1) Interact with each other, with the instructors and online resources. Instructors and experts may act as facilitators, providing support, feedback, and guidance via both synchronous and asynchronous communications. 2) A WBI course can be designed to address all adolescents learning styles by incorporating a variety of multimedia elements such as: text, graphics, audio, video, animation, etc. For these courses, students can browse through libraries, museums and archives, or consult experts from around the world. The rapid access to resources can promote higher level of adolescent involvement and motivation. 3) Both instructors and adolescents are able to author and publish their work to a global audience. The posting of student projects, papers, and other student work may be used for modeling, discussion, or review in WBI. Adolescents ability to publish their work on the Web serves as a powerful motivating force, which leads to improved effort and selfesteem. [Kearsley, 8] Another benefit is that the teens can be supported through interactive peer reviews from the global educational community. 4) WBI facilitates a democratic learning environment by permitting the learners to influence what is learned, how it is learned, and the order in which it is learned. [Schwier, Misanchuk, 11] The filtered environment of the Web allows the adolescents the choice to actively participate in discussion or simply observe in the background. This online environment puts teenagers in control so they have a choice of content, time, feedback and a wide range of media for expressing their understanding. 5) WBI extends the boundaries of traditional classroom learning as it provides the creation of: 311

 Virtual Community: an online community and network which engages in a wide range of discussion topics with their peers and leading authorities in their field and creates a broader audience for their work other than the instructor. Virtual Classroom: an environment where online resources are used to facilitate collaborative learning among participants, and between a class and a wider academic and non-academic community. [Hiltz, 6] Virtual Office Hours: E-mail and Newsgroups are some of the methods of holding office hours, where adolescents can also set up a real-time question and answer sessions via Web based conferencing tools. Virtual Library: students in WBI courses can use various Webbased libraries on a variety of subjects. The World Wide Web Virtual Library12 represents a massive and collaborative effort to gather and present information on a wide range of subjects. [December, Randall, 2] Virtual Field Trips: learners are fully immersed in an interactive computer generated environment, where each can explore existing places or things to which they would otherwise not have access. Virtual Lab: provide the adolescents with an opportunity to get real-type lab experiences. This enhances the flexibility of laboratory education, and introduces learners to the new paradigm of remote experimentation. [Stancil, 13], etc. One of the practical examples of teaching adolescents via Webbased instruction might serve the English ACCESS Micro-Scholarship Program, a grant project within the American Councils for International Education, Moldova.13 This program provides a foundation of the English Language skills to non-elite, 14 - 18 year-old students through afterschool classes and intensive summer learning activities. Access students gain an appreciation for American culture and democratic values, increase their ability to participate successfully in the socioeconomic development of their countries, and gain the ability to compete for and participate in future U.S. exchange and study programs. The 312

program allows them to benefit from free foreign language courses in the regions of Moldova and to develop intercultural skills and communication. The program is implemented and funded by U.S. Government in the American Corners from Ceadir-Lunga, Ungheni, Balti and the region of Rezina / Ribnita. Eighty selected adolescents attend classes two times per week for two years. The instructive philosophy of ACCESS is Web-based Instruction involving constructivism, content-based, and project-based approach, focusing learning process on forming and developing the 21st century core competences as designed by the European Lifelong Program.[5] This way, the teenagers being involved in different online activities and projects develop the following competences: communication in a foreign language (English); basic competences in science and technology; digital competence; learning to learn; social and civic competences; sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and cultural awareness and expression. The ACCESS program provide for all students a virtual community on iEARN (International Education and Resource Network)14, which is the worlds largest non-profit global network that enables teachers and youth to use the Internet and other technologies to collaborate on online projects that enhance learning and make a difference in the world. Thus, being enrolled into 1-term learning cycle, such as Places and Perspectives or My City and Me, the adolescents have to develop and implement the online projects in their community, socializing with the other teens from all over the world. The most recent project ideas the ACCESS students managed to do are Fun Places, The Best Town in The World, and Youth in Action , where participants presented the community they live from all perspectives.15 Basically, the virtual classroom is provided by the synchronous communication via Skype, where students are able to acquire new interesting information and develop new skills through interactive
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Hosted on http://www.w3.org/ Hosted on http://americancouncils.md/access

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online activities such as: searching for information, playing games, solving or creating quizzes, puzzles, crosswords, exploring field trips, have their trial-up in the virtual labs, creating multimedia, etc. This way, the adolescents are given different tasks to accomplish (e.g., make an online poster, poem, movie, presentation, etc.) on http://www.toondoo. com, www.kerpoof.com, www.glogster.com, www.wordle.net, www. slideshare.net, www.youtube.com, etc. One of the instructional online projects was named We Are What We Live In, which was a 1-month project comprising the following online home assignments: 1) Create a word cloud on www.wordle.net/create to finish up the sentence The World for me means... in form of 20 words. 2) In form of a PowerPoint Presentation to write a message to a new generation living in 300-year time from now describing the world we live, what kind of people we are, etc., and publish the presentation on www.slideshare.net . 3) Design an online poster on http://www.glogster.com on the topic We Are Against Global Warming. 4) Make an online story on http://www.kerpoof.com on the topic Lets Save the World with Our Superpowers! 5) After providing a science experiment in the class on natural disasters, for e.g. flood, to create an educational movie Natural Disasters in Moldova and How to Cope with them, and post it online on www.youtube.com . Taking all into consideration, there could be stated that due to the fact the Informational Age evolves and technical advances make resources more accessible, the WBI will be a viable medium to facilitate learning, especially for adolescents. It has the ability to provide rich learning environments for teens in a global, democratic, and interactive manner to acquire new knowledge and develop new competences in English by performing the content tasks only using online tools. This
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way, the students are imposed to apply the knowledge background to accomplish the activities such as developing and implementing online projects, creating digital books, poems, posters, etc. in a particular academic content. Basically, the language turns to be just a means to express their ideas and opinions on a particular topic by Skype or any other social networks. Moreover, Web-based Instruction brings new strategies and tools to develop the 21st century skills in the English classroom. To this extend, the web tools encourage adolescents creativity, innovation, critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, communication, collaboration, and digital competence.
REFERENCE:

Hosted on http://www.iearn.org/ The projects are hosted on http:/www.iearn.org//circles/2011session2/index.htm

1. Bonk C. J., Dennen V. P., Teaching on the Web: With a little help from my pedagogical friends, n Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 11/1999, pp.3 28. 2. December J., Randall N., The World Wide Web 1996 unleashed (3rd edition), Indianapolis, IN., 1995. 3. Dills C., Romiszowski A. J. Instructional development paradigms, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational Technology Publications, 1997. 4. Fletcher J. D. and Dodds P. All about ADL, n K. Mantyla and J. A. Woods (Ed.) The 2001/2002 ASTd distance learning yearbook, New York: McGraw Hill., 2001, pp. 229-235. 5. Gordon J., Halasz G., Krawczyk M., Leney T., et alt., Key competences in Europe: Opening Doors for Lifelong Learners Across the School Curriculum and Teacher Education, Warsaw: CASE-Center for Social and Economic Research on behalf of CASE Network, 2009, retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/education/more-information/doc/keyreport_ en.pdf 6. Hiltz S.R., Impacts of college-level courses via Asynchronous Learning Networks: Some Preliminary Results, 1997, retrieved from: http://general.utpb.edu/fac/keast_d/Tunebooks/pdf/Hiltz%20 Article.pdf 315

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7. Kahn B. H.,Web-based training: An introduction, n B.H. Kahn (Ed.) Web-based Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational Technology Publications, 2001. 8. Kearsley G., The World Wide Web: Global access to education, n Educational Technology Review, 5/1996, pp. 26-30 9. Kellough R. D., Kellough N. G.,Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, 2008. 10. Scales P. C., Characteristics of young adolescents, n National Middle School Association, This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association, 2003, pp. 4351. 11. Schwier R.A., Misanchuk E.R. Interactive multimedia instruction, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc., 1993. 12. Smith P.L., Ragan T.J., Instructional design, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993. 13. Stancil D.D., The Virtual lab: Engineering the future, 1995, retrieved from: http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~stancil/virtual-lab/virtual-lab.html 14. Stevenson C., Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.), Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

LIMBA ENGLEZ I IMPACTUL ACESTEIA ASUPRA LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC ROMNESC Lavinia NdRAG, prof. univ. dr., Departamentul de Limbi i Literaturi Moderne i tiinele Comunicrii, Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana Alina BUZARNA-TIHENEA GLBEAZ, referent dr., Departamentul de Drept, Stiine Administrative i Sociologie, Facultatea de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana Alina STAN, masterand, Departamentul de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Facultatea de Drept, tiine Administrative i Sociologie, Universitatea Ovidius, Constana
ABSTRACT

This paper is part of a study dealing with the huge number of English words which have become part of the Romanian language of economics. We have analyzed a couple of glossaries used for learning the English language of economics. A survey of the terms used in the computer or economics areas can lead to the conclusion that a great number of English words and expressions have been borrowed from English and that they are indispensable in Romanian owing to the technological progress. However, other unnecessary English words are invading the Romanian language through the mass media. n ultimele decenii, limba englez a devenit n mod indiscutabil limba comunicrii la nivel internaional, rspndindu-se cu o rapiditate uimitoare n multe pri ale lumii. Acest fenomen a avut o serie de implicaii i consecine lingvistice, ideologice, socioculturale, politice i pedagogice, explorate de nenumrai autori [1, pp. 20-25]. Deinnd statutul de limb oficial n peste 60 de state i ocupnd un loc proeminent n mai mult de 20 dintre acestea [4, pp. 37-47], limba

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englez este, aadar, limba principal de redactare a crilor, jurnalelor academice, fiind de asemenea folosit n media i n sport. Europa a fost dintotdeauna multilingv i diversificat din punct de vedere cultural. Secolul al 21-lea a fost martorul emergenei unor forme noi de limbi vorbite la nivel internaional, pe lng sanscrit, greac, latin, arab, francez i spaniol, care servesc acum ca limba franca. Cu toate acestea, Europa a devenit treptat mai puin diversificat din punct de vedere lingvistic tocmai ca rezultat ale programelor intenionate s asigure pluralismul lingvistic. Astfel, emergena limbii engleze ca limb internaional de necontestat i diseminarea acesteia n aproape toate domeniile cunoaterii au adus atingere eforturilor de a pstra diversitatea. Eforturile de a stimula nvarea altor limbi, dei reuite ntr-o anumit msur, au pierdut [i nc mai pierd] competiia n faa limbii engleze [7, p. 74]. La rndul su, Phylis [1999] vorbete despre limba englez ca parte a micrii de globalizare la nivel internaional. Ca lingua franca, limba englez a servit n mod eficient ca o punte pentru a conecta toate prile lumii. La rndul lor, Garcia i Otheguy [3, p. 3] ntresc aceast contribuie a limbii engleze indicnd faptul c engleza a facilitat nelegerea politic i cultural ntre societi. Mai mult, engleza a jucat un rol-cheie n nelegerea realitilor diferite ale lumii internaionale. Odat cu trecerea n anul 2000 i n noul mileniu, o nou Ordine mondial a aprut. O serie de evenimente i schimbri au avut loc n ntreaga lume prin cderea Cortinei de fier, sfritul Rzboiului rece i relaxarea tensiunilor dintre Est i Vest, cele dou rzboaie din Golf, atacurile teroriste din septembrie 2001. n mod similar cu modul n care micarea verde militeaz pentru pstrarea, conservarea mediului natural, mpingnd oamenii s gndeasc global i s acioneze local, globalizarea determin statele s se amestece n problemele globale i n temerile de la nivel internaional. Phillipson [11, pp.19-36] a avansat ideea imperialismului lingvistic, dezvoltnd i rspndind ELT [English Language Teaching] peste tot n lume. Autorul se refer la fenomenul trimiterii profesorilor de englez 318

cu scopul de a pstra dominana peste cele mai multe state n curs de dezvoltare. Un alt termen introdus de Phillipson este cel de lingvism, care se refer la impunerea cultural, social, emoional i lingvistic a normelor societii dominante asupra societii dominate, meninnd n acest fel alocarea inegal a resurselor. Este adevrat c limba englez a atins statutul dominant sau prestigios meninnd, n acelai timp, o alocare inegal a resurselor i a puterii. Este adevrat c limbajul juridic este utilizat n tiin i tehnologie. O limb, cu att mai mult cea englez, atinge standardul dominant sau prestigios n timp ce alte limbi sunt considerate inferioare. n mod consecvent, utilizatorii percep limbajul ca fiind inferior i devin din ce n ce mai contieni de statutul lor sczut. Ei abandoneaz limba lor pentru una dominant. Este clar c limba englez a fost n mod continuu impus de multe alte domenii, [cum ar fi relaiile publice, comunicarea familial a se vedea cazul coloniilor conferinele internaionale, economia, comerul, transportul maritim] i utilizat n diferite medii intelectuale, politice i culturale [organizaii internaionale, filme, muzic, turism, publicaii, comunicaii, educaie]. Ne confruntm, prin urmare, cu un grad ridicat de globalizare datorat n mare parte domeniilor comunicaii, politic, mass-media, economie i domeniul militar. Accesul la informaiile-cheie ntr-un numr din ce n ce mai mare de domenii este deseori dependent de deinerea competenelor de citire i nelegere a limbii engleze. De departe cea mai important limb a conferinelor tiinifice i academice [2, p. 260], limba englez joac un rol extrem de important n diseminarea informaiilor la nivel internaional: de exemplu, peste 90% din informaiile coninute n baze de date influente, cum ar fi Science Citation Index [SCI] sunt extrase din articole n limba englez [13, p. 10]. n timp ce Statele Unite al Americii cunosc traseul, alte popoare ezit ntre liberalism i socialism. Globalizarea tehnologiilor i a perspectivelor poate fi observat n zilele noastre. Poporul american a creat un numr mare de tehnologii. n plus, cultura american 319

pstreaz dominana prin contactul cu resurse cum sunt cele din massmedia, implicnd televiziunea, politica mondial i filmele. Faptul c, att filmele, ct i muzica, n mare parte sunt realizate n limba englez, are un impact enorm asupra tinerilor care sunt atrai spre cultura de mas. Aceast lume extraordinar, n plin floare, cu exuberana emergenei principalelor sale fore, este caracterizat de non-conformism, de abundena tipurilor de tehnologii, de provocarea tiinelor, de elitismul cultural; astfel, un nou fenomen apare i se dezvolt: invazia brutal, avalana, ofensiva lipsit de respect a termenilor recent mprumutai din limbile strine, dar i n limbajul curent. Am ncercat, pe parcursul acestor pagini, s analizm un glosar realizat de M. Marcheteau pentru nvarea dup metoda Larousse a limbii engleze economice [5,pp.15-16]. Cartea include termenii n limba englez care sunt relaionali cu domeniul economie [globalizare, transporturi i telecomunicaii, asigurri, formele legale de organizare a afacerilor, contabilitate]. O privire de ansamblu asupra termenilor utilizai n domeniul informaticii ne face s tragem concluzia asupra faptului c, n afar de cei 67 de termeni i cuvinte menionate de autori, cel puin 10 provin din limba englez i sunt indispensabili progresului tehnologic: CD-Rom, click, computer, hardware, hipertext, Internet, laptop, microcomputer, MODEM, mouse. Am studiat, de asemenea, ziarul naional economic Tribuna economic [T.E.] din anul 2002 i am descoperit foarte multe cuvinte mprumutate din limba englez. Acestea pot fi clasificate n mai multe categorii: a) denumiri de proiecte i instituii din Romnia: Navrom Business Center [15, p. 4], Aqualand [15, p. 16]; b) o coloan a ziarului poart denumirea Money, Money; c) termeni din domeniul informatic: software, site, on-line, CD: Parcul software din Galai, care va fi administrat de Cons Management Park al Soft Ltd., a ctigat titlul de primul parc tiinific i tehnologic. 320

Din experiena altor ri, se pare c parcurile software reprezint o formul de succes pentru a obine capital i pentru dezvoltarea domeniului tehnologic al informaiei [15, p. 4]. Un alt exemplu ncadrat n aceast categorie este un articol al T.E. nr. 41/2002, p. 47. Acesta conine foarte multe anglicisme. Ele vor fi acceptate cu siguran n limba romn, dar unele ar trebui traduse din moment ce li se dau i acronime, cum ar fi, de exemplu, IT [Information Technology]. Acest articol menionat mai sus constituie o dovad frecvent a utilizrii cuvintelor de origine englez n mediul organizaional: 93% dintre societi au regulamente cu privire la comportamentul angajailor lor i n jur de dou treimi dintre acestea includ, n cazurile de nerespectare grav a regulilor, utilizarea n mod neadecvat a e-mail-ului i a Internetului la birou, 10% dintre societi interzic utilizarea n scop personal a e-mail-ului i a Internetului la birou, 14% dintre societi nu au nicio politic cu privire la utilizarea e-mail-ului i 13% cu privire la utilizarea Internetului, Este surprinztor ct de mult timp este alocat rezolvrii problemelor cu privire la abuzul de e-mail i Internet la birou [...], se pare c o mai bun investiie ar fi aceea fcut n scopul mbuntirii sistemelor de securitate [firewalls] i software-ului, n special lund n considerare creterea numrului de norme date prin Employment Act 2002 cu privire la aspectele disciplinare, Chiar dac unele autoriti, ct i o parte din companiile publice sau private ncep s implementeze sisteme IT, toate entitile trebuie s includ restricii specifice n politica IT astfel nct cazurile de nerespectare s poat fi rezolvate n conformitate cu legea [12, pp. 126-127, cu privire la cuvntul romnesc privat]; siteul pentru licitaii [15, p. 7]; cumprarea avantajoas on-line [prin Internet] a crilor i CD-urilor [15, p. 7]. d) termeni din domeniul afacerilor sau din cadrul operaiunilor economico-financiare, cum ar fi: business [Telefoanele pot fi utilizate n business i divertisment 15, pp.7-8]; leasing [n cazul operaiunilor de vnzare-cumprare n leasing, finanatorii pstreaz proprietatea, utilizatorul avnd cealalt cot-parte de riscuri i obligaii, 321

spre deosebire de contractul de vnzare-cumprare prin rate, cnd proprietatea i riscurile sunt transferate doar atunci cnd contractul este semnat, iar cumprtorul are interdicia de a nstrina bunul i datoria de a-l asigura pe perioada de plat 15]; marketing [marketingul este o nou abordare a activitilor economice care impune necesitatea de a produce doar acele bunuri pe care oamenii le pot consuma i care sunt considerate necesare, marketingul este de asemenea un concept dinamic 15, p. 19]; output [Efectele omajului aflat n cretere asupra economiei sunt mai evidente n perioadele de output n descretere. Aadar, atunci cnd output-ul descrete sub nivelul su potenial, output-ul indivizilor este afectat n mod direct-15, p. 64]; factoring [Factoring-ul este n general un efort disperat fcut de companii pentru a obine lichiditi sau Exist diferite tipuri de factoring 15]; goodwill [Good-will o abordare [...] financiar, dintr-o perspectiv contabil, valoarea good-will- ului este echivalent cu cea a unui fond special 15, p. 25]; e) termeni privind modalitile i modurile de petrecere a timpului liber: anumite cldiri au fost construite: bungalow-uri [...], discoteci, Turitii i pot petrece timpul liber practicnd sporturi nautice: windsurfing, jet ski, ski nautic [15, p. 29]; tour-operatori [prima parte a acestui cuvnt compus este de origine englez, n timp ce a doua parte este de origine romn]: n ceea ce i privete pe turitii europeni, marii tour operatori din UE au nregistrat cifre de afaceri sczute [15, p. 67]. Anumite cuvinte mprumutate din limba englez s-au dezvoltat, formnd noi cuvinte prin adugarea de sufixe morfologice romneti. Chiar i Dicionarul Explicativ al Limbii Romne, publicat n 1996, menioneaz i explic termeni precum: management, manager, managerial, a implementa [to implement], implementare [implementation], implementat [implemented], trend [14]. De asemenea, termenii factoring i good-will, menionai mai sus, dar i ali termeni provenii din limba englez, cum ar fi escrow [contractul de escrow], webhosting [contractul de webhosting], consulting-engineering [contractul de consulting-engineering], agency [contractul de agency], 322

know-how sunt utilizai la scar larg n cursuri universitare i n cri reprezentative din domeniul contractelor i comerului internaional, cum ar fi Cursul universitar Dreptul comerului internaional de Ioan Macovei [6] i Cartea de contracte. Modele. Comentarii. Explicaii, coordonat de prof. dr. Jorg K. Menzer, avocat al Baroului Bucureti [2008]. Mai mult, asemenea lucrri ofer chiar i explicaii i/sau exemplificri cu privire la proveniena termenilor de specialitate, mprumutai din limba englez: Termenul de know-how este preluat din dreptul american i reprezint prescurtarea expresiei the knowhow to do it, care nseamn a ti cum sau a ti n ce fel s faci ceva [6, p. 66]; acelai autor enumer, ntr-o not de subsol, domeniile determinate ale contractului de consulting-engineering: De exemplu, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, military engineering, naval engineering, commercial engineering [6, p. 73]; sau explic originea i evoluia termenului de factoring: Factoring-ul a aprut n secolul al XVIII-lea, fiind o creaie a practicii engleze. Operaiunile de factoring au cunoscut ns un real succes n Statele Unite ale Americii [6, p. 89]. Un aspect important privind utilizarea termenilor mprumutai din limba englez este decodarea mesajelor. Unii autori dau explicaii ntre paranteze: Join the club [a face parte din grup], Geographic Disadvantage [dezavantajul geografic], Missed the boat [a pierde ocazia] [15, p. 72] - n timp ce alii ofer definiii i exemple. Din nefericire, exist multe cuvinte mprumutate din limba englez i, cteodat, utilizarea lor frecvent n textele din limba romn poate duce la nelegerea greit sau la nenelegerea mesajului transmis. Iat un paragraf din Tribuna Economic nr. 47/2001: La finalul sesiunii Conferinei Internaionale 3G Readiness, intitulat Leading the change, R.R. Wright, mobility Marketing Director, Microsoft Europe i B. Moschem, Chief Executive Officer, a anunat telefoanele mobile Windows Powered Smartphone Orange SPV n Romnia. ntr-unul din paragrafele ulterioare aflm ce nseamn acronimul SPV: Sunet, Imagini, Video [Sound, Pictures, Video]. 323

Putem observa cu uurin utilizarea unor astfel de cuvinte n limba englez att n comunicarea oral, ct i n cea scris i rolul extrem de important jucat n acest sens de televiziune i ziare. T. Slama-Cazacu, n lucrarea sa Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea [12, pp. 133-134], arat principalele motive care au dus la utilizarea unor astfel de termeni. Exist o serie de cauze obiective: pe de o parte, necesitatea de a utiliza [...] un astfel de cod specializat i de a concepe unele obiecte i procese tehnologice noi, i, pe de alt parte, dificultatea de a traduce termenii care le corespund n mod imediat i corect; dinamica acestora: muli astfel de termeni apar i dispar att de rapid nct nregistrarea i traducerea acestora ntr-un dicionar de cuvinte noi nu poate nici menine ritmul dezvoltrii cu emergena lor, nici deveni util din moment ce cuvntul nu mai este n uz. Exist, de asemenea, cauze subiective cum ar fi snobismul, indolena, manipularea, invazia de bunuri importate, prestigiul i atracia fa de limba englez, imitaia etc.

n timp ce prezena lor n textele din limba romn este uneori justificat [cum ar fi n cazul majoritii termenilor din domeniul informatic], de cele mai multe ori utilizarea lor este abuziv. Prin urmare, sprijinim ideea nfiinrii unei comisii care s poat analiza astfel de cuvinte i s selecteze forme unice care vor duce la evitarea sensurilor ambigue.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

Concluzii
n calitatea sa de limb internaional, limba englez poate fi privit ca o alternativ, cu o serie de avantaje att de ordin ideologic, ct i de natur utilitar. Noua Europ, sub sloganul unitate prin diversitate, necesit o lingua franca orientat din punct de vedere internaional, o lingua franca care s aib potenialul de a sprijini achiziionarea de competene de comunicare intercultural i s funcioneze ca purttor al unei culturi europene comune [7, p. 75]. Cum nevoia de o limb comun devine din ce n ce mai aparent i cum limba englez devine o limb din ce n ce mai mult utilizat n Europa continental, exist toate motivele s credem c aceste chestiuni vor fi mai direct adresate de ctre liderii UE i c vor fi luate, n acest scop, o serie de msuri la nivelul planificrii i dezvoltrii de politici lingvistice i culturale [7, pp. 75-76]. De asemenea, aderm i sprijinim cu modestie eforturile celor care au atras atenia asupra utilizrii nechibzuite a acelor cuvinte din limba englez care invadeaz limba romn prin mass-media. 324

1. Abbott, G., Wingard, P., The teaching of English as an international language: A practical guide, London, Collins, 1981. 2. Amon, U. The European Union. Status change during the last 50 years, n J. Fishman, A. Conrad i A. Rubal-Lopez [ed.], Post-Imperial English, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996. p. 260. 3. Garcia, O. i Otheguy, R. [ed], English across Cultures. Cultures across English: A Reader in Cross-cultural Communication, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 1989, p. 3. 4. Ghim-Lian Chew, P., Linguistic imperialism, globalism and the English language, n D. Graddol, U.H. Meinhof ed., English in a changing world, AILA Review, nr. 13, pp. 37-47. 5. Marcheteanu, M., Engleza pentru economie, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 2002. 6. Macovei, I. Curs universitar. Dreptul comerului internaional, Vol. II, Ed. Ch. Beck, Bucureti, 2009. 7. Modiano Marko, EIL, Native-speakerism and the Failure of European ELT, n English as an International Language: An Overview, in English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical Issues, Farzad Sharifian, ed. Multilingual Matters. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto, 2009, pp. 74-76. 8. Jorg K. Menzer, coordonator, Cartea de contracte. Modele. Comentarii. Explicaii, Ed. Ch. Beck, Bucureti, 2008. 9. Ndrag, L., Comunicarea maritim n limba englez din perspectiv psiholongvistic [tez de doctorat coordonat de T. SlamaCazacu, Universitatea din Bucureti], Ed. Europolis, 1998. 325

10. Patapievici, H. R., Cerul vzut prin lentil, Ed. Poliron, Bucureti, 2002. 11. Philipson, R. i Skutnabb-Kangas T., Englishisation: one dimension of globalisation, n D. Graddol, U.H. Meinhof ed., English in a changing world, AILA Review, nr. 13, 1999, pp. 19-36. 12. Slama-Cazacu, T., Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2000. 13. Truchot, C., Key Aspects of the Use of English in Europe, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 2002. p. 10. 14. DEX Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Ed. Univers enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1996. 15. Tribuna economic. Sptmnal economic naional, nr. 41, 46, 47/2002.

OPORTUNITILE FOLOSIRII COMPUTERULUI IN CADRUL PROCESULUI DE PREDARE/NVARE A LIMBAJULUI ECONOMIC Angela PRLoG, lector universitar, ASEM
ABSTARCT

The rapid development of technology has influenced almost every aspect of our lives. This paper reports on the importance of integrating new technologies by means of using computer-assisted language learning (CALL) into university instruction and especially teaching of languages for specific purposes. Different softs, digital materials complete the traditional methods of instruction making it more interesting, motivating and dinamic. Datorit procesului de globalizare, schimbrilor majore i rapide a progresului tehnologic, educaia universitar deschide noi perspective. Astfel, practica educaional tradiional de predare-nvare-evaluare a limbilor strine a fost completat cu metode moderne, care sunt specifice societii informaionale. n prezentul articol am ncercat s vorbesc despre oportunitile care le avem noi, profesorii, care predm o limb strin aplicat nu doar n economie, dar i n alte domenii, atunci cnd folosim computerul n cadrul cursurilor de limb strin n scopuri specifice. Studenii, la rndul lor, beneficiaz de imensitatea de posibiliti de utilizare a calculatorului i a tehnologiilor informaionale n procesul de cunoatere i comunicare. Acronimul CALL (nvarea limbilor strine asistat de calculator) pare s fi fost inventat la nceputul anilor 1980. Prima apariie a fost descoperit n Davies & Steel (1981). n Marea Britanie a aprut n titlul Numrul 1 al revistei CALLBOARD (iulie 1982) la Davies & Higgins (1982). n SUA, acronimul Cali (Computer Assisted Instruction Language) a fost preferat iniial, apare n numele CALICO (fondat

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n 1982), cea mai veche asociaie profesional dedicat promovrii utilizrii calculatoarelor n nvarea limbilor strine i de predare. Termenul CALI, apoi, pare a fi pierdut din pondere, din cauza asocierii sale cu nvarea programat, behaviorist i nu cea bazat pe o abordare comunicativ. Dac vorbim despre abordarea utilizrii calculatorului n cadrul procesului de predare i nvare a limbilor strine, se disting trei faze: - Behavioristic este folosirea computerului ca tutore, servind n principal ca un vehicul pentru livrarea materialelor de instruire. - Comunicativ este faza folosit pentru o practic de calificare, cu un grad mai mare de alegere a studentului, de control i de interaciune. Aceast faz include, de asemenea, ajutorul computerului pentru a motiva discuia, stimuleaz scrierea i gndirea critic (de exemplu, utilizarea de programe, cum ar fi Sim City), i utilizarea computerului ca un instrument de verificare i corijare a ortografiei i gramaticii. - Integrativ este faza care este marcat de introducerea a dou inovaii importante: multimedia i internetul. Majoritatea specialitilor care trateaz implicarea tehnologiilor informaionale n procesul de predare-nvare afirm faptul c noile tehnologii, mpreun cu resursele informaionale aferente i serviciile Internet, deschid o nou direcie n procesul de predare care se axeaz pe: - o larg comunicare, apropiere virtual, diminuarea barierelor ntre parteneri; - schimb liber de idei, opinii, informaii ntre participanii la un proiect comun i dorina fireasc de cunoatere; - pe contactele culturale cu alte popoare, cu experiena altor persoane. Utilizarea tehnologiilor informaionale n sistemul de predare-nvare-evaluare a limbajelor de specialitate este categoric impus de exigenete zilei de azi i a societilor moderne i globalizate. Metodele i cile de instruire bazate pe noile tehnologii aduc cu sine att un nou mediu educaional (virtual), ct i noi metode care adaug noi valori procesului didactic. Valoarea adugat a acestor metode o constitue: - alt tip de organizare (intensiv) a procesului de nvamnt; - creterea calitii predrii; 328

- dezvoltarea deprinderilor de a lucra n echip; - profesorul este privit drept ndrumtor n cadrul procesului de nvare; - elaborarea, dezvoltarea i testare de noi mijloace i metode de nvmnt. Necesitatea folosirii computerului n instituiile de nvmnt sau n procesul de autoinstruire a fost demult acceptat i, datorit anume acestui fapt sunt larg vehiculate noiunile de: - cultur informaional i educaie electronic (e-education sau e-learning), - sistem inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Tutoring System), - mediu inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Learning Evironment), - clase electronice (ElectronicClasses), - nvmnt la distan sau n timp real, - clase virtuale etc. Odata cu folosirea noilor metode de predare, apar i o serie de ntrebri, ca de exemplu: Care este modalitatea de folosire a CALL pentru predare, de exemplu, pentru predarea limbajului de specialitate? Punctul de plecare nu ar trebui s l constituie faptul c studentul ar trebui s stea n faa calculatorului pentru a nva o limb, dar ar trebui s fie, mai degrab, faptul c studenii nva o limb strin ca parte a acelui proces, uneori folosesc i computerul. Calculatorul trebuie folosit nu ca panaceu n procesul de nvmnt, dar drept un instrument care posed caliti unice, diferite de celelalte tipuri de media ce face procesul de predare i nvare unul motivant, atractiv i dinamic. Aceste caliti unice sunt reprezentate de interactivitatea calculatorului, precizia operaiilor efectuate, capacitatea de a oferi reprezentri multiple i dinamice ale fenomenelor i, mai ales, faptul c poate interaciona consistent i difereniat cu fiecare student separat. Avantajele folosirii computerului n procesul de predare i nvare a limbajelor de specialtate sunt: - costuri de ntreinere i expediere reduse; - accesibilitate direct i flexibilitate pentru student de acces la date; - actualizare imediat a datelor prezentate; 329

- accesul n timp real la informaie, indiferent de locul unde se afl; - lipsa necesitii spaiilor de depozitare; - complexitatea sau stocarea pe un singur suport a mai multor media de nvare: text, video, sunet etc.; - posibilitatea de acces la toate sursele conexe materialului didactic existente pe Internet prin intermediul link-urilor (legturilor). Pentru ca un curs asistat la calculator s fie reuit e necesara, n primul rnd, o nalt calificare a profesorilor. Sunt o multitudine de oportunitti pentru profesor de a se iniia sau a-i dezvolta aptitudinile de utilizare a calculatorului. Fcnd o vizit la pagina de web http://www. languages-ict.org.uk, www.ict4lt.org/en/ sau http://www.scoop.it/t/ computer-assisted-language-learning, profesorii pot obine informaii i sfaturi cum s integreze editarea pe desktop, informaii despre ceea ce inseamn echipamentele audio digitale, camere de filmat audiodigitale, videodigital, comunicare prin e-mail, multimedia, power point, Excel i alte aspecte IT ale leciilor de limbi. Dar programele digitale trebuie folosite drept o completare a cunotinelor profesorului i doar atunci putem vorbi despre un curs cu adevrat reuit la moment. Aici sunt potrivite cuvintele: Predarea limbilor cu ajutorul computerului are succes la acei pedagogi care sunt buni pedagogi i fr ajutorul su (Euler, 1990). tiina pedagogic modern se afl n situaia s dezvolte metode didactice noi pentru a putea ine pasul cu provocrile lumii actuale i celei de mine. Astfel trebuie s inem tot mai mult seama de utilizarea calculatorului i aplicaiilor lui n procesul didactic, predarea de tip proiect, de internet Research, de proiectele de tip e-mail. Folosirea calculatorului i aplicaiile acestuia n cadrul predrii limbajului de specialitate ne d posibilitatea de integrare a multor cursuri att pe suport digital (CD, DVD, memory stick, etc.) ct i de multe cursuri predate online (site-ri specializate n management, contabilitate, finane). Aici putem utiliza foarte multe activiti aa ca: - exerciii de reordonare; - manipularea textului; - jocuri de cuvinte; 330

- labirinturi; - simulri; - programe de explorare, descoperiri i aventuri; - programe de iniiere i progresare a scrisului; - exerciii de lectur i nelegere; - exerciii de ascultare; - construirea unei baze de date cu caracter personal, de exemplu, vocabular, gramatic. (Portofoliu electronic) Predarea sau prezentarea de tip proiect este un nou tip de curs a crui coninut este o anumit tem aleas (ex.management, marketing, etc.). n cadrul acestui curs, materia poate fi prezentat folosind aplicaia de prezentare, indeosebi, PowerPoint. La fel se pot include i fiiere video i audio, ceea ce i motiveaz pe studeni enorm. Un alt avantaj al prezentrilor fcute de studeni este responsabilizarea lor (ei sunt motivai s gseasc materiale interesante i atractive; s i fac pe colegi sa fie ateni la prezentarea lor. Dac la prima prezentare ei au observat ca auditoriul se plictisete, la sigur vor face shimbri n prezentrile ulterioare). Internet research se refer la aceast surs inepuizabil care este internetul. Profesorii trebuie s profite de aceast surs. De exemplu, ei pot s intre pe siturile marilor cotidiene i s extrag pentru curs articole de ziar sau de revist din ziua respectiv, ceea ce atrage mai mult studeni. Studenii, la rndul lor, pot cuta pe internet informaii care-i intereseaz n mod direct.Aici putem meniona i despre bazele de date disponibile n cadrul centrelor multimedia ale universitilor. (De ex. ASEM dispune de o vast colecie de baze de date specializate aa ca: Academic Search Premier. Aceast baz de date multidisciplinar ofer textul integral a peste 8.500 de publicaii, inclusiv textul a peste 4.600 de titluri verificate de experi. Sunt disponibile versiuni n format PDF, ncepnd din 1975, pentru peste o sut de publicaii i v sunt oferite referine citate care ofer posibilitatea de cutare pentru peste 1.000 de titluri. 331

Business Source Premier este cea mai utilizat baz de date pentru cutri n domeniul afacerilor, oferind texte integrale din peste 2.300 de periodice, inclusiv texte complete din peste 1.100 de titluri verificate de experi. Aceast baz de date ofer texte integrale ncepnd din 1886 i referine citate cu posibilitate de cutare ncepnd din 1998. Business Source Premier: Government Edition este mai bun dect bazele de date concurente, deoarece ofer texte integrale din toate domeniile afacerilor: marketing, management, MIS, POM, contabilitate, financiar i economie. Aceast baz de date este actualizat zilnic n EBSCO host. Tot n contextul folosirii metodelor i materialelor digitale, putem vorbi despre portofoliile electronice. Un portofoliu electronic, cunoscut de asemenea sub denumirea de e-folio, sau portfolio digital poate fi o simpl colecie de lucrri pe un suport electronic sau ntr-o versiune mai avansat, o pagin web a unui student unde respectivul student prezint selecii din lucrrile lor. Unele astfel de pagini pot fi n completare permanent, demonstrnd astfel procesul de nvare continu. n nvmant, portofoliile se refer la o colecie personal de informaii descriind i documentnd cunotinele acumulate ale studentului. Exist o varietate de portofolii ce se extind de la nvare pn la colecii extinse de cunotine dovedite acumulate. Portofoliile sunt utilizate pentru multe scopuri diferite, precum folosirea de experien anterioar, cutarea de meserii, dezvoltarea profesional continu. Ideea pedagogic este c studentul devine contient de stilul propriu de nvare. Acest lucru ajut studentul s aleag activitile corecte astfel crescnd motivaia de nvare. E-mail-ul este un mediu de comunicaii asincron i este modul cel mai uor i rapid pentru studeni i profesori de a interaciona . Deoarecee e-mail-ul poate fi unu-la-unu sau unu-la-mai-muli, este posibil crearea de grupuri mici (grupe academice), folosind adrese de grup, fie pentru a primi materiale didactice de la profesor sau pentru a finaliza o activitate de colaborare, sau pentru a discuta un anumit subiect de cercetare. Profesorii pot folosi adresa comun pentru anunuri, sau pentru a-i alerta pe studeni de greelile fcute frecvent. La fel e-mail-ul poate 332

fi folosit de ctre profesor pentru verificarea sarcinilor legate de dezvoltarea abilitilor de scriere. (Ex. redactarea unei scrisori comerciale sau ntocmirea unui contract comercial). Foarte interesant i util este utilizarea aplicaiei de tip chat, n acest caz studenii putnd intra n contact direct (online) cu ali parteneri de discuie. Contactul informal cu vorbitorii nativi poate fi, de asemenea, obinut prin intermediul camerelor de chat limba-int. Tandem de nvare (nvarea de sau cu prieteni) Cel mai bun mod de a nva o limb strin este comunicarea cu un vorbitor nativ care dorete s invee limba ta. Este un fel de predare n care tu esti profesorul (limbii materne). Tandemul este metoda de mbuntire a nvrii reciproce specifice ale procesului de nvare a limbii celuilalt. Aceast metod este practicat i cercetat ntr-un numr destul de mare de universiti europene. Tandem-urile prin e-mail-uri difer de tandemurile fa n fa ( sau de tandemurile online precum Netmeeting), deoarece un tandem prin e-mail se bazeaz n principal pe comunicarea i abilitile scrise. Informaie detaliat despre tandemurile prin e-mail la adresa: http://inet.dpb. dpu.dk/infodok/sprogforum/Espr13/pors.html Dintre aplicaiile de mediere putem aminti aplicaiile messanger i skype, care sunt medii de comunicare sincron i ne dau posibilitate de a interactiona prin intermediul audioconferinelor i videoconferinelor. Vizionarea i ascultarea sunt activiti n care computerul nlocuiete un casetofon. Adesea activitatea este combinat cu alte activiti precum exerciii cu mai multe variante de rspuns pentru a controla dac studentul a neles coninutul. Statisticile ne arat faptul c utilizarea computerului va deveni un instrument de lucru tot mai important n predarea limbilor strine, de aceea profesorii trebuie s accepte i s se adapteze la aceast nou provocare. Ei trebuie s dobndeasc cunotiine din domeniul informaticii pentru a putea mnui computerul, trebuie s studieze diferite programe de soft existente pe pia, trebuie s nvee cum se caut informaia pe internet i, n final, trebuie s-i restructureze modul de predare. 333

REFERINE

USING INTERACTIVE WEB IN TEACHING ESP Ludmila RACIULA, Master of Philology, Balti State University, English Philology Department
ABSTRACT

1. Davies G. (2002): ICT and modern foreign languages: learning opportunities and training needs [Online]. Disponibil pe: http://www. camsoftpartners.co.uk/needs.htm 2. Davies G., Walker R., Rendall H. & Hewer S. (2012) Introduction to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Module 1.4 in Davies G. (ed.) Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT), Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]. Disponibil pe: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-4.htm 3. Fitzpatrick A. & Davies G. (eds.) (2003) The Impact of Information and Communications Technologies on the teaching of foreign languages and on the role of teachers of foreign languages, EC Directorate General of Education and Culture. Graham Daviess contribution, relating specifically to the UK. Disponibil pe : http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/ICC_Grahams_ Report_Final.htm Concepte moderne privind utilizarea tehnologiilor informaionale n procesul de predare-nvare-evaluare la disciplina Bazele generale ale fotbalului Disponibil pe: http://cadredidactice.ub.ro/balintgheorghe/files/2011/03/ concepte-moderne-privind-utilizarea-tehnologiilor-informationale-final. pdf

Lucrarea dat reprezint un studiu de caz. Scopul acestui studiu este de a selecta un numr anumit de activiti interactive i de a observa dac se vor produce schimbri pozitive sau negative n activitatea de nvare a studenilor. Urmnd acest scop, s-a selectat un grup de studeni specialitatea Informatica i limba englez, anul III. Studenii au urmat cursul de Limbaje specializate (informatica), n cadrul cruia li s-a propus s creeze un site al grupei. Site-ul a fost folosit drept platform de lucru de ctre studeni i profesor. Analiznd rezultatele experimentului, s-a ajuns la unele concluzii, principalele fiind: componena tehnic trebuie s ocupe doar o parte din lecie, s serveasc studenilor i profesorului i nu invers. Utilizarea resurselor web necesit a planificare deosebit de minuioas, precum i stabilirea unor reguli de conduit sticte. n pofida acestora, resursele web ofer posibiliti variate i o motivaie deosebit de a studia limba englez.

I. Background
Who are the learners? The class selected for the project consists of 11 students: 4 males and 7 females. Its a subgroup of 3rd year IT students. Their majoring subjects are informatics and English. They are about 20-22 years old. By this time, they know the computer very well, my task is to teach them describe the computer and the way it works in English. They have to combine their knowledge in computer sciences and their foreign language speaking skills. The atmosphere in the group is rather pleasant. Most of the students regularly come to classes (but for one student, who claims she is sick) and they are usually ready with their homework. As they are adult students, about half of them work in the second half of the day. They really like computers 335

334

and English and they eagerly engage in discussions related to these two subjects. They also help me when I have some problems with my computer. As for their language skills, I can say that they are intermediate level students. Most of them are fluent when it comes to subjects they know very well. Two young men speak really good English with almost no mistakes. However, when it comes to a new topic, or when they have to say something on the spot, they face some difficulties. What is the setting? Despite the fact that these are students from informatics department, classrooms are not equipped with computers, furthermore there are no projection devices in the classrooms. Of course, there are some computer labs at the department, but it is necessary to book the computer lab in advance. During the first week of the project I settled this problem and we were given two hours per week to work in two different computer labs. One room has old computers connected to the internet, headphones and loud speakers, but no blackboard. The other room is equipped with new computers, there is an excellent internet connection, but no headphones. So I had to plan my work accordingly. What are the course goals? The course I teach is entitled ESP (computer science language). It is designed for 80 hours of class work and 40 hours of individual work and it ends up in an oral exam. It means that we have to meet four times a week. The course focuses on speaking skills. By the end of the semester the students will be able to: describe the computer and its component parts; explain how different computer devices work; give advice and recommendations on buying different types of devices; write emails for business purposes; write essays on topics related to IT; engage in discussions, related to technical issues; speak about advantages and disadvantages of various computer devices; speak about people, who contributed to IT development. 336

Despite the fact that the course focuses on speaking, we also train listening and writing skills, grammar, as they are important components of communication. What are the student needs? Being a new teacher in this group, it was not easy to define their needs. I tried various tasks before I figured out what they really need. As most of the students are exposed to English only in the classroom, they have no possibility to use English speaking skills outside the campus of the university. They definitely need to improve their speaking skills. It can be achieved by working with listening and comprehension. I also figured out that some of the students face difficulties when they come across listening exercises. This made me think that it would be worth paying more attention to these skills. On the whole, students need to work at improving their speaking skills, which include: Using connectors and introductory words to make their dialogues more emphatic; Easily engage in various conversations; Developing listening comprehension skills;

II. Issue or problem that started your project

This can be in the form of a research question or a less formal statement, like students were not very motivated. Language teachers want their students to speak. This group is a different one for me. As previously I had students from the foreign language department that is, philology students, who are eager to engage in various conversations. These students are from the department of exact sciences and they are more laconic. I believe its mostly because they interact with technology not with people and thats why they are not used to speaking. But on the other hand, they cannot learn a foreign language without speaking. They have to communicate. So the main problem that I detected is their unwillingness to talk, hiding behind their laconism. There is another thing that has to be emphasized in this case, they feel at their ease with familiar topics, but when it comes to something new they start stumbling. 337

III. Initial solution and expected response

As I am a new teacher in this group I felt they were somewhat distant and reserved. Therefore, I decided to find a common cause that could unite us. I came with the proposal to make a group site, which would be used for communication outside the classroom. I explained to them that they can post links they find interesting, their essays, letters and other things, they would like to share. At the same time I hoped that it would contribute to the improvement of their speaking skills, as I regard posting as a kind of rehearsal for their oral presentations. The first stage was creating a group site. It did not present any problems for the students since they are familiar with this activity. Moreover, they created a site, where each student can log in with his/ her own username and password. (http://profor.us/lexic/) This fact made them feel confident and proud of their work. To make students feel sure of their knowledge I asked them first to read or write about a definite subject, so that later on it would be easier for them to speak on the same subject. According to the course syllabus, the students had to state the benefits of using laptops. Having searched the Internet and using their personal knowledge, the students had to write an email, trying to persuade the management of a company /school to buy laptops for employees/ pupils. I asked the students to visit http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/theclassroom/activities/ in order to find out more about business emails. Purposefully, the students were asked to post their emails on the site, so that they were able to read each others email and comment on them, using the rubrics proposed by the teacher. http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index. php?screen=ShowRubric&rubric_id=2152297& The students were expected to actively discuss each others work, to comment on their mistakes and to help each other correct the mistakes. It was hoped that writing emails, the students will focus on the vocabulary and grammatical structures, necessary for communication. It had to be a rehearsal for their oral discussion of laptop benefits. At the same time, it 338

was hoped the students would use the additional information they found in the internet in their speech. Using the group site in teaching English to students of computer sciences seems a logical thing to do, since it combines both computer and language skills. However, for some or other reasons it was not done before. I strongly believe that giving the students the possibility to show their worth and implement their skills could facilitate their learning process. In addition, it requires extra time spent in an English environment, which is beneficial for the students.

IV. Response and reflection

The students willingly started their work using the group site. They posted their emails by the due date. Being given the rubrics for email writing, they analyzed each others mistakes and put down the suggestions they had. After that the students were asked to comment on one of the emails, giving suggestions for improvement. This activity was welcomed by the students and it aroused an active discussion. Later on the students were asked to correct their emails, taking into account the suggestions, made by their colleagues. However, some of the students considered it redundant and did not correct their works. In this case, students believed they finished their task at the moment they posted the emails on the site. Consequently, those who did not introduce changes into their emails got lower marks. Having analyzed the students work, I came to the conclusion that giving written and oral assignment on the same topic was very fruitful, since even weak students, who experience difficulties with new vocabulary manage to prepare for oral discussions. However, I have noticed that many of the students speak as if they were robots. They speech in English is emotionless. To demonstrate to the students that they need to use emphatic words and connectors in their speech, I decided to carry out an experiment. I asked the students to discuss in pairs the cameras they have, or they would like to have and why. Then I invited two of them to act out their dialogue. Afterwards, I asked the same students to carry out a conversation on the same topic but in their 339

mother tongue. There was a huge difference between the two dialogues. Being asked what was different, the students agreed that they lacked connectors and emphatic words. The general conclusion is that students need to pay more attention to everyday conversations, as well.

V. Changes made
Writing emails was just the initial stage of the work. The group went through several activities, which implied usage of web resources. Following the course curriculum, the students had to study the vocabulary, necessary to inquire about computers in a shop, ordering a computer, as well as advising someone on buying a good computer. The students listened to some dialogues between customers and shop assistants, analyzed the techniques, used to recommend a product and finally they made up and acted out their own dialogues. This contributed to the development of listening and speaking skills. The students were asked to follow the links http://www.englishvoices.org/ev-relationships. htm (connectors, introducing ones idea) http://www.englishvoices.org/ ev-cellphones.htm and to focus on the phrases of the kind: to my mind, personally I think, in my opinion, well, etc. They were asked to observe the usage of these phrases and to use them in their own speech. Additionally, the students listened to the dialogue entitled Computer Sale and Repair at http://www.esl-lab.com/computer/computer-rd1. htm. This activity was not compulsory, however, all the students did it and they discussed in class the new vocabulary and terms. They also paid attention to the fact that some of them had to play the recording several times. They understood that listening skills require training and asked for additional listening activities. Students also mentioned that pre- and post- listening activities contribute to a better assimilation of new vocabulary. As the course provides 40 hours of individual work, the decision was taken to engage students into some extracurricular research. The students were suggested to carry out a search dedicated to people who contributed to the development of IT. They were also introduced to 340

the notion of Web Quest, which they enjoyed greatly. The first Web Quest was dedicated to Steve Jobs. (http://www.zunal.com/webquest. php?w=134110). The students were also asked to present the results of their search orally in class, contributing to a common discussion of Steve Jobs merits and contribution to IT development. The final task was to post a common PPT or PDF on the site. (Later on it was decided it should be a PDF, as there was a problem with uploading the PPT). It was noticed that the Web Quest was helpful for the students since it provided careful guidance for their work. Students were allowed to use other resources, which were not mentioned in the Web Quest. It is intended to conduct two more searches, one dedicated to Google and the other to computer devices for the disabled. The topics were proposed by the students. Moreover, they have already started looking for information. Additionally, it was decided to create a glossary of computer terms and their translation into Romanian and Russian and to post it on the site. The students wanted to do something useful for other students and to share the results of their work. So far, the glossary is in its initial stage, paper draft. Students are gathering words and distributing them to be explained and translated. In the final stage one student will compile a document and post it on the site.

VI. Conclusion
First of all, Id like to mention that this project focuses on integrating both writing and speaking skills in order to develop them. Learning a foreign language is carried out using a combination of skills. My assumption was that combining writing and speaking skills and technology could enhance learners ability to speak and their motivation. The project is not in its final stage yet, however Ive noticed that students more willingly engage in conversations. They all carried out some research and are eager to share information with each other. Another important thing is that students are constantly enriching their vocabulary, due to the additional readings they do. This facilitates their speaking, as they feel more confident in what they say. It reduces 341

the number of cases, when they switch to their mother tongue. If they dont know any word they would try to explain it in English rather than to use Romanian or Russian. Listening activities and video recording, related to the topics specified in the curriculum, greatly improve the quality of work. Students are more motivated and they have examples of native speakers to follow. Web Quests and projects contribute to students motivation and stimulate them do extra-curricular things. And finally, the group site is a good tool to organize work, to check written assignments, to suggest different resources for students autonomous learning and to display the results of the students work. On the whole, web resources greatly contribute to the quality of teaching and more importantly learning. Providing careful lesson planning and selection of tools, teachers can achieve success in their work. To my mind, students willingly engage in different activities proposed by the teacher, however, when it comes to properly done tasks, some of them need to be reminded to finalize their work, as they tend to enjoy the fun and leave the work aside. This problem can be solved with a little more insistence on the teachers part. Carrying out this project, I can come up with the following suggestion: o Select a tool for organizing the work of the group (site, blog, wiki); o Establish a set of rules to be obeyed both by teacher and students (deadlines, norms of language use, etc.) o Do not change the rules in the course of the project; o Carefully plan the lesson and the use of web resources (time limits, concrete instructions), always rehearse it at home. o Web activities should be only a part of the lesson. Do not dedicate the whole lesson to them, as they are just tools, which help in achieving the goal. Looking back at the work that has been done, I would probably change some things. From my experience with the group site, I came up with the 342

conclusion that for discussions it would be better to make a blog than a site. A site is more suitable for making announcements, placing links, etc. While on the blog students can initiate discussions on various topics. I also plan to make a selection of sites with listening and speaking activities that suit the curriculum of the group. Timeline Week Students activity Changes made The students eyes sparkle with interest. They are motivated to try something new. Post activity The teacher books the computer lab in advance, searches for the necessary sites. The teacher makes the rubrics for email writing and introduces the necessary changes in the lesson planning. 343

Week 1. Students are told about their participation in the project, they are explained that they will benefit of some new teaching tools. Students are shown various types of class blogs and sites. They decide on what would be more suitable for them. The decision is taken to make a group site, which can be used to exchange information, to share links, etc. Week 2. h t t p : / / w w w. v o a n e w s . c o m / learningenglish/theclassroom/ activities/ Students watched a video with explanations on various parts of email and their functions. They were asked to write emails with reference to benefits of using laptops in a school or company.

Although all the students w a t c h e d the video, providing instructions on email writing, some of them did not include all the component parts of their emails.

Week 3. http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index. Having done peer php?screen=ShowRubric&rubric_ the review, the id=2152297& students were Students were given the rubrics for able to correct assessment of their emails. They their own were asked to assess each others mistakes and discuss email and to discuss their strong to and weak points, as well as to rank their work. the emails. They were very helpful Finally, the students had to post the p r o v i d i n g corrected variants on their emails assistance to students who on the site. experienced difficulties. However, not all of them did this. They are not used to revise their drafts. Week 4. http://www.englishvoices.org/ev- Having lisrelationships.htm tened to the Dialogues between customer and recordings the shop assistant. Topic: Inquiring students tried and giving recommendations on to make their different types of computers and conversations computer devices. more emphatic, using various introductory words and connectors. 344

Selecting and posting the links for listening activity, modification in the lesson plan

Week 5. http://www.zunal.com/webquest. php?w=134110 Having carried out the Web Quest, the students come up with information about Steve Jobs activity for a common discussion.

Analyzing the lesson and detection of weak points in students work.

Still, there were a number of reluctant students, who considered it redundant. Students just took the information from the Internet without processing or changing it. Therefore, they were asked to adjust the information to their level of English, to pick up the new vocabulary, etc. A more or less successful discussion took place. Most of the students easily spoke on this topic.

Making the Web Quest.

Modifying the course of work, as students did not fulfill the task properly.

Week 6. Second discussion of Steve Jobs activity and contribution. Additional information about Apple. h t t p : / / w w w. v o a n e w s . c o m / learningenglish/home/business/Apple-in-Legal-BattleOver-iPad-Name-in-China-141202623.html

Making a selection of topics to offer to students for research

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Week 7 Topic All about Google. Students gathered information and shared in in the class.

Week 8 Topic Devices for the disabled http://poster.4teachers.org/worksheet/view.php?id=160938

The reluctant ones did not show up. However, the final file is not uploaded to the site yet. Students work is more organized. They shared responsibilities and helped each other. This time, they did not repeat the information, which had been already mentioned by their colleagues. Students follow the links provided on the poster and find out about various types of devices available for disabled people.

. Proofreading students posts.

Analysis of students mistakes. Preparing certain activities to make them correct their mistakes.

Selection of links.

This topic is quite new for them and it raises their interest. They contribute to the discussion by offering additional information. Week 9 Each student choses a device, de- H o p e f u l l y, scribes it, mentioning its advan- students will adjust the tages and disadvantages. information they find in the internet to their level of English. As this tendency has been observed. Week 10 The students respond to the questions, provided in the questionnaire and express their wishes for the future project.

Prepare a puzzle using the terms of the lesson.

The teacher prepares a questionnaire to find out what activities were most useful for the students. Analysis of the students answers and planning for the future project.

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VII. Resources
Articles that helped you come up with this plan, or that support your ideas http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Campbell-Weblogs.html http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2008/02/09/the-best-waysfor-students-and-anyone-else-to-create-online-content-easilyquickly-painlessly/ http://www.ncsall.net/?id=385 http://www.webquest.org/search/index.php http://www.sun-associates.com/lynn/pbl/pbl.html Resources that you used, such as websites, audio and video recordings, etc. http://profor.us/lexic/ http://www.esl-lab.com/computer/computer-rd1.htm. http://www.zunal.com/webquest.php?w=134110 http://bogglesworldesl.com/teaching_articles1b.htm http://writefix.com/ http://speakingfrog.com/ http://l.georges.online.fr/tools/cloze.html http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/theclassroom/ activities/ http://www.englishvoices.org/ev-relationships.htm http://www.englishvoices.org/ev-cellphones.htm http://www.china232.com/116-buying-a-gift.php http://poster.4teachers.org/worksheet/view.php?id=160938

SOME ASPECTS OF TEACHING PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH IN NEW EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Olga SHCHUKINA, PhD, English Philology department, Tiraspol State University
ABSTRACT

English for Specific Purposes is usually determined as meeting the specific needs of the learners. It is focused not only on the language itself, but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities. Recent changes in educational environment made transition from teaching specialized language of a certain science to forming communicative skills in concrete professional situations with taking into consideration peculiarities of professional thinking. All these conditions make necessary filling curricula with socio-cultural content. Thus the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires will include new aspects. Moreover from simple knowledge transference teachers should turn to forming competence. This process is considered to be more complex because it includes teaching students skills of selfdevelopment and self-instruction. The character of teaching foreign languages in the world has suffered a kind of transformation recently. Some time ago it was determined by the states social demand, depending on its economic, political and international connections, but today the situation in Europe changes greatly, as E.N. Solovova mentions. There was a transition from teaching specialized macrolanguage to forming students competence skills of foreign language communication in concrete professional situations considering peculiarities of professional thinking [8]. In conditions of these changes it became important not only getting special knowledge, but also efficient acquisition of foreign language, when goals and content of teaching are directed to specialty features. Basing on the classification given by most authors well consider professional English as a kind of English for Occupational Purposes 349

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(e.g. English for doctors, lawyers) which alongside with English for Academic Purposes (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation, bricklaying) are varieties of ESP. So the role of English for specific purposes has changed greatly. It has become increasingly important due to several reasons. There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world. With the spread of globalisation has come the increasing use of English as the language of international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of occupational contexts. Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to ESP at an earlier age. English for Specific Purposes is usually determined as meeting the specific needs of the learners as the content and aims of any course are determined by the needs of a specific group of learners. It is focused not only on the language itself, but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities. According to Dudley-Evans the absolute characteristics of ESP are: - ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners. - ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves. - It is centered not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities [2]. Recent changes in educational environment made transition from teaching specialized language of a certain science to forming communicative skills in concrete professional situations with taking into consideration peculiarities of professional thinking. All these conditions make necessary filling curricula with sociocultural content. Thus the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires will include new aspects. Moreover from simple knowledge transference teachers should turn to forming competence in professional sphere. This process is considered to be more complex because it includes forming students skills of self-development and self-instruction. ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly 350

involved in intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence. So some teachers are afraid of making this transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP. There appear several problems with materials and teaching process. D. Bell considers that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on a number of variables which include: - How much do the learners know about their specialism? - Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners? - How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn? - Although you perhaps dont need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some awareness and feel for a particular vocational area. He also suggests that teachers should: - Think about what is needed and dont just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book. - Understand the nature of their students subject area. - Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism. - Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area. - Use authentic materials. - Make the tasks as authentic as possible. - Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun. - Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom [1]. Its not a secret that bringing up a specialist in any sphere with foreign language competence differs greatly from teaching the so called General English, or English as a second language. In the book English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach by Tom Hutchinson & Alan Waters we find the following thought: In fact, one may ask What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?, in theory nothing, in practice a great deal[4]. At the same time L. Fiorito suggests that The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP students are usually adults who already have some 351

acquaintance with English and are learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular jobrelated functions [7]. ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners. However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The students abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster. The responsibility of the Professional English teacher comprises more components in comparison with General English teacher. It is 352

also connected with new educational conditions which presuppose the appearance of a polycultural individual ready to realize his professional skills using foreign languages in different professional situations. Nowadays the process of knowledge transference also includes self-education and self- development skills. So a teacher who already has experience in teaching English as a Second Language, should recognize the ways in which his teaching skills can be adapted for the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. He may need to look for content specialists for help in designing appropriate lessons in the subject matter field she is teaching. D. Bell suggests the three Cs for helping teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in a particular area of ESP: curiosity, collaboration, confidence. It means that the teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more; teachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback. Confidence according to his opinion will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and learn from their learners [1]. We can come across different points of view on the role of ESP teachers and their qualifications. But most of them are concentrated on the fact that any skilled English teacher can deliver an ESP class, if he is able to learn new concepts from the course and from his students. For example K. Harding stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses, for example, being communicative, using authentic materials and analysing English in a practical way are also applicable to ESP [3]. So integrating their skills in English with content of the study, sometimes with the help of the students, who are already aware of their specialty, teachers will succeed in teaching professional English. As Ian Mackenzie believes, ESP teachers are already, by definition, integrating content with language learning. They also know that material used in the classroom is still only a vehicle for the language, and the teacher doesnt need to know everything about the subject. Teachers can learn as they teach, and students can sometimes teach the teacher. Learners may be able to explain things about a topic while the teacher helps them with the English needed to talk about these ideas [6]. 353

Another problem is teaching materials for ESP students. From one side texts should be filled with socio-cultural content. From the other they should be professionally oriented and at the same time communicative. Teachers of professional English will inevitably use the so-called content-based approach in their work. It is considered to be one of the three approaches (alongside with task-based and participatory) which make communication central in the process of foreign language teaching. So communication in professional conditions may be considered in most general way as a goal of teaching professional English. Content-based instruction is based on larger language units, which are meaningful on the text level. As D. Larsen-Freeman mentions, using content from other disciplines in language courses is not a new idea. For years, specialized Language courses have included content relevant to a particular profession or academic discipline. The special contribution of the content-based instruction is that it integrates the learning of language with the learning of some other content, often academic subject matter. It has been observed that academic subjects provide natural content for language instruction [5, p. 137]. Besides it is a well-known fact that new lexics is perceived more effectively being integrated into some kind of content. Vocabulary is easier to acquire when there are contextual clues to help convey meaning. As D. Larsen-Freeman says, such content may prove to be a useful medium for language acquisition [5]. Some specialists even speak about a new kind of material for professional English teaching, calling them Hybrid materials, uniting language and content. Hybrid teaching materials, while focusing on professional subject matter, practice the relevant language. Nowadays teachers should teach students creative thinking concerning learning materials, their connection with life and practice. Only in this case knowledge that students get become material, they find it more interesting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bell, D (2002) Help! Ive been asked to teach a class on ESP! in IATEFL Voices, Issue 169, Oct/Nov. 2. Dudley-Evans, T (2001) English for Specific Purposes in The Cambridge Guide to TESOL, Cambridge University Press. 3. Harding, K (2007) English for Specific Purposes, Oxford University. 4. Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press. 5. Larse-Freeman, D. Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford University Press, 2008. 6. Content and Language Integrated Learning, Professional English, and the Future of ELT by Ian Mackenzie at http://peo.cambridge.org. 7. Fiorito, L. English for Specific purposes at http:// www. usingenglish.com. 8. .. . . ., 2005. 240 .

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ENHANCING CULTURE AWARENESS IN TEACHIG BUSINESS ENGLISH Vera TABUREANU, lecturer, MA, English Philology Chair, Moldova State University
ABSTRACT

Contientizarea importanei culturii proprii n raport cu cultura altora a devenit un subiect important n predarea limbii engleze de afaceri. Este fapt dovedit c cultura i limba sunt strns legate ntre ele n procesul de predare a limbilor strine. Pentru persoanele care sunt implicate sau care intenioneaz s se implice ntr-o comunitate internaional de afaceri, cunoaterea diferitor obiceiuri, contientizarea diferenelor culturale i a conveniilor, abilitaile de comunicare cu oameni din diverse medii culturale i naionale sunt indispensabile. Aadar, n procesul instruirii studenilor, profesorul trebuie s fie ghidat de astfel de principii psihologice fundamentale precum acceptarea, tolerana i empatia. Este necesar ca profesorul s fie contient de toate posibilee stereotipuri de ras i gen, etnice, naionale, geografice, sociale, politice, profesionale care ar putea mpiedica interaciunea studenilor cu scopul de a le ajuta s depeasc superstiii i generalizri pripite. More people nowadays are coming into contact with people from cultures other than their own. There are a number of reasons for this: technology makes it possible for people to travel further and faster than ever before; the internet links people across national boundaries; the international labour force is more mobile; more people are on the move than ever before; business people are active globally; refugees are trying to escape from conflicts and natural disasters; in many places the workforce is becoming more diverse. All people are involved in communication which can be defined as the exchange of meaning. This involves the sending and receiving 356

of information between a sender and a receiver. This happens not only through the use of words, but also through non-verbal factors, such as gestures and facial expressions. The massage received can be very different from the message sent. Intercultural communication takes place when the sender and the receiver are from different cultures. Communication can be very difficult if there is a big difference between the two cultures. Culture is not an issue - except where there are conflicts. This is true both in the wider society and in narrower groupings, such as companies, departments and teams. Therefore, in Business English course instructors teach not only appropriate language use for different contexts, but also develop learners understanding of the role that culture plays in communication, as every time a learner uses English it is likely to be with someone from a different culture, be it a different national culture or a culturally different organization. Nowadays business people learning English usually have contacts across national and cultural borders, both incoming with foreigners moving into their local culture and outgoing with their own contacts outside their local culture. Thus, they should have some awareness of cultural issues affecting the work and working relationships. It is well-known that language is embedded in the culture in which it is used. Some scholars consider that language is a product of culture. Therefore, some knowledge of English speaking cultures world-wide will help learners become more aware of the behaviors that will help them achieve their business objectives and a void blunders, inside and outside the company setting. For the better understanding of the scope of culture Brieger presents the model of The Culture Onion, in which each outer layer of the onion impacts on the inner layers, until we reach the individual, who is a product of cultural influences and personality attributes. The first major influence is national culture, which may be defined as everything relating to a nations identity, in fact everything that could be considered to have contributed to the present attributes of its people. The second is company culture, particularly where the company strives 357

to form and disseminate a set of corporate values. The third level is team or department, which concerns the specific written or unwritten rules which govern a particular group. [1, 81] On the other hand Gibson states that culture can bee seen as an iceberg, for instance, with the tangible expressions of culture and behaviour above the surface of the water, and the underlying attitudes, beliefs, values and meanings below the surface. Depending on the individuals perspective, those involved in intercultural interactions could be on a cruise liner approaching the iceberg, or the Titanic about to crash into it. Gibson also presents the tree model which contrasts visible and hidden culture, with the roots providing an image of the historical origins of culture. Moving between cultures is like transplanting a tree - to be successful, the roots have to be protected, and support will be needed in the new environment. [4, p. 7- 8] When interculturalists use the word culture they dont just mean national culture, but the whole range of different types of culture, that include: corporate culture, professional culture, gender, age, religious culture, regional culture and class culture. John Mole defines culture simply as the way we do things round here. [6, 18] Hofstede has called it collective mental programming or the software of the mind. [4, 7] On the other hand there is a long list of elements of culture produced by culture scholars to describe in detail where we come from and what has fashioned our thoughts and behaviors. The key categories are represented by ideas embracing beliefs, values, institutions; behavior category including gestures, customs and habits, language; and products category referring to literature, dress, folklore, arts and music. There are numerous factors, determined by Brieger, which affect national and business culture. Some originate from and are based in the world of work itself; others originate in the local environment and influence the world of work. Work factors are: company organization, the importance of hierarchy, attitudes to authority, respect for leadership, delegation, planning, cooperation versus competition, team versus individual, international attitudes, industrial relations, 358

the working day, organization and running of meetings, company communication: written/spoken, tone/style, and mobility of personnel. Social factors include roles of the sexes, priorities of personal life, and work, dress, punctuality, ways of addressing others, openness of conversation, formality, humour and taboos. Physical factors list space between people, contacts, handshakes, gestures, exposure of body, facial expressions, speech: volume, speed, acknowledgement of speech, smells. [1,82] Kramsch claims that various terms are used to refer to communication between people who dont share the same nationality, social or ethnic origin, gender age, occupation or sexual preference, depending on how culture is defined and which discipline one comes from. The terms may overlap. The term cross-cultural or intercultural usually refers to the meeting of two cultures or two languages across the political boundaries of nation-states. They are predicted on the equivalence of one nation one culture - one language, and on the expectation that a culture shock may take place upon crossing national boundaries. In foreign language teaching cross-cultural approach seeks way to understand the other on the other side of the border by learning his/her national language. The term intercultural may also refer to communication between people from different ethnic, social, gender cultures within the boundaries of the same national language. Both terms are used to characterize communication between Chinese-Americans and AfricanAmericans, between working-class and upper-class people, between gays and heterosexuals, between men and women. Intercultural communication refers to the dialogue between minority cultures and dominant cultures, and is associated with issues of bilingualism and biculturalism. The term multicultural is more frequently used in two ways. In a societal way sense, it indicates the coexistence of people from many different backgrounds and ethnicities, as in multicultural societies. In an individual sense, it characterizes persons who belong to various discourse communities, and which therefore have the linguistic 359

resources and social strategies to affiliate and identify with many different cultures and ways of using language. The culture identity of multicultural individuals is not that of multiple native speakers, but, rather it is made of multiplicity of social roles or subject positions which they occupy selectively, depending on the interactional context in which they find themselves at the time.[5, p.81- 82] According to Frendo there are two ways of intercultural training, the first called dealing with diversity or culture-general approach, which encourages learners to understand what culture is, to gain awareness of how their own culture works, and to appreciate that the way they do things is not necessarily the only way. The purpose is to break down prejudices, look at the pros and cons of stereotyping, and to recognize that other people have points of view that are as valid as our own. It is not about learning to deal with specific countries, but about how to deal with people who may have different ways of doing things. The aim is to provide learners with strategies that they can use to cope with diversity, and ultimately to create value out of that diversity. The second approach focuses on preparing people to work with specific cultures or in specific contexts; this is called culture-specific training. Sometimes learners will only need to deal with one or two cultures. This is typical for expatriates who are posted abroad for a period of time, and need to have some understanding about how a specific culture works, and what behaviour is or is not acceptable. There are many ways for our learners to understand the nature of culture, general or specific. Researchers and cultural commentators have identified different dimensions as a method of analyzing and describing what is happening. Dimensions are perspectives which allow us to measure and compare certain attributes of different cultures, although it must always be remembered that other cultures may see these attributes quite differently. Named dimensions are very useful for the business English teacher because they help to generate useful discussion and debate about relevant issues. The particular discussion formats and activities that teachers may choose to employ will depend on the group of learners and what they are trying to achieve. [3,113] 360

Instructors can prompt discussion about various aspects of different cultures introducing the following activities: 1. Learners study a series of advertisements from their own and other countries taken from the TV, radio, magazines, the Internet etc. 2. Learners compare CVs or tips on writing CVs from different countries. 3. Learners look at the way different news agencies report the same item of news. 4. With more experienced groups, teachers can ask students to bring in examples of email correspondence from different countries or companies. In class students will discuss the differences in approach. 5. Teacher cans also elicit anecdotes about meetings with people from other cultures and prompt a discussion how they do things. 6. Teacher can urge students to examine how different cultures use metaphors in different ways. For example, a discussion of English expressions involving time can be used to focus on how different cultures view time. What does it mean to waste time? How can a person run out of time? How is it possible to save time? The English language provides a rich source of metaphorical language which is wonderful to exploit in an intercultural training context. [3,116] Donna states that instructors can raise learners awareness of cultural factors in communication in a variety of ways. Teachers should encourage students to become aware of any behavior or language which is distinctive of any particular culture by pointing out this whenever appropriate. Instructor dont have to encourage students to adopt a British or American style of communicating, but needs to raise their awareness of what is considered acceptable or preferable in English in a particular situation; then students have to decide for themselves how they should speak or write. Instructor can raise students awareness of their corporate or industrial culture by commenting on or eliciting differences between formats used in standard memos, and those preferred in the students corporate or industrial culture, as even departmental culture may be significant, for example, sales personnel may behave and speak very differently from marketing personnel. Instructor can help students to select and combine words, phrases and sentences consistently in terms of cultural or sub-cultural style, 361

that is to help students who want to appear professional in business negotiations to develop and English-speaking personality, which is internally consistent and appropriate for the students situation. Students should choose assertive phrases such as, Hi, let me introduce myself. Im. Youre new here, arent you? Students should use similarly assertive language at other times as in What can I do for you? [2,111] Kramsch states that what we perceive about a persons culture and language is what we have been conditioned by our own culture to see, and the stereotypical models already built around our own. [5,81] Gibson defines a stereotype as a fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is not true to reality. The word comes from printing, where it was used to describe the printing plate used to produce the same image over and over again. Generalizations and categories are necessary, but when they are too rigid they can barrier to the effective interpretation of a situation. In intercultural communication, in particular, it is vital to distinguish between what is a part of a persons cultural background and what is part of their personality. Hofstede uses the model of the pyramid to illustrate three levels of uniqueness in human mental programming. Every person is in some way like all other people, some, or none. We do and think some things because we are human: for instance, we want to sleep, eat, and survive. These are universal and inherited characteristics. We also do and think some things because of our culture: this might determine, for instance, when we eat and sleep, and how far we try to survive. These are characteristics which are specific to a particular group of people, and are learnt. We also do and think some things because of our individual personality. These characteristics are specific to us as individuals, and are both inherited and learnt. When trying to understand the behaviour of a person it is important to consider all of these three levels. Within a culture there will be a range of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior. It is possible to generalize about a culture, but care should be taken in applying those generalizations to individuals.[4,12] 362

We often judge other cultures by the way they differ from our own way of doing things. Frendo introduces the term ethnocentricity which refers to the judging of another culture using ones own standards and beliefs; good interculturalists, of course, try not to do this. This is related to cultural relativism, which refers to the idea that we see everything in terms of our own culture, and that therefore complete neutrality is not possible. If intercultural training is about equipping people to cope with differences in a business context, then one way to do this is by raising awareness of these differences; this might help learners to become less ethnocentric. It can be difficult to analyze objectively our culture from our own internal perspective. Instructor can help learners to understand their own culture doing the following activities in class; he asks students to list stereotypes about their own country. A possible questionnaire could look like this: How do people from other cultures see your culture? Students have to write down three positive and three negative characteristics. Students can also be asked to list stereotypes for other cultures? With a group containing people from different organizations the instructor asks students to list the normal way of doing certain things in their organization, such as: Who has authority to sign certain contracts? What quality procedures are used? What constitutes acceptable business dress? How long do people stay at work? As a variation, instructor can ask learners to list tips on how to do business in a foreign country they know or may have visited. Then teacher asks them to produce a similar list for their own country, the aim being to produce a guide for foreign visitors. Teacher can ask the group to prepare a guide for workers new to the company. Learners may need some prompts: What is it like to work in this company? Students are asked to give information about workers rights, holidays, pay, union representation, working conditions, how criticism and complaints are treated, hierarchy, recruitment, and dismissal etc.[3, p.117- 118] Culture shock is described by Oberg as follows: it is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs or cues include the thousands and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life: when 363

to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to give orders to servants, how to make purchases, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take the statements seriously, and when not. Now these cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs or norms, are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up, and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak, or the belief we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of theses cues, even if we are often not consciously aware of them. Culture shock is the reaction to living in a new country, its symptoms can include strain, sense of loss, feeling rejected, confusion, anxiety, helplessness and obsession with hygiene. Physical symptoms can include: headaches, sleeplessness, overeating, and desire for comfort foods as for instance, chocolate, excessive consumption of alcohol and stomach pains. [4, 15] To deal with culture shock Frendo suggests the ways the instructor can make learners more aware of culture, and these are more affective or experiential in the way they work. Typical of these methods are role-plays and simulations where emotions and interpersonal skills are brought into play. For example there is activity Turn-taking for pair work. Teacher tells each pair of learners that they are to have a conversation with each other in English. The activity will last about five minutes. Each learner gets a card: Person A should have a conversation with the partner. It can be about anything which is relevant to their workplace, such as recent events, plans for reorganization, or new products. It is As job to make sure that the conversation goes on for at least five minutes. Person B should have a conversation with the partner. It can be about anything which is relevant to their workplace, such as recent events, plans for reorganization, or new products. However, B must always leave at least a five second pause before he/she speaks. This shows respect for the partner. This activity is designed to make learners more aware of how turn-taking in conversations takes place. What normally happens is that person A finds the silences uncomfortable, and may want to fill them with more conversation, which may make it difficult for person B to get a chance to speak. 364

Culture shock activity is for 4-6 learners. Instructor asks two people to leave the room, and give each of them one of the following role-cards to read: Person A is going to meet some foreign business people for the first time. However, A has to follow some cultural rules. If someone asks A a question with a smile, A may answer. A should not answer if there is no smile, because it means the questioner is very rude. A has always to agree with anything someone of the opposite sex says; it keeps them happy. A should not ask any questions. Person B is going to meet some foreign business people for the first time. However, B has to follow some cultural rules. If someone asks B a question with a smile, B may answer. B shouldnt not answer if there is no smile, because it means the questioner is very rude. B has to agree with anything someone of the same sex says; it keeps them happy. B should not ask any questions. The rest of the group are told that they are going to meet some foreign business people for the first time. They have no idea where they come from or what they do, although the rest have been told that they speak some English. The boss wants the group to try and find out as much as possible. What happens is that the group goes through some culture shock, as they realize that the others are operating to different rules, and that they do not know what those rules are. The value of the activity is enriched by getting both sides to discuss how they felt and what they thought was happening. Activity Cultural Rules is for any number of learners. Instructor informs the learners that they are going to take part in a simulation to practice small talk. The setting should be something relevant to the group, such as a trade fair reception, a product launch, or a conference opening ceremony. Each learner gets a role card which asks him or her to behave in a certain way, as follows: You come from a culture where it is rude to look someone in the eye. You come from a culture where it is normal to keep at least an arms length between people. You come from a culture where you answer Yes if you think 365

the person wants you to agree with them. Saying No is very impolite. You come from a culture where it is normal for you to hold someones hand when you talk to them. You come from a culture where it is normal to move around when you speak to other people. You come from a culture where it is normal to keep a distance of about 25 cm between people when you talk to them. You come from a culture where it is normal to examine peoples ears while you talk to them. You come from a culture where it is normal to speak very quietly. You come from a culture where it is normal to speak very loudly You come from a culture where it is normal to place your hand on peoples shoulders when you talk to them. [3, p. 119- 120] Building awareness of cultural differences is not enough. Learners need to be able to cope with the differences, and to do this they need practice. Intercultural trainers therefore use case studies or critical incidents in order to present learners with a problem that needs to be solved. Because students are not personally involved in the situation, they can usually discuss the issues objectively, and decide upon a course of action. Critical incidents focus on differences from a practical rather than theoretical perspective. Sometimes learners do not find a solution, or find that there is no perfect solution, but this is a reflection of the real world rather than a failure of the method. Here is an example, which may be used in pair or group discussion work Critical Incident: Joe Williams is an engineer who is sent by his company to work in a subsidiary abroad. There he finds that meetings are very different from what he is used to. Meetings in his new country seem to be used as a way for the department head to issue instructions and to explain what is to happen, rather than as a place to brainstorm and gather ideas as a team, which is what he is used to. Then Joe is promoted to head of department. How should he run meetings in future? It should be concluded that the role of the Business English instructor is to teach language and communication. It is important to make learners 366

aware of the interrelationships between language, communication and culture as it will help them better understand the interrelationship for themselves, avoid conflicts arising out of the negligent or innocent use of inappropriate language and communication and a void pitfalls that may lead to a dysfunctional working environment.
RefeRences

1. Brieger, Nick. Teaching Business English Handbook. - York Associates Publication, 1997. - 192 p. 2. Donna, Sylvie. Teach Business English. - Cambridge University Press, 2000.-370 p. 3. Frendo, Evan. How to Teach Business English. - Pearson Education Limited, 2005.- 162 p. 4. Gibson, Robert. Intercultural Business Communication. - Oxford University press, 2000.-111p. 5. Kramsch, Claire. Language and Culture. - Oxford University Press, 2006.-134 p. 6. Mole, John. Mind Your Manners. - Nicholas Brealey Publishing: London, 2003.- 275 p.

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TO THE PROBLEM OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION WITH MODULAR TECHNOLOGIES Elena TANURKoVA, Chief Specialist of the Department of Public Education (Tiraspol).
ABSTRACT

The modular technologies are innovation for improving the quality of education. It is a psychological and educational technology and it requires a learner-centered approach. The quality of educational process and personal development of students depend on the level of creativity, professional competence and pedagogical culture of teachers. It goes without saying that the professional qualities being a structure can be developed. There was carried an experiment on creating an innovative model to improve the quality of education with applying modular technology at school. The evaluation of a teachers work is supposed to be objective, effective and systematic. In this connection the system which consists of six modules are implemented. They reflect the results of the main activities of a teacher to develop critical skills of students as well as professional achievement of a teacher. One of the main directions of the development of general education is to raise attention to improving the quality of education. This important issue affects the social and pedagogical aspects. Social character of this urgent problem manifests itself in the quality of education under the requirements of the state, societys demands and needs of people. At school children should receive the opportunity to discover their abilities, prepare for life in the high tech competitive world. Analysis of foreign sources and trends in the development of education in the modern world has shown a number of common problems for all countries. American philosopher-futurist, post-industrial society theorist A. Toffler, describing modern education wrote: The most criticized feature of todays education is regimentation, the neglect of personality ... the authoritarian role of the teacher [5]. 368

In the a report to the Club of Rome No limits to Learning in 1979 by J. Botkin, M. Maliza and M. Elmandzheroy [1] there were considered the terms of going beyond the traditional concept of education, and faced to the active role of human beings. Overcoming the crisis in the world there should be a matter of a new initiative aimed at developing the human capacity for understanding and learning. The authors point out the inconsistency of national educational systems for the future needs of society. The ddiscussion of issues in education begins from the ancient times and continues to this day. Educational issues are among the perennial problems as related to understanding of philosophy of science, human society. Since Aristotle believed that education should be under state control, and no one can doubt that the legislator should be handled with exceptional attention to education of youth, as in the states where education receives little attention, the very political system suffers from this. And in the modern world, public policy in education is a determining factor in the development of society, because education in the modern world has become a complex socio-economic mechanism that plays a decisive role in the progress of mankind. Educational problems are universal throughout the world, as they are related to finding ways to overcome the crisis. The leading idea of the traditional education, progressive in the Middle Ages the full development of personality is not in conflict with the limited in its scope and content of medieval science. Medieval paradigm of education is at odds with modern scientific knowledge and human capabilities of its assimilation. The crisis of education lacks of adequate accounts of individual abilities for different types of activities, congestion of all subjects. At the end of the XX century there was unfolded geopolitical competition for quality of education and quality of the intellectual resources of the world. Quality of education is the main condition for economic competitiveness of the country and its national security. Therefore in the centre of the development strategy of the state of education must be put its quality. 369

Comparative analysis was done by Russian researchers, headed by B.L.Wolfson [8].He is Corresponding Member of RAE, the renowned scholar comparativist in his writings revealed the contradictions in the processes of education in todays world, touched the problem of European educational integration and explored philosophical and sociological foundations of educational thought in the West. B.L. Wolfson rightly noted that globalization increased international competition in education. However, unlike other spheres of public life, the competition can evolve in a peaceful manner and not only lead to controversy, but rather, promote cultural enrichment. The solution of this important task is largely complicated by the crisis in education that is developed in the context of a deep and multifaceted global crisis of civilization. The scientist identified and disclosed in detail common to all countries and peoples of features that characterize the crisis in education. Theres observed discrepancy between the educational systems of the objective requirements of the modern stage of social development, the gap between the growing social needs in education and real opportunities to meet them, the deterioration of education quality, lack of teaching staff, weak scientific and methodological support of educational process, increasing the gap between elite and mass education. It should be noted that education, unlike in other regions is a sphere of activity where achieving the results can not be ensured. The education system must be constantly taken into account, the price of public expenditure, those goals must be achieved. It is about minimizing the negative effects of the educational process, such as fatigue, poor health, decreased motivation, inadequate self-esteem. The changes made in the field of education should conform to the anthropological approach to understanding the human being as selfworth. Humanistic-oriented philosophy of education should be the basis of qualitative upgrade of the educational process at all levels. The available research includes such areas to improve the quality of education as technologization of educational process, modular and active approach to training, quality management education based on 370

new information technologies, use of monitoring as the primary means of information about the quality of education. To achieve a high level of quality of general education is to change attitude to the educational activity, which should be optimal, individualized and technological. Improving the quality of education in a learner-centered approach involves discovering, developing and implementation in practice of new educational technologies. The idea of modular training emerged in the English-speaking countries in the late 60s and early 70s of the last century. The origin of modular training is associated with the emergence of a foreign concept learning content units. The promote education the International Commission of UNESCO published in the journal The Courier the work from the International Study in Education: 21 recommendations, concluding that education should be guided by the following fundamental ideas: democratization, continuity, and flexibility. The modular system has been recommended for lifelong learning. One of the founders of modular training J. Russell defined as a modular training package, covering the conceptual unit of educational material to students and prescribed actions [4]. According to B. Goldschmidt, M. Goldschmidt module is an autonomous, independent unit in a set number of training activities designed to help students achieve some clearly defined goals [2]. Introduction into the practice of school innovation requires the thorough analysis and disclosure of all the main characteristics. The activities of students in the learning module go through several stages of learning in accordance with psychological characteristics of the development: perception, understanding, comprehension, memory use, compilation, systematization. In accordance with this theory they consist of modular training principles formulated by the Lithuanian team of researchers led by P.A. Yutsyavichene[9]. Modular training combines the advantages of different pedagogical techniques. Modular training can be attributed to a number of interactive technologies, as well as a modular technology is aimed at revitalizing themselves in the educational process and their development. 371

Modular training is psychological and educational technology and requires a learner-centered approach. Education in school is impossible without taking into consideration the age, gender, individual identity of a child. The modular technology is aimed at mastering new knowledge and different kinds of learning activities, taking into account the development of modern technology, enabling advanced search, application and processing of educational information by computer. Thus, this kind of technology is closely related to modern information technology. Communication technologies aimed at improving ways of interacting with people are associated with the organization of the pair, group, collective and individual work. Since the modular training involves the use of these forms of work and contributes to the improvement of communication skills, cooperation, modular technology can also be attributed to the number of communication technologies. Since the modular training required input control knowledge, as well as control of mastering the material in the transition from one to another element, and a final control, the most convenient and efficient method is testing. This is because the test control of knowledge allows for a short period of time to objectively assess to each students knowledge on a given interval of the study subjects. These test items must be in the system corresponding to an integrated didactic purpose of the module. The choice of study program is provided by the students. It provides a basic minimum knowledge and an opportunity for creative development of students personality. Because modular technology suggests the possibility of differentiation in learning, it positively affects the quality of education and development of students. Philosophical understanding of the quality of education shows us those distinguishes of education from other social phenomena, systems and activities. Quality of education is an integral feature of the educational system, which includes not only a certain level of knowledge and skills, but also reflects the compliance progress of education needs of an individual, the measure of the realization of individual human capabilities, its success in social and professional opportunities. 372

Conditions for improving the quality of education are: 1. Changing the paradigm of education for the knowledge system based on humanistic philosophy, where the main asset is people. 2. Qualitative renewal of the educational process at all levels by creating natural educational environment. 3. Diagnostics and analysis in various directions and at all stages of the educational process. Quality management education is based on modern communication technologies. 4. Objective assessment of the results achieved, the actual quality of education, which comply with the objectives, educational standards. 5. Correction of the educational process according to changing customers and learners requirements. 6. Training teachers work in new conditions, taking into account the positive past teaching experience, innovation capacity of the teaching staff of educational institutions. 7. Application of effective pedagogical techniques, advances teaching of science with the realities of schools in health-protection and psychological support to students. It is necessary to develop step by step introduction to the educational process of modular programs and details of the preparation and conduct of module lessons. Inclusion of new technology into the learning process requires tests and a gradual, phased introduction of the light of intellectual level and mental development of schoolchildren, as well as careful consideration of all components of the modular technology. New approaches to the way of life require improving the quality of general education. The general education of the new quality can be improved only on condition of pedagogical activities. The quality of the educational process and personal development of students depend on the level of creativity, professional competence and pedagogical culture of teachers. The profession of a teacher is a special profession. Teachers take up to many ordinary decisions every time in the presence of pupils with different interactions. In such circumstances a modern teacher must possess a number of qualities that allow him to solve problems in 373

a professional manner. Therefore one of the main activities at school is to develop teaching skills. Professional qualities of a teacher are characteristics of the individual which include teaching competence, pedagogical skills and significant qualities of an individual image of a teacher [6]. It goes without saying that the professional qualities being a structure can be developed. This area is one of the most important in the conception and development program of the general school. Methodical and professional experience was gained by the pedagogical staff at the Kamenka School no.3 in Transnistria for over 35 years. There was a steady hard-working team with creativity in it. The desire for stability and a sense of new, innovative combination of the classical tradition are characteristics for teachers of the school. The school was involved in the work of the research laboratory, entitled Examination of the Quality of Education at the Transnistrian Institute for Educational Development. In the Kamenka region this institution is an assistant reference for quality management of education. The analysis of the problem of improving the quality of education in the student-centered learning, growing interest in interactive technologies, the requirements of optimizing the educational process, the experience of school in search of innovation are important and actual problems for schools nowadays. The teaching staff of the school has the motto: Improving the quality of education based on a modular approach. There was carried an experiment on a creating an innovative model to improve the quality of education with applying modular technology at school. There was created the program for the development of the school. The program allows reaching the school development priorities in the modernization of the educational system. The plan for improving the educational process through the introduction of modern achievements of science teaching and teaching practice was formed for innovative educational environment that promotes educational culture, simulates and designs a human environment of the educational process. 374

The school works out the system for improving the quality of education and it focuses on high results in the educational activity. The contribution of each teacher and the quality of teaching activity is taken into account. Systematic diagnosis of their own work by the teachers and by school administrations and its results are essential for improving the quality of education [3]. The evaluation of the teachers work is supposed to be objective and systematic. In this connection the system which consists of six modules are implemented. They reflect the results of the main activities of a teacher to formulate and develop critical skills of students (academic, intellectual and general cultural, social, informational and communicative), as well as professional achievement as to the diligence of a teacher. The professional success of a teacher accumulates in the portfolio, which allows defining a pedagogical nature of a teacher, his achievements in his professional activity. This may be a basis for popularizing expertise and experience. The level of professionalism is revealed in the analysis, self-analysis and evaluation of the effectiveness of a teachers activities [7]. The modular approach to the analysis of the educational process provides an objective assessment of professional activities of a teacher. It may be implemented in a self-assessment by a teacher together with an external assessment by the administration of the general education organization. Conducting the systematic diagnosis in the study group confirmed the readiness for the introduction of educational innovations, as well as the level of professionalism and high creativity of school teachers. During the experimental period teachers worked out and tested innovative forms of teaching school subjects, based on modular technology. Joint efforts are aimed at achieving common goals and effective results and at solving important problems connected with the development of the personality of a teacher and students on the basis of equality and partnership in the joint activity. Pedagogy of cooperation is characteristic for modular technology. 375

The pedagogical activity in the condition of a modular approach is characterized by certain peculiarities. They are as follows: the clarity of purposes; flexible means of achieving these goals; the variability of the contents, forms and methods; consideration of the subjective experience of learners and their individual abilities; a differentiated approach; dynamic of the learning process. Relations between a teacher and a student are established on the parity basis. The teachers role changes significantly using the modular approach [9]. The active use of innovative technologies by school teachers is a self goal, a means of improving the pedagogical skills, of effective activities of students in achieving higher educational results. The experience shows the correctness of the chosen areas of the work for improving the quality of education. This is confirmed by successful participation of the students of school, at the Research Society Conferences, Olympiads and creative competitions at various levels. Thus, necessity for implementing a modular approach in the practice of secondary school is required to give personal development of trainees, increasing individualization of education, continuity of instruction in upper secondary schools and universities, the creation of entirely new learning environment, based on the use of information and communication technologies. The conclusion is that the school system promotes professional growth and creativity of teachers. The modular technologies are innovations for improving the quality of education. The improvement of the quality of general education is possible thanks to the development of potential abilities of teachers and to the activization of the process of assimilation of pedagogical ideas and the introduction of efficient modular technologies.

REFERENCES

1. Botkin J.W., Elmandzheroy M., Maliza M. No limits to Learning. Bridging the Human Gap. Report to the Club of Rome. - Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1979.-159 p. 2. Goldschmidt B., Goldschmidt M. Modular Instruction in Higher Education //Higher Education, 2, 1989 - p.15-32. 3. Managing the Quality of Education / Edited by M.M. Potashnik. M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2007. - 448 p. 4. Russell J.D. Modular Instruction // A Guide to the Design, Selection, Utilization and Evaluation of Modular Materials. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess PublishingCompany.-1988. - 164 p. 5. Toffler A. Futuroshock.- M., 1997.- p. 324-327. 6. Volkov V.N. Assessing Teachers Professional Accomplishments by the Director of the Educational Institution. Abstract for an academic degree of Ph.D. St.. Petersburg, 2001. 23 p.

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APPLICATIONS OF THE NLP LOGICAL LEVELS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: A LINGUISTIC APPROACH Cristina Mihaela ZAMFIR, PhD. Teaching Assistant, Ionela IoNIIU, PhD. Teaching Assistant, Department of Modern Languages,Ovidius University of Constana, Romania
ABSTRACT:

model known as the context of situation had been suggested by Halliday for the purpose of interpreting the social context of a text, the environment in which meanings are being exchanged (Halliday and Hasan 1989:12, emphasis added). His definition is closely connected with the level of environment, the basic level in NLP. It sums up all the external factors and constraints which impact an organization and refers to the sensory experience (what we see, hear and feel) as the primary way we get information about reality. In a business context, the environment could be an international round of negotiations, a one-toone interview, or a new market place.

This paper aims at exploring a fascinating new field called NeuroLinguistic Programming (NLP), a powerful tool which is nowadays used in professional business communication. From the NLP perspective, there are neuro-logical levels that are concerned with mental and cognitive processes behind business peoples behaviour in specific contexts. Their role is to reflect, through certain linguistic cues, the way in which people of different beliefs, identities and cultures can learn how to thrive in relationships of trust and respect. Applications of the NLP logical levels in business interactions allow for the mapping of cognitive sequences which show us what role to play, how to establish values and beliefs, develop capabilities or adjust behaviour in order to set clear outcomes and enhance leadership performance. Key words: business communication, beliefs, cognitive processes, identity, values, NLP

2. The Language Patterns of Logical Levels

In NLP view, behaviour relates to the specific physical actions and reactions through which we interact with the people and environment around us (Dilts and DeLozier 2000:94). The activities a person does in a certain context become his/her specific behaviours by means of which s/he interfaces with the environment. Behavioural flexibility is essentially the answer to the question what, i.e. ones own behaviour can be modeled on a particular situation or change in a system. To put it differently, both organizations and individuals adapt themselves to the environment through their behaviour which can be either verbal or non-verbal. At the organizational level, behaviour could be a verbal complaint, for example, by the companys shareholders about a bad crisis management. Similarly, a foreign investor might change up his mind, stand up and walk out of the trade talks. Benefiting from a range of choices about how to intervene and lead, we appeal to a number of techniques among which changing behaviour through language and feelings and working within peoples model of the world with the aim of finding out what drives them and use that to change their behaviour. Further on, the middle of Dilts pyramid stands for the level of capabilities whose position between our beliefs and our behaviours makes us associate them with the pragmatic function of how to turn our beliefs and values into tangible behaviours (Dilts and DeLozier 379

1. Introduction
Language is the fundamental way that helps us to make maps and descriptions for each of the five NLP logical levels. Katan has also taken the view that Neuro-Linguistic Programming has a great deal to offer linguistics, since a lot of frameworks for the organization of the communication process have been created by linguists and ethnomethodologists (Katan 2004:53). In this respect, a communication 378

2000:143). The fact should be mentioned that, in NLP, capabilities operate as a mental map which guides peoples specific behaviours and provides perception and direction to continuously and elegantly perform the behavioural skill they have been learning (Dilts and DeLozier 2000:143). Many contributors to the field of NLP, among whom Katan and Hall, also believe that a desired behaviour can only be accomplished by means of appropriate skills and capabilities. For example, Katan supports the idea that capabilities reflect patterns of behaviour and are concerned with an individuals mental strategies, or, as Hall calls them action chains: This is the level of appropriateness, pragmatics and norms that are instrumental in the organization of discourse and genre [] Our capabilities are part of our cognitive environment or mental map and organize our visible verbal or nonverbal behaviour (Katan 2004:54). The shareholders from the previous example having a majority stake in the company will need good financial assessments to support their verbal complaint about the way crisis management is handled. The Arabs leaving the negotiation room can be a strategic decision to determine the other party to concede. Cognitively, a strategy is an individuals mental map used to logically arrange activities with a view to obtaining an effective outcome. The Random House Dictionary defines strategy as a detailed plan for reaching a goal or advantage. From the NLP perspective, it is a mental program composed of a sequence of representational activities (internal visual images, sounds, feelings, smells, tastes) which make up for each programmed step in the strategy and shape our sense of reality. The sensory specific language patterns involved help to identify the steps of a strategy. They represent peoples mental strategy and are known as predicates. Linguistically, they are verbs, adverbs and adjectives. The visual system can be characterized by such words and expressions as see, look, sight, clear, bright, picture, hazy, brings to light, show, the auditory system may include words and phrases like hear, listen, sound, resonant, loud, word, noisy, rings a bell, tell, whereas the 380

kinesthetic system makes use of the following words grasp, touch, feeling, solid, heavy, handle, rough, connects, move. The use of one of these three senses characterizes each of the steps in a strategy. For example, e.g. (1) I ask myself, What decision do I have to take next? (2) Then I envisage the various alternatives (3) and approach the one that feels right to me. As one goes through a thinking process, steps and sensory predicates such as the above ones are necessary. The first step corresponds to the auditory constructed pattern rendered by the auditory verb asked myself, the second step is indicated by the visual constructed pattern centered around the verb envisage, and the third step draws on a kinesthetic approach whose linguistic cue is the verb feels right. The next organizational layer of the iceberg is the invisible layer of beliefs and values. The elements included within this level refer to core beliefs, values, attitudes and criteria. It should be pointed out that the strategies specific to the level of capabilities account for mental maps and operations which closely relate certain beliefs and values to specific behaviours. Therefore, strategies are a result of and themselves trigger key beliefs and values. The concept of beliefs is mainly associated with a motivational factor which stimulates capabilities (Dilts and DeLozier 2000; McLaren 2000; Katan 2004; Molden and Hutchinson 2006). Beliefs emerge from the deep structure and become the shaper of our thoughts and actions in the surface structure. As Katan aptly puts it, A belief in ones capabilities to do something in a particular environment, whether it be in the booth interpreting at a conference, translating a manual, or mediating a negotiation, will enable capabilities, skills and encyclopaedic knowledge to be employed to their maximum (Katan 2004:55). Thus, the application of beliefs relies on capabilities. For example, the companys shareholders will need to have good knowledge of the companys financial statements and be able to ask clarifying questions to get to the root of the economic crisis. 381

Cognitive maps identify the reasons why we believe in a particular outcome by responding to the following why questions: e.g. Why is it desirable?, Why is it possible?, Why is this the appropriate path?, Why am I / are we capable?, Why are you / we responsible? Moreover, by answering the why questions, one should be able to link causes to the specific belief statement. From a linguistic point of view, these causes are prompted by key words called connectives. Their function would be to give us a real insight into the causes of a specific belief. Basically, they link one idea to another, and signal different types of relationship between ideas. These connectives are represented by the following subordinating conjunctions: after, although, because, before, if, in the same way that, so that, therefore, whenever, while. Maintaining the belief statement constant while adding different connectives at the end of it is likely to offer a larger picture of supporting reasons:

(Source: Dilts and DeLozier 2000:147) 382

It would be desirable that each new sentence prompted by subordinating conjunctions begins with the first personal pronouns I or We to ensure the individuals full association with the experience: Belief: I / We have the capabilities necessary to implement an advantageous pricing strategy and maintain product quality. Cause or reason because I / we want to be successful on the market. (Why are you capable to reach the outcome?) Cause therefore I / we must intensify our marketing efforts. (What is the effect or requirement of this belief?) Time after I / we have made a thorough consumer survey. (What has to happen to support this belief/before the outcome occurs?) while I / we still have the highest export performance. (What else is going on concurrently with this belief?) whenever I / we have to deal with a new competitor successfully entering the market. (What is the key condition relating to this belief?) Purpose so that our new range of goods outsells all the others. (What is the intention of this belief?) Conditional if I / we want to exceed our sales targets. (What constraints or results relate to this belief?) Contrast * although I / we still have a rather poor distribution network in some areas. (What alternatives or constraints are there to this belief?) Comparison in the same way that other well-known companies in the industry have managed it. (What is a similar belief that you already have?) 383

The cluster of different connectors contributes to creating a coherent set of affirmations which can only strengthen confidence in the belief. Our first observation would be that, by deleting the connectives (with the exception of although) at the beginning of each statement, one will be surprised that the resulting set of responses provides motivation for supporting the belief due to this valuable statement of reasons. Secondly, we realized that some of the connectives were easier to respond to than others. When choosing some of them at random, we found that a different order for responding to the prompts, other than the original listed order, was much easier to be tackled. This is because, when dealing with certain connectives, we felt more comfortable with adding whatever spontaneously came to our mind. Nevertheless, the temptation to leave some of the prompts blank was great, but we discovered later that it was exactly the prompts we had initially thought of to be difficult to answer which eventually brought some of the most unexpected, interesting and perceptive results. From a linguistic perspective, the basic structure of beliefs is framed on complex equivalences and cause-effect relationships since the combination of complex equivalences and cause-effect relationships form the basis for our belief systems and are the fundamental processes behind programming (Dilts and DeLozier 2000:145, emphasis added). These verbal patterns may be looked upon as the building blocks of our beliefs and are the linguistic structures which help us build our maps of the world. The first linguistic statements, i.e. complex equivalences, imply equivalences between different aspects of our experience (A=B, or A means B). Through this language pattern definitions of values are generally provided and evidences for whether or not values have been met are established. For example, statements such as: e.g. Extending your business means you are a good investor. High inflation means a rise in consumer prices. Working together as a team is intensely competitive. could be examples of complex equivalences reflecting beliefs. 384

The second linguistic statements, i.e. cause-effect relationships, represent the causal link between values and other aspects of our experience. This is frequently established by using verbs like cause, make, force, leads to, results in/from. The causes and consequences of particular values are mirrored through the use of such linguistic structures. One can view the cause-effect relationship in two directions: e.g. 1. The recent rise in interest rates has led to bankruptcies. the cause the verb linking the effect the cause to the effect 2. Many bankruptcies have resulted from the rise in interest rates. the effect the verb leading the effect to the cause Semantically, in the first example, the verb has led to is similar in meaning with verbs and verb phrases like give rise to, result in, account for, bring about, be responsible for. In the second example, the verb have resulted from may have as perfect synonyms the following verbs and verb phrases: arise from, stem from, or be attributable to. The words we use express our beliefs. Consequently, the language we use is a means of communicating our thoughts, beliefs and values. Our values are the embodiment of our beliefs. Websters Dictionary (1996:1578) defines values as the principles, qualities or entities that are intrinsically valuable or desirable. Our outcomes are usually influenced and directed by such values as a sense of achievement, recognition, praise, success, creativity, or responsibility. We set ourselves goals which match our values and motivate us. In NLP, values and goals are intrinsically linked, goals can be considered values which have been placed into some future location on ones time line (Dilts and DeLozier 2000:1519). In comparison with 385 the cause

Dilts and DeLozier, Molden (1996) has a more holistic approach to values in the professional business context. He distinguishes only two types of values, i.e. means values and end values which lead to job satisfaction. Thus, whether a value is end or means is highly supported by our capabilities. In Moldens (1996:13) opinion, nurturing ones values provides motivation to get things done: Means values feed end values, and they are very powerful. In the example, e.g. It is important to succeed with our existing brand name (means value) because I want to stretch it on a different type of product (end value). the main clause represents the means value, while the subordinate clause stands for the end value. Other examples of this type could be: e.g. I enjoy working with these subcontractors because (this means) increases in demand will be assured. e.g. I expect massive increases in demand from my team because (by this means) our company will become a household name. e.g. Its essential to develop a household name because (by this means) we will be able to grow the export side of our business. e.g. Having a strong economic growth (means that) expansion opportunities will be taken by our company to set up stronger manufacturing bases.

success End value = acknowledgement Means value growth development/expansion

In the examples above, the means value leads to the end value which means success, acknowledgement, growth and development/expansion, respectively. Therefore, the result can be rendered as: 386

In logical levels terms, groups of values are clusters about identity. As Dilts and DeLozier (2000:1521) mention, The identity of any system or organization forms around mutually held core values. Values and criteria highlight peoples meta program patterns. Peoples thinking styles display different meta program patterns. For example, a manager who values scheduling is more likely to be task oriented than a manager who places a high value on partnership and who is more likely to be relationship oriented. In a similar way, a salesperson who values aggressive marketing tactics is more proactive and self referenced than a seller who focuses more on customers satisfaction and welcoming customers complaints and who is more likely to be reactive and other referenced. In our analysis of the function of values, we found it necessary to approach them from both a linguistic and a NLP point of view. Thus, we encountered six language patterns that are used to influence and shift perceptions with respect to values and beliefs. The linguistic structures of nominalizations, lost performatives, modal operators of necessity, universal quantifiers are most likely to show how values are reflected in language. Nominalizations like achievement, improvement, success, consensus, safety, encouragement are among those linguistic patterns which could be included in the category of general terms indicating values. They are derived from a verbal root, mainly by suffixation, and often occur in subject position to strengthen a persons belief in and commitment to the value itself: e.g. Consensus is important and desirable because I need to strike the bargain. Success is important and desirable if I want to be productive and economically viable. Achievement is important and desirable so that I can enjoy the best results and be a model for my team mates. As it is clearly seen, all the above examples follow the pattern:

important Value desirable

387

connective + subordinate clause

Another linguistic category which characterizes value statements is made up of lost performatives or judgements. Expressing value judgements can be rendered by adjectives like good, bad, right, wrong, helpful, dangerous, crazy, unethical, valuable, useful, worthless whose syntactic function is that of subject complements: e.g. Greed is bad. Bribery is bad. Sponsorship is helpful. Charity is useful. Discrimination is unethical. One cannot identify the person doing the judgement unless one recovers the lost performative by asking Meta-Model questions. Through its system of questions, the Meta-Model helps challenge these value statements as follows: Who says greed is bad? Bad or good according to what? Helpful compared to what? Useful according to whom and what criteria? Would it be unethical if you used discrimination? The next two language structures, i.e. modal operators of necessity should, must, have to, is important, is necessary and universal quantifiers always, ever, never, every time combine to form statements like should always, should never, must always, must never, always have to, never have to, it is always important to, it is always necessary to: e.g. It is always necessary to establish priorities. It is always important to honour the contracts straightaway. I should always involve staff more in decision-making. I should always confirm in writing any important statements made during a conversation. I should never cease production on a long term. I always have to rethink marketing strategies depending on which country I export to. It is always important that I should be present. The use of should in should always involve expresses a recommendation to be taken into account. Similarly, in should always confirm, should is used to say that something is right and desirable. The meaning of the same modal auxiliary in should never cease is very close to must, because it seems to be closer to an obligation than 388

just a recommendation. In the context where have to is used, the modal auxiliary refers to a present necessity and can be substituted by must. Thus, the two modal verbs can be interchangeable. A change of marketing strategies becomes almost compulsory since selling in Japan differs from selling in Germany, for instance. Should used in a clause following the adjective important expresses a moral obligation or duty. For a broad interpretation of values and beliefs, Dilts and DeLozier agree upon the thing that developing awareness and skill with respect to language patterns such as nominalizations, lost performatives, modal operators of necessity, universal quantifiers, complex equivalences and cause-effect statements can help people to both recognize belief and values statements in others, and to discuss and define values with the minimum amount of deletion, distortion and generalization (Dilts and DeLozier 2000:1524, emphasis added). From the NLP perspective, being congruent means being in harmony with yourself, your behaviour corresponds to your values and identity.

3. Conclusions
Our research into the NLP approach to language has led us to see NLP like a hologram, giving us the opportunity to make interconnections between the level of beliefs and certain Meta-Model linguistic categories. Words like right, wrong, appropriate, inappropriate, good, bad, modals such as can and cannot, should and should not tell us a lot of things about someones values and beliefs. That is why we consider NLP as a hologram, because we have discovered close connections between the level of beliefs, for example, and specific Meta-Model language patterns like judgements, modal operators, complex equivalences, or cause-effect relationships. To conclude, it is interesting to study the logical levels of NLP for changing the way people think and feel and for leading them through behaviour, using language and beliefs, or by suggesting feelings. We examined some of the working behaviours, beliefs and values that businesspeople usually want to change in order to set up well-formed outcomes. 389

RefeRences

1. Dilts, Robert and Judith DeLozier, Encyclopedia of NeuroLinguistic Programming and NLP New Coding, Santa Cruz: NLP University Press, 2000, pp. 94, 143, 145, 147, 1519, 1521, 1524. 2. Halliday, M.A.K., and Ruqaiya Hasan, Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, p.12. 3. Katan, David, Translating Cultures, Manchester, UK and Northampton MA, St. Jerome Publishing, 2004, pp. 53, 54, 55. 4. McLaren, Ian, Communication Excellence: Using NLP To Supercharge Your Business Skills, Carmarthen, Wales: Crown House Publishing, 2000, pp. 128-130. 5. Molden, David and Pat Hutchinson, Brilliant NLP, Glasgow: Pearson Education Limited, 2006, p. 95. 6. Molden, David, Managing with the power of NLP, Glasgow: Pearson Education Limited, 1996, p.13.

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PARTICULARITILE UTILIZRII NOILOR TEHNOLOGII DE INFORMARE I COMUNICARE N PREDAREA LIMBILOR STRINE Serghei VASILACHI, lector superior universitar Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice a Moldovei
ABSTRACT

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In a new digitalized era of a boom in the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs), it is important that a professional trainer/instructor define what knowledge and skills any beneficiary of his (employee, client or student) needs and then proceed to conveying the corresponding information for the mutual advantage of everybody involved. Noile tehnologii de informare i comunicare (NTIC) ocup un loc tot mai important n societate, astfel nct s-a pus problema integrrii lor i n nvmnt. n prezent, majoritatea universitilor i centrelor de formare dispun de calculatoare, att pentru nevoile de ordin administrativ, ct i pentru activitatea didactic propriu-zis. NTIC propun noi posibiliti de documentare, de nvare i de formare, permind accesul nelimitat la cultur. Folosirea NTIC n nvmnt presupune articularea a trei aspecte complementare: tehnologie, metodologie i pedagogie. Cu toate c unele cercetri arat c noile tehnologii pot contribui la nnoirea practicilor pedagogice ale profesorilor, acest lucru nu se ntmpl automat i spontan, deoarece rezistenele la schimbare ale cadrelor didactice sunt nc destul de mari. Accesul imediat i nelimitat la informaii este un avantaj evident al noilor tehnologii i n special al Internetului, care permite profesorilor din toate colurile lumii s stabileasc mai uor contacte n vederea schimbului de idei i informaii cu caracter pedagogic i cultural, pentru a coopera i a derula proiecte educative. Corespondena electronic, 397

396

videoconferinele, grupurile de discuii, blogul sunt doar cteva dintre mijloacele de comunicare oferite de Internet, care permit profesorilor s ias din cadrul tradiional al slii de clas pentru a se deschide spre lume. Dei virtual, aceast fereastr spre lume permite profesorilor i studenilor s se conecteze la valorile culturii universale. O mai bun nelegere a diversitilor culturale contribuie la educaia n spiritul toleranei, aprecierii i respectului reciproc, valori importante pentru construirea unui dialog intercultural. Atracia exercitat de noile tehnologii asupra tinerilor poate fi exploatat pentru a-i motiva s nvee mai mult i mai eficient. Comunicarea simultan cu interlocutori reali i stimuleaz pe tineri s lege prietenii i s ntrein o coresponden, activiti pozitive ce pot contribui cu adevrat la maturizarea lor dac sunt supravegheate ndeaproape de profesor, cci este bine tiut c a scrie mai mult nu presupune neaprat i o ameliorare a calitii limbii folosite. Corectorii informatici vin s sprijine munca studentului, dar rolul de referin al profesorului rmne de nenlocuit pentru obinerea unui act educativ. Pentru o utilizare eficient a noilor tehnologii n activitatea didactic, este important s se in cont de limitele echipamentului informatic i recomandat ca, mcar la nceput, tinerii s fie ghidai de ctre profesori n activitile de redactare i de cutare a informaiei pe Internet, pentru ca acestea s contribuie ntr-adevr la dezvoltarea unei gndiri personale i critice, precum i a unor abiliti de management al informaiei i nvrii. NTIC aduc o motivaie suplimentar n activitatea didactic, deoarece permit varierea activitilor i a suporturilor folosite. Echipamentul informatic, pe lng aspectul ludic att de apreciat de studeni, permite crearea, simularea, consultarea i evaluarea cunotinelor. Profesorii care tiu s foloseasc eficient noile tehnologii, apreciaz reducerea timpului necesar pregtirii leciilor i posibilitatea centrrii pe nevoile studentului. Cel din urm poate nva n ritmul su i reveni cu uurin asupra noiunilor care nu au fost corect asimilate. Utilizarea eficient a NTIC n coal este un proces de lung durat, dar important pentru a atinge obiectivul principal al educaiei, care 398

vizeaz formarea unor tineri autonomi i responsabili, capabili s se integreze social i profesional ntr-o lume n schimbare. Cu accent pe limb, comunicare i cultur n standardele naionale pentru nvarea limbilor moderne, cadrele didactice sunt ntr-o continu cutare de modaliti mai bune de accesare a materialelor autentice i de furnizare de experiene care vor dezvolta mai bine competenele elevilor de comunicare n limbi strine. Tehnologia este, probabil, cel mai bun mijloc pentru crearea unui mediu favorabil pentru nvare. TIC poate sprijini profesorii n a face nvarea limbilor strine rapid, mai uor, mai atractiv i mai interesant. Mijloacele informatice fac parte din cultura noastr, din viaa noastr de fiecare zi (acas sau la serviciu). Dei unii ntr-o reea planetar, se manifesta o ngrijorare fa de riscul izolrii sociale a celor care petrec multe ore n faa calculatorului. i totui internetul trebuie privit ca orice alt mijloc de comunicare asemeni celorlalte mijloace moderne de comunicare. Cnd vorbim de noi tehnologii de informare, ne referim la internet precum i orice alte metode de comunicare offline i online, la diverse programe de eLearning create sau diverse posibiliti pe care calculatorul ni le d i de care ne putem folosi ca i mijloc de redare a unor informaii (messenger, Skype, MS Office, produse Apple, tabele, video si audio etc.). Utilizarea Internetului n procesul de nvmnt, alturi de alte instrumente auxiliare, favorizeaz accesul n timp real la informaii, schimburile interne i internaionale i ofer noi posibiliti de nvare-predare. n acest cadru particip diverse categorii de persoane (elevi, profesori, specialiti n informatic), fiecare avnd un rol bine determinat [3, p.2]. Aplicaiile didactice ale internetului ar putea fi clasificate n mai multe tipuri de activiti de predarenvare. * Comunicarea interpersonal, realizat cu ajutorul potei electronice (email) i a comunicrii directe (chat). Aceasta reunete acele aplicaii pedagogice care favorizeaz schimburile interpersonale ntre tineri i i determin s cunoasc i s respecte 399

asemnrile i deosebirile culturale, politice, lingvistice din cele mai ndeprtate zone. Se pot organiza ntlniri cu personaliti, ori forma clase virtuale, prin care studenii vor avea posibilitatea de a-i verifica aptitudinile comunicaionale ntr-o limb strin. Profesorii i vor nva pe tineri tehnici de coresponden amical i oficial specifice limbii strine studiate, ceea ce va conduce la ameliorarea exprimrii scrise, la utilizarea informaiilor pertinente i corecte, la structurarea ideilor. Tot pentru exprimarea n scris se poate avea n vedere i mesageria electronic. * Culegerea de texte autentice n limbi strine. n funcie de specificul tematicii leciei, profesorul va defini n mod clar un subiect care s atrag interesul studenilor i expune mai multe tipuri de documente (PDF, articole de pres, eseuri etc.). Studenii (individual sau n grup) ar avea ca sarcin culegerea documentelor, analizarea i interpretarea documentelor culese, solicitarea avizului unor cadre didactice specialiste n domeniul respectiv, precum i redactarea unei lucrri scrise (rezumat, sintez, comentariu etc.) n limba strin. * Cercetarea documentar, validarea i utilizarea resurselor n limb strin n vederea realizrii unei bibliografii pe o tem dat respectnd regulile citrii documentelor electronice. * Publicarea de documente n limbi strine pe Internet implic nu numai o bun cunoatere a calculatorului, a programelor specifice unei astfel de activiti, ci i o bun cunoatere a unei limbi strine. Se poate avea n vedere redactarea unei pagini personale n care studentul s se prezinte, s-i descrie realizrile n plan intelectuale i profesional, domeniile de interes, proiectele. Rolul profesorului este de a-l nva pe student tehnicile de structurare, redactare i prezentare personal n limb strin. Studenii vor putea s-i perfecioneze cunotinele de exprimare scris n limb strin (respectarea stilului jurnalistic specific unei reviste de specialitate, prezentarea convingtoare a informaiei etc.) prin redactarea unui articol. * Auto-formarea prin conectarea la situri specializate n manuale 400

virtuale ori teste de verificare a cunotinelor de limbi strine. [1, p.1]. Cteva din avantajele utilizrii noilor tehnologii de formare sunt actualitatea (materiale de calitate, autentice i de actualitate), flexibilitatea, autonomia elevilor (au posibilitatea de a-i organiza singuri propriul proces de nvare), abordarea difereniat, facilitarea unui tip de nvare contextual. Aspecte tehnice: Complexitatea este semnalat ca aspect pozitiv. n programele multimedia de limbi strine sunt integrate imagini, secvene video, grafice, animaii, nregistrri audio etc. care n mod normal apar izolat n cazul altor mijloace de nvare. Combinarea elementelor audiovizuale cu textele faciliteaz trecerea rapid de la un tip de exerciiu la altul, fr a fi necesar schimbarea metodei de nvare. De asemenea specificul interactiv este des ntlnit n aceste metode de nvare, precum i atractivitatea. Prin colorit, animaie, efecte speciale, programele multimedia sunt atractive i motivante. De asemenea elementele vizuale, sonore, fragmentele de film, personajele animate confer atractivitate programelor multimedia i paginilor web.[2, p.2] Tehnologia este tot mai folosit n procesele de nvare a limbilor strine fie ca o completare a instruirii, fie ca singurul mijloc de nvare. Dei accesul la tehnologie poate prezenta dificulti n accesarea programelor de educaie pentru aduli i practicieni, acestea pot fi depite. [4, p.1] Platformele online au progresat considerabil n ultimii ani. Acestea continu s ofere din ce n ce mai multe aplicaii utile, la preuri accesibile i instrumente pentru nvarea limbilor strine. Profesorii care utilizeaz aceste tehnologii trebuie s continue s ofere oportuniti pentru nvare i pentru promovarea i dezvoltarea limbilor strine. ns este recunoscut faptul c sunt necesare cercetri suplimentare cu privire la impactul utilizrii tehnologiei; avnd n vedere ritmul rapid de inovaii n software i acces la Internet, sunt necesare studii de cercetare pe termen lung pentru a nelege mai multe despre rolul i impactul folosirii tehnologiei n nvarea limbii engleze la aduli. Instruirea pe suport tehnologic reprezint orice tip de instruire care 401

presupune folosirea mijloacelor tehnologice pentru livrarea leciilor. Exemple: instruirea pe pagini web (internet, intranet, extranet); studiul independent computerizat, inclusiv pe CD-ROM, DVD sau dischete, transmisiile TV pe satelit, videoconferinele, conferinele pe suport audio i teleconferinele. Cnd este potrivit instruirea pe suport tehnologic? Trebuie s se tie dinainte dac un program de instruire pe suport tehnologic este sau nu justificat economic prin felul n care rspunde unei anumite nevoi de instruire a organizaiei. Factori ce trebuie luai n considerare: Exist un numr suficient de cursani? Dac sunt puini oameni care au nevoie de programul respectiv, ar trebui preferate metode mai tradiionale, astfel s-ar evita costurile substaniale cerute de dezvoltarea i livrarea lui. Este sau nu practic s fie adui cursanii ntr-o locaie central pentru efectuarea instruirii? Dac oamenii sunt dispersai geografic, ar putea fi mai potrivit instruirea pe suport tehnologic. Instruirea trebuie fcut ntr-un timp scurt sau va fi nevoie s se desfoare pe o perioad mai lung? Dac ar fi instruii frecvent doar unul sau doi oameni deodat, ar fi mai potrivit realizarea unui program pe suport tehnologic, dect un curs tradiional. Materialul se schimb frecvent? Un curs desfurat la clas poate fi modificat de obicei mai uor dect un program de instruire pe suport tehnologic i poate trata mai bine aspectele curente. Ct de ampl este componenta de aptitudini a coninutului instruirii? Includerea ntr-un program de instruire pe suport tehnologic a unei componente de formare a aptitudinilor duce la creterea costului, la prelungirea duratei de proiectare i, mai ales, la creterea complexitii i evalurii. Astfel de programe funcioneaz mai bine pentru obiectivele de achiziie de cunotine. Ct de mare este fluctuaia de personal pe posturile n discuie? Dac este mare, poate fi atractiv o instruire pe suport tehnologic, 402

datorit standardizrii i costului unitar sczut al livrrii n special dac nu se poate face o instruire la locul de munc. [5, p.2]. Departamentul de instruire al unei organizaii trebuie s stabileasc dac realizarea unui program de instruire pe suport tehnologic este sau nu justificat sub aspectul costurilor i beneficiilor. Un exemplu interesant l constituie compania ToolingU.com avnd n vedere cum i-a nceput operaiunile. O companie productoare care livreaz instruire pe suport tehnologic pe subiecte legate n general de meseriile manuale este Jergens Inc., care a nfiinat ToolingU.com. Jergens opereaz de mai muli ani pe pia, producnd diferite dispozitive pe care le folosesc ali productori. Iniial cei de la Jergens au conceput ToolingU n ideea de a-i instrui proprii clieni n folosirea produselor pe care le vindeau. Dup ce au implementat programul i au constatat c este bine primit de firmeleclient, au nceput s fie solicitai s-l extind i pentru angajaii acestora, pentru a le forma o serie de aptitudini elementare pentru munca lor. n timp, Tooling a dezvoltat zeci de cursuri scurte n tehnici de calcul, interpretarea desenelor de execuie, operarea mainilor cu control numeric, debitarea metalelor, calitate, tehnici de tanare i extrudare n afar de programele lor iniiale de instruire pentru utilizarea dispozitivelor proprii. Fiecare dintre aceste cursuri putea fi livrat ntr-o diversitate de formule, adresndu-se cursanilor direct sau prin intermediul departamentelor de instruire ale firmelor-client. Dei exist sute de companii care produc cursuri de instruire pe suport tehnologic, ToolingU este deosebit pe mai multe planuri. Natura subiectelor tratate de ei face cursurile interesante pentru un segment de cursani care s-ar putea s nu tie s foloseasc un computer i nici s fi parcurs prea mult din nvmntul formal tradiional. Din acest motiv, ToolingU a ales s conceap cursurile de instruire ntr-un format relativ liniar. Aici termenul liniar nseamn c leciile trec direct de la un subiect la altul, indiferent de nivelul de asimilare al cursanilor. Formele neliniare se pot numi i iterative sau ramificate, adic trecerea la urmtoarea etap este condiionat de demonstrarea asimilrii materiei deja parcurse. n plus, formele neliniare nseamn i c un cursant are 403

mai multe opiuni sau poate parcurge mai multe secvene diferite n asimilarea cunotinelor sau aptitudinilor. n loc s foloseasc unul dintre motoarele bine cunoscute n domeniul educaiei la distan, precum WebCT sau Blackboard, ToolingU a decis s-i creeze unul propriu. Cursurile posed un numr de caracteristici care le fac compatibile cu piaa nvmntului pentru aduli. De exemplu, cnd se plaseaz cursorul n dreptul unui termen, apare deasupra definiia acestuia. De asemenea exist de fiecare dat un dicionar al termenilor relevani. Sunt date hiperlinkuri ctre articolele relevante dintr-o serie de periodice din domeniu. Mediul de nvare creat de ei conine forumuri de discuii, liste de ntrebri frecvente i rspunsuri, calculatoare numerice i multe alte instrumente. Acest format le-a adus succese celor de la ToolingU, dar pentru programele de instruire de natur ceva mai academic, precum cursurile on-line oferite de colegii, se folosesc forme de livrare probabil mai sofisticate i mai puin liniare. Iniial, furnizorii de astfel de programe i cereau propriile platforme, dar n prezent muli dintre ei folosesc motoare de dezvoltare disponibile comercial, cum ar fi, WebCT sau Blackboard.[6, p.2] Argumente pro sau contra instruirii pe suport tehnologic Principalele avantaje: Acces la instruire fr costuri de deplasare sau restricii de timp; Foarte standardizat; Folosete mai bine competenele trainerilor, ntruct cursanii i solicit doar pentru evaluare sau pentru lmurirea problemelor majore; Permite un ritm propriu i se preteaz bine folosirii n domeniul formrii competenelor; Unii cursani ar putea s prefere aceste forme de instruire. Principalele dezavantaje: Pune multe probleme legate de echipament; Costuri mari de dezvoltare; ntreinerea n timp este mai complex; 404

Cursanii pot veni cu pregtiri i formaii diferite, crend trainer Lipsete interaciunea cu trainer-ul i colegii (cu excepia cha Dificil de evaluat n mod valid unele cunotine i gradul de nsu-

ilor probleme suplimentare;

troomurilor sau forumurilor);

ire a majoritii aptitudinilor; Unii cursani pot s nu aib suficiente aptitudini tehnice pentru a folosi acest tip de studiu.

De ce este important tipul de nvare care include TIC? Adevrata importan a tipului de predarenvare-evaluare care combin metodele pedagogice tradiionale cu TIC ine de potenial. Acest tip de nvare este o oportunitate n a crea experiene care pot furniza tipul de predare-nvare potrivit ntr-un anumit moment, loc i pentru un anumit student nu numai la universitate, ci i acas. Acest tip de nvare ar putea deveni global, ar putea transcede graniele formale ale rilor i ar putea aduce mpreun grupuri de studeni din culturi i meridiane diferite. n acest context, generalizarea folosirii TIC n universitate ar putea deveni una dintre realizrile importante ale secolului nostru. n psihologia cognitiv tradiional, cunoaterea e vzut ca un fel de procesare, adic pare simplu s spui c aceasta va atinge cote cu att mai nalte cu ct mintea elevului va fi programat cu ajutorul a ct mai multor strategii metacognitive. ntr-un mod cu totul diferit, n tradiia sociocultural de tip vigotskian, cunoaterea este neleas n termeni de nvare a folosirii instrumentelor culturale. Ca o consecin a faptului c acestea sunt totdeauna specifice unor anumite contexte social-istorice, este dificil de trasat modele de nvare care s fie general valabile, excepie fiind cteva instrumente culturale care traverseaz cel mult cteva contexte diferite. [7, p. 2]. dezvoltarea n direcia unei gndiri creative libere poate fi promovat prin ndeprtarea unor factori de constrngere i ncurajarea schimbului de perspective ntre studeni.

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n tradiia socio-cultural, TIC este definit ca mijloc de mediere pentru cunoatere, iar din perspectiva dialogic, e vzut ca mijloc de deschidere, adncire i lrgire a spaiilor de dialog. Nu trebuie s uitm c nvarea nu presupune doar acumulare de cunotine, ci cretere, mbogire, evoluie. Pn la urm, nu e nimic nou soare, deci nici tehnologiile moderne nu sunt ceva ieit din comun. Papirus i hrtie, cret i carte tiprit, retroproiectoare, jucrii i emisiuni educative toate au fost vzute ca inovaii la nceput. PC-ul, Internetul, CD-ul i mai noile tehnologii complementare mobile sau wireless nu sunt dect cele mai noi dovezi ale creativitii umane pe care le putem vedea n jurul nostru. Ca i celelalte inovaii menionate, acestea pot fi asimilate n practica pedagogic fr s afecteze fundamentele nvrii.[8, p.3] Cteva reguli pentru integrarea cu succes a TIC n activitatea didactic 1. Fii sigur c deii controlul asupra materialului, att din punctul de vedere al coninutului, ct i al formei, chiar dac te sprijin un specialist n TIC. 2. F-i un plan pe hrtie, separat de materialul aflat pe suport digital. 3. Scopul i forma prezentrii s-i fie foarte clare. 4. Un bun prezentator nu are nevoie de o prezentare complicat tehnic. E mai important s fie atractiv prin idee, mod de structurare i grad de interactivitate. De exemplu, o prezentare ar trebui s-l fac pe student s gndeasc, nu trebuie s fie doar o niruire rapid i ameitoare de slide-uri. 5. Mai presus de orice, concentrarea trebuie s fie asupra studentului i a nevoilor lui de nvare. Cel mai mare pericol n orice proiect de predare-nvare care include i TIC e s fie centrat mai mult pe tehnologie/creativitate, nu pe student-receptor i pe nevoile lui de nvare. 6. La universitate, succesul tipului de predare bazat pe TIC se msoar prin satisfacerea nevoii de nvare.[10, p.3] Care sunt dificultile implementrii TIC n procesul educativ? Teoretic, n-ar trebui s fie dificulti. n realitate, ele pot aprea. 406

Pentru un test simplu, ntrebai-v colegii ce cred despre integrarea TIC n procesul de nvare. Vei primi rspunsuri de genul: N-am auzit despre aa ceva!, Am auzit ceva, dar nu tiu prea clar ce este., Asta e chestia aia nou, adugat?, Cu ce e diferit de ceea ce tiam deja, ce e nou n asta?, Pi n-avem cum s facem asta, cost mult i fonduri nu prea sunt. Ceea ce nu o s auzim prea des este o definiie clar sau mcar mai mult interes legat de potenialul acestui tip de nvare. Pentru nelegerea i implementarea TIC n procesul clasic de nvare e nevoie de entuziasm, energie i dedicare pentru a transforma teoria n soluii reale bazate pe nevoile individuale ale elevilor. [9, p.2] Alte dificulti decurg din lipsa informaiei cu conotaii practice imediate referitoare la TIC sau a unui ghid care s-i informeze pe profesori cum pot ajunge la ea. De aceea, este nevoie stringent de instrumente pedagogice pentru formarea iniial i continu a cadrelor didactice care s implice utilizarea TIC-urilor. n concluzie, putem meniona c combinarea TIC-urilor cu metodele tradiionale pedagogice reprezint o schimbare de paradigm cu implicaii asupra cunoaterii n societate n general i asupra nvrii n special, de aceea disciplina pedagogic trebuie modificat n conformitate cu noul context n care trim. Folosirea TIC-urilor face parte din evoluia natural a nvrii i sugereaz o soluie elegant la provocrile moderne adresate nvrii i a nevoilor studenilor. Integrarea TIC-urilor n procesul tradiional de predare-nvare-evaluare este o oportunitate de a integra ultimele descoperiri tehnologice cu interaciunea i implicarea oferite de modul tradiional de cunoatere. nelepciunea tradiiei poate i trebuie s fie combinat cu soluiile tehnologice moderne.

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REFERINE

1. Alexandra Surlea (2011) nvarea limbilor strine prin utilizarea noilor tehnologii pentru formare. n: Elearning.Romania (ISSN 2247-9007) Nr. 77/2011. Bucureti: Institutul pentru Educaie. Online: www.elearning.ro/arhiva/77. 2. Elena Popa, Predarea i nvarea limbilor strine cu ajutorul mijloacelor informatice. 3. Cristina Prisecaru, Avantaje i dezavantaje ale utilizrii IT&C n predarea limbilor. 4. Sarah Catherine K. Moore Center for Applied Linguistics, Uses of Technology in the Instruction of Adult English Language Learners. 5. Georgeta Filip (2011) Instruirea pe suport tehnologic. Studiu de caz: ToolingU. n: Elearning.Romania (ISSN 2247-9007) Nr. 77/2011. Bucureti: Institutul pentru Educaie. Online: www.elearning.ro/arhiva/77. 6. Robert H. Vaughn. Manualul trainerului profesionist. Planificarea, livrarea i evaluarea programelor de instruire. Bucureti: Editura CODECS, 2008. 7. Diana Maria Stan (2011) A fi profesor n era digital. n: Elearning.Romania (ISSN 2247-9007) Nr. 77/2011. Bucureti: Institutul pentru Educaie. Online: www.elearning.ro/arhiva/77. 8. Beetham, Helen& Sharpe, Rhona. Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age Designing and delivering e-learning , Routledge, 2007. 9. Istrate, Olimpius Efecte i rezultate ale utilizrii TIC n educaie n Lucrrile Conferinei Naionale de nvmnt virtual, Ediia a VIII-a, 29 octombrie 31 octombrie 2010, Tehnologii moderne n educaie i Cercetare, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2010. 10. Thorne, Kaye. Blended Learning How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning, 2003, Kogan Page Limited.

: ( ) Iurie KRIVoTURoV, Dr. n pedagogie, Catedra de Filologia germanic, ULIM

ABSTRACT

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 , , . , -, [2, 18]. , . / . , , , ( ). , . , , , , . , , . , : , - , , [14, 3]. . , , , , . : , , , , -, - [15]. . , , [12, 3]. , 414

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12) . . : : . //. . .. , .: 2003. 13) Wikipedia . [ ]: : http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9%D0%BD%D1%84% 14) .. , . [ ]: : http:// www.trinitas.ru/rus/doc/0216/004a/ 02160008.htm 15) , [ ]: : http://estnauki.ru/ semeynaya-psihologiya/6-semeynaya-psihologiyastatii/1166-funkci

GAMES AND SIMULATIONS AS MEANS OF ENHANCING ACADEMIC PROGRESS Elena CAISIN, master degree student, USM, Chiinu
ABSTRACT

In her article GAMES AND SIMULATIONS AS MEANS OF ENHANCING ACADEMIC PROGRESS Elena Caisin dwells on the analysis and classification of games and simulations. Her working hypothesis states that despite the psychological differences in students age it is possible to teach English using games and simulations. The work is useful for teachers because it offers the set of games and simulations that are helpful in developing language habits and skills. The author starts her work with historical overview of games in education. Then she continues with psychological peculiarities of games and simulations. After that Elena Caisin describes pedagogical effect of games and simulations at a lesson. Then the classification of games according to the habits and skills developed by them is given. The last part of the article is dedicated to the teaching experiment conducted at M. Kotsiubinskii lyceum in Chisinau, Moldova. Elenas conclusion is that games and simulations enhance students academic progress. The author suggests as a possibility for further investigation the effect of other tools (such as visual aids or computer games) in teaching English. The problem of increasing the interest of the students at the lessons of a foreign language and improving the academic results has attracted attention of the pedagogues, linguists and psychologists for a long period of time. The reason for choosing this topic is determined by an increasing interest to games in teaching because life is speeding up and people have less time for learning, so we need to find ways and means to make the process of teaching and learning more productive. Games and simulations can help us fulfill this task. The working hypothesis

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states that despite the psychological differences in students age it is possible to teach English using games and simulations. Children like games, they also like to pretend being someone else, i.e. they like simulations and this proposition is universally true. The same is true across cultures and historical periods, although the content of childrens play differs across time and space. Games are important for childrens development and they are often associated with childhood. That is why many psychologists, pedagogues and linguists focused their attention on the role of games and simulations in education and the ways of their application in various educational spheres. When speaking about games and simulations in education, we should first define these concepts. According to Haldfield :A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun Games should be regarded as an integral part of the language syllabus, not as an amusing activity for Friday afternoon or for the end of the term.[8; 6] This definition of the linguist and pedagogue underlines the importance of games at a lesson. Of particular relevance to language learning is the conception of simulation itself as being a language or a form of communication. We learn about the world in learning a language, and likewise the activity called simulation is also learning about the world. [3;17] While speaking about historical aspect of games and simulations, we can say that the evidence of the latter are not found until 20 century. The contrary is the case with games. Archaeological findings, such as various toys dated back to 48004300 C.E. found in present day China and India, Egyptian tomb paintings and paintings on the old Greek vases show abundant evidence of childrens games. First discussions about the use of games in education appeared in works of Aristotle and Plato, ancient Greek philosophers. Plato considered that games incline children toward their future occupations, that is why they are useful in education. In the early Christian period the mentioning of the games and their role in education can be found in the works of Saint Augustine of Hippo (354430 C.E.). Unlike Plato, he saw no educational value in play 420

whatsoever, noting only its incompatibility with schoolwork. His views reflected the attitude to the games of the Church of that time.[1] There are no theories of play during the Middle Ages due to the fact that childhood was not considered as a separate stage in life of a person therefore childrens games were not differentiated from adults ones. Later on the changes in family structure and development of schools led to the acknowledgement of childhood as a separate stage in human development and the importance of games was obvious. In that time appeared Pieter Breughel the Elders picture Childrens Games in which children playing, about eighty-four games are represented. Subsequently games were considered as a threat to moral and their role in education was diminished and forgotten. One of the earliest significant contributions to the modern conception of the place of play in education was made by English political philosopher John Locke. He considered that children learn best not being punished but when learning is fun. And playing children want to be taught.[9] John Lockes views were carried on by political philosopher, JeanJacques Rousseau (17121778). Rousseau thought that games are useful because they make children happy, and while playing children learn from each other much more things than they can learn in a classroom. [12] Prominent adherents of Rousseaus concept of play and games were Maria Edgeworth (17681849) and her father Richard Lovell Edgeworth (17441817). In their two-volume book entitled Practical Education they advocated the role of games in education and proved by examples from their experience that games develop personality and lead to science.[5] The German educationalist and founder of the kindergarten, Friedrich Froebel (17821852) writing about childhood in his Education of Man said that play at this time is not trivial, it is highly serious and of deep significance [6;55] and that is why games are essential for education. A German psychologist Karl Groos (18611946) presented a biological explanation of games in his book The Play of Man where he says that the purpose of playing games is preparation to life.[7] 421

Discussion of play in the twentieth century tended to be dominated by psychologists who discussed nearly all aspects of childhood and education. Three figures stand out in the debates and discussions around childrens play: Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (18961980), Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (18961934), and American psychologist Jerome Bruner (b. 1915). The difference of their theories from earlier existing ones lies in the fact that they underline cognitive functions of play. Piaget emphasized the importance of play in symbolic representation and its contribution to socialization. [11] Vygotsky described play as a leading activity and believed that play allows children opportunities to use language and to learn through role playing, to self-regulate their behavior by following rules.[13] By these means they raise their own learning above the level they had attained previously. Bruner and his associates stressed the role of play in language acquisition and problem solving.[2] When speaking about the psychological peculiarities of games and their attractiveness to children we can say that games are highly motivating. One of the biggest problems that face teachers is the lack of motivation with students. Speaking motivation, we can say that motivation drives you to action. Its what arouses, sustains and regulates your behavior, and it comes from two sources: intrinsic (internal causes), extrinsic (external causes). In fact, learners get a greater return from intrinsic motivation that comes from within, through reflection, realization, interest, curiosity or a drive for its own sake. Games and simulations are intensely personal experiences. In addition, these personal control over the situation and autonomy accelerate learning. Game players can also operate independently of sex, gender, race and social background. They neutralize these attributes and it adds to selfconfidence. In case with simulations students can pretend being other personality and acting like someone else, students feel more confident. In games and simulations, students are not judged and punished for their actions, that is why their self-esteem increases. While playing games students set goals. Goals are powerful motivators. Learners who 422

do have goals set uphold their learning during longer periods and are more successful in studying. It is also important that goals achievement should require much effort and skills. Moreover, achieving goals we can assess our progress in learning. In their nature, games are challenging. Challenges are also weighty motivators as they intensify attention and deeper processing in learning. Challenge is closely connected with feedback, the next powerful motivational factor. Students need to know about their academic progress, games are often exemplary in formative feedback. Scoring, location, time and many other variables are often explicit in real time, showing your status in relation to your goals. Moreover, while playing games or simulating students socialize and have fun. These enhance academic progress and make learning more enjoyable and attractive.[3; 20-45] Speaking about pedagogical effect of games and simulations the fact that they provide the medium for childrens development and learning should be mentioned. Games in general are the only natural work of children, which they do without any compulsion and external influence. At the same time they are the best means of cultivation of almost all traits of character which we appreciate in people. Nevertheless, very often we try to teach children verbally by explaining them this or that situation without allowing them to experience and learn something by themselves in games or simulations. If compared to other language activities game is a goal itself, it does not have other extraneous and distant tasks. Game (and simulation, as well) is an activity that is done for its own sake. However, if for a student the goal is the game itself, for a teacher the goal is to teach children, develop their habits and skills. As we know, the main task of education is to prepare children for their future life. Factually, only in games and simulations children can get the possibility to transform outside world according to their wishes and ideas. Furthermore, games and simulations help activate the learning, overcome the difficulties of the study and boredom of the classroom, find the ways and means to solve intellectual and behaviorist problems, and stimulate initiative and creativity. While playing games during lessons students are also taught to assess various situations, make decisions, 423

cooperate with each other, respect the rights of other participants of the game, control emotions and do their best. Three pedagogues who according to the decision of UNESCO in 1988 defined the way of pedagogical thinking in the 20th century considered plays and games essential in education. First of them American philosopher and pedagogue John Dewey often presented the world in his works in terms of binary oppositions and so he defined play in relation to work. He wrote that it is the business of the school to set up an environment in which play and work shall be conducted with reference to facilitating desirable mental and moral growth of students.[4; 37] Similar views had Italian educationalist Maria Montessori whose system united play with work and was based on sense training by means of didactic apparatus. [10] The next pedagogue who considered play and games essential in education of children is famous Russian pedagogue Anton Macarenco. He said that play and games are as important for a child as work is for adults. The main value of a game is that it teaches children to make physical and psychical efforts that we need for work.[15] While gaming-simulations will not solve all educational problems, it is clear that they offer exciting opportunities for teaching and learning about a great many social systems and social problems. Language learning is a hard work that can sometimes be frustrating. Students need to be in constant strain to listen and understand, produce correct utterances, read and write coherent texts. Well-prepared games and simulations are valuable in this context as they provide students with necessary practice and low anxiety of the classroom. As Wright, Betteridge and Buckby hold, Games also help the teacher to create contexts in which the language is useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part and in order to do so must understand what others are saying or have written, and they must speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give information. Thanks to games, shy language learners will have more chances to speak and show their feeling and opinions in English as much as they can. [14;7] Yet, there has been much prejudice against games in education. As games are fun and entertaining they sometimes make students laugh but 424

learning should be serious and formal. This is a misconception. It has been proved by years of practice that it is possible to have fun and to learn a language at the same time. The majority of linguists agree that most language games and simulations make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning and using the correct forms as in case with other exercises. They also enable learners to practice such patterns within a foreign language which are not always possible during formal classes. In the comfortable, stressless atmosphere which is created by using games, students develop language habits and skills faster and better. Further advantage of these activities lays in the fact that they provide a model of the language patterns for usage in real life situations. Games encourage, entertain, teach, and promote fluency. If not for any of these reasons, they should be used just because they help students see beauty in a foreign language and not just problems that at times seem overwhelming.[14; 8] Moreover, the majority games and simulations are done in groups or in pairs where students are eager to ask and answer questions, argue and cooperate with their partners, be creative while using target language. The competition in the games gives students a natural opportunity to work together and communicate in English with each other a lot. Whats more, in games all the basic language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing can be developed without much effort from students and teachers. As it was already mention games and simulations help develop language habits and skills. Our classification is based on this division of games and simulations on developing habits and developing skills. When people start learning languages, they first form habits. Only when language processes have been imbibed as habits can we actually create new utterances and understand the spoken language. Habit formation was defined by contemporary foreign language educators as the production of linguistics responses to stimuli by imitation and repetition in pattern drill.[3] Sometimes habits are called microskills. In this article, grammatical, lexical, phonetic and spelling games developing language habits are described. 425

We will start with grammatical games because they primarily give possibility to move to active speech. The games in grammar section focus on particular points of grammar and give the learners the opportunity to experience the language in use in contexts that are meaningful and enjoyable, and to practice using them repeatedly. The majority of games in this section are multipurpose providing with the possibility to practice several grammar units. After grammatical lexical games follow. They continue building the basis of the speech. We can more readily communicate having vast vocabulary and knowing grammar rules. It is very important to extend students vocabulary from the very beginning of teaching. Learning vocabulary must be based on attaching meaning to the word; it can be done through translation or as in case with games through situations, examples and pictures. Later on, the students experience the meanings of the words in context by using them for purposes which matter to them. While learning the language it may be necessary to draw attention to the form of a word as well as its meaning. Spelling games are very useful in practicing correct writing, training memory and even revising the vocabulary. Phonetic games are aimed at correcting pronunciation while forming language habits. An essential part of learning a new language is to acquire a good pronunciation. Tied up intimately with this is the task of learning to hear the new language correctly. It presupposes the following listening abilities: discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language; recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone patterns, intonational contours ; recognize reduced forms of words; distinguish word boundaries. The ability to comprehend receptive language and use expressive language to communicate is a language skill. When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication : listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening comprehension is the receptive skill in the oral mode. When we speak of listening what we really mean is listening and 426

understanding what we hear. In this section, we include games that call for a non-verbal response, that is to say, listen and do. The doing shows, in a fair and accurate way, the extent to which the learner has listened, and understood. The games in speaking section offer a reason for speaking, and thus they can give learners a confirmation and confidence resulting from the successful use of the language or a warning signal on the unsuccessful use of the language. Some games give the learners considerable support in the language needed for the game, and other games offer a stimulus and context, but no specific language focus or support. Although some games are likely to cause the learners to focus on a particular language point, this section primarily offers practice in fluency rather than in grammar practice. There are numerous games and activities that can provide instruction in reading. Two important skills are concentrated on in this section, namely skimming for gist, when the learners find out at speed what content a text contains, and scanning, when they search a text for some particular item in it. Writing, like speaking, is normally intended to communicate something to somebody. Thus the best way to develop this skill is to share the written texts with co-students for their reaction. The majority of writing games are aimed at someone reading the texts that the learners write and then responding to them in an appropriate way. If there is a response from a reader, then the writer finds out if the reader was engaged, was able to follow the ideas, and was able to appreciate the points made in the text. Later the teacher can mark the texts for errors of from , i.e. the choice of words and the arrangement of them, spelling, grammar. As it has been already mentioned the working hypothesis of the work is to confirm that despite the psychological difference in students age, it is academic progress enhancing to teach English using games and simulations. In order to confirm this hypothesis we carried out an experiment at M. Kotsiubinskii lyceum in Chisinau, Moldova. The experiment was 427

planed with a group of the 9th form students during an optional course on English grammar. Speaking about the stages of the experiment we have to mention that first we decided that we will carry out the experiment on the habit development, particularly grammar tenses, because grammar knowledge is essential for development of all the four skills. Moreover, it is easier to assess the achievements of the students by tests. The problem selected was how it is possible to teach tenses in order to make pupils understand them and in order to assure a long-term memorization. The following step was to settle the objectives and the goals of the experiment : To study methodological approaches of teaching tenses to secondary school students. To study the possibilities of teaching tenses through games and simulations. The plan of the experiment was: 1. To introduce the new grammar material (deductively or inductively). We subdivided this stage into: Forming the concept of tense continuum in pupils mind: Formulization of English tenses. 2. To exercise the material studied through games and simulations. We continued with choosing the groups (one experimental and one control group). In both groups students with high and low capacities of studying were present because our aim was to examine how the model of teaching works in general. Then we gave students a diagnostic test in order to see their initial level of knowledge. Just after the diagnostic test we organized definitely the experiment. After each block of knowledge taught, the pupils were given current tests. After finishing teaching what we intended to, we played a final test and after processing the knowledge and interpreting the results, we finely gave the students a postponed test. The final step intended was to do conclusions, which are to be discussed later. As it has been previously mentioned, two groups of 13 pupils helped us to carry out the experiment. We work with the two groups differently. In the first group, English tenses were introduced traditionally through 428

dictation and memorization of rules supplied by explanation. The material studied was practiced through grammar exercises. In the second group, we taught tenses according to the plan of the experiment. When forming the concept of tense continuum, first we explain to our learners the use of the four aspects of present tense. While explaining we use the deductive method and we do our best to make students understand the differences between the four aspects. In case our learners understand the use of present tense, we can be sure that they will understand in no time the difference between the past tenses and, respectively, between future tenses. As it was previously mentioned for this stage, we chose the deductive method. We consider the learners should be engaged in the process of their teaching, participating in depicting the rules of using tenses. Their activeness will also assure us that they are listening and trying to understand the material introduced. The first step at this level is writing on the blackboard four sentences representing situations of using Present Indefinite Tense, Present Continuous Tense. Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continuous Tense. Then we ask them when the action in the first sentence is performed. In order to avoid confusions, we may suggest them the right answer by asking them to notice if they know exactly the time. Next, even if we are given the right answer, we explain that we do not know exactly: it characterizes the speaker in general. This explanation is exclusively to assure ourselves that everybody understood. Then we ask them to tell us when the action in the second sentence is performed. The procedure repeats with the rest of the sentences. The next important step was to teach students to use correct forms that the verbs take in a particular tense. When developing the task of formalization of English tenses we use the inductive learning. We tried to do it through formalization of tenses. For example, to memorize Present Indefinite Tense we used the following formulas. s + V/V (e)s - + s + DO/DOES + NOT +V - --DO/DOES +S +V ? ? 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 429

The first formula is for affirmative sentences where the subject always occupies the first place, and the second place is the predicate or the Verb, which can have two forms depending on the person. The second formula is for negative sentences where the second place is occupied by the auxiliary verb and the third is the particle not. The last formula is for interrogative sentences where the first place is for the auxiliary verb, next goes subject and then the verb. The formulas for the rest of the tenses are built on the same basis. We chose to use formulas while teaching tenses because they help learn logically the forms of English tenses. After this stage, we pass to exercising the material introduced through simulations. First teacher performs actions, simultaneously explaining and letting students guess what tense is used. For example, we begin walking through the class and say: I always walk through the rows during my classes. Then we ask them to tell what tense they have to use. Then we continue walking and say: Im walking now. Then we still continue walking. I look to my watch and I say: I have been walking for 2 minutes. At least we stop and say; I have just walked. After each sentence, they have to guess what tense was used. Thereafter students practice present tenses simulating actions one by one, the rest of the class guess the actions and the tenses. For example, to practice Present Continuous and Present Simple the following simulation activity can be used. 1 Invite a learner to mime a number of actions they do every day. 2 Tell them that, while miming the action, they should ask the class, What am I doing? 3 Once someone has guessed correctly, encourage the mimer to ask what the action might represent in terms of daily actions. [14; 124] Similar simulations can be used during the classes for other tenses. To make lessons more interesting and dynamic we alternated simulations with various grammar games using game boards, worksheets, and computers.After we felt that our learners were at home with the use of present tenses we passed to past tenses and then to future tenses. The experiment was carried out as it was planned. Two groups participated: one experimental and one control group. The number of 430

pupils remained the same during the experiment what helped a lot in order to see and analyze the results. Before carrying out the experiment students were given a diagnostic test that showed very low levels of knowledge of using English tenses. During the current tests students from both groups showed similar results. They all were hardworking and tried to do their best. So, in the control group the number of points was the result of memorization of the rules and their exercising. After a period of time, when pupils were put in front of all the material studied, they lost themselves in the multitude of rules they learned and examples they had done. By contrary, the students in the experimental group were able to get good results because, alongside memorizing, they conceptualized the material: they so English tenses not as 12 different tenses but as similar four by three. Even if they have forgotten how a tense is formed, by analogy they would remember it. The Experimental Group had better results also when using tenses in free contexts. This is due to the conceptualization, but also due to the games and simulations that provided them with similar to real life situations all the time they have studied the English tenses. Thus, one can develop language habits and enhance students progress through games and simulations being sure that they will only help them in the process of teaching and, first of all, their learners in the process of learning.As a possibility for further investigation, we suggest to analyze the effect of other tools (such as visual aids or computer games) in teaching English.
RefeRences

1. Augustine, Saint. The Confessions of St. Augustine. Trans. Rex Warner. New York: Signet Classic, 2001. - 224 p. 2. Bruner, Jerome S., Allison Jolly, and Kathy Sylva. Play: Its Rolein Development and Evolution. New York: Basic Books, 1976.716 p. 3. Crookall, David, Rebecca L. Oxford. Simulation, gaming, and language learning. New York: Newbury House Publishers,1990.-351p. 431

4. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan, 1916. - 378 p. 5. Edgeworth, Maria. Practical Education, ed. M. Myers. Brookfield, VT: Pickering and Chatto, 1997 [1798]. - 338 p. 6. Froebel, Friedrich. The education of man. New York: Dover Publications, 2005. -384 p. 7. Groos, Karl. The Play of Man. New York: Arno Press, 1976. 247 p. 8. Hadfield, J. Intermediate vocabulary games. Harlow, Essex: Longman,1999. - 128p. 9. Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education, ed. J. W. Yolton. - Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1989[1693]. - 262 p. 10. Montessori, Maria. The Advanced Montessori Method. Cambridge, MA: R. Bentley, 1964. - 288 p. 11. Piaget, Jean. Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. London: Routledge, 1999. - 308 p. 12. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. mile. Trans. London: J. M. Dent; C. E. Tuttle, 1993 [1762]. - 283 p. 13. Vygotsky, Lev. Mind in Society. Ed. Michael Cole. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978. 159 p.

LINTERCUTUREL ET LIDENTITE NATIONALE DANS LE CONTEXTE DE LA MONDIALISATION Mme le Professeur A. BoNdARENCo, Universit dEtat de la Rpublique de Moldova La persistance de linterculturel dans un contexte social est conu comme le produit des contacts, de la cohabitation des cultures, de linteraction de lidentit et de la diversit dans un contexte national, de linterpntration des cultures dans des espaces sociaux au niveau de la plante, de la construction dune Alter identit ou dune Alter culture pour une insertion sociale, de laltration, voire de leffacement, de la disparition des cultures et de linstallation de certains constituants de la culture dun Autre, dans la majorit des cas du plus fort. Cest le problme de lhgmonie dune culture, phnomne apport par la mondialisation. Il est vrai que la mondialisation sidentifie de plus en plus lamricanisation de nos modes de vie et dexistence, y compris de notre culturel. La mondialisation se caractrise par la mutation, par lmigration, par la consommation de linformation, par des tendances uniformisantes sinstaurant et imposant leurs normes, leurs modes de vie et dorganisation du systme politique, conomique et culturel dun pays. De nos jours, il est impossible de trouver un contexte social, une communaut sociale qui soit propre une seule culture, o lon pratique les mmes us et coutumes, o lon parle une seule langue, o la culture nationale du pays daccueil, dune part, ou celle des minorits nationales, dautre part, ne soit altre par une autre culture, par une autre tradition qui sinfiltre, commence simposer, persister, suite leur pratique dans un milieu social. Lexprience dmontre que certains des autochtones sous linfluence des traditions des migrs ou des traditions dautres cultures commencent les pratiquer et les intgrer dans leur milieu social, elles sont qualifies comme des signes du nouveau. Linterculturel est un problme social, psychologique, politique, ayant ses effets sur lconomie des pays, finalement, cest un problme 433

432

pluridisciplinaire. Il gnre des tensions, des contradictions dans lorganisation de la diversit, des conflits et des guerres, phnomnes quavaient vcus et continuent vivre nombre de communauts sociales. Vu cette problmatique de linterculturel, nous nous sommes interrogs sur les questions suivantes: - Quest-ce qui se passe, en effet, avec deux ou plusieurs cultures qui se rencontrent, avec celle du contexte social dans lequel devrait sintgrer un migr et avec la culture dorigine de ce dernier? Par exemple, linstallation des migrs dAfrique dans nos villages, dans des logements construits avec le soutien financier de lUE, quest-ce quelle va apporter pour le culturel de nos concitoyens? La proccupation de lUE pour les conditions de vie de ces migrs dmontre la favorisation de ce processus. Ceci donne de la matire rflchir sur les problmes: - Lmigr vit, salimente des deux cultures ou il commence pratiquer la culture de la terre daccueil, en perdant petit petit la sienne ou en la prservant dans un coin de sa conscience, de son corporel? - Si on prserve certains indices de la culture dorigine, quelle est la nature de la situation des contacts humains qui dtermine lmergence des signes identificatoires de lidentit? - Quest-ce qui conditionne lacceptation ou le rejet de la culture de lAutre? - Quel est le critre dterminant de lacquisition des nouvelles pratiques culturelles ou de la prservation de son identit nationale, celui provoqu par la raison ou le critre psychologique? - Quels sont les effets perlocutoires des nouvelles pratiques sociales, culturelles acquises par un individu? - Quelle est le contenu de la comptence pluriculturelle quon devrait construire chez le public migrant, chez les lves? Nombreux sont les problmes que pose la rencontre des cultures. Il est certain quil est difficile de donner une rponse exhaustive ces questions dans les conditions o lavenir de lUE et de sa monnaie pose tant de problmes. La prise en compte du temps dans la persistance de diffrentes cultures dans les contextes sociaux du monde permet dy identifier deux 434

types dinterculturel et, par suite, de diversit: diversit historiquement instaure dans un contexte social et diversit ou diffrence de cultures installes durant les dernires annes, effet de la migration des peuples. Si on fait rfrence notre contexte social, on pourrait exemplifier le premier type de diversit culturelle par linstallation depuis des sicles des Ukrainiens, des Bulgares, des Gagaouzes, des Bohmiens, des Russes sur le territoire de notre pays; le deuxime type de diversit cest celle apporte par la migration des minorits arabes, africaines, asiatiques dans les annes de lindpendance du pays, impact de la mondialisation. La minorit arabe insiste sur la reconnaissance et lacceptation lgitime de la pratique de leur culte. Quant la France, comme nombre dautres pays, elle est devenue trs diffrente au niveau culturel, tant oblige de vivre et daccepter la pratique dautres cultures. La politique du pluriculturalisme passe par une crise vidente, en effet, il sagit dun chec de son application. Les femmes musulmanes, malgr la loi adopte concernant le port du voile, de la barca, ne la respectent pas, elles continuent le porter. La chancelire A.Mercl, M. le Prsident N. Sarkozy, le Premier Ministre de la Grande Bretagne, David Kameron constatent lchec de la thse de la diversit nationale, du pluriculturalisme. Aprs le crime commis par lislamiste Mohamed Merah en France les hommes politiques russes parlent du crache de multiculturalisme. Dans ces conditions N. Sarkozy considre quon sest trop proccup des minorits nationales et on ne sest pas proccup de lidentit nationale. Marine le Pen, reprsentante du Front National de France, candidate aux lections prsidentielles en France, insiste quon endurcisse la loi de lidentit nationale, elle propose une double identit. La rencontre et la coexistence des cultures dterminent leur relation troite, leur interaction. Les effets de cette interaction sont diffrents, on pourrait y identifier trois types dintgration sociale des migrs: - lacceptation par lmigr de la culture dun nouveau contexte social, lapprentissage et lappropriation des modes dtre de lautochtone. Cest en ce cas quon sinterroge sur ce qui se passe 435

avec la culture dorigine. Les sociologues, les hommes politiques, les sociologues proposent pour des situations de ce genre la thse: exploiter les effets du dialogue et apprendre vivre en commun ou ct de lAutre; - les migrs, en sintgrant petit petit dans la socit daccueil et en sappropriant des comportements propres cette communaut sociale, continuent en mme temps prserver et vivre avec leurs traditions culturelles, en se servant de leur langue national comme outil de communication dans le priv; - lmigr accepte de sapproprier tous les constituants de la culture du pays daccueil, tandis que son national commence seffacer o faire son apparition dans des situations particulires: rencontres des compatriotes, pratique des ftes nationales du pays dorigine ou lors de sa rentre, aprs des annes, dans son pays dorigine etc. Lappropriation de lidentit du pays daccueil se prsente comme un long processus de lacquisition et de lappropriation de nouvelles normes de vie, de nouvelles traditions et de leur mise en place, des strotypes de vie. Lapprentissage de la langue est envisag comme condition prioritaire pour linteraction verbale, pour la comprhension de lmigr et du locuteur autochtone. On apprend, en effet, les strotypes de faire, de dire et dtre de ceux qui reprsentent la nation daccueil. Leur formation demande du temps lors duquel lindividu pratique les normes appropries, il sentrane tre un Autre. On ne pourrait pas affirmer quun de ces types dintgration sociale est plus propre ou moins propre telle ou telle minorit nationale, car chaque migr vit ltape dintgration sa manire, en finissant par lacceptation des modes de vie du contexte social daccueil. Il est vrai que les musulmans, considrant quils sont intgrs dans la socit franaise, dans le priv ou dans un milieu purement musulman, ils pratiquent un comportement qui correspond en tout celui de leurs identit. En acceptant la culture du pays daccueil on se demande, sil ne sagit pas du processus dassimilation dune nation par une autre, de lassimilation de la nation minoritaire par la nation majoritaire. 436

Lassimilation suppose des contraintes, imposes par la majorit nationale ou par les autorits du rgime dominant dans un pays, comme ctait le cas de lidologie communiste qui menait la politique de lassimilation des nations des rpubliques sovitiques, des peuples de souche. Dans les conditions de ce rgime, la catgorie de lidentit nationale, de nation, seffaait, les peuples de lEx-Union Sovitiques taient identifis et sidentifiaient au qualificatif sovitique: Ce sont des Sovitiques, -disaient les collgues franais, lorsquils accueillaient un groupe denseignants arrivs de lUnion Sovitique. Ce qualificatif tait devenu signe de dsignation de toutes les nations qui faisaient partie de ltat sovitique, ceci dmontre quel point lidentit nationale seffaait, perdait du terrain de son importance comme catgorie fondatrice dun tat. Dans les conditions dun rgime dmocratique on ne parle pas de lassimilation dune nation par une autre, mais dune coexistence des cultures, dune interpntration des cultures ou dun enrichissement dune culture par une autre. Ce type de relations entre les cultures, premire vue positif, pourrait, nanmoins, mener la disparition dune ou de plusieurs cultures ou aux modifications des indices fondamentaux dexpression dune identit nationale et de linstallation dune culture hgmonique. A lpoque de leuropanisation, on parle de plus en plus de lidentit europenne et de la culture europenne sans dfinir son contenu: - Est-ce un amalgame de toutes les cultures ou est-ce une culture construite sur ce quil y a de commun au niveau culturel entre les nations de lUE? - Est-ce un ensemble de nouvelles traditions, de modes de vie communs, de coexistence, dinteraction et de production de tous les tats europens ou dun ensemble de diffrences de la communaut europenne, ces dernires instaures durant des sicles? - Ou, finalement, est-ce que ce sont des modes de vie et de collaboration institus par les institutions europennes? Dans cet ensemble de problmes Edgar Morin, en parlant de la culture europenne considre que : ... ce qui importe dans la vie et 437

le devenir de la culture europenne, cest la rencontre fcondante des diversits, des antagonismes, des concurrences, des complmentarits, cest--dire leur dialogue. Cest celle-ci qui est le produit producteur de la boucle tourbillonnaire o chaque lment ou moment est la fois cause et effet de toute la boucle, laquelle se dveloppe en nbuleuse spirale. Cest le dialogique qui est au cur de lidentit culturelle europenne, et non tel ou tel de ses lments ou moments [ 5, p. 129]. Le grand penseur envisage le concept de culture europenne comme rencontre des cultures en lui assignant le qualificatif de fcond-e. Il est naturel, quon sinterroge sur leffet et la nature du produit producteur, obtenu de ce genre de fcondit. Leffet de la fcondit, de sa productivit, cest lenrichissement des cultures sous les formes constates par E. Morin : des antagonismes, des contradictions, des concurrences, des complmentarits. Cest dans des concurrences et des contradictions que survivent certains lments dune culture et disparaissent les autres, tant substitus par des constituants des autres, ces derniers saffirmant et pntrant dans nos habitudes. Les nouvelles formes de cultures sont gnres par de nouvelles conditions, par les proprits des nouvelles temporalits instaures dans des contextes nouveaux.

La catgorie de la culture et sa complexit

La catgorie de culture est complexe et cette complexit rside dans les constituants qui forment son contenu. P. Bourdieu oppose la conception savante de la culture, celle de la culture lgitime une conception anthropologique [ 1 ]. La culture savante suppose lensemble duvres dart, laccs ces uvres dart, le dernier critre assurant la dmocratisation dune culture. La conception anthropologique, comporte lensemble des pratiques sociales, lensemble des us et des coutumes. Selon S. Regoud, La deuxime conception ne parat gure poser de problmes spcifiques en termes darticulation entre culture et politique: lensemble des us et coutumes dune socit, faonne par lhistoire, le territoire, langue, la religion...participe gnriquement, de la culture de ladite socit, qui peut, indiffremment, manifester ou non des signes dmocratiques.[ 6, 438

p.29] La conclusion laquelle arrive S. Regoud, sur les deux types de culture, est celle que La culture ny parat gure dissociable de lidentit politique des groupes concerns [ 6, p. 29]. A notre avis, les deux types de culture nationale sont de nature politique, ils tiennent de la politique de la culture, cette dernire se transformant en politique des politiques, car les deux types de culture peuvent dclencher des vnements caractre politique, des confrontations, des contradictions; les deux cultures visent la mise en uvre des principes de leur dmocratisation. Par consquent, la culture savante ainsi que celle anthropologique conditionnent linsertion du politique. On pourrait argumenter cette ide par lexemple du comportement des reprsentants du monde arabe dans le contexte de la France. On connat la pratique des cultes des musulmans sur des places publiques de certains arrondissements de Paris ou sur des places dautres grandes villes. Une action de ce genre se transforme en problme politique, car elle implique lattitude du peuple et du gouvernement franais lgard du respect des normes de comportement de ces minorits nationales dans des lieux publics dun tat qui est un pays daccueil pour ces derniers, un tat dont les lois devraient tre respectes. Dans des situations similaires on simagine le positionnement des reprsentants du monde arabe si un groupe des catholiques ou dorthodoxes, installs depuis plusieurs annes en Syrie ou en Irak, se permettaient de faire passer leur culte dans une rue de ces pays. Il est certain que les Syriens ou les Irakiens auraient ragi trs vivement. La pratique des deux types des us et des coutumes sur une terre trangre par des migrs peut appeler des ractions diffrentes de la part du peuple autochtone, en fonction de la nature et du type de civilisation. Nous connaissons la raction du monde arabe lorsquon avait port atteinte limage de Mohamed. Nous assistons une opposition et une contestation des dcisions, des lois des parlements et des gouvernements des pays europens, dcisions relatives aux comportements, en particulier, aux pratiques religieuses de diffrentes ethnies nationales. 439

Un des derniers exemples de confrontation des cultures, cest la tuerie de trois enfants et des quatre adultes de France, crime commis par lislamiste radical Mohamed Merah. Les motifs de cette tuerie sont de nature culturelle, ils tiennent de la politique culturelle dans ce secteur social. Assez souvent lorsquon parle de lidentit nationale dun immigr, on parle dune double culture et pas dune double identit. Dans une des missions de RFI du 4. 01. 2011, le reporter posait la question suivante une chanteuse dorigine arabe: - Comment vivez-vous avec cette double culture, au lieu de dire: - Comment vivez-vous cette double identit? Pour ne pas imposer, attribuer linterlocuteur lidentit franaise on se sert du syntagme double culture, ce dernier tant frquemment utilis dans le langage des hommes politiques. Ceci sexplique par lintention dissimule du locuteur, dviter le terme didentit. Dans un de ses discours Nicolas Sarkozy avait mis lide selon laquelle Lidentit nationale nest pas la somme de toutes les nationalits dun pays. En effet, on ne pourrait pas rduire lidentit nationale toutes les nationalits qui habitent la France, ce serait une fusion inacceptable et inimaginable, car, en ce cas-ci, la catgorie de nation disparatrait, perdrait sa fonction. La disparition de lentit de nation entranerait, son tour, la disparition de ltat.

Deux tendances dans le problme de linteraction, des contacts des cultures

Lanalyse des visions sur le problme de linterculturel, des dbats o lon sattaque ce problme, permet dy identifier deux visions sur limpact de linterculturel, celle de limprialisme culturel qui se manifeste dans le monolinguisme au niveau international, dans le nivellement des cultures et dans la pratique dune seule culture, dans la standardisation de nos modes de vie, de luniformisation de tous les secteurs de la vie sociale. La deuxime conception se rsume la prservation de la diversit culturelle et par elle de lidentit nationale. La premire tendance, celle mondialisante se fixe, au premier abord, 440

un objectif humain, celui du partage quitable des biens matriels au niveau de la plante. Malheureusement, au lieu de ce partage des biens, en effet, on remarque une division, une ingalit sociale touchant surtout les catgories sociales les plus dmunies de diffrents contextes sociaux. La deuxime tendance est reprsente par lUNESCO, par le Conseil de lEurope, par lOIF qui plaident pour lacceptation de la diversit, pour lhumanisation du monde, pour la prservation de lhumain dans lhumain, pour la pratique de lhumain dans la vie quotidienne par la reconnaissance de lAutre, sans effacer le soi-mme. Cest par un nombre considrable dactions et dactivits que les organisations cites et la communaut pdagogique francophone du monde se battent pour une diversit dans tous les systmes existants. A cette fin, il faudrait aller vers lAutre, participer la construction de lAutre, car chacun est responsable de lautre, quoique ce dernier ait une consistance diffrente de la sienne. En parlant de la coexistence de lidentit et de la diversit, nous trouvons que lunicit de la chose sexprime non pas uniquement dans lidentit relative des lments qui constituent sa structure, elle se manifeste aussi dans la diffrence de ses constituants. La dernire est ncessaire pour lidentit, elle fait vivre lidentit, toutes les deux vont de pair en formant un couple indcomposable et ceci sexplique par le pouvoir tant de lidentit que de la diversit. Cette ide sappuie sur la thse du grand penseur Kant qui concevait la diversit comme produit de lidentitaire, porteur de la diversit. Selon Hegel, lobjet nest identique qu soi-mme. Sa relation avec les constituants dune classe dobjets, laquelle il appartient, fait voir les diffrences entre les objets. Il est vrai que ses diffrences sont limites et en mme temps appuyes par linvariant, comme noyau dune classe. Cest la condition de lexistence dune classe, les diffrences assurent le fonctionnement des lments au sein dun systme. Elles sont acceptes par linvariant condition quelles ne changent pas la nature du prototype de lobjet. Chaque lment dun organisme, tant diffrent par rapport lautre, converge vers la construction dune unicit et, 441

finalement, dune identit ou de quelque chose qui soit identique soimme et une autre chose, tre, plante, animal, langue, culture etc. Nombre de ces diffrences, apparues dans la structure dun objet, sont conditionnes par le temps, par les changements apports par le temps. La diversit persiste dans la chose ds son apparition, ds sa cration, de sa production, durant toute son existence. Cest cette diffrence qui se prsente comme norme dexistence et de manifestation de lidentit et par suite de lunicit de la chose ou dune autre entit. E. Morin, en analysant lamour rapport la sagesse, le dfinit ... comme le comble de lunion de la folie et de la sagesse, cest--dire quen lamour sagesse et folie non seulement sont insparables mais sentregnrent lune lautre[5, p. 9]. La persistance de deux qualits antithtiques dans la catgorie de lamour, la folie et la sagesse, dmontre la complexit de toute entit de nature matrielle, psychique, morale et lexistence des entits sous leur forme antithtique. La fonction que sapproprie un des lments antithtiques est celle dexpliciter lessence de lautre. Ces deux qualits constituent le fondement de lamour, car cest la sagesse qui gnre la folie, en dmontrant lautre facette de lamour. La tendance principale de la mondialisation, celle de luniformisation dont un des aspects est celui de nivellement des cultures des pays de lUE, se fait sentir dans tous les contextes de lEurope. LUnion Europenne instaure un uniformisme dans tous les secteurs de la vie sociale: prix identique sur les produits agricoles, sur les produits textiles etc., uniformisme dans le systme ducationnel au nom de la mobilit des jeunes. Une des mesures prises par lUnion Europenne, cest celle de la modalit identique de labattage des porcs au niveau europen. On interdit aux paysans roumains dabattre les porcs, la veille du Nol ou des Pques, dans des conditions domestiques, selon la tradition roumaine, y compris celle bassarabienne. Respecter la tradition en ce cas-ci, cest reconnatre la diversit culturelle dun peuple. Par cette dcision les autorits europennes font disparatre une de nos traditions ancestrales et imposent accepter un uniformisme qui ne peut pas 442

sadapter, tre accept par ceux qui pratiquent les traditions instaures depuis des sicles et qui font partie du civilisationnel des Roumains. Une des inventions des plus rcentes de la Commission europenne est celle dlever des poules pondeuses uniquement dans des cages, information transmise par RFI, le 5 avril 2012. Les Europens pourrait dire: - Adieu ufs bio, achetez des ufs de la cage! Luniformisation, venue avec la globalisation, apporte une identit du vestimentaire des jeunes, de la musique et des films quils visionnent, de leur dire et de leur faire. On connat les consquences ngatives de ces influences. Les communauts nationales de diffrents pays de lEurope perdent de leurs traditions, elles seffacent et on commence pratiquer dautres coutumes en les empruntant aux autres. Si on demande un Franais les traditions quil pratique, il aura des difficults nous rpondre, elles ne seront pas nombreuses, car la France en a perdu beaucoup. Un des exemples de la pntration dautres traditions, cest la fte Halloween, du Saint Valentin dans notre contexte. Assez souvent ce ne sont que des ftes commerciales, mais elles simplantent et lors de leur pratique, elles commencent faire partie des habitudes de la population, se transformant en traditions. En fin de compte, luniformisation porte atteinte tant lidentit nationale, qu la diversit de diffrents genres, y compris celle culturelle, nanmoins elle rgne et instaure ses normes de lvolution sociale. Dans ce cadre dides un des didacticiens des plus connus par la communaut francophone de lEurope, Raymond Gevaert, en abordant le problme de lenseignement du franais dans les pays de lUE, au Congrs europen de la FIPF, Prague avait constat : Alors que lUnion europenne sest construite sur diverses politiques, industrielle, agricole et montaire, communes soumettant les objectifs nationaux des directives europennes, et que lon entame timidement, il est vrai, des tentatives de politique internationale commune, alors que les divers droits pnaux, civils, commerciaux, et financiers nationaux se conforment au droit europen, ce sont prcisment les politiques de culture et denseignement qui achoppent 443

sur les limites de lunification europenne. Quoique diverses tentatives aient t entames dintroduire dans lenseignement secondaire des manuels europens communs pour lhistoire et la gographie ( exception faite dun manuel dhistoire commun la France et lAllemagne mais qui nest pas introduit partout dans ces pays), lopposition de divers pays de lUnion ces projets fut grande [ 2, p. 29]. Il est difficile de nous imaginer lenseignement secondaire de lhistoire et de la gographie dans tous les pays de lEurope, en mettant la disposition de lenseignant un manuel europen commun. Lhistoire dun pays se rsume, en premier lieu, ce qui stait pass sur le territoire du pays de lapprenant, son pass et ensuite lhistoire de lAutre, la terre tant lindice dterminant dun tat, dune nation. Il serait curieux de connatre les contenus des manuels europens communs. Selon lopinion des sociologues, les cultures qui ne subissent pas linfluence de luniformisation, de laltration, cest la culture des Arabes et des Cazaks de Russie.

La terre natale et son importance pour la pratique de la culture anthropologique.

Par lexemple quon a cit ci-dessus et o lon parle des pratiques religieuses du monde arabe en France, on a voulu dmontrer non uniquement le ct politique dun des constituants de laspect anthropologique de la culture, celui de la religion, on avait aussi lintention dargumenter limportance de lespace, du territoire pour la pratique et lexpression de lidentit nationale. A lheure actuelle au nord de la France on peut rencontrer un nombre considrable de nos concitoyens qui dans des villages franais pratiquent nos traditions, notre mode de fter une noce, accompagne dune musique moldave, un baptme la moldave etc. Les Franais acceptent cette diversit culturelle et y participent avec beaucoup de plaisir. Lorsquon parle de limportance du territoire o lon pratique les traditions dun pays daccueil, on souhaite citer une rponse donne la RFI par un crivain venue de lAlgrie et install depuis des annes sur 444

la terre du Qubec. Il rpond que rentr dans son pays dorigine, aprs des annes, il redevient Algrien, par suite, il ne perd pas ses origines, son identit dorigine, aprs avoir acquis une autre identit, dautres us et coutumes, quil pratique sur la terre qubcoise Sa rponse fait voir combien il est difficile de draciner, de rejeter ce qui avait pris racine dans la conscience et le corps dune personne. Les signes de cette dernire culture pourraient merger dans le comportant de la personne, mme sur la terre algrienne. Cest un exemple de la coexistence de deux cultures dans ltre humain. Pour lextriorisation de lidentit dorigine ou de lidentit acquise, il faut que lindividu soit situ ou se trouve dans un milieu social ou dans un espace, qui porte et exprime cette identit. Il savre que lespace, le territoire ou la terre dun pays se prsente comme condition obligatoire de lextriorisation et de la mise en fonctionnement des pratiques par lesquelles lindividu sidentifie aux autres, ceux qui reprsentent la mme identit ou appartiennent la mme terre. A notre avis, la terre est imprgn du national, de lidentitaire, cest pourquoi elle fait partie des indices didentification de lidentit nationale. Cet indice dtermine linstitution et la reconnaissance dun tat, il est dterminant pour un autre signe, celui de la langue. E. Ionesco, crivain dorigine roumaine et dexpression franaise, en cherchant identifier son national dorigine dans le livre Prsent pass, pass prsent, tmoigne avoir fouill dans des lieux, dans la terre dorigine qui est porteur de tout ce qui se passe sur son terrain, car elle imprgne tout, surtout ce qui est propre son peuple: Jusqu trente cinq ans encore, on peut porter son regard dans la valle do lon vient. Mantenant, je descends une autre pente et la valle qui mattend nest plus la valle de la mort [ 4, p. 36]. Lauteur souligne limportance des catgories de la terre et du temps pour la mtamorphose qui se produit avec lindividu travers les temps vcus. On pourrait parler dune double nationalit, dune double culture quune personne porte et manifeste en fonction de la terre, de lespace, ce dernier impliquant un autre indice, celui de la langue, outil de la communication communautaire. Nous sommes en prsence dune 445

interaction entre tous les constituants de la construction dune autre culture, dune Alter culture, de linterdpendance entre le territoire dune communaut sociale et la langue, entre la terre et les us et les coutumes de cette nation. En parlant de la nation, lheure actuelle, on trouve des ouvrages o lon pose la question si la catgorie de nation est encore applicable aux socits existantes. Nous supposons quun migr acquiert une autre culture, mais la culture dorigine ne nefface pas, le national de lautochtone se superpose sur le national daccueil. Les marques de la culture dorigine se situent dans le trs fond, dans les cases du subconscient de ltre humain. Lors de cette tape lmigr acquiert une autre srie de traits pertinents propres lidentit nationale du pays daccueil, en formant dautres habitudes, suite au contact avec lautre, aux relations avec les autres, trangers encore pour lui. Les proprits pertinentes de la culture daccueil deviennent petit petit les siennes et sajoutent au soi-mme de la personne.

lappropriation de lidentit du pays daccueil de lautre, des autres dans un espace dtermin et durant des annes. Lmigr se forme un autre comportement, un comportement qui lidentifie au national, aux individus reprsentant la nation daccueil. Ces traits sincorporent dans lindividu, mieux dire, lindividu commence sen apercevoir quil commence pratiquer dautres manires dtre. Le temps a un pouvoir dcisif pour la construction dune nouvelle identit. Elle conditionne la matrise de la langue du pays daccueil, parce que cest linstrument principal des relations humaines et de manifestations identitaires de lindividu. Par suite, la langue est envisage comme facteur dimportance prioritaire, aprs la terre, pour lidentification de lidentit dun individu.

La langue, constituant de lidentit nationale

Parmi tous les constituants de lidentit nationale, la langue est conue par C. Hagge comme identificateur dterminant, parce que, selon ce penseur, Le lieu de notre dfinition collective est plus que tout la langue: cest celle-ci que, partout et toujours, les nations exaltent pour tre reconnu [3, p.9]. Selon C. Hagge Sous les III e, IV-e, V-e Rpubliques le franais tait conu comme une valeur politique fondamentale, investie mme dune mission civilisatrice [3, p. 9]. Lauteur reproche lEtat et aux Franais loubli du rle de la langue dans la dfinition de lidentit nationale. A lpoque de la mondialisation les langues de lEurope, des autres continents subissent une mtamorphose, une altration sous linfluence de langlais, comme langue hgmonique. Cet outil de communication international a envahi la communication dans le secteur conomique, politique, voire scientifique tel point que la parole des Nerlandais, des Russes, voire des Franais est truffe de mots, de sigles anglais. A laroport dAmsterdam on ne parle que langlais; dans les institutions europennes les Franais parlent langlais, dans les entreprises franaises installes en Moldavie, en Bulgarie la communication se fait en anglais; langlais pollue le parler des nonciateurs de la RFI etc. Langlais est qualifi comme langue dominante parce quelle reprsente le pays dominant. 447

Le temps et son importance pour la construction dune Alter identit

En disant petit petit, habitudes, strotypes de la vie, modes dtre et dentrer en relation, on a en vue le rle de la rptition et, par suite, du temps dans la formation dune autre manire de dire et de faire, car, comme nous lavons constat, lacquisition de nouvelles habitudes et de nouveaux strotypes de vie demande du temps. Par suite, les catgories qui ont une importance dterminante pour la prservation ou la perte des indices identificatoires de lidentit nationale dans le contexte de la diversit de cultures et de langues de la plante, ce sont les catgories de lespace et du temps. Lespace dune identit nationale, restant identique, suppose la fois la diversit de temps et de temporalits qui viennent, qui sinstaurent dans tout espace national. Cest le temps qui, en premier lieu, apporte la diversit de langues, de cultures. Les trois formes fondamentales dtre dans la vie, de faire, de dire et dtre au vrai sens du mot sont, notre avis, fondamentales pour 446

On devrait sattendre une substitution des langues officielles par la langue du plus puissant et dans cette situation lenseignement de la fable de La Fontaine La raison du plus fort est toujours la meilleure?, nest-elle pas actuelle pour indiquer celui qui domine et qui gouverne le monde? La langue, comme marqueur de lidentit nationale, a un pouvoir vident sur tout locuteur, bientt les locuteurs de tout coin du monde ne sen apercevront pas quils parlent le globiche qui pollue la langue maternelle, la langue nationale. Dans ces conditions pourrait-on parler dune diversit linguistique au niveau de la plante? Tous ceux qui ont leur contribution la construction et au maintien du franais dans le contexte de notre pays et les francophones dautres pays, en analysant le franais que parlent les Franais et la langue de la communication au sein des institutions europennes vivent avec les interrogations : - Pourquoi les Franais abandonnent-ils le franais dans la communication au sein des institutions europennes et au niveau international ? A ce sujet, nous souhaitons citer la proccupation dun des minents linguistes de Paris Sorbonne Jean-Pierre Descls lgard de la pense et de la langue uniques dans les sciences. Lauteur parle dune seule langue dont se servent les scientifiques franais lors des colloques ltranger et de limportance des autres langues, de lallemand, de litalien, de lespagnol, du russe etc. pour la communication scientifique : Le franais doit-il rester une langue de diffusion de la pense scientifique? La mme question doit tre pose pour des langues comme lallemand, le russe, lespagnol, le portugais, litalien ..., alors que langlais tend manifestement, aujourdhui, devenir le seul vecteur pour la diffusion de la pense scientifique, par ses revues, par ses modes denseignement et des modes dvaluation imposs par la mondialisation et que la plupart des pays, surtout ceux de lEurope continentale, semblent vouloir accepter alors quils leur sont trs dfavorables mais pas pour la qualit des recherches qui y sont effectues, ... p. 1 Le problme de lhgmonie dune seule de langue, pourrait tre argument par lampleur par laquelle se caractrisent lenseignement et lapprentissage dune seule langue trangre au niveau europen et 448

au niveau des autres continents. Dans nombre des universits des pays de lEurope, lenseignement se fait en anglais, mme en France. Il est certain que le diplm de ces universits, en rentrant dans son pays dorigine, il va recourir langlais dans la communication au sein dune entreprise.

La dimension didactique de linterculturel

La prsence et la pratique de linterculturel dans lenseignement, dans la formation gnrale et professionnelle des jeunes, dune part et des migrs dautre part, pose aussi une srie de problmes: - Comment organiser le processus de lenseignement-apprentissage pour former chez lapprenant une comptence interculturel ? De quels outils mthodologiques devrait tre muni lenseignant pour former chez lapprenant cette comptence, quels seraient les dispositifs de son valuation? Lanalyse des manuels de la terminale de notre cole nationale dmontre que la culture nationale est peu prsente dans les mthodes de franais, produites par des didacticiennes nationales. Ainsi, par exemple, dans la mthode de franais de la terminale il ny a que deux sujets consacrs la culture nationale, aux valeurs culturelles de notre pays. Il sagit des textes o lon parle dAlexandre Bernardatsi et de M. Eminescu. Il sagit de la dimension savante de notre culture, tandis que la dimension anthropologique se rfrant aux us et aux traditions y est peu reprsente. Dans le manuel de la dizime on attache une importance plus grande la comptence interculturelle, plusieurs textes sont accompagns dune rfrence au culturel de notre pays. Ainsi, par exemple, en parlant du Nol des Franais, lauteur pose aux lves la question sur les us et les coutumes que pratiques nos authoctones lors des journes du Nol. Les questions de ce genre figurent et accompagnent les textes consacrs la gastronomie franaise et la cuisine moldave. Lorsquon parle du march aux Puces de France, les lves sont obligs de parler de notre march. Par suite, la comptence culturelle est forme par le biais des textes tenant de la culture tant savante que celle anthropologique, nanmoins 449

le crtitre de la parent des langues nest exploit ni au niveau lexical, ni au niveau grammatical. A notre avis, la rdaction dune mthode de franais devrait commencer par la dtermination des contenus du civilisationnel franais et bassarabien. La formation de la comptence culturelle, y compris celle linguistique, de lexpression orale et crite devrait se faire par la voie de la comparaison du systme lexical et grammatical des deux langues apparentes. Lenseignement du franais, dans le contexte des langues apparentes, devrait exploiter les quivalences, existant entre les deux systmes linguistiques. Comme la grammaire franaise prsente une des difficults principales pour llve, lenseignant devrait sappuyer sur les similitudes grammaticales des deux langues en dmontrant en mme temps les diffrences existantes et instaures par le locuteur roumain, depuis des sicles. Lapproche comparative serait un support effectif de lapprentissage des formes grammaticales franaises, des vocables franais.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

1. Bourdieu P., La Distinction, critique sociale du jugement, Ed. de Minuit, 1979 2.Gevaert G., Lenseignement du franais dans lUnion europenne, nouvelles ralits, nouveaux enjeux, - 2 e Congrs europen de la FIPF, Prague 2011 3. Hagge C., Identit nationale et langue franaise, Le Monde avril/mai 2010 4. Ionesco E., Prsent pass pass prsent, Paris, Gallimard, 1968. 5. Morin E., Amour Posie Sagesse, Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1997 6. Regourd S., La culture comme enjeu politique,- Francophonie et mondialisation. Cognition, communication et politique, CHRS, Editions, Herms 40, Paris, 2004 7. F., , - , , 1970, . I, . 290

Conclusion:
Luniformisation porte atteinte tant la culture de lidentit nationale qu la diversit de cultures, qui, lpoque actuelle, est un marqueur vident dun contexte national, toutes les deux subissent les effets de ce processus, elles sont altres et seffacent. Certains indices de ces identits sont sur la voie de leur disparition. Lhumanit a un avenir condition que les identits nationales acceptent la diversit culturelle de lAutre, son tour la diversit a la chance de survivre uniquement ct dune identit. Cette ide impose la thse de la coexistence de lidentit et de la diversit. Cest pour cette raison que la cohabitation de la diversit et de lidentit devient une condition dhomme, de lexistence humaine, par suite, de tout systme social. Cest une loi naturelle qui simpose et qui gre toute structure, tout systme constitu dlments homognes et la fois htrognes. Lexprience acquise dans la coexistence des cultures a conditionn le phnomne de la double culture ; le problme qui en rsulte est celui si la notion de double culture est quivalente la double identit. 450 451

LE NEOLOGISME EN FRANAIS CONTEMPORAIN: ENSEIGNEMENT ET PEDAGOGIE DE LA NEOLOGIE Ion MANOLI Universit Libre Internationale de Moldova Ce qui est nouveau aujourdhui sera courant (normatif ou nonnormatif) demain et dmod (ou oubli) aprs-demain. Lactualit dhier perd une partie de consistance dans laujourdhui. Les socits technologiques accordent lavenir une place prminente. Le modernisme se dtourne du pass et rduit le prsent une simple base dextrapolation. Le lexique comme partie fondamentale de la communication change constamment. P. Imbs, initiateur et directeur du dictionnaire connu sous le nom de Trsor de la langue franaise crit dans la prface du I-er volume : Il semble que notre sicle (le XX-ime s.-J. M.) connaisse un rel renouveau de la libert lexicale : cest ce que, dun nologisme que condamne lAcadmie, mais que lusage autorise, on appelle couramment la crativit : tous les jours, dans linstant mme de la parole, on entend natre des mots nouveaux ( Imbs, 1972). De son ct, B. Quemada, directeur du Centre dtude du franais moderne et contemporain, constate : La crativit lexicale reprsente parmi les forces qui sous-tendent la dynamique du franais actuel, un phnomne exceptionnellement important du point de vue quantitatif autant que qualitatif. Nul ne peut plus lignorer ou la minimiser. Cest lune des composantes de lavenir de la langue et, en cela, elle nous concerne tous: usagers autant que spcialistes ( Quemada, 1971, p. 137). La crativit lexicale concerne encore tous, usagers, spcialistes en lexicographie, en stylistique linguistique, traducteurs. Si les spcialistes de ltude des langues sefforcent depuis longtemps dobserver, de dcrire et, si possible, dexpliquer, la crativit lexicale , bien des usagers nen ont quune notion assez vague. Du moins beaucoup dentre eux ont-ils conscience qu lpoque 452

actuelle apparaissent continuellement de nombreux mots nouveaux , ou nologismes. Le professeur du franais langue trangre qui enseigne le lexique est oblig venir en aide ltudiant pour que celui-ci apprenne et connaisse au moins une courte, mais concise histoire sur le terme nologisme, quil puisse classifier les nologismes au moins en deux classes importantes: nologismes de langue et nologismes de la parole. Ltudiant doit encore connatre la synonymie du terme nologisme et bien sr savoir les moyens de dpistage du nologisme, surtout celui de lauteur. Du moins beaucoup dentre eux ont-ils conscience qu lpoque actuelle apparaissent continuellement de nombreux mots nouveaux, connus sous un terme trs gnral nologismes lexicaux. Voici quelques exemples: noms: intgrationniste ( n.m.), dstockage ( n.m.), mirlitantouille (Drieu La Rochelle), mollard ( R. Rabiniaux); verbes : manager (v. tr.), globaliser (v. intr., tr. et rflchi), picpoquer (v. tr.) (R. Queneau); turbuler (v. intr.) (J.- K. Huysmans). adjectifs: germanophone (adj; etn.); lavatrique ( E. Corbire), missionn (J. Gracq); adverbes: mississipiquement ( J. Audiberti); grecquement (J. Peladan), perlucidement (F. Poictevin). Pour que ltudiant en philologie se dbrouille, il doit connatre, nous lavons dj dit, au moins une partie de lhistoire du terme que voici : Lorsque L. S. Mercier choisit, en 1801, un titre pour son dictionnaire, il adopte le terme de Nologie - enregistr par le Dictionnaire de lAcadmie Franaise de 1762- mais il sentit le besoin den donner une dfinition en sous-titre, ou Vocabulaire de mots nouveaux renouveler, ou pris dans des acceptions nouvelles , et tablit une opposition entre nologie et nologisme: Nologie se prend toujours en bonne part, et Nologisme en 453

mauvaise, il y a entre ces deux mots la mme diffrence quentre religion et fanatisme, philosophie et philosophisme ( cit daprs Guilbert, 1972, p. 9). Il faut signaler encore quelques mots qui font partie du champ morphosmantique de nologie / nologisme. Le plus frquent parat tre ladjectif nologique qui dtermine le plus souvent des substantifs abstraits : cration, lment, information, problme, etc. Quelquun qui cre des nologismes est appel tantt nologue , (sur le modle de philologue, tantt nologiste (sur le modle de biologiste), ce qui souligne une fois de plus les hsitations de lusage dans le choix des noms dagent construits partir dun nom dactivit savante termin en-logie. Enfin on trouve parfois le verbe nologiser (crer des nologismes), par exemple dans la prface qua crite R.-L. Wagner pour le Dictionnaire des mots sauvages de Maurice Rheims. (Rheims, 1969, p.12-13).

Peut-on dfinir le nologisme?

La plupart des dfinitions du nologisme qui sont proposes dans les dictionnaires rcents contiennent soit un adjectif comme nouveau, rcent, soit un adverbe ou un tour adverbial correspondant : rcemment, depuis peu, etc. Le concept de nouveaut, qui est commun tous ces termes dfinisseurs, pose deux questions dans lordre du temps : a) quel moment commence un nouveau phnomne ? b) pendant combien de temps ce phnomne demeure-t-il nouveau ? La premire question concerne ici la date de premire apparition dun nologisme ou plutt dun mot quelconque, puisque tout mot a t un jour ou lautre un nologisme, de mme que tout humain a t un jour un nouveau-n. On a parl dailleurs de la naissance des mots , et de mots nouveau-ns , mtaphores commodes, peut-tre, mais trompeuses. Sil est facile en gnral de connatre exactement la date de naissance dun homme, ce lest beaucoup moins, tous les tymologistes le savent, de dterminer la premire datation dun mot. Le plus souvent on ne peut indiquer quune date approximative et provisoire, quil faudra 454

reculer si le mot apparat dans des textes plus anciens qui navaient pas encore t dpouills. La deuxime question concerne la dure de ltat de nouveaut : au bout de combien de temps une chose nouvelle cesse-t-elle de ltre? Il ny a pas de critre objectif pour en dcider, et le langage traduit cette incertitude. Une nouvelle mode, vestimentaire ou autre, aura cess dtre nouvelle au bout dune anne, peut- tre, ou mme dune saison. Mais le nouveau franc, qui date de la rforme montaire de 1959 , est encore appel ainsi quatorze ans plus tard par de nombreux usagers franais qui nont pas pu ou voulu se dshabituer de compter en anciens francs ; ici donc, la nouveaut se prolonge et durera peut- tre longtemps. Encore pourrait-on poser en principe quun objet, dclar nouveau lors de sa mise en service ou en vente, cesse d tre appel ainsi le jour o apparat un autre objet de mme nature, mais modifi sur certains points : par exemple, les modles de voitures, plus ou moins renouvels intervalles rapprochs. De mme il est frquent, dans lhistoire des langues, quun mot soit remplac par un autre ; mais cela narrive quau terme dun processus fort long, bien aprs que le mot remplac a cess d tre nouveau. La perte du statut prcaire de nologisme ne prend pas et il retombe dans loubli, il redevient ce que J. Rey-Debove appelle un non-mot ; ou bien il simplante dans lusage et sintgre au lexique commun. La question la plus difficile est sil existe des moyens pratiques et pour dpister le nologisme tant quil conserve ce statut et, inversement, pour dterminer partir de quand il la perdu. Cest encore y travailler et analyser le phnomne. La synonymie du terme nologisme est assez riche et elle est due avant tout la dchotomie de F. de Saussure. Louis Guilbert oppose la nologie dnominative qui est cre pour faire face lvolution du monde contemporain, la dnomination de toutes les inventions scientifiques et techniques la nologie connotative ( Guilbert, 1973, p. 24). Celle-ci relve de la recherche stylistique lie loriginalit et la personnalit du locuteur. 455

Michael Riffaterre influenc strictement par la dichotomie sausurienne propose une autre terminologie: nologisme dans la langue qui est forg pour exprimer un rfrent ou un signifi nouveau et le nologisme littraire qui est toujours peru comme une anomalie, et utilis en raison de cette anomalie, parfois mme indpendamment de son sens ( Riffaterre, p. 59). Dautres termes en opposition se rencontre encore : nologismes de langue nologismes de la parole ; nologismes occasionnalismes ; mots nouveaux nologismes individuels ; nologismes mots sauvages ; nologismes cognitifs nologismes expressifs ; termes nologiques crations individuelles ; nologie de langue nologie dautres ; nologismes mots- mtores, etc. Il y a encore toute une srie de termes qui ne semploient que pour dsigner en exclussivit le phnomne stylistique de la cration individuelle, comme (hapax, legomenon) ; mot-centaur ; gologisme ; mot- portemanteau ; mot-valise ; mot tlescopique, etc. Cf. en roumain : neologisme situative ; neologisme poetice ; neologisme contextuale ; cuvinte exprompte... en russe: , , , , -, , , etc. Quand on tache de faire une chronique sur lvolution du vocabulaire contemporain il est absolument impossible dviter le nologisme stylistique. Celui-ci est encore connu sous les noms de nologisme de lauteur , ou cration de lauteur . Cest un hapax qui diffre profondment de celui de la langue. Il est forg, invent et produit pour exprimer un rfrent ou un signifi nouveau absolument connotatif, affectif ou motif, expressif ou imag. Il na jamais un caractre neutre ; il nest point dpourvu de 456

valeur stylistique ou esthtique. Son sens dans le texte littraire, dans un texte de la publicit ou dans un texte journalistique dpend dun rapport entre mots et choses, expressivit et affectivit. Bref, il dpend dun nombres de facteurs extra-linguistiques. Le nologisme stylistique est presque toujours perue comme une intervention dans les normes : cf. : bouliphagique (L.-F. Cline) ; brouchtoucaille (R. Queneau) ; serre-fessard (H. de Montherlant) ; il est utilis en raison de cette anomalie, parfois mme indpendamment de son sens. Il attire toujours lattention par sa forme et son contenu smantique ; il est apperu en contraste avec son contexte dans lequel il vit et dans lequel il pourrait tre dcod. Le lexicographe devant ce petit monstre se cre de grands problmes. Il y a deux grandes tendances dans le mtier du lexicographe de les fixer, de les dfinir et de les cataloguer : 1. ignorance totale dans la fixation des nologismes stylistiques ; (surtout dans la lexicographie traditionnelle des dictionnaires explicatifs, bilingues ou trilingues) ; 2. intrt excitant, vif de les fixer dans les tudes lexicographiques part (M. Rheims, A. Finkielkraut, L. Guilbert ; . . , . . dans la lexicographie russe). Il nous arrive croire que cest la structure du nologisme de lauteur qui dicte au lexicographe lattitude quil devrait prendre son gard. La structure de certaines crations individuelles semble si souvent lie aux phnomnes artistiques, aux gots, que lon pourrait dire que les mots se reconnaissent galement par leur style et leurs fabriquants . Il nous semble facile constater que telle cration appartient R. Queneau, que dautres appartiennent L .-F. Cline ou B. Vian. Alors cest plutt la stylistique individuelle ou la stylitique de lauteur qui aurait d sintresser ds plus prs. La ncessit de rajeunir un dictionnaire se fait sentir plus encore aujourdhui, au XXI-me sicle quau sicle dernier. Il y a eu certes n o l o g i e, nologie de lauteur, hapax legomenon, nologisme stylistique tous les instants de la langue franaise, mais nulle poque 457

navait connu, avant celle-ci, cette bousculade de mots nouveaux que les Ecrivains, la Presse, la Radio et la Tlvision diverssent longueur de journe jusque dans lintrieur de nos maisons. Pareille invasion porte, sans doute, en soi quelque remde, voir la vie phmre dune foule de vocables qui, peine vu (remarqu) par le lexicographe quelques fois entrs dans lusage textuel individuel se perdent dans loubli, de sorte que le lexicographe peut, tout naturellement, les passer sous silence. Seuls, peut-tre, Paul Robert et Alain Rey ont dvelopp des raisons qui ont guid leurs choix dans le traitement de mots nouveaux et des acceptions nouvelles et qui ont ensuite donn le Supplment au Dictionnaire alphabtique et analogique de la langue franaise ( voir la bibliographie). La plupart des mots rares du Suplment proviennent anciens (repris) ou rcents dune drivation. A laide de ce procd, nimporte qui peut, en effet partir dune base franaise, latine ou grecque, tirer un terme nouveau apte combler un vide dans lespce du nom ou dans celle du verbe. Cest faut daffirmer que ces exceptions rarissimes, ces produits (avec une connotation parfois exagremment ngative) sont, de plus disgracieux, dpourvus de couleur stylistique. Cest faut dinsister sur le fait que seuls bons nologistes stylistiques, en franais, proviennent de lemprunt. On se rappelle lpoque classique qui a exerc une svrit exagre lgard de la composition et de la drivation. Aujourdhui les interdictions classiques dautrefois sont oublies, nies, vites et des crations comme contemplotaste n.f. (Rimbaud) formation fantaisiste partir de contemplation ; hargnosite n.f. (Rimbaud) driv de hargneux- accs de mauvaise humeur ; symtriseur n.m. (Joseph de Maistre) - driv de symtrie, celui qui cre la symtrie, etc. sont fixes sans rticence lexicographique. Mais de par la nature des vocables quun dictionnaire de hapax (legomenon) regroupe est bien sr autre chose, puisquil incite voquer des problmes qui sucitent plus dintrt que ceux de la lexicographie ordinaire. Lattitude dun lexicographe qui fait un dictionnaire alphabtique de la langue est simple : il ne le dfinit pas ; il les laisse ct (pour dautre temps, pour dautres chercheurs). 458

Un lexicographe comme M. Rheims, par exemple, au contraire, lgard de ces mots prouve un intrt excessif, il slance dans des dfinitions complexes pour ne pas trahir la juste signification, il avance des hypothse concernant lauteur de la cration et la source (ou les sources) de leur auteur ; assez souvent ltymologie pose elle-aussi de grands problmes. Cf. : embaraglicull, adj. (Andr Gide) relev par St. Ullmann, qui signale que le mot est digne de Rabelais ou de Laforgue ; embarrasser, imbroglio et Baraglioul sont tlescops en un mot unique (Fr. Moderne, 1957, p. 196) ; eautontimoroumnoi n.m.pl. (R. de Montesquieu). Celui-ci est le pluriel du titre dune comdie de Trence (LHeautontimoroumenos, Le Bourreau de soi-mme , titre repris par Ch. Baudelaire pour la pice LXXXIII du recueil Les Fleurs du Mal ; Mais ici limportant est de signaler que cest Baudelaire et non Trence que pense lauteur de la citation (Rheims, 1969, p.186). Parmi les lexicographes de nos jours Maurice Rheims, par exemple, nest pas le premier que la fivre de noter ces crations rares ait saisi. Son ouvrage Dictionnaire des mots sauvages (1969) sinsre dans une ligne de petits glossaires prcieux, comparables ces vitrines o les collectionneurs mettent en valeur de pices suprenautes, bizarres, tranges (A. Finkielkraut, par ex.). Une chose doit tre claire : si lon ne fixe pas ces crations, si elles restent hors dintrt du lexicographe elles risquent dtre compltement oublies ; gares dans des contextes individuels. Bien sr on connat leffort de M. Cressot dans son tude sur la crativit de J.-K. Huysmans o il fait une application considrable en fixant et en explicant un grand nombre de nologismes de lauteur, qui ne sonnent ni populaire ni argotique (cit daprs M. Rheims, 1969, p. 5) M. R.-L. Wagner dans la Prface du dictionnaire de M. Rheims crit propos des crations potiques : Un dictionnaire alphabtique courant, cest le march aux puces o le bric--brac dun chiffonnier de province ; la pice rare y perd ses beauts entre un fourneau rouill et un bronze de Barbedienne. Ici, cest le magasin dantiquit dickensien 459

dun antiquaire baroque. Un dcoupage agressif de Duchamp, une pure de J. Cocteau y nouent dheureuses rencontres avec une jolie lampe louis-philipparde et un meuble de Calder (Wagner, p. 8) Ce quest tout fait difficile, cest de donner ltymologie de ces crations. Noublions pas que les tymologies fausses ont autant dimportance pour lhistoire du vocabulaire que les tymologies vraies. Les inductions auxquelles la forme dun hapax conduit un esprit potique, les ractions que cette forme suscite en lui ne sont jamais ngligeables. Paul Eluard et Jean Cocteau ont laiss l-dessus de prcieuses confidences. Que ne donnerions-nous pas pour possder des carnets o L. F. Cline, Queneau, Audiberti, Saint-John Perse auraient inscrit navemement ce quil voyaient dans et derrire les mots de leur vocabulaire, ce que les images leur inspiraient ? M. R.-L. Wagner dit ce propos: Ce que jen viens regretter, cest que M. M. Rheims amateur par inclination de mots-rares comme il lest de belles choses nait pas pu librement dvoiler propos de ceux-ci ce que jappellerai, faute de mieux, les secrets dune tymologie de sentiment (Wagner, p. 7) Oui, nous avons un argument solide pour le nologisme qui devient tout de suite un contre-argument pour le lexicographe : la justification esthtique, stylistique et littraire de ces crtions stylistiquement connotatives y est pour beaucoup. Il arrive que leurs sonnorits insolites (brouchtoucaille (R. Queneau) tintannabulaille (Andr Stil) ; rpubliquette (J. Delteil), etc. saccordent dune certaine manire la forme, aux tons de ces objets dart marqus dun style dpoque, mais trop dpendants de ce style justement pour atteindre une connotation durable. Le journaliste roumain de Bessarabie, Gheorghe Calamanciuc la suite dun tlescopage contradictoire a cr un vrai hapax legomenon ayant bien sr une connotation entirement politique : V o r e v r o n i n [ vor (du russe op, - voleur, epo () euro, et , Voronine nom de famille de celui qui porte le nom Vladimir Voronine] Dans le contexte de son article Faetele rnjetului lui Vorevronin il prsente lexplication de sa cration : vorevronin n.m. n traducere 460

din limba celuia care la nsmnat n limba noastr, pe care el o urte, zicndu-i moldoveneasc, v o r e v r o nseamn orepo, hot de euro, sufixul din coad puin conteaz. Aa s-i zicem de-acum nainte pentru c odat i-odat justiia i va trage la rspundere, pe el i pe fiul su, pentru delapidrile monstruoase ale avutului acestei achii de ar, convertite n euro i tinuite n bnci pentru progeniturile sale (Lit. i Arta, N40 din 7 oct., 2010, p.6) Cet hapax a une courte dure dexistence ; dans quelques annes quand le nom de Voronine disparatra de la vie politique de la Rpublique Moldova, il est peut probable que quelquun puisse expliquer aisement sa signification, et sa structure. Quand Vica Demici dans un dialogue inserr dans les pages du quotidien national Timpul ((Le Temps vend., 8 oct., 2010, p. 19) rpond la question : Ct de mult timp i ocup scrisul?, elle rpond : - Pe blog cel puin o dat n sptmn. Poezia cnd am inspiraie...Mai nou, scriu direct la computer, am i o poezie n noua mea carte Dorina de a click-scrie. Il est vident que nous sommes en prsence dun nouveau verbe roumain a click-scrie (click-crire) ayant dans sa structure un lment dorigine anglaise click, qui veut dire crire directement lcran sans faire de brouillon . Cest une cration de lavenir, mme si sa structure soit bizarre, sauvage. Quon le veuille ou non, on pourrait distinguer parmis les crivains, les potes, les journalistes : 1) de grands faiseurs de nologismes dauteur (Audiberti, Queneau, Vian, Ionesco, Bazin, L.-F. Cline, Eluard, Cavanna; Orsenna, Yourcenar); 2) des auteurs qui sont strictement fidles aux normes linguistiques, potiques, lexicales de lpoque (Rolland, Martin du Gard, Gide, Romains et 3) un troisime groupe des plumards qui se permettent quelques fois dinventer et dinsrer dans leurs oeuvres deux ou trois nologimes pour le plaisir de rajeunir le texte (Huysmans, Stil, Barbusse, Gamarra, etc.). A ce sujet il me vient une ide surtout pour les jeunes chercheurs 461

de lavenir : Un dictionnaire sous le titre Des grands faiseurs de nologismes de la littrature franaise serait bienvenu dans le monde lexicographique prsent. Oui, il serait peut-tre une suite des dictionnaires de M. Rheims [1, 2, 3] , mais ce dictionnaire de lavenir par rapport aux autres exitants nous aidera dcouvrir de nouveaux mondes nologiques du XXIime sicle. Nous proposons ces chercheurs dviter les mots dj connus, enregistrs quelque part dans des sources lexicographiques et qui sont trs rarement employs ou les doublets : balbutier balbuter (A. Gide) ; balayure baliure (Remy de Gourmont) ; Par exemple, M. Rheims dans la premire dition de son dictionnaire [1969] il fixe les mots abstme, cataclysmique, nutriment et beaucoup dautres qui sont plutt des vocables repris lancien franais, la plupart provenant du latin. Bien sr que cest trs difficile dcrire correctement la nouvelle biographie dun mot stylistiquement marqu, lui faire larticle lexicographique (structure grammaticale, tymologie, dfinition, exemple(s) demploi, source denregistrement, frquence, etc. Mais il y a assez de cas o lauteur, lui-mme, donne une explication de son invention comme cest le cas de bavarder balivernes baliverner (A. Vallette), etc. Pour avoir une radiographie quasi totale sur la nature, la smantique et les caractristiques grammaticales du nologisme stylistique il faut avant tout avoir la rponse aux constituants suivants : 1. On fixe correctement lunit lexicale ou phrasologique dfinir ; 2. Quel aspect smantique de la cration est la plus importante ; 3. La cration fait-elle part dune norme potique quelconque ; 4. Quelle priode chronologique reprsente la cration ; 5. La cration est strictement cre suivant les rgles normatives ou bien cest une cration lair rgional, social, politique, conomique, etc. ; 6. Quelle est linformation dordre grammatical concernant la cration ; 462

7. Quels astrisques ou autres signes emploie-t-on dans la formation de larticle du nologisme stylistique ; 8. Il faut dfinir le type du dictionnaire des mots sauvages ; 9. Dans ce type de dictionnaire doit-on inclure linformation dordre encyclopdique qui existe dj ? 10. La motivation stylistique est-elle obligatoire dtre prsente ? 11. Les relations smantiques avec dautres units qui sont dj fixes doit-on les prendre en considration ou non ; 12. La ralisation de lunit dans le texte est-elle obligatoire ou non ? 13. Lhistoire de lapparition de lunit est-elle ncessaire ? 14. Les caractristiques cantitatives (le nombre demploi, la frquence, le contexte/les contextes, loeuvre littraire) sont dsirables ; 15. Lordre alphabtique des crations stylistiques y compris les mots-monstres (abracadabrautesque A. Rimbaud ; sengrandeuiller J. Laforgue ; ma-mre-vous-nallez-pas-me-dire-a n.m H. Bazin) y est pour beaucoup ; 16. Le lexicographe va-t-il prsenter dautres avis critiques concernant la cration nologique ? 17. Faut-il prsenter des comparaisons ou des quivalences aux crations de la mme nature dans dautres langues soient parentes ou loignes comme par exemple dans la crtion rpubliquette n.f. (J. Delteil) en franais ; republicu, ar oricu n.f. (N. Dabija) en roumain ; n.f. (presse russe) en russe, etc ; 18. Doit-on faire des analogies typologiques au matriel de la mme nature appartenant aux langues dautres familles. Avec les critriums ci-dessus (mme sil en existe encore dautres) nous aurons un dictionnaire plus ou moins intgre des connotations lexicales qui permettront aux linguistes den juger le phnomne en profondeur. Deux mots pour finir. Nous ne savons pas si une autre langue europenne a connu si peu dannes de distance un tel flux et un tel reflux de nologismes stylistiques. En France, - on la vu aussi dautres 463

poques (par exemple, celle de F. Rabellais) il est toujours permis un pote, un crivain, un journaliste de crer un mot individuel ; mais pour que ce mot obtienne une longue vie, il faut quil soit form selon les procds actifs, habituels, quil rponde un besoin social, politique ou culturel** et que les prosateurs et la langue parle ladoptent. Pour faire rsumer, tout enseignement cohrent de la nologie suppose que diverses tapes ont t franchies. Il y a fallu : 1. examiner les fondements linguistiques de la nologie ; 2. trouver les classifications les plus usuelles de la nologie ; 3. dfinir les classes les plus importantes des nologismes au niveau de la langue et au niveau de la parole ; 4. tablir les criteriums qui dfinissent telle ou telle classe ; 5. prsenter une tude plus dtaille des nologismes de lauteur parce que ceux-ci se prtent lidentification et la classification dune faon plus difficile.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE SOMMAIRE SUR LE NOLOGISME ET NOLOGIE EN FRANAIS CONTEMPORAIN

Cardec, Franois. Nayons pas peur des Mots. Dictionnaire du franais argotique et populaire. Paris : Larousse, 1996. 320 p. . Dictionnaire alphabtique et analogique de la langue franaise : Le Supplment, rd. Dirige par Alian Rey et Josette Rey-Debove. Paris : Le Robert, 1970, d. 1976. 514 p. Dubois, Jean, Giacomo Mathe et dautres. Dictionnaire de linguistique. Paris : Larousse, 1973. Larticle La nologie , p. 334335. Finkielkraut, A. Ralentir : Mots-valises. Paris, 1979. 102 p. Gilbert, Pierre. Dictionnaire des mots nouveaux. - Paris : HachetteTchou, 1971, -574 p. Gilbert, Pierre. Dictionnaire des mots contemporains. Paris : Les usuels de Robert, 1991. -741 p. Gilbert, Pierre. Le nologisme en franais contemporain. Le Franais dans le monde. Paris : Larousse, janvier fvrier, 1973, N 94, p. 11-15. 464

Trsor de la langue franaise du XIX-me et du XX-me sicle. Paris : C. N. R. S., 1972, t. I. CXXXI-878 p. Guilbert, Louis. Thorie du nologisme, in : Congrs de lAssociation Internationale des tudes franaises (juillet 1972), Cahiers de lAssociation, N73, Paris, 1973, mai, p. 9-29. Imbs, Paul. Au lecteur - Introduction au premier volume du Trsor de la langue franaise du XIX-me et du XX-me sicle. Paris : C.N.R.S., 1971, t.I.-CXXXI p. Quemada, Bernard. A propos de la nologie. La Banque des mots. Paris, 1971, N 2, p. 137. Rheims, Maurice. Dictionnaire des mots sauvages (crivains des XIX-me et XX-me sicles. Paris : Larousse, 1969. 605 p. Rheims, Maurice. Les mots sauvages : Dictionnaire des mots inconnus des dictionnaires. Ecrivains des XIX-me et XX-me sicles. Paris : Larousse, 1989. 360 p. Rheims, Maurice. Abracadabrantesque ! Dictionnaire des mots invents par les crivains des XIX-me et XX-me sicles. Paris : Larousse, 2004. 357 p. Riffaterre, Michel. Potique du nologisme Congrs de lAssociation Internationalle des tudes franaises (juillet 1972), Cahiers de lAssociation. Paris, 1973, N25, mai, p. 59-76. Wagner, R.-L. Prface au Dictionnaire des mots sauvages de M. Rheims. Paris : Larousse, 1969. p. 5-11. , . . . . : , 1979. 344 . , . . : . : , 1976. 119 c. : , . XIV. : , 1983. 400 c. Nologie et terminologie dans les dictionnaires.Sous la direction de Jean-Franois Sablayrolles. Prface de Jean Pruvost. Paris : Honor Champion, 2008. -241 p. Linnovation Lexicale. Textes runis et prsents par Jean-Franois Sablayrolles. Paris : Honor Champion, 2003. 465

LIMBA DE SPECIALITATE I LEXIC SPECIALIZAT. DIDACTICA LEXICULUI JURIDIC N CADRUL CURSURILOR DE LIMB FRANCEZ CU OBIECTIV SPECIFIC (FOS) Larisa CAZANESCU, lector superior, Catedra de limb francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
RESUME

Cet article reprsente une rflexion sur les aspects thoriques des notions langue spcialise et lexique spcialis ainsi que sur la pratique des procds pdagogiques des enseignants de langue franaise spcialise (FOS) et concerne tous les publics intresss par une formation ou un perfectionnement en franais de droit (juridique). Il sagit du travail du lexique dune part par la morphologie, dautre part par la smantique. n epoca contemporan, totul se negociaz i totul se termin prin semnarea unui contract. Orice liceniat, care dorete s se afirme i s dea o dimensiune internaional viitoarei sale cariere, va tinde s cunoasc i limbajul juridic. Iat de ce ne vom opri asupra predrii / nvrii limbajului de drept (juridic), care este considerat drept o limb de specialitate sau specializat. n lingvistic exist noiunile de limb general (LG), limb comun (LC) i limb specializat (LS). Limba general reprezint un ansamblu de reguli, uniti i restricii de care in cont majoritatea vorbitorilor si. Ea include att LC, ct i LS.

LG
LC LS

Limbile specializate reprezint un ansamblu de subcoduri, crora le sunt caracteristice nite particulariti speciale, adic proprii pentru fiecare dintre ele, cum ar fi: - tematica; - genul de interlocutori; - intenia vorbitorului; - mijlocul prin care se produce schimbul comunicativ etc. Aceast opinie aparine specialistului n limbaje specializate JeanClaude Sager i coincide cu cea a terminologului E. Wster [1, p. 22]. Pentru a diferenia LS de LG, vom proceda la selectarea lexicului specializat din diferite documente de drept, scrise ori orale, i vom constata ca cuvintele care constituie lexicul comun (LC) vor fi nelese foarte bine de majoritatea vorbitorilor, iar lexicul specializat (LS) va fi neles doar de un numr restrns de vorbitori mai, adic de specialitii n domeniul dat. Studierea semnelor juridice dintr-un document scris sau oral ne permite s ne dm seama c suntem n prezena unui limbaj de specialitate care poate fi supus unei analize. Cuvntul Acte (act), de exemplu, face parte din fondul lexical al limbii comune. ns el poate fi ntlnit ca termen i n limbajul de drept. Sensul acestui cuvnt variaz n funcie de limba unde este ntrebuinat, n cea comun ori de specialitate (de drept). Devenind termen, sensul acestui cuvnt s-a ndeprtat de la sensul su profan. La fel i cuvintele proprit, personne, entreprise ne demonstreaz c limbajul de drept exist ca fapt i este un limbaj specific care merit s i se atribuie un cmp aparte de studiu. Limbajul de drept are un caracter nchis, specific lui. El posed o identitate lexical, o organizare, adic o terminologie. Vocabularul joac un rol important n comunicarea specializat, deoarece termenii snt nite uniti de comunicare n jurul crora sunt concentrate cunotinele specializate. Cunotinele specializate nu corespund cunotinelor generale, deci nici semnificaia termenilor nu coincide cu semnificaia cuvintelor din limba general, chiar dac ele au aceeai form. 467

466

n lexicul specializat (LS), de obicei, snt frecvente structurile morfologice compuse din aa-numiii formani savani, exist uniti sintagmatice i mprumuturi specializate, lipsesc unele uniti i structuri din limba comun (afixe familiare, de exemplu). Aadar, n limba de specialitate se atest ceva mai mult dect n limba comun, aa-zisele noiuni de specialitate. n limbajul terminologiei vom distinge Uniti cu semnificaie specializat (USS) sau Uniti lexicale specializate (ULS), care, de altfel, snt sinonime. Terminologul E. Wster propune urmtoarea schem a Unitilor Terminologice (UT) [2, p. 76] : UCS (Uniti de comunicare specializat)

Uniti lingvistice ULS (Uniti lexicale specializate)

Uniti nelingvistice USS (Uniti cu semnificaie specializat)

Lexic lingvistic ULS (Uniti lexicale specializate) UFS (Uniti frazeologice specializate)

Unitile lexicale specializate pot fi: - nominale ( Parquet, juge etc.); - verbale (sanctionner, comparatre etc.) - adjectivale (coupable, quitable, carceral etc.); - frazeologice ( Les poux se doivent mutuellement fidlit etc.); - adverbiale ( huis-clos etc.) 468

Silviu Berejan mparte cuvintele specializate n termeni i nomeni. n viziunea sa, termenii sunt cuvinte specializate, care, spre deosebire de cuvintele obinuite, au n uz granie riguros conturate de ntrebuinare i sensuri riguros determinate n cadrul acestor granie [3, p. 67]. Victor Vascenco, n lucrarea sa Probleme de terminologie lingvistic, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti 1975, p. 9, opteaz pentru folosirea sintagmei termen de specialitate. Lingvistul Dan Sluanski aduce n discuie cteva probleme de metod pentru studiul vocabularelor speciale, formate fiecare n parte din ansamblul de elemente lexicale, ntrebuinate de ctre un grup de vorbitori n comunicarea lor normal (scris sau oral) n cadrul unui domeniu delimitat i stabil al existenei sociale [4, p. 589]. Ideile eseniale ale studiului sunt dou: - inventarul vocabularului se stabilete din perspectiva vorbitorului pe baza criteriului denotrii; - n descrierea comportamentelor trebuie s se in cont i de conotaiile specifice i de afinitile sintagmatice ale fiecrui termen. Paul Miclu se ocup de Dimensiunea semantic a limbajelor specializate din perspectiva semiotic pornind de la ideea susinut de Luis Gilbert n 1973 c termenii tiinifici specializai snt monorefereniali i monosemici [5, pp. 73-79]. Autorul sistematizeaz tipurile de semne care apar n semnificaia termenilor din limbile speciale. Acestea sunt raportate la anumite trsturi ale denotatului: - de percepie; - de structur; - de funcie; - de producere; - de localizare n spaiu i timp; - de clasificare; - de cunoatere. Pentru ca o Unitate lexical s fie specializat, ea trebuie s fie: - lextematic; - s constituie un articol n dicionar; - s fie lexem; 469

- s aib o unitate funcional; - s posede o paradigm flexional. n ceea ce privete aspectul didactic, n cadrul componentului lexical, se vor distinge i se va lucra din perspectiva urmtoarelor nivele reprezentative: - fonologic; - morfologic; - sintactic; - semantic. Atunci cnd lucrm asupra lexicului la nivel morfologic i sintactic, o vom face conform urmtoarei scheme: Lexic Morfem lexical Formarea cuvintelor n flexiune se lucreaz cu Sintaxa lexical Structura sintagmatic Argumentarea structural Subcategoria

n urma analizei lingvistice a discursului de drept, vom mai distinge grupe tematice, cmpuri semantice, care in de o anumit ramur de drept (privat, penal, administrativ, de afaceri etc.), fiecare cu specificul su. n acelai timp, aceste ramuri nu sunt absolut rupte una de alta i formeaz un sistem unic de termeni juridici. n procesul de predare / nvare este important s fie desprins anume cmpul semantic sau minimumul lexical care constituie nucleul lexical al ramurii studiate. Acest minimum lexical va constitui baza pe care se va lrgi treptat bagajul de lexic de specialitate (juridic n cazul nostru) i se vor dezvolta abilitile de semantizare a lexicului nou (ca regul, el este determinat de necesitile de comunicare al unui anumit public specializat). Funcia profesorului de francez cu obiectiv specific (FOS) va consta n a-l 470

nva s-i fixeze o terminologie sistematic n domeniul specialitii sale. Trebuie s menionm c misiunea profesorului de FOS este de a transmite cunotinele specializate i nu de a preda tiina de drept, ceea ce revine specialistului n materie de drept. Aadar, n scopul realizrii obiectivelor sale didactice, profesorul va lucra asupra sistemului derivaional, de formare a cuvintelor noi. Cunoaterea procedeelor derivaionale va contribui la dezvoltarea abilitilor de semantizare a lexicului nou i la mbogirea bagajului lexical specializat. n urma unui sondaj efectuat la Facultatea de Drept, anul I, 93 % dintre studeni n-au semantizat corect seriile lexicale: jur juridiction jurisprudence juridique i justice juger justiciable Au semantizat corect termenii juridici 80 % dintre studeni. Nivelul de nelegere a procedeelor derivaionale a constituit 55 %. Motivul multor greeli const n faptul c studenii nu posed deprinderi de formare a cuvintelor noi prin derivare, nu cunosc modelele de formare a substantivelor, a adjectivelor, a verbelor, a unitilor terminologice. Deseori, ei interpreteaz totul numai la nivel de intuiie, nu au dezvoltat gndirea abstract. n procesul de semantizare nu cunosc semnificaia afixelor, sensul pe care acestea l comport. De exemplu: tuteur (persoan care vegheaz asupra unui minor) i tutelaire (care asigur o protecie) sunt confundate; nu in cont de cuvntul-cheie productor al paradigmei semantice. Adesea studenii confund prile de vorbire actif i activiste, semantizeaz greit cuvintele protecteur (persoan care apr, protejeaz pe cei mai slabi, sraci) i protectionniste (care vizeaz s protejeze economia naional mpotriva concurenei strine) opus unitii librechange. Iat de ce, n vederea nsuirii metodologiei de creare a abilitilor de nelegere a cuvintelor noi, e necesar s fim ateni la analiza morfemelor i vom lucra asupra modelelor de formare a cuvintelor noi. De regul, se va pune accentul pe modelul de formare a cuvintelor, a m471

binrilor de cuvinte i nu pe afixe, deoarece n procesul de semantizare a cuvntului trebuie ca studentul s cunoasc sensul afixului. De exemplu, elementul de formare cide semnific care ucide (un enfanticide, un suicide, un homicide, etc.). Neaprat trebuie s fie distinse clar i noiunile de productor produs. Formarea cuvintelor noi i procesul de derivare a morfemelor sunt strns legate ntre ele i chiar dac scopul lor e diferit, ele se completeaz reciproc. O astfel de abordare dezvolt gndirea analitic a studentului. n mod contient i nu mecanic, acesta va distinge morfemele, i va forma abilitatea de formare a cuvintelor, a unitilor sintagmatice, conform modelelor tipice de formare a acestora. n scopul formrii consecutive a acestui nucleu de termeni juridici, vom elabora i un sistem de exerciii, respectnd principiul de la simplu la compus. Aadar, vom selecta modelele derivaionale i unitile sintagmatice cele mai frecvente din limbajul juridic: a) licenciement licencier licenci; b) de la nume spre verb: infraction enfreindre; retorsion rtorquer; saisie saisir etc. c) de la nume spre adjectiv: litige litigieux; rgle rglementaire; abus abusif; prsident prsidentiel etc. d) nume + prepoziia de+ nume: juge dinstruction; prise de dcision; prononciation du verdict; Cour dAppel etc. e) verb + articol + nume: dposer une pleinte; 472

encourir une peine; plaider une cause; intenter un procs, etc. f) verb + prepoziie + nume (adj.): pourvoir en justice; ragir avec rigueur; jouir des garanties; citer en justice etc. Vom remarca i faptul c n urma fenomenului de mondializare, a crerii Curii Europene a Dreptului Omului, apar multe neologisme formate, att prin derivare-sufixare-prefixare, parasinteze (patrimonial, ale), compunere (la presse est au contrepouvoir), ct i unele uniti sintagmatice de tipul garde--vue. Din perspectiva aspectului semantic al termenilor juridici, vom meniona lucrul asupra: a) sinonimelor: lgal = licite; contentieux = litigieux; rglementaire = lgitime etc. b) antonimelor: prventif rpressif ; coupable innocent; civil pnal; corruption correction etc. c) perechilor paronimice (deseori confundate de studeni): passible i possible justice i justesse perptrer i perptuer intenter i attenter supplicier i supplier etc. d) cuvintelor ce nu au echivalente n limba romn sau, din contra, n limba francez: le Tribunal administratif; le Conseil des prudhommes (homnisboutmant). 473

e) polisemiei unor nume (rare, totui existente): le dossier dun sige; le dossier juridique un code pnal de la route; le parquet du tribunal dun salon; un casier juridique de bire; la cause judiciaire dun phnomne etc. unor verbe: poursuivre un coupable poursuivre un travail (persvrer); dtenir un dlinquant dtenir un objet (possder); purger une peine purger une conduite deau (vidanger). unor cuvinte care au nu doar un sens specific n limbajul de drept, dar i o alt semnificaie n limba comun: acte, action, article, cellule, preuve, mandat, ressort etc. f) unitilor semantice: par contumence en flagrant dlit un deni de justice un chef daccusation le corps du dlit etc. g) unitilor i expresiilor frazeologice: nul nest sens ignorer la loi ; la bonne loi est toujours prsume etc. Este cert faptul c, lucrnd asupra terminologiei juridice, vom acorda o deosebit atenie i asupra multor altor aspecte cum ar fi, de exemplu, cel fonetic, semiotic etc. O unitate lexical specializat poate fi considerat ca fiind nsuit numai atunci cnd vor fi lichidate problemele: a) de natur lingvistic (ce in de aspectele morfologic, sintactic, semantic). De exemplu, corect se va spune la Police judiciaire i nu la Police juridique, dar une action juridique (lgale), i nu une action judiciaire, sau, de exemplu, urmtoarele uniti lexicale, care n aparen par a fi sinonime: 474

- la dtention (reinere a unui delincvent pentru infraciuni politice); - la rclusion (privaiune de libertate pentru comiterea unei crime ce ine de dreptul comun cu obligaiunea de a lucra); - la captivit = nchidere (registrul familiar). Toate aceste uniti lexicale, la prima vedere, ar nsemna nchidere, ns fiecare are i o semnificaie specific. b) de natur cognitiv (de cunoatere a materiei pe care o nva sau o traduce). De exemplu, un Juge dinstruction este o persoan care se ocup de anchet, acumuleaz informaii n urma audierii martorilor sau un nonlieu este o decizie prin care anchetatorul oprete o anchet din lips de motive. c) de natur pragmatic (atunci cnd se ignoreaz aspectul sociocultural, unii termeni pot avea o valoare diferit n diferite limbi). De exemplu, un criminel n limba francez poate avea i valoarea de malfaiteur, voleur (rufctor, ho), pe cnd n limba romn are un sens mai restrns, cel de persoan care a ucis, dar nu i de ho, sau de persoan care a svrit o infraciune. nsui termenul une infraction n limba francez are sensul de nclcare nu prea grav a unei legi de stat, n limba romn acest termen are numai sensul de nclcare a legii. Exist i situaie invers: atunci cnd un termen nu are echivalent n limba strin. De exemplu Procuratur n limba romn, iar n limba francez la Majistrature. Evaluarea nivelului de pregtire a unei persoane care nva limbajul de specialitate prevede i estimarea numarului de Uniti cu semnificaie specializat, pe care le-a nsuit i tie s le foloseasc corect n activitatea sa profesional. Cu ct densitatea concepional a discursului su este mai mare, cu att nivelul sau de pregtire lingvistic va fi considerat mai nalt.

475

REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

1. Berejan Silviu, Terminologie. Limbaj specializat, vocabular specializat, Clusium, Cluj-Napoca, 2000, p. 67. 2. Miclu Paul, Dimensiunea semantic a limbajelor specializate n volumul Semantic i semiotic, Editura Bucureti, 1981, pp. 73-79. 3. Sajer J. C., A practical course in terminology processing, Amsterdam, Filadelfia, Johm Benjamins. 4. Sluanski Dan, Studiul vocabularelor specializate. Probleme de metod, SCL XII. N6, 1971, p. 589. 5. Vascenco Victor, Probleme de terminologie lingvistic, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1975, p. 9. 6. Wster Eugen, Introduction la thorie gnrale de la terminologie et la lexicographie terminologique, Edition en franais, Edmon Brent, 1985, Lenght, 300.

ESTE OARE FRAZEOLOGIA UN COMPARTIMENT AL LEXICOLOGIEI SAU O RAMUR INDEPENDENT A LINGVISTICII? Natalia HIoARA, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Parascovia GRoZAV, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Ecaterina RUGA limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

When we talk about idioms we imagine something fix, invariable. But the reality proves that everything changes and idioms too.They may be translated directly as well as indirectly. Cnd vorbim despre idiomuri, ne imaginm ceva fix, neschimbat. Dar realitatea a demonstrat c totul se schimb, chiar i idiomurile. Ele pot fi traduse att n forma lor pur, ct i n alt form, schimbat. Piatra de temelie, n fundamentul apariiei unei ramuri relativ tinere a lingvisticii frazeologie, a fost pus cu mult nainte de a se vorbi de frazeologie, ca un compartiment aparte al lingvisticii. O valoare real n susinerea acestei idei o constituie lucrrile savanilor A.A.Potebnea, I.I.Sreynevscki, V.K.Porjeyinski, L.A. Baudouin de Courtenaz, F.F.Fortunatov, A.A.ahmatov .a., iar aportul substanial ntru dezvoltarea frazeologiei au avut-o studiile lingvitilor O.Jespersen, A.Sechehaze i, n mod deosebit, Ch.Bally. Anume E.D.Polivanov a fost primul care a propus ca frazeologia s fie considerat o nou ramur a lingvisticii.Previziunea tiinific a prof. E.D.Polivanov a fost argumentat i fundamentat de acad.V.V.Vinogradov, prin articolele sale, care au servit drept imbold pentru dezvoltarea de mai departe a cercetrilor tiinifice n domeniul frazeologic.* Fr nicio ndoial, se poate afirma c primatul n dezvoltarea i afirmarea frazeologiei, ca ramur independent, i aparine colii lingvisti-

476

477

ce ruse. Perioada treptat (latent) de acumulare a bazelor teoretice ale frazeologiei a constituit-o anii 1917-1947, cnd s-au publicat lucrrile vestiilor lingviti L.V.cerba, L.O.Vinocur, I.Vulifius, L.P.Kubinski, L.A.Bulahovscki, A.V.Kunin, S.I.Abakumov, A.I.Eftimov .a. Referindu-se la lingvistica englez i american, A.A.Amosova sublinia c aici nu exist mcar o noiune provizorie despre frazeologie ca disciplin lingvistic. Situaia e mai bun n lingvistica francez, unde lucrrile ce in de frazeologie au fost semnate de lingvitii de talie mondial P.Guiraud, J.Humbert, M.Kat, C.Robert .a. Lingvitii germani la fel au adus o contribuie substanial n aceast materie. A.V.Kunin a anunat c frazeologia i-a ctigat dreptul la existen ca ramur aparte, nc la cel de-al X-lea Congres Internaional al lingvitilor. Aceast idee a dominat, n continuare i la alte conferine i simpozioane organizate la diferite niveluri. *Lingvitii care au contribuit la afirmarea frazeologiei, ca tiin aparte (primii, desigur, fiind E.D.Polivanov i V.V.Vinogradov), au fost N.N.Amosova, V.I.Arhanghelski, A.M.Babkin, V.F.Jukov, M.M.Kopilenco, Z.D.Popova, A.I.Molotkov, M.F.Palevsckaia, L.I.Roizenzon, V.N.Telia, N.M.anski .a. Lingvistica romneasc i datoreaz mult, n aceast privin, lui B.P.Hasdeu, Al.Philippide, L.ineanu, L.A.Zanne, I.A.Candrea, I.Iordan, F.Dimitrescu, Th.Hristea, S.Dumitricel, V.Soloviov, N.Corlteanu, Gr.Grinco, T.Cotelnic, V.Hristov, N.Cunichi, Gh.Colun, .a. Prima tez de doctorat i aparine lingvistului V.Soloviov, susinut n 1952, la Kiev. n baza unui bogat material studiat, pmnteanul nostru, nc n 1955, venea cu ndrzneaa afirmaie c studiul cel mai vast n domeniul frazeologiei din lingvistica romneasc aparine autoarei F.Dimitrescu cu lucrarea Locuiunile verbale n limba romn, Bucureti, Academia de tiine, 1963, apoi apar lucrrile lui Dragomirescu G.M. Locuiunile adverbiale, Drganu N., Dumitricel S., cu lucrarea A face capul calendar n cronica 1965, Eremia A. cu Destinul cuvintelor, Ecu I. cu Tipologia propoziiilor, tiina, 1979. Evdoenco A., cu Comoara din strbuni, ori Chibnescu Gh. cu lucrarea Din traista cu vorbe. Desaga, Lumina Moldovei, 1924, sau 478

Junghietu E. cu lucrarea Cte-s ele iernile grele, 1985. La dicionarele frazeologice englezromn, Ediia tiinific, Bucureti, 1968 i la ediia a II-a, revizuit i adugat (1982), la ambele au participat Adrian Nicolescu, Ioan Preda. La prima ediie, a participat Liliana Popovici i la a II-a (pe lng primii doi menionai) Liliana Pamfil-Teodoreanu, Mircea Tutos.* Traductorul trebuie s fie deosebit de atent la redarea numrului imens de cuvinte compuse i expresii frazeologice cu valori semantice foarte diverse, cu o frecvent metaforizare a elementelor componente, atent i la faptul c pn i dicionarele cele mai mari nu nregistreaz un numr suficient de combinri. Chiar i textele economice nregistreaz asocieri extrem de capricioase n timp ce reguli fixe nu se pot da. De aici i nvtura: nu ntotdeauna nelesul unui cuvnt compus ori al unei expresii frazeologice este egal cu nelesurile elementelor sale componente. De exemplu: going concern 1. ntreprindere lucrativ, comercial, o afacere rentabil, 2. participare (nu concern mictor), sweetbread momie (mai ales de viel), ori traducerea sinonimelor, n special a idiomurilor demotivate cu toate elementele componeniale total pierdute: 1. through thick and thin, 2.by hook or by crook, 3. for love or money toate n traducerea cu orice pre (by any means)**. * Cu o deosebit atitudine, s-a lucrat cu dicionarul lingvistului Kunin A.V. - n dou volume Ed. , 1967 (ediia a treia) i cu Dicionarul Frazeologic Francez-Romn de locuiuni i expresii de Galina Bejenaru, Tatiana Petcu, Adelaida Samoilenco, Ed. Tipografia Central, Chiinu 2005 (etre entre la poire est la fromage a fi la sfritul mesei). ** Expresii similare formate cu cuvntul clearing nu ntotdeauna se traduc cuvnt cu cuvnt 1. Clearing house oficiu de; camer de decontri; clearing bank banc de cliring, clearing off a debt achitare a unei datorii, clearing of good lichidare de mrfuri. Dac pentru cuvintele compuse s-ar putea face cteva recomandri puin operante la traducere, de ordin general, cum ar fi: 1) stabilii leg479

turile logice dintre cuvinte, 2) inei seama de gramatic, 3) inei seama de context n timpul traducerii etc. , atunci, n calitate de recomandri pentru traducerea expresiilor somatice (cuvinte ce in de prile corpului uman), se propun cteva modele de traducere innd cont de cel puin cinci factori care, adesea, complic problema identificrii, nelegerii i traducerii idiomurilor: 1) traducerea greit a idiomului ce se datoreaz combinrii libere a cuvintelor (to let one s hair down a se relaxa) 2) complic i formele diferite att n limba-surs (LS), ct i n limba-int (L), dar cu sens figurativ identic (to pull someone s leg or to lead somebody by the nose (a pcli pe cineva), 3) interpretarea greit se mai datoreaz asocierii similare a unui idiom din LS, dar sensul figurativ este identic cu cel din L (to pull the devil by the tail) a cuta neplceri, probleme), care poate fi greit neles de traductor prin influena idiomului din L-l. romn a-l apuca pe Dumnezeu de picioare, 4. interpretare greit a unui idiom din LS i a altui idiom din L, care-i similar dup form i diferit dup neles: to make good times (a termina mai repede o cltorie) i to have good time (a-i petrece bine timpul), 5) idiomul din LS poate exercita o aplicare mai vast dect cea din L: to get aut of hand, ex.: (a scpa de sub control(copiii), sau ex.: 2) ntrunirea (meeting) a fost att de neorganizat. Se propune patru modele tipice pentru traducerea idiomurilor: 1) traducerea idiomurilor din LS i L care au o semantic identic, 2. traducerea idiomurilor din LS poate fi efectuat cu un idiom din L care posed acelai sens figurativ, pstreaz aceleai caracteristici emotive i stilistice bazate pe diferite imagini, pstreaz, adic, posed un sens literal diferit, 3) idiomurile din LS pot fi traduse reproducndu-le cuvnt cu cuvnt (word-for-word) n L, 4) traductorul poate s ncerce s explice sensul figurativ al idiomului, cu scopul de a pstra cel puin elementul semantic principal. Unele rezultate ale analizei demonstreaz c limba, ca i viaa, sunt n continu schimbare i unitile frazeologice (idiomurile) folosite att de ctre scriitori, ct i de persoane obinuite mereu se schimb. Idiomurile pot fi redate pstrnd sau schimbnd forma original, folosind alte cuvinte i alte structuri gramaticale, chiar i omindu-le. Cnd se 480

pstreaz forma originalului, sensul traducerii: 1) poate s coincid (ntr-o oarecare msur) cu sensul prezent n dicionar. 2) poate i s nu coincid, 3) unitatea frazeologic din L poate fi chiar omis, 4) dac unitatea frazeologic UF din LS nu pstreaz forma original, de obicei, traducerea UF nu coincide cu sensul din dicionar. Unitile frazeologice comport un caracter unitar, se prezint ca un tot ntreg i se caracterizeaz printr-o oarecare pierdere a autonomiei cuvintelor componente. Toate caracteristicile uor sunt evideniate la ntrebuinarea cuvintelor ntr-o anumit combinare i cu un anumit sens. E puin s se tie sensul sau sensurile unui cuvnt. Este necesar s se tie folosirea cuvntului n anumite mprejurri , n legtur cu acele cuvinte cu care, de-obicei, se ntrebuineaz, adic trebuie de nsuit i memorizat fondul frazeologic al limbii. V.Matezius, lingvist ceh, numea bogia unitilor frazeologice drept buchetul mediului natal, n care s-a nscut i s-a dezvoltat limba, i care este folosit de creatorii i purttorii ei. Expresiile cu coninut sinonimic to lay hands on i to have on ones hands (ambele se traduc a lua n mini) folosesc diferite verbe (to lay.... to have ...) care nu-l pot nlocui pe cel din alt expresie (incorect: to lay on ones hands sau to have hands on) M.Eminescu scria c numai o limb, n care cuvintele sunt mbinate cu un neles de veacuri, este clar i numai o cugetare, care se servete de o asemenea limb, e limpede i cu temei. Relaia complicat dintre cuvinte ne pune n situaia s cunoatem sensul fiecrui cuvnt dintr-un text strin, pe cnd nelesul ntregii propoziii nu-l pricepem (ex.: to wait on somebody hand and foot asculttor; to have the upper hand of supui etc.). n marea parte, unitile frazeologice nu pot fi traduse cuvnt n cuvnt (word-for-word) n alt limb, de altfel, denaturm sensul expresiei. Astfel, expresia englez to have an eye to nu nseamn a avea un ochi spre, cum s-ar prea la prima vedere, ci red sensul a acorda atenie, iar in eye opener nu nseamn deschiztor de ochi, ci red sensul efect colosal. n francez, se faire la barbe nu nseamn a-i face barba, ci a se brbieri. La fel, se ntmpl i cu jeter les 481

bases, care nseamn a pune bazele, garde le lit a cdea la podea, ils ont fait de leau avant de partir - s-au aprovizionat cu ap nainte de plecare. Expresia frazeologic englez Tom, Dick and Harry se traduce n rusete , , , (comparai Ru: , ), sau expresia american Tom and Jerry care se traduce rusete (P.Egan Life in London 1772-1849). Nu toate elementele lexicale i pierd cu totul coninutul lor semantic sau caracterul lor autonom. Elementele componente i pot pstra, ntr-o oarecare msur, valoarea semantic, cum ar fi to cry ones eyes out cu traducerea a plnge toate lacrimile. Aceast expresie frazeologic formeaz un anumit tipar verbal, o expresie standard, luat de-a gata i ntrebuinat n anumite mprejurri, cnd trebuie s artm c ceva ne-a indispus grav, ne-a umilit, ne-a zdruncinat sntatea sau ne-a nenorocit. 1. Cuvintele, care-i pierd treptat coninutul lor de sine stttor i ntregul coninut al expresiei, capt un neles, care nu se prezint ca o sum a sensurilor elementelor componente, alctuiesc expresii frazeologice sau expresii idiomatice. Dac n expresiile to bite someones nose of - a jigni pe cineva, sau to put someones nose out of join a strica planurile cuiva, ori to heep someones nose to the grindstone a lucra fr odihn, dac am lua aparte fiecare cuvnt, am ajunge la cu totul alt neles dect acela, pe care l are expresia luat n ntregime. 2. Foarte multe expresii idiomatice se caracterizeaz printr-o legtur sintactic i lexical foarte strns,fapt pentru care expresia se prezint ca o mbinare lexicalizat, ca un cuvnt alctuit prin metoda sintactic. Prin urmare, semantica expresiei corespunde unui cuvnt. De exemplu: all slim and bones slbnog (numai pielea i oasele); lip-deep i lip-service farnic; ren-shinned suprcios; a nose of wax schimbtor; all my lyes (interj.) prostii; in the trking of the eye (ntr-o sclipeal); to clap ones eyes a observa etc. n unele limbi*, aceast legtur strns este redat printr-o expresie reprezentat grafic ca un tot ntreg i se traduce printr-un singur cuvnt. De exemplu: n francez, expresia somatic: avoir (garder, con482

server) un dent contre gn. a ur, a dumni, ne par desserrer les dents a mui, donner un coup de dent a gn. a nepa (pe cineva), avoir la puce a loreille agitat. Exist expresii redate printr-un singur cuvnt i n procesul de traducere din englez n rus. Expresia get the pink slip *(engleza american) n rus se traduce . Legturile strnse lexicale i sintactice sunt demonstrate i la traducerea expresiilor somatice din limba englez: bonny and skiny slbnog i din limba francez navoir que les os et la peau slab (slbnog). La fel i: a part entiere total, prendre parti a decide, avoir los priceput, ca vaut los face! faire le fier mndru, fudul. Expresia somatic next ones (sau the)heart se traduce n limba rus ; In good (strong, etc.)heart ; take heart (take heart of grace) ; have a heart! !; !; set ones heart at rest ; have an eye on , ; vacant eye (sau stare) (). Expresiile somatice ca i numeroasele expresii idiomatice, formeaz un tot ntreg nu numai prin semantica lor, ci i din punctul de vedere al funcei lor semantice, deoarece ele se prezint ca nite *pink slip ; get the pink slip ; your services are no longer needed . Nose e.g. to show ones nose = a nu se ascunde de ochii lumii; e.g. to follow ones nose = a se conduce de instinct; e.g. to see no futher than ones nose = a nu vedea mai departe de nasul propriu; e,g. to nose out = a face cercetri; a afla ceva; e.g. to nose into = a-i bga nasul in oal strin; e.g. to turn up ones nose at = a se uita la cineva de sus; e.g. to look down ones nose = a fi mandru; e.g. to make a long nose at somebody = a juca la nervii cuiva; e.g. to pay through the nose = a plti prea scump; e.g. to count noses = a ine pe funie; e.g. to count noses = a numara voturile; e.g. to lead by the nose = a ine pe funie; e.g. to bite some ones nose off = a jigni pe cineva; e.g. to put someones nose out of join = a strica planurile cuiva; e.g. to keep someones nose to yhe grindstone = a lucra fr odihn; e.g. a nose of 483

wax = schimbtor; e.g. a nosegay = o legtur de flori; e.g. the breath of ones nostrils = strictul necesar. Face e.g. to look facts in the face = a se uita la dovezi; e.g. to thrust in the face of = a invinui pe cineva pe nedrept; e.g. to fly in the face of a se ine ano; e.g. to look to someones face = a-i ascunde faa, privirea; e.g. upon the face of it = la prima vedere; UNINOTIONAL; e.g. a facer = problema neprevzut uniti lexicalizate. n cazul cnd se analizeaz o prepoziie din punct de vedere sintactic, expresia idiomatic trebuie considerat ca o singur parte a propoziiei, care nu poate fi divizat n mai multe uniti sintactice, pentru c aceast divizare ar duce la absurd din punct de vedere semantic. De exemplu: put a good face on something Ro. a prea mulumit; Ru. , . Nobody liked the new manager, but nobody complained; they put a good face upon It. Ro. nimnui nu i-a plcut noul director, dar nu s-au plns; toi artau mulumii. Ru. , , ( ... );Predicatul - put a face on something - (Ro. s-au artat mulumii); Ru. );take heart*(sau take heart of grace) - Ro. a se mbrbta; Ru. ,.The peasants who at first shrunk from the plan in horror ... tolk heart of grace as it was put intro practice; Ro. ranii, care la nceput au refuzat categoric acest plan ... pe msur ce a fost pus n practic (l-au vzut realizat) au prins curaj (Fr. prendre coeur). Ru. , , , ( ), . Trebuie s distingem dou pri de propoziie: subiectul (ranii ...) i predicatul exprimat prin expresia somatic (prin toate elementele ei) take heart of grace. *Situaia e i mai pregnant la idiomurile verbale de tipul: a-i da cuiva inima a ndrgi etc. Exemplu: cum s-ar fi nchinat unei copile, care i-ar fi dat lui inima sa(M. Eminescu, Srmanul Dionis). n limba englez, exist substantive derivate de la verbe (sau substantive verbalizate de tipul have a look, take a look, give a look, care pot fi 484

poziionate pe un rnd cu..... gire a glance, make a move, take a turn, ultimele fiind considerate uniti frazeologice la care s-au dezvoltat sensuri deosebite, ce nu corespund sensului verbului glance, move, turn, de exemplu make a move spre deosebire de sensul a se mica, a se urni, mai nseamn de asemenea ,a se porni, a se ridica de la mas, a ncepe a aciona, a ntreprinde, a face o ncercare; (Ru. -); make a turn semnific n afar de a se ntoarce, de asemenea a se plimba, a se schimba; (Ru. ) etc. Prin urmare, s-ar putea considera expresiile to have a ride, to have a smoke, to have a talk, to have a wash ca uniti frazeologice, apropiate cuvintelor compuse. Problema care * mbinrile de cuvinte dintre dou substantive bank-note, buttonhole, eye-ball, desk-book, formate ca un tot ntreg (prin cratim), sunt foarte rspndite n l. englez, dar numai acele mbinri care au sens idiomatic, ar putea fi considerate uniti frazeologice. mbinarea buttonhole, folosit n context cu sens de floare (adic floare la butonier) sau cu verb a ine (pe cineva) de vorb (apucndu-l de nasturi), pierzndu-i sensul iniial (probabil treptat), capt un sens nou, monolit sau un tot ntreg (unitatr) din punct de vedere semantic, pierde sensul lexical individual (capt idiomaticitate). Aa e cazul cu heart breaking greoi; half hearbed indiferent; whole hearted sincer; heart broken mort de jale; heart felt sincer; heart sick distrus; heart whole cu inima deschis; heart acke boal sufleteasc. nc rmne neelucidat pn la capt ine de verbele cu o semantic larg, poziionate naintea substantivelor. Spre exemplu: take care, have a turn, make haste, give rise, losc sight (Ru. ). Savanii (.. , 1948 ., . 171) i pun ntrebarea dac aceste mbinri de cuvinte pot fi permanent considerate uniti frazeologice sau, n unele cazuri, ca forme analitice ale verbului, aa-zisa unitate morfologizat. 3. Componentele expresiilor idiomatice somatice nu pot fi substituite prin sinonimele lor. n expresii ca: to take the word out of somebodis mouth a fi primul; to take ones life in ones hands a risca cu viaa; to take ones courage in both hands a se umple cu puteri; verbul to 485

take nu poate s fie nlocuit cu alt verb, nu poate fi utilizat la prezent, trecut sau viitor. Aceeai explicare o au urmtoarele expresii somatice: to look facts in the face a se uita la dovezi; to look to someons face a-i ascunde faa, privirea; to look down ones nose a fi mndru verbul to look nu poate fi nlocuit cu sinonimele sale (to stare, to see, etc.), pentru c astfel am ajunge la expresii lipsite de sens. Expresiile idiomatice somatice se utilizeaz n limb ca un tot ntreg, care nu ngduie s se schimbe locul componentelor, chiar ...dar, dac... posed o topic comun: in ones heart of hearts n adncul sufletului; at heart n adncul sufletului; with all ones heart din inim; from the heart din inim; from the bottons of the heart cu toat inima. Idiomurile istorice i cele legate de specificul naional al unui popor, cum ar fi: Hobsons choice alegere de nevoie; the white elefant cadou (de care nu tii cum s scapi de el cu varianta: white elefant - ntreprindere, companie, uzin etc., care nu funcioneaz); Devils edvocate (din latin ,advocatus diaboli persoana care folosete metode vicioase de aprare, care ponegrete i calomniaz, discrediteaz pe oricine); Dutch courage curaj la beie; The duch have taken Holland a descoperit America/ gaura covrigului! Mare procopseal/ scofal!; the ark on mt. Ararat au descoperit America, gaura covrigului; to gren like a Cheshire cat (sau a street-door knocher) a se hlizi, a se rnji ca prostul; *n continuare, enumerm expresii somatice cu specific naional englezesc: the eye of Greece Atena (aa a numit-o S. Milton, n poemul su Raiul recuperat, cartea IV); to apply for the (stewardship of the) Chiltern Hundreds a cere eliberarea din funcia de membru al parlamentului britanic; Popes eye partea gras a piciorului de berbec; in ones (sau the) minds eye n imaginaie, n gnd (citat din Hamlet): Hamlet. May father, methinks ad see my father Horaio. O! Where, my lord?Hamlet. In mz minds eye, Horatio (W. *the four seas patru mri ce spal litoralul M. Britanii (Marea Nordului, Marea Irlandei, Oceanul Atlantic, Canalul Mnecii). Shakespeare. Hamlet, act.1, sc. 2), fly in the face a brava (utilizat de W. Thackeray n Vanity Fair, capitolul XXIV) ; the heart of Mid-Lothian nchisoarea din Edinburg (demolat n 1817). 486

Idiomurile de origine livresc au caracter internaional. Ele i afl izvorul n limba greac sau latin, de unde au ptruns n toate sau aproape n majoritatea limbilor moderne n forme calchiate. O serie de expresii idiomatice printre care i expresii somatice, care-i au originea n mitologia greco-roman, au cptat o circulaie internaional: Engl. heel of Achiles clciul lui Ahile (Ru. , Ukr. A , Beilor. , Fr. Talon dAchille, Ceh. Achilova pata, Germ. Achilles ferse partea vulnerabil, latura vulnerabil a unei persoane sau a unui lucru).* 4. O alt expresie (ne somatic!), cum ar fi Adams apple mrul lui Adam, nodul gtului, Ru. , ; the apple of Sodom neltor, amgitor, iluzoriu, (fruct frumos, dar putred**); Adams ale (Scot. Adams wine) ap; not to know a man from Adam a nu avea habar cum arat cineva la fa, a-i fi cineva complet necunoscut; Ru. , - ; -; *** since Adam was a boy de demult, de cnd (e) lumea, imemorabil; Ru. o , , ; the faithful Adam slug btrn i credincioas**** Ru. ; as old *****as Adam/ the hills de pe vremea lui Adam (Babadam) lui Pazvante (chiorul); de la Adam i Eva; de cnd lupii albi; vechi de cnd lumea ; Ru. , , ; , ( ); when Adam delved and Eve span who was then a gentlman? cnd Adam ara i Eva esea, cine era de vi veche?; Ru. , , ; , ( ); when Adam delved and Eve span who was then a gentlman? cnd Adam ara i Eva esea, cine era de vi veche?; Ru. , ?(o lozinc din timpul rscoalei (rzboiului) rneti din 1381, adresat celor care se flesc cu via veche/nobil); acrry (sau send) ouris to Athens a se duce la vie cu struguri n batist/poal to carry coals to new castle Ru. / / ; 487

Ariadnas needleful firul Ariadnei (Tezeu a reuit s ias din coridoarele ntortocheate ale labirintelor datorit firului, pe care i l-a dat Ariadna; Fr. Fil dAriadne, Ceh. Ariadnina nit; sword of Domokles sabia lui Domocle (pericol mare, care amenin mereu situaia cuiva), Fr. Glaire (epee) de Damoklis, Sp. La espade de Damokle, Germ. Damoklesschwert; Procrustes led patul lui Proc(r)ust cu sensul msurii artificiale, n cadrul crora sunt forate fapte (Proc(r)ust sau Damastes era un tlhar din atica cu puteri supranaturale, care ataca trectorii pe drumul dintre Megara i Atena. El avea dou paturi (mare i mic). Pe cei de statur mic i ntindea n patul mare, iar pe cei de statur mare le tia picioarele ca s ncap n patul mic, nepotrivit) etc. A fost ucis de Tezeu. Unele expresii frazeologice au aprut n legtur cu anumite personaliti i fapte istorice: pass the Rubicon a trece Rubiconul a lua msuri hotrte, extraordinare, cu urmri deosebite (Rubiconul este un afluent al Padului. n anul 49 . e. n., Cezar a marcat nceputul rzboiului civil, care a pus capt regimului republican din Roma); Fr. Franchiz (passer) le Rubicon; Sp. Pasar el Rubicon; Germ. Rubicon iiberschreiten; veni, vidi, vici am venit, am vzut, am nvins folosit n 47 . e. n. de Cezar ntr-o scrisoare ctre prietenul su Amantiu, n care-i comunica despre victoria sa fulgertoare asupra regelui Farnac II al Bosforului lng oraul Zela din Asia Mic; epur si muove i totui se mic (pmntul); Ru. - ; la baza aces__________

tui idiom se afl afirmaia (Eppur si muove), rostit de Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) cu toate c a fost constrns de eclezitii catolici s renune la concepia sa, potrivit creia Pmntul se rotete n jurul Soarelui; s-au pstrat n form originar expresiile latine: auditor et altera s fie ascultat i cealalt parte la judecat, pornit de la scriitorul latin Seneca (55 p. e. n. 41 e. n.); fugit irraparabile tempus timpul fuge fr s se ntoarc, folosit de poetul latin Virgiliu (70 19 p. e. n.); si per si per aspera ad astra cu sinonimul ad augusta per angusta cu sensul pe ci anevoioase poi ajunge la stele etc. Cu toate acestea, e posibil traducerea cuvnt n cuvnt a expresiilor care se trag de la un izvor comun sau calcuri lingvistice. De exemplu to be Alpha and Omega (de la nceput pn la sfrit conform alfabetului grecesc), one swallov does not make a summer cu o rndunic nu se face primvar; Fr. Une hirondelle ne fait par le printemps; Fr. Poser les points sur les i a pune punctul pe i; Ru. ; attic salt sare atic (numirea provine de la provincia greceasc Atica cu sensul vorb de spirit, ironie fin, vorb istea); Fr. Sel attique; Ru. ; Germ. Attisches Salz; Sp. Sal atica. Aceste expresii au la baz anumite fapte reale, concrete, care n cursul evoluiei limbii au cptat sens generalizator, majorndu-le fora expresiv.

Concluzii
Cnd vorbim despre idiomuri, ne imaginm ceva fix, neschimbat. Dar realitatea a demonstrat c totul se schimb, chiar i idiomurile. Ele pot fi traduse att n forma lor pur, ct i n alt form, schimbat. Traductorul, altdat, ar trebui s foloseasc la traducere alte forme, alte structuri gramaticale i chiar s omit idiomurile. 1. Exist multiple expresii echivalente directe (integrale) i limitate. Este uor s gsim idiomuri potrivite n L, dac au rdcini din latin i greac i care la o anumit perioad istoric au fost mprumutate n ambele (LS i LT). De exemplu Achilles heel ( kili:z, hi:l) clciul lui A(h)hile, punct slab, vulnerbil. Sau dac idiomurile echiva489

*Zeia Tetis, mama lui Ahile l-a cufundat pe Ahile n rul Stics, pentru a-l face nemuritor. Numai clciul, de care-l inuse, a rmas vulnerabil (ceea ce i i-a adus lui Ahile moartea sub zidurile Troiei). **Dup legend, lng Sodoma, care se situeaz nu departe de Marea Moart, creteau mere frumoase, care se prefceau n fum i scrum la atingere. ***Do you know whom you have been talking to, Mr. Sebright? I began. No, said he. I dont know him from Adam (R. Stevenson. She Wrecker, ch XIX)... Ru. , . . ****Numele unui personaj de comedie a lui W. Shakesspeare Cum o s v plac. *****Old Harry (Nick sau Scratch); the old adverssary, boy, enemy, gentleman, lad, Poker, the old one, old dragon/Serpent, old gooseberry dumanul rodului omenesc, diavol, satana; old bean/ coch/socks/top btrne!; Ru , , , .

488

lente, posibil, c au fost mprumutate ntr-o perioad mai recent. De exemplu: The game is not worth the candle nu face s pierzi timpul. Ambele frazeologisme au fost mprumutate din limba francez. Adesea gsind expresia echivalent n L, e imposibil s-o utilizezi din cauza conotaiei diferite. De exemplu To save ones skin se traduce romnete a-i salva pielea cu sens negativ, dar poate avea n englez i o conotaie pozitiv, care nu exist n romn i atunci trebuie cutat alt echivalent n LT. Exemplu: Betty saved Tom by typyng his report for him. Romnete s-ar putea traduce Betty l-a salvat pe Tom, tapndu-i raportul n locul lui. 2. Chiar dac translatorul nu reuete s gseasc o expresie frazeologic identic n LT, el ar trebui s caute o expresie cu acelai sens figurativ, dar diferent literar, a crui efect nu s-ar deosebi mult de LS. E important, pe de-o parte, de pstrat att caracteristicile originale emotive, ct i cele stilistice. Exemplu: Jack of all trades mini de aur, sau meter cu mini de aur. Nu se poate traduce la fel i expresia Jack off all trades cu sens derogatoriu, deoarece, emoional, ambele expresii difer. Sensul nefavorabil, din punct de vedere emoional n-a, fost realizat n romn, care ar fi att de aproape de varianta englez master of none. Sau alt expresie: can the leopard change his spots? n romn, nu poate fi folosit varianta oare, poate leopardul s-i schimbe punctele de pe blan, fiindc exist varianta potrivit: lupul blanai schimb, dar nravul ba. Aceast metod de traducere n-ar trebui utilizat, dac n LT expresia respectiv este evident noional marcat. De obicei, se presupune c n traducere trebuie s se redea ceea ce a fost spus de ctre autorul strin al LS i c de la el (autor) nu se ateapt categoric s fie folosit expresia romneasc, aa cum ar fi, de exemplu, a vinde cizme cizmarului , a vinde castravei la grdinari. 3. Traducerea cuvnt cu cuvnt (word-for-word) a idiomei din LS nu e posibil, iar cititorul romn nu ar fi capabil s deduc sensul ei figurativ. Fapt pentru care idiomului englez a skeleton in the cupboard (secret penibil/ruinos) va fi contraproductiv (by word-for-word trans490

lation), pe cnd to put the cart before the horse a pune carul n faa boilor e reuit. 4. E evident c o expresie nu poate reproduce satisfctor semantica idiomului din LS, i ar fi bine s-o folosim n absena unei alternative mai reuite. Exemplu: To cut off with a shilling a lsa fr motenitor or To dine with Duke Humphrey a rmne fr cin (i nu a lua masa cu Ducele Humphrey). Rmne s constatm dou ci pe care un translator le poate aborda referitor la idiomuri: de-a se ncerca reprezentarea idiomurilor ca uniti de sine stttoare n dicionarele monolingve i de-a le trata cu reguli speciale, care ar schimba structura idiomurilor- surse ntr-o structur adecvat. 5. Nu exist o terminologie precis (clar) pentru a identifica, n lingvistica modern, termenul idiomurile pot fi clasate n felul urmtor: 1) frazeologismele LS utilizate n forma n care se ntlnesc n limba i traducerea lui, coinciznd cu cea din dicionar; 2) frazeologismele LS cu forma preluat din limba de traducere nu coincid cu sensul din dicionar; 3) frazeologismele folosite n diferite forme la traducere, de obicei, nu coincid cu sensul din dicionar; 4) frazeologismele LS se folosesc cu forma lor din limb, iar cele din LT snt omise.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

1. Collins V. A Book of English idioms with Explanation by Collins London, 1960. 2. Levitski L. Manualul traductorului de limba englez, Bucureti, 1993. 3. Melenciuc D. Confrontational Lingvistics Chiinu MSU, 2000. 4. Neubert A. Text and Translation Leipzig, 1995.

491

Anex Expresii somatice

LexeNr. me le- somaxe- tice me- (denulor mirea pr-ilor corpului uman)

Tabelul 1.

TRSTURILE CARACTERISTICE ALE IDIOMURILOR Ecaterina RUGA, catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Svetlana APACHITA catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Natalia VoLoHoV, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri
ABSTRACT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

eye heart hand nose mouth blood ear teeth lips skin face cheek knee jaw shoulder

Indi- Productivitatea Ex- Ex- Expre- Ex- Cuvntul lider (pozitia cii expresiilor pre- pre- sii pre- inti) al expresiilor cansomatice sii sii soma- sii somatice titaso- so- tice sotivi ma- ma- cu 2 si maVer- Pre- Sub Ad- Inti- ti- 3 domi- tibul po stan- jec- terce ce nante ce zi- ti- ti- jecsim- comcu ii- vul vul ii ple ple4 dole xe mispo- me2d. 3d. nanmic rit die te

28 28 18 18 15 13 11 11 8 8 6 6 6 3 2 181

+ + + + + + + + 8

+ + + + + 5

- 3 - 6 - 2 - 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 - - - - 2 - 1 - + + 2 19

25 21 5 22 22 16 9 6 16 13 3 14 8 4 12 6 6 10 6 4 11 4 7 8 6 1 8 7 1 4 4 5 3 2 6 6 3 3 2 1 1 162 119 40

- 14 - 1 1 15 - 15 2 9 - 9 - 7 - 10 1 4 - 4 - 4 - 5 - 3 - 2 4 102

6 12 2 5 1 2 1 1 1 2 33

4 3 3 3 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 24

1 3 11 1 1 1 3 -

The differences between SL and TL necessitate the use of a number of synonyms or variants of synonyms to translate a single word. Our researchers have identified a significant number of new peculiarities of somatic idioms functioning. Diferenele dintre LS i LT necesit folosirea unui ir de sinonime i variante de sinonime pentru traducerea unui singur cuvnt. Autorii au identificat un numr impresionat de noi particulariti n funcionarea expresiilor idiomatice (denumirea prilor corpului uman). Caracteristicile expresiilor somatice analizate n acest studiu au permis s le demonstrm n tabelul nr. 1, unde sunt ilustrai urmtorii parametri: 1) Identificare cuantic a expresiilor somatice ce include denumirea a 15 pri ale corpului uman (eye, heart, hand, mouth, blood, ear, teeth, lips, skin, face, cheek, knee, jaw, shoulder); 2) productivitatea lor de-a forma expresii somatice cu indicii: productivitate sporit, medie i slab; 3) parametrii cuantici ai expresiilor simple care au n componena lor un singur cuvnt noional, aa zii uninoionali; 4) parametrii cuantici ai expresiilor somatice cu multe cuvinte noionale (-2, -3. -4), adic polinoionale; 5) expresiile somatice ce includ n componena lor dou cuvinte noionale; 6) expresii ce includ trei cuvinte noionale; 7) expresii somatice ce include patru cuvinte noionale; 8) expresii n care poziia nti o ocup verbul; 9) prepoziia; 10) adjectivul; 11) substantivul (partea nominal); 12) interjeciile. n total, au fost analizate o sut optzeci i una de expresii somatice dintre care aisprezece uninoionale, i 161 polinaionale. 493

1 18 4

Tabelul I. Parametrii cantitativi ai expresiilor somatice (indicii cantitativi generali; productivitatea sporit, medie, mic; expresii somatice simple (uninoionale); expresii somatice complexe (polinoionale); expresii somatice cu dou, trei i patru 492

Ultimele cuprind 119 expresii cu dou cuvinte noionale, 40 cu trei cuvinte noionale n componena lor i 4 cu patru cuvinte noionale, 102 verbe pe poziia nti a expresiilor (cuvinte-lider), 33 de prepoziii, 24 de substantive pe poziia de lider, 18 adjective care se poziioneaz pe locul nti i 4 interjecii. Din numrul total de expresii somatice (cu denumirea a cincisprezece pri ale corpului uman), cele 3) hand, 4) nose, 5) mouth, 6) blood, 7) ear, 8) teeth, cu parametrii 28, 28, 18, 18, 15, 13, 11, 11 respectiv: cuvintele (ce indic denumirea prilor corpului uman), care intr n componena expresiilor somatice cu o productivitate medie sunt urmtoarele: 1) lips, 2) skin, 3) face, 4) cheek, 5) knee cu parametrii de 8, 8, 6, 6, 6. O productivitate slab o au expresiile somatice cu cuvintele: 1) jaw i 2) shoulder cu indicia 3 i 2 fiecare.Expresiile somatice, care au o distribuie rspndit i care pot fi considerate cele mai productive, sunt cele ce includ eye este parte component a 28 de expresii (vezi lista). Caracteristicile sunt urmtoarele: 1) n afar c ele sunt mai reprezentative, ele 2) includ 3 expresii cu un singur centru semantic interjecii (my eyes! s vezi; aee my eyes! prostii!; mind your eye! prudenie!); 3) 25 de expresii polinoionale, 4) dintre care 21 de expresii cu dou cuvinte noionale dominante, (eye for eye ochi pentru ochi; an eye servant lucrtor bun etc.), 5) cinci expresii cu 3 dominante (a sight for sore eyes privelite ..., etc.), nu s-au nregistrat expresii cu 4 (i mai multe) cuvinte dominante; 6) pe prima poziie se afl paisprezece verbe (to have eye to a acorda atenie; to wipe the eye of somelody a terge nasul cuiva, a lua pe dinaintea cuiva, etc.); 7) ase prepoziii (in the twinkling of the eye ntr-o sclipeal; in the eye of the law n faa legii, etc.); 8) patru substantive (an eye opener efect colosal; a sight for sore eyes privelite plcut etc.) i 9) un adjectiv (more than meets the eye mai mult dect se pare la prima vedere). Cele 3 interjecii au fost incluse n lista expresiilor cu un singur centru semantic (dominant).*O distribuie diferit i deosebit o dein expresiile somatice cu heart. 1) Productivitatea acestor expresii este egal cu cele, cu elementul eye 28. Dar 2) ele cuprind ase expresii cu o dominant uninoional, 3) s-au nregistrat douzeci i dou de expresii polinoionale, 4) dintre care douzeci i dou cu dou cuvinte noionale 494

(a heart of gold om cu inima de aur; heart at heart cu gnduri grele etc.). Nu s-au nregistrat expresii cu trei (patru etc.) dominante. Dac expresiile cu eye n prima poziie atest 14 verbe,** aici 5) verbul ocup poziia de lider doar ntr-o singur expresie. De altfel 6) prepoziia deine cei mai mari parametrii cuantici 12, pe cnd expresiile cu eye doar 6 prepoziii pe prima poziie; 7) acelai tablou se repet cu adjectivul, care s-a atestat de 11 ori pe prima poziie, spre deosebire de expresiile cu eye doar o singur participare. 8) Distribuia substantivelor pe prima poziie este aproape aceeai la expresiile cu heart (3) i eye (4). Din expresiile somatice alctuite cu denumirea prilor corpului uman, interjecii. S-au atestat doar la expresiile formate cu eye (3) i heart (1) ( Bless your heart! Doamne!) din cele 15. n concluzie, putem meniona c, n expresiile somatice formate cu eye***, predomin verbele (14) pe prima poziie, iar n cele cu heart, predomin prepoziiile (12) i adjectivul (11).Formarea expresiilor somatice cu eye avnd verbul pe prima poziie, *La traducere, se ntlnesc dificulti ce in de pstrarea sensului metaforic n limba latin (LT) **La traducerea expresiilor somatice cu eye, se aplic Modelul II de traducere bazat pe utilizarea altor imagini n LT, spre deosebire de imaginile din limba-surs (LS) (to shut one eyes to a se uita printre degete). La utilizarea Modelului II de traducere, se pstreaz sensul emoional al expresiilor somatice, se pstreaz coloritul metaforic (to pipe the eye a se spla n lacrimi; a sight for sore-eye privelite plcut etc.); doar imaginea se schimb. ***Domin verbele pe poziia nti (poziia-lider) cu cuvntul eye: to keep ones eyes glued on a fi cu privirea atent to be eyelvash a conduce n eroare i un singur expemplu cu verb n poziia nti cu cuvntul heart (to take heart a se mbrbta; Expresiile cu elementul heart au atestat 12 prepoziii pe poziia nti (at heart n adncul sufletului); from the heart din inim, etc.); adjectivele n expresiile cu elementul heart s-au atestat de 11, pe cnd cu eye doar de o singur datp (half-hearted indiferent; heavg at heart cu gnduri grele; next the heart cu stomacul gol). Distribuia substantivelor (heart-3, eye-4) este aproape identic (a searching of heart mustrri de contiin; hearts of oak curajoi; a 495

heart gold om cu inim de aur) demonstreaz preponderant aciunea, iar cele formate cu heart * manifest stri i constatri. Urmtorii indici cantitativi ai expresiilor cu denumirea prilor corpului uman hand i nose sunt aproape identici: 1) atest productivitate sporit 18 ale ambelor denumiri, 2) atest cte dou expresii uninoionale (behind hand rmas n urm; at the hands of din mini strine i, respectiv, to nose out a face cercetri; a afla ceva; to nose into a-i bga nasul n oal strin). La capitolul expresii polinoionale, att expresiile formate cu cuvntul hand, ct i cele cu nose atest aceiai indici cantitativi (16 ; 16;) (to have ones hands full lucru pn la urechi; to condemn out of hand a nvinovi i, respectiv, the breath of ones nostrils strictul necesar; to turn up ones nose at a se uita la cineva de sus etc.) Coincid i indicii ce se repet la verbele care dein poziia nti n expresiile somatice (15; 15;) ( to wash ones hands a se spla pe mini; to tie somebody hands cu minile legate i, respectiv; (to make a long nose at somebody a juca la nervii cuiva; te show ones nose a nu se ascunde de ochii lumii etc.). Diferena dintre distribuia expresiilor somatice, n componena crora se atest dou cuvinte noionale e de patru uniti (9 i 13) pentru hand i nose respectiv (to change hands a trece din mn n mn; to force the hand of a descoase i expresiile cu cuvntul somatic nose: to lead by the nose a ine pe funie; to count noses a numra voturile). Hand formeaz ase expresii somatice cu trei cuvinte noionale i, respectiv, 3 expresii cu nose (to take ones hands) a risca cu viaa i to keep someone nose to the grindstone a lucra fr odihn). S-a atestat doar o singur expresie cu patru cuvinte noionale: to make a long nose at somebody. Idiomurile somatice cu sens metaforic sunt greu de tradus mai ales, atunci cnd trebuie de pstrat sensul lor (metaforic) n LT. Pentru a le traduce, utilizm Modelul II de traducere (pstrarea sensului emoional i coloritul metaforic, i paralel se schimb imaginea n LT. Simultan, la traducere, se folosete i modelul I de traducere word-for-word (cuvnt cu cuvnt mot-a-mot). De exemplu: to see no further than ones nose a nu vedea mai departe de nasul propriu; to have a free hand a da 496

fru liber. Urmtoarele expresii somatice, formate cu cuvintele mouth i blood, au o distribuie aproape identic: 1) productivitate sporit cu un decalaj doar de trei uniti (18; 15); 2) au atestat doar cte o singur expresie somatic simpl, uninoional; 3) expresiile somatice complexe, polinoionale ale cuvintelor mouth i blood sunt atestate de 14 i 12, 4), dintre care opt i, respectiv, ase expresii cu dou dominante, aa-zisele, cuvinte noionale (to make mouth at a *Expresiile cu elementul heart atest cel mai mare numr de exemple ce deine un singur centru semantic (20)(whole hearted sincer; heart-whole cu inima deschis etc.). Sunt foarte des utilizate de nativi, dispun de echivalene n LT, dar centrul semantic e specific i deosebit. face grimase; by word-of mouth orar; to run in the blood a fi motenitor; to stir the blood a trezi interesul); 5) mouth intr n componena a patru expresii idiomatice somatice cu trei dominante, n timp ce blood n ase (to take the word out of somebody s mouth a fi primul; prentmpina; to make somebod s mouth water a fi flmnd ca un lup); 6) expresii cu patru dominante sunt atestate doar dou (to laugh on the wrong side of one s mouth dup rs vine plns; to kneel a civil tongue in ones mouth a fi politicos). Majoritatea idiomurilor somatice i pierd centrul semantic i i schimb sensul n procesul traducerii. Unele expresii pot avea dou variante de traducere, cum ar fi n urmtorul caz: to be the mouth piece of 1) a fi oratorul, 2) a fi cel care deschide o festivitate. n lista expresiilor somatice productive, se nscriu expresiile formate cu cuvintele ear i teeth cu indici cantitativi identici (11; 11). S-a atestat doar o singur expresie somatic uninoional (about ones ears a cdea din cer ceva n cap). 3) Expresiile somatice polinoionale formeaz 10 expresii cu cuvntul ear i 11 cu cuvntul teeth (to have itching ears a umbla dup nouti; to give ear to a asculta cu atenie i respectiv to cut ones eye- teeth a ctiga experien de via; to be armed to the teeth a fi narmat pn-n dini); 4) S-au atestat ase expresii cu ear cu dou dominante (to see by the ears a-i bga coada; to hold by the ear a avea putere asupra cuiva i respectiv) i patru n componena creia 497

se atest cuvntul teeth to gnash ones teeth a crica din dini; to show ones teeth ma blnd zgrie ru) . Ear este partea component a patru expresii somatice, ce includ n componena sa trei dominante (to be willing to give ones ears to a fi gata pentru orice jertf; to have a persons ear a fi observat de cineva), pe cnd teeth este prezent n apte expresii somatice cu trei dominante (cuvinte noionale) (to hang on by the skin of the teeth a fi la un pas de moarte, to escape by the skin of ones teeth a se salva ca prin minune (a trece ca prin urechea acului). Expresii somatice cu patru i mai multe dominante nu s-au nregistrat nici n frazele cu ear, nici cu teeth. Traducerea idiomurilor somatice cu sens metaforic este anevoioas. Sensul metaforic se pstreaz n LT (to show ones teeth ma blnd zgrie ru), altdat nu (to have sweet tooth a fi amator de dulciuri). n expresia unde se utilizeaz cuvntul somatic teeth la traducere, din 11 expresii cu sens metaforic, opt expresii i-au pstrat sensul metaforic, iar trei expresii nu (to gnash ones teeth, to cut ones eye teeth, to have a sweet tooth). La descrierea i distribuia cuvintelor-lider (s-au atestat doar patru pe tot parcursul experimentului: verbele de pe poziia nti totalizeaz 102 uniti (aici ear-7, iar teeth 10), urmate de prepoziii plasate pe poziia nti se constat 33 de uniti (aici ear 2, iar teeth - 1). Conform parametrilor cantitativi, pe locul trei, se plaseaz substantivul (partea nominal) reprezentat de 24 de uniti pe poziia nti (aici ear 2, iar teeth - 0). Expresiile somatice, ce se manifest cu productivitate medie, includ cinci cuvinte somatice* lips, skin, face, cheek, knee cu parametrii cantitativi: 8, 8, 6, 6, 6, care atest trei expresii cu o dominant (upon the face of it la prima vedere; a facer problem neprevzut; to be cheeky a fi obraznic). Expresii somatice simple, uninoionale cu lips, skin, knee nu s-au atestat, n timp ce expresii polinoionale s-au identificat 31 de uniti; cte 8 expresii somatice cu lips i skin,* iar urmtoarele expresii cu face, cheek, knee au nregistrat 4, 5 i 6 expresii respectiv (to look to someones face a-i ascunde faa, privirea; to turn the other cheek a ntoarce cellalt obraz; to bend the knee to a cdea de acord). n toate cele cinci seturi de expresii somatice predomin expresiile cu 498

dou dominante (cuvinte noionale) indicnd parametrii cantitativi: 6, 7, 4, 3, 6. Expresiile cu trei dominante sunt atestate cu cuvintele lips (1), skin (1) i cheek (2) ( to keep a stiff upper lip a se ine brbtos; to be roady to gunep out of ones skin a tresri; to have ones tongue in ones cheek a-i bate joc de cineva). Dintre toate expresiile somatice (34), s-a atestat doar un caz unde expresia somatic (cu lips) include patru dominante: to keep a stiff upper lip a se ine brbtos. n toate expresiile somatice (cu lips, skin, face, cheek, knee), verbul s-a poziionat la nceputul frazelor. Parametrii distribuionali ai verbelor n expresiile somatice cu productivitatea medie sunt urmtorii: 4, 4, 4, 5, 3 (to lick ones lips a primi plcere; a se linge pe botior; to put oneself in someones elses skin a fi n pielea altcuiva; to thrust in the face of a nvinui pe cineva pe nedrept; to have the cheek to a avea tupeu s fac ceva; to bring someone to his knees a pune n genunchi). Expresiile cu o productivitate medie cuprind n lista lor cte o expresie somatic, unde pe poziia nti s-a poziionat substantivul ( skin-1, face-1, cheek-1, knee-1), doar expresiile cu cuvntul lips au atestat n trei cazuri substantivul pe poziia nti (skin-deep pe de asupra; a facer problem neprevzut; cheek by jowl umr la umr; knee-deep in pn la genunchi i cu lip n componena a trei expresii somatice. De exemplu: lipservice i sinonimul su lip-deep farnic. Numrul expresiilor somatice (cu productivitatea medie) cu prepoziii pe poziia nti este foarte mic (lips1; face-1; knee-2). Prezentm expresiile respective: from the lips outwards - nesincer; farnic; upon the face of it la prima vedere; on the knees of the Gods n minile Domnului. Din cele cinci cuvinte ce denumesc prile corpului uman, doar skin atest trei expresii cu adjectivul pe prima poziie (thick-skinned gros de obraz; then-skinned - suprcios; all skin and bones numai pielea i oasele). La traducerile expresiilor somatice se folosete Modelul I (word-for-word) ca n cazul thick-skinned gros de obraz; to turn the other cheek a *Prezentm exemple polinoionale n care snt incluse cuvintele lips i skin(to bite ones a-i muca buzele; to save ones skin a pleca curat i nevtmat ntoarce cellalt obraz; to lick ones lips a se linge pe botior, a primi plcere; to bite ones lips* a-i muca buzele. 499

Toate expresiile enumerate posed echivalente n LT i astfel, pot fi redate aceleai sensuri n LT. Din 8 expresii somatice unde se atest cuvntul lips, sensul metaforic; a fost pstrat n LT doar ntr-un singur caz, n celelalte 7 expresii, sensul metaforic n traducere nu s-a pstrat. Similar se atest situaia cu traducerea n expresiile n care skin e prezent. Din 8 expresii, sensul metaforic, a fost pstrat n 3 cazuri. Expresiile cu cuvntul somatic cheek doar n dou cazuri i-a pstrat sensul metaforic, i ntr-un alt caz a fost folosit metoda de traducere cuvnt Din cele 6 expresii somatic din care knee e atestat au pstrat sensul metaforic doar ntr-una (on the knees of the Gods n minile Domnului). Expresiile cu cuvnt somatic cheek doar in dou cazuri i-a pstrat sensul metaforic, i ntr- alt caz a fost folosit metoda de traducere cuvnt cu cuvnt (to turn the other cheek), n celelalte patru, n procesul de traducere, s-a pierdut sensul metaforic. Expresiile somatice cu face (6) au fost traduse prin mai multe metode. Predomin metoda bazat pe folosirea (schimbarea imaginii n LT.) Expresiile somatice cu productivitate mic nu sunt numeroase, dar 5. jaw este parte component a trei expresii somatice, n timp ce shoulder formeaz doar dou fraze. Expresii uninoionale nu s-au nregistrat, iar cele polinoionale cu jaw sunt trei la numr i toate trei includ cte dou dominante, adic cuvinte noionale (to-hold ones jaw a-i ine limba dup dini; to stop someones jaw a nchide gura; thats a jawbreaker a-i rupe limba cu ceva. Cuvntul-lider, verbul, este parte component n dou expresii (to hold , to stop ); iar n ultima, a treia, cuvntul-lider nregistreaz o parte nominal (thats a jawbreaker).Shoulder formeaz dou expresii somatice: una cuprinde dou cuvinte noionale (straight) from the shoulder direct n fa) , iar a doua nregistreaz trei cuvinte noionale (head and shoulder above a privi de sus). n calitate de cuvnt-lider este atestat adjectivul straight, pe cnd, n a doua expresie, cuvntul-lider e substantivul head. n procesul de traducere s-a constatat c expresiile cu jaw n-au centru semantic fixat. Deoarece idiomurile din limba-surs (LS) nu-s identice cu cele din limba latin (LT), n cele cinci aspecte ale semanticii (Modelul II) s-a folosit Modelul III la traducere, unde idiomurile LS i LT au acelai sens figurativ, pstreaz aceleai caracteristici emotive i stilistice, dar 500

e bazat pe o alt imagine. Traducerea celor dou expresii idiomatice cu shoulder, n componena sa folosete dou modele, i anume, Modelul III, unde acelai sens figurat redat este bazat pe o alt imagine (shoulder fa), traductorul a reuit s explice sensul ei figurativ, pentru a pstra cel puin elemental principal al semanticii LS. *Toate trei expresii sinonimice somatice lip-service, lip-deep, from the lips outwards se traduc farnic.

Concluzii
1. Traducerea reuit cere stabilirea echivalenelor standard dintre vocabularul i gramatica LS i LT. Standardele, acolo unde este posibil, trebuie folosite la traducere,iar acolo unde nu este posibil traducerea, necesit un vocabular consistent, care ar corespunde idiomului n msura posibilitilor trebuie s existe o corespundere (exprimat uniform att ct e posibil) ntre cuvintele traduse i cele originale. Oriunde e posibil, trebuie evitat folosirea unui cuvnt oarecare pentru a reprezenta dou sau mai multe cuvinte ale originalului. 2. Din cauza diferenelor dintre LS i LT (ce in de scopul utilizrii), deseori este necesar s se utilizeze un ir de sinonime ori alte variante pentru traducerea unui singur cuvnt n original. Trebuie s se gseasc ideea principal (comun) a expresiei originale. Cercetrile ulterioare ar putea descoperi existena unui numr impuntor de noi particulariti ale idiomurilor, care vor descoperi lucruri interesante ce in de funcionarea lor. 3. Capacitatea lexemelor somatice de-a forma expresii frazeologice depinde de rolul pe care-l ndeplinete fiecare parte a corpului uman n viaa cotidian pe parcursul istoriei, de simbolismul i potenialul lexemelor somatice de a se metaforiza; capacitatea depinde la fel i de factorii lingvistici i extralingvistici, fapt pentru care rolul principal de formare a expresiilor frazeologice somatice depinde de atitudinea omului fa de tot ce ne nconjoar. Indicii cantitativi (vezi tabelul I Expresii somatice, partea I) au demonstrat c purttorii limbilor moderne (aici engleza, romna, franceza i rusa) i expun simurile prin expresii legate de concepte i noiuni spirituale cu ajutorul lexemelor heart inim 501

i eye ochi. Expresiile somatice sus-numite atest cea mai sporit productivitate (18; 18). Pe locul doi, s-au plasat lexemele hand mn i nose nas cu parametri cantitativi identici (18; 18), aflndu-se la o distan impuntoare de prima categorie de lexeme i care pare s oglindeasc i s evidenieze reali, moravuri legate de lupta de toate zilele. 4. Productivitatea de formare a expresiilor somatice indic parametrii cantitativi ai lexemelor mouth (15) gur, blood (13) snge, ear (11) ureche, teeth (11) dini. Expresiile cu cea mai mic productivitate (par s aib o mai mic pondere n viaa omului) sunt urmtoarele; lips (8) buze, skin (8) piele, face (6) fa, cheek (6) obraz, knee (6) genunchi; iar jaw (3) falc i shoulder (2) umr ocup ultimul loc n ceea ce privete potenialul formrii expresiilor somatice. Prin expresiile somatice (i de alt natur) se manifest legitile microsistemului frazeologic care depinde de apartenena genetic i areal a limbii date. Anume-n acest plast de frazeologisme apar (se scot la iveal) majoritatea frazeologismelor izomorfe att n limbile nrudite, ct i n cele nenrudite, deoarece, n acest caz, e vorba de universaliile existenei umane, n particular, de comunitatea gndirii asociative-imaginare, condiionat de o logic asociativ deopotriv.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

SPECIFICUL DISTRIBUIEI ADJECTIVULUI N LIMBAJUL ECONOMIC (din:1.Financial Times, 2.English for Business Studies de Ian Mackenzie, 3.Dicionar economic englez-romn de Andrei Banta, Violeta Nstsescu) Aliona CHIMACoVSCHI-LEAHU Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Luminia dIACoNU, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Ecaterina RUGA, Dr., Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
Totodat, ncepi s bnuieti ce ntreprindere minunat poate fi traducerea: manifestarea secretelor reciproce pe care popoare i epoci le pzesc unele de altele i care contribuie att de mult la separarea lor, ct i la ndrznea unire a oamenilor. (Jose Ortega Y.Gasset Mizeriile i splendoarele traducerii)
ABSTRACT

1. Colun Gh. Frazeologia limbii romne Chiinu, Editura ARC, 2000. 2. Nicolescu Adrian, Pamfil Teodoreanu Liliana, Preda Ioan, Tatos Mircea Dicionar frazeologic englez-romn Bucureti, Editura tiina i Enciclopedia, 1982. 3. .. - (. I, . II) , - , 1963. 4. Bejenaru Galina, Petcu Tatiana, Samoilenco Adelaida Dicionar francez romn de locuiuni i expresii, Chiinu, .S. Firma EditorialPoligrafic Tipografia Central, 2005. 5. - , - , 1967. 502

According to certain scolars, translation is an art but other linguistic schools consider it as an instrument, while the third direction in modern linguistics it is considered as a science plus art. The authors of this paper support and bring data and evidences for the third direction. Conform unor coli lingvistice, traducerea este o art, iar altele socot c-i un meteug, pe cnd lingvitii din colile moderne o consider ca tiin i art. Autorii acestui articol susin ultima tendin. La sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea, romanticii germani vor considera traducerea parte integrant a unei noi teorii despre limbaj i cunoa503

tere. Dup celebra carte a lui Jose Ortega Y.Gasset Mizeriile i splendoarele traducerii, se marcheaz fundamentarea unei teorii generale a traducerii. Un aport semnificativ l au lucrrile: 1. Towards a Theory of Translating; 2. Eight Papers on Translation; 3. La traduction dans le monde moderne; 4. The art of Translation; 5. On Translation; 6. Le Belles infidelles* etc. Traductologi, ca G.Mounin, W.Koller, E.Nida etc., nuaneaz problematica n felul urmtor: orice mesaj lingvistic este traductibil n ceea ce privete sensul referenial, ns o echivalare deplin n plan stilistic este departe de a fi efectuat, orice teorie se ntemeiaz pe dou principii fundamentale: traductibilitatea i compensarea valorilor stilistice (J.Kohn, 1980). n aceast perioad (M.Pop-Cornis, 1980), n domeniul teoriei traducerii, s-au distins trei poziii fundamentale: lingvistic, estetic i intermediar. 1. Prima poziie, susinut de E.Nida, A.Fiodorov, I.Daberlnet, consider c actul traducerii poate fi fundamentat strict tiinific pe baza unui model de analiz lingvistic. 2. Poziia estetic consider traducerea o art a transpunerii, care nu se reduce la operaiune lingvistic de a stabili echivalente ntre dou limbi. Traductorul, care susine poziia estetic, trebuie s posede darul unei empatii (n simire, engl., empathy) retrospective, deci s poat tri i simi ceea ce a trit i simit autorul. 3. Poziia intermediar, definit de G.Mounin, consider traducerea ca pe o art, dar fundamentat pe tiin. Autorul recunoate c nu ntotdeauna se poate realiza o transpunere integral mai ales cnd nu toate elementele limbei-surs (LS) se pot reda (complicat) n limba-int (L). Exist posibilitatea de a gsi echivalente ale originalului care s aib o valoare estetic apropiat. (Ex.:1. May be there is some chemistry between them, that does not mix au caractere diferite, nu se neleg, nu sunt compatibile ( no love). 2. A rolling stone gathers no moss vntur ar, pierde-var, haimana, cine umbl mult nu prinde cheag, omul nestatornic nu prinde cheag, fr niciun rost (n viaa). * Autorii acestor lucrri sunt: L.A.Richards, 2.L.S.Harris et al. 3. Edmond Cary, 4. Theodore Savory, 5. Reuben A.Brower, 6.G.Mounin. Traducerea este o art intermediar, unde se petrece apropierea ce504

lor dou sfere lingvistice, crend un nou Getalt (structur global), bazndu-se pe un act al aproximrii, al compromisului pragmatic. G.Steiner susine ultima idee i consider c relaia art-tiin n cazul traducerii nu este una de incompatibilitate, ci de complementaritate. Dup G.Steiner, traducerea este (engl.) an exact act, o disciplin exact, 1) cu tehnicile i problemele proprii, 2) cu un solid fundament tiinific (G.Mounin), 3) cu repere precise, 4) cu concepte din diferite tiine, precum din lingvistic i filozofia culturii, din teoria textului, sociologie, psihologie, etc. n ultimii ani abordarea procesului de traducere s-a dezvoltat de la cea interdisciplinar la o abordare pe baza analizei discursului. Cercetrile ulterioare au demonstrat c dificultatea const n a considera traducerea o art (Savoy, 1975), meteug (Jacobson, 1975), arta care are o baz tiinific (Mounin 1963), i n a sublinia complementaritatea lor. Preocuprile din secolul trecut au fost traducerile textelor literare, considernd traducerea ca o art sau un meteug. Traducerile actuale (cele predominante) sunt n domeniile: economic, tiinific, tehnic, legislativ, administrativ. n 1959, R.Jakcobson susine existena a trei feluri de traducere: 1) intralingual (interpretarea semnelor verbale cu alte semne din aceeai limb; 2) interlinguale (interpretarea semnelor verbale cu ajutorul altei limbi); 3) intersemiotic (folosirea semnelor, aparinnd sistemelor de semne non-verbale). J.C.Cartford propune traduceri n funcie de nivelul lingvistic (cuvnt pentru cuvnt, morfem pentru morfem) i traduceri totale n care echivalenele nu se stabilesc n funcie de nivelul lingvistic, acesta putnd fi schimbat. n funcie de arealul pe care l ocup traducerea, J.C.Cartford clasifica traducerile n: traduceri totale (nlocuirea structurilor gramaticale i lexicale din LS n L i traducerea restrns (nlocuirea materialelor textuale din LS n L). Tot J.C.Cartford stabilete deosebirile dintre traduceri: 1) libere (ce nu depind de nivelul lingvistic, echivalenele se stabilesc la niveluri superioare (prop./ fraz), adic adaptarea la colocaiile i expresiile idiomatice ale L; 505

2) traducere cuvnt-cu-cuvnt (n funcie de nivelul lingvistic, de obicei, la nivel de cuvnt) i 3) traducere literal (debuteaz cu cuvnt-cu-cuvnt, iar, pe parcurs, apar schimbri n funcie de structurile gramaticale ale L. Aceste traduceri pot stabili echivalene ale expresiilor sau propoziiilor. Ulterior, s-a propus alt nivel de traducere redarea unui text astfel nct sensul de suprafa al celor dou limbi s fie aproximativ asemntor, iar structura textului de baz s se pstreze n msura n care nu afecteaz structura textului-int (aici, sintaxa limbii subestimeaz arta traducerii, conferindu-i traductorului un statut inferior). Cele trei legi ale lui Tytler (care azi constituie o abordare normativ i care stabilete unele reguli (respectarea regulilor dos sau donts) ce trebuie s fac traductorul i ce s nu fac*: 1) transpunerea complet a ideilor originalului; 2) trebuie pstrat stilul originalului; 3) traducerea trebuie s curg (flow) la fel ca i originalul (vorbitorul LT s se simt exact la fel ca un vorbitor al LS.) Prin urmare, traducerea bun red sensul i spiritul LS, fiind permis mbuntirea acestuia, pstreaz stilul i maniera LS, pstreaz scderile i defectele LS. Cele dou orientri majore nou aprute (nregistrate) n prezent accentueaz: 1) aspectul funcional al textului din L, n relaie cu textul LS, ine de traducere ca produs; 2) i traducerea ca proces tot ce se ntmpl n timpul procesului de traducere. Peter Newmark a vizat dou concepte noi n teoria general a traducerii: 1) traducerea comunicativ (a materialelor informative, rapoartelor, reclamei etc.) i 2) traducerea semantic (texte de natur filozofic, politic, juridic, literar toate acestea trebuie traduse semantic. Majoritatea cercetrilor n domeniul traducerii sunt preocupate, n primul rnd, de predarea traducerii i de evaluarea traducerilor insistnd prea mult asupra dihotomiilor bun/rea, fidel/liber (E.Gentzler,1993). 506

Antinomia fidelitate/frumusee este o fals problem, deoarece se poate traduce i fidel, i frumos. Trsturile caracteristice ale traducerii semantice de natur filozofic, politic, tiinific, tehnic sau literar i comunicativ, tiinele non-literare, rapoartele, stilul jurnalistic, materialele informative: Traducere semantic: este informativ se axeaz pe autor fidel, mai literar; mai vioaie, mai detaliat, mai complex, mai scurt, are orientare semantic i sintactic; lungimea propoziiilor, poziia propoziiilor, ordinea cuvintelor, de obicei, se pstreaz; personal; inferioar originalului din cauza pierderilor de sens; Traducere comunicativ: este eficient; se axeaz pe cititor; fidel, mai liber; mai uor de citit, mai simpl, mai clar, mai direct, traducere conform unui anumit registru, dar mai lung; se orienteaz asupra efectului, sacrific trsturile formale;

social; mai bun dect originalul datorit ctigurilor n claritate i exprimare, n pofida eventualelor pierderi semantice; lipsa de acuratee este o anumit mpodobire a stilului, ntotdeauna de condamnat; sinonimie stilistic, care s-l impresioneze pe cititor; traductorul are dreptul s corectraductorul nu are niciun teze i s mbunteasc logica drept s mbunteasc sau s i stilul originalului, s clarifice corecteze; ambiguiti, trsturi specifice jargoanelor sau stilul personal; greelile se explic numai prin traductorul poate corecta note de subsol; greelile din original; procesul de traducere este o art; procesul de traducere este un meteug; se traduce sensul. se transmite mesajul. 507

Traducerile pot fi mai bune, mai rele, diferite n funcie de deciziile iniiale ale traductorului. Dar, oricare ar fi orientarea cercetrilor, este demn de remarcat principiul nici o pierdere, nici un ctig care include posibilitatea de compensare a unei pierderi numai cu condiia s nu afecteze textul tradus i contextul cultural complex, ultima devenind unitatea operaional (operaional unit) a traducerii. Problema studierii adjectivului n plan comparat, precum n limbile englez i romn, a constituit obiectul de studiu al multor lingviti, psihologi de vaz, cum ar fi: V.D.Arachin, V.A.Vasiliev, N.F. Irtenieva, L.P. Linder, A.A. Reformatski, G.P. Torsuev, A.L.Trahterov etc. S-au editat un ir de lucrri tiinifice de gramatic comparat a limbii engleze i a limbilor moderne ale multor cercettori.* Aceste investigaii sunt consacrate problemelor de analiz comparat a gramaticii limbii engleze i a altor limbi, majoritatea europene. Metodica i experiena acumulat de savani se folosesc la nsuirea particularitilor gramaticale i lexicale ale limbii engleze i ale limbii strine nvate, prin confruntarea crora se evideniaz similitudinea i diferena caracteristicilor n dou limbi.* * 1. .. . - . , , 1970 2. . . . . . , 1971. ncercarea de a identifica specificul adjectivului n limbajul economic ar ajuta la evidenierea trsturilor caracteristice ale adjectivului folosind metoda de repartizare i anume, determinarea parametrilor de frecven i distribuie n text. ** Se urmrete att scopul aprofundrii cunotinelor de formare i de utilizare a adjectivelor, ponderea lor n texte de diferite specialiti ale economiei (Ex.: Managementul, Marketingul, Serviciile Bancare, Amplasarea n cmpul muncii, Comerul
___________ * Prerile s-au schimbat referitor la stabilirea regulilor de traducere cu excepia celor anterioare ale lui E.Nida i J.C.Cartfort.

Internaional etc). Cu o deosebit atenie, se vor clasifica termenii (sau cuvintele specifice) economici i traducerea lor, mai ales cei formai prin conversiune. Respectiv, se va face schimb de opinii cu capitolul elaborrii fielor terminologice, alctuite la seminarele cursului Terminologia economic i tehnici de traducere (vezi fia terminologic a adjectivului Individual cu parametrii : 1- 21, urmtoarea pag.) n cadrul ASEM, la Facultatea REI, anul II. Adjectivele n mai multe limbi se tie ca partea de vorbire (Anexa 1) care exprim caracteristica unui obiect ca nsuire, ca precizarea lui n spaiu, timp, cantitate etc. El modific (adic demonstreaz existena unei anumite nsuiri) sau determin (precizeaz, lmurete sensul unui cuvnt) un substantiv sau un echivalent al acestuia. Adjectivul propriu-zis, adjectivul calitativ arat o nsuire a unui obiect, iar cel relativ denot calitatea sau nsuirea unui obiect fa de altele, formndu-se de la temelii nominale (Sysithian work, Herculian effort, a wooden house), denumesc materialul din care este fcut un obiect, denumiri geografice, localiti etc. Ele sunt derivate din substantive fie prin sufixare (-ed) ori, n majoritatea cazurilor, prin conversie (brick-crmid, de la substantivul brick (made of brick) .Adjectivele engleze se formeaz pe trei ci: derivare prin intermediul: 1) afixrii (prefixelor i sufixelor), 2) conversiei i 3) compoziiei. Cele mai pe larg rspndite prefixe folosite la formarea adjectivelor n limba englez sunt urmtoarele: Term Individual hyper hypercritical, 1. a alive, asleep hypersensitive 2. ab abnormal, absolute * il illegal, illegible 3. ante antenatal, antediluvian im immaterial, immature 4. bi biaxial, antediluvian inter interactive, interdependent 5. circum circumfluent, ir irregular circumpolar 6. col collateral, collihear mis mistrustful 7. com compact, compound non nondurable 8. con concave, congenial per permutable 509

508

9. contra contradistinct, contraro- pre precautious tating 10. cor correlative, cordite sub suburban 11. dis disadvantageous, discoursuper supernatural teous 12. ef efficient, effusive trans transparent 13. ex examinate, exchangeable ultra ultramodern 14. extra extraordinary, extraunfair, unattractive terrestrial Term Individual Gramatical Adjective category Etymology individual(adj.) early 15 c.,one and indivisible(with reference to the Trinity),from M.L. individualis,from L.individuus indivisible,from in-not,opposite of(see in(1))+dividuus divisible,from dividere divideNot common before c.1600 and the 15 c. Usage might be isolated. Sense of single, separate is 1610s; meaning intended for one personis from 1889. Domain Economy Sub Management,Marketing,Banks,Accounting domain

Definition English

Definition source Definition Romain

Individual 1. single; particular; separate 2. intended for the use of one person onlyof , pertaining to, or characteristic of a particular person or thing: individual tastes. 3. distinguished by special ,singular,or markedly personal characteristics; exhibiting unique or unusual qualities 4.existing as distinct, indivisible entity, or considered as such; discrete http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/individual?s=t INDIVIDUAL,- , individuali,e, adj; 1. Care este propriu unui individ; personal, specific. **Care priveste sau aparine unui singur exemplar dintr-o categorie de lucruri sau de fiine. 2. Care este executat de individ. Munc individual. (Adverbial) n mod izolat, fiecare n parte, fiecare pentru sine; http://www.archeus.ro/lingvistica/ CautareDex?query=Individual@lang=ro 1) , () ; 2) , ( ). http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dic_fwords/17099/%D0% 98%D0%9D%D0%94%D0%98%D0%92%D0%98%D 0%94%D0A3%D0%90%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%9D %D0AB%D0%99 Einzeln-verwendet,um die Teile eines Ganzen jeweils fur sich allein zu bezeichnen: http://de.thefreedictionary.com/einzeln According to anatman, the individual is really a series of interconnected processes that, working toghether, give the appearance of being a single, separated whole 511

Definition source Definition Russian

Definition source
** Eforturile savanilor sunt ndreptate la elaborarea unor metode care ar nlesni i accelera asimilarea celor mai grele elemente lexicale (sau gramaticale) prin folosirea principiului nsuirii contiente cu scopul pregtirii specialitilor (de exemplu economiti) pentru ridicarea nivelului de trai, de dezvoltare, att n ar, regiune, ct i la nivel global. nc acad. L.V.cerba susinea, n acest sens, c elevii trebuie s nsueasc orice fenomen nou mai dificil din limba strin, comparndu-l cu echivalentul lui semantic din limba matern.(.. : 1, 1934).

__________

Definition German Definition source Context

510

Context http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual source Synonyms Alone, characteristic, definite, diacritic, diagnostic, different, discrete, distinct, especial, express, idiosyncratic, indivisible, lone, odd, only, original, own, particular, peculiar, personal, personalized, proper, reserved, respective, secluded, select, separate, single, singular, sole, solitary, special, specific, uncommon, unique, unitary, unusual Synonyms http://thesaurus.com/browse/individual?s=t source Antonyms Common, general, ordinary Antonyms http://thesaurus.com/browse/individual?s=t source Romanian Individual, personal, specific term Russian , , , , term , , , , German Individuell,einzeln, eigen term Date 05.03.12 Author Verejan Valentina Others English for Business Studies,Ian MacKenzie, Cambridge, University Press, 1990, pp. 1-176. ___________ ** Vezi tabelul nr.1. Distribuia adjectivelor n 30 de texte din Financial Times. Tabel fi terminologic a adjectivului individual, alctuit conform cerinelor DATA BASE of terms. n textele din manualul English for Business Studies, spre deosebire de prefixele adjectivelor (28) folosite (mai sus) n limbajele umanistice, n cel economic s-a atestat doar un singur prefix (ex. subsequent cu indicile de distribuie 1). 512

Cele mai frecvente sufixe la formarea adjectivelor sunt urmtoarele: 1. able 5. ible 9. ac 13. an 17. ant 2. ed ** 6. . en 10. ern 14. ful 18. ial 3. . ic 7. ical 11. ish 15. ing 19. ive 4. ly 8. ous 12. some 16. . ward 20. . y

pe cnd n limbajul economic, sufixele adjectivelor demonstreaz un alt tablou. (Anexa 2) Adjectivele cu o productivitate sporit au fost atestate n manualul English for Business Studies. A course for Business Studies and Economics Students de autorul Jan Mackenzie. n toate cele 30 de texte ale manualului, s-a identificat un prefix sub n subsquent cu frecvena distribuiei 1 i 21 de sufixe: -al (14 adjective); -ing (2); -ic (2); -able (-ible (2)); -y (2); -ous (3); -ive (1); -ent (5). Sufixul al s-a identificat la paisprezece adjective. Dintre adjectivele cele mai larg rspndite este general. El se identific n cele mai multe texte n 18 din cele 30 studiate. Pe locul doi (distribuie medie), se plaseaz substantivul cu o arie de acoperire 9 texte din 30 studiate. Urmeaz adjectivele comercial i special utilizate n 8 texte. Doar n 7 texte s-a atestat individual, personal n 6 texte,n timp ce patru adjective additional, local, normal, final s-au nregistrat n 5 texte. Pe locul trei s-au identificat adjectivele cu o distribuie mic: natural n 3 texte, physical n 3 texte, identical n 2 texte i chemical ntr-un singur text. Prin urmare, paisprezece adjective cu sufixul al au ntrunit 75 de realizri. Aceti indici cantitativi trebuie luai, n continuare, la studierea specificului limbajului economic (la alctuirea programelor de studiu, manualelor i la alctuirea textelor semestriale).Urmeaz distribuia sufixului -ent, care intr n componena celor cinci adjective ce urmeaz: different atestat n 5 texte, convinient ntr-un singur text. n total, sufixul -ent s-a atestat de 25 de ori, * n textul economic adjectivele prezint unele dificulti att la nelegerea i utilizarea lor corect, ct i la traducere. n sistemul ter513

minologic economic, adjectivele ocup locul trei (213) dup substantive, (1436), urmate de verbe (805) i adverbe (491). Multe modele de formare a adjectivelor (derivare prin afixare, conversie, compunere), att n limba englez (limba surs (LS), ct i n l.romn (limba-int (LT) sunt asemntoare. Cel mai mult atrag atenia adjectivele care au modele att n LS ct i n LT. Prefixele de formare a adjectivelor predominant din l.greac i latin (Ex.:a-, ab-, anti-, bi-, col-, com-, con-, sub-, trans-, un-, etc., aproximativ 28) att ct i cele mai frecvente sufixe (Ex.:-able, ible, -ab, -an, -ant, -ic, -ish, -ive, -ous, -ward, -y, etc, n total -20) sunt mai uor de identificat i de tradus corect n LT. Sufixele de alt origine, german cum ar fi ed i -ing merit o atenie special, deoarece cei care studiaz limba englez deseori le folosesc greit. De fapt ele reprezint Past Participles, Present Participles, respectiv primul posed constant sensul pasiv (affected in this way) , pe cnd ultimul continu s dein starea aciunii la pasiv (having this effect). Astfel de sufixe formeaz adjective perechi: ararmed alarming, charmed-charming, disturbed-disturbing, excited-exciting, etc.) **Att adjectivele formate de la substantive (cu ajutorul sufixelor ed (Ex.: a whiskered man) , -en (wood-wooden, gold-golden cu sensul confecionat din (made of), de la verbe (Ex.: This was a make-andbreak situation) , de la adverbe (Ex.: Rememeber the above rule), ct i adjectivele precedate de articolul hotrt, folosite ca substantive (Ex.: the poor, the rich, etc), i cele ce indic naionalitile (the English, the Chinese, but the Germans, the Russians) nu coincid cu adjectivele din LT i prezint dificulti la traducere i uz. plasndu-se pe locul doi dup gradul (area) de acoperire. Sufixul ous formeaz trei adjective cu diferite grade de distribuie n cele 30 de texte: previous identificat n 11 texte, obvious n 9 texte i various n 7; toate cele trei adjective s-au constatat de douzeci i apte de ori. Sufixul ing s-a atestat n 8 texte prin according i cu o singur apariie prin adjectivul interesing; sufixul able e reprezentat de available i considerable n 13 i 10 texte respectiv; sufixul ic, din adjectivele magnetic i specific, s-a atestat cte o singur dat n cele treizeci de texte; sufixul y din necessary i preliminary s-a identificat de 7 i 2 ori 514

respectiv, iar sufixul ive din adjectivul relative s-a ntlnit o singur dat n cele treizeci de texte studiate. Conform frecvenei (spre deosebire de indicii distribuionali relatai mai sus) sufixele identificate n textele din manualul lui Jan Mackenzie se poziioneaz n ordinea urmtoare: 1) -al; 2) -ent; 3) -ous; 4) -able; 5) -ing, -y; 6) -ic; 7) -ive (cu 75; 25; 27; 23; 9; 9; 2; -1 - respectiv). n afar de indicii cantitativi ai frecvenei i a celor distribuionali, la studierea limbajului economic, nu mai puin importan o prezint distribuia literelor din alfabetul limbii studiate. Sufixele menionate mai sus ed i ing merit o atenie special, deoarece elevii care studiaz engleza le folosesc greit. De fapt, ele sunt Past Participle i Present Participle, respectiv prima (P.P.) menine, n continuare (deine), un sens pasiv afectat n astfel de mod (affected in this way, pe cnd ultima form gramatical posed la momentul prezent, sensul pasiv deine (pstreaz) acest efect having this effect. Prezentm unele perechi de adjective, cum ar fi: 1. alarmed alarming 5. insulted - insulting 2. charmed charming 6. tired - tiring 3. disturbed disturbing 7. relaxed relaxing 4. excited exciting 8. worried - worrying Nr.de Potenialul formrii adj. ProductiviNr. Alfa adjec- Frecvena conform poziiei nti a liter. tatea tive din alfabet Unele adjective sunt formate de la substantive cu ajutorul sufixelor. Ele constituie un grup impresionant, ca exemplu: 1. anger angry 10. hero heroic 2. colony colonial 11. music musical 3. craft crafty 12. nature natural 4. danger dangerous 13. person personal 5. economy economical 14. poet poetic 6. expense expensive 15. sun sunny 7. fame famous 16. victory victorious 515

8. fur furry 17. wool woolen, etc 9. gold golden Conversia formeaz adjective (predominant) de la substantive*. Unele adjective s-au format prin adugarea sufixului ed. (Ex.: a fated to win) i a sufixului en, formnd substantive materiale** (Ex.: flax-flaxen, gold-golden
____________ * Verbele se pot transforma n adj. (This was a made and break situation), la fel i adverbele (She was his only friend). **Adjectives proceeded by the definite articles can be used as nouns denoting abstract notions: the poor, the rich, The same are the adjectives designating nationalities: The English (The Chinese), but the Germans (the Russians).

Tabel: Distribuia adjectivelor conform alfabetului englezesc.

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Nr.de adjective conform Nr. Alfa alfabeest. betul tului. Distribuia n texte 1 A 9 2 B 3 3 C 9 4 D 5 5 E 5 6 F 9 7 G 3 8 H 4 9 I 6 10 E 7 11 M 4
516

N O P Q R S T U V W 21

5 6 10 1 4 15 2 1 1 4 113

Frecvena Spo- Me- Mic Grup I Grup Grup. Grup. II III IV total rit die nr. nr. nr. (20a adj. 1.2.3 1.2 (1-9) (10- 21) 17) 86 9 50 23 31 73 47 33 28 71 50 +2) +6) +3) +8) +4) +7) - +18) +16) +11) +10) +13) +3 +3 +2 +2 +3 + +
4

Potenialul formrii adj. Productivitatea conform poziiei nti a liter. din alfabet

26 +14) 60 +5) 46 +9) 6 - +20) 26 - +15) 125 +1) 17 - +17 3 - +21) 7 - +19) 30 - +12) 847 Nou Opt Patru grupe grupe gru608 214 pe 25 adj. adj. adj.

+2 +
4 1

+2

+ 10 + 15 +2

+4 Patru grupe a cte patru adj.

+1 +1

+1

No- 4 4 adj. u grupe sepagru- a cte rate pe a 2 cu cte sub- cea 3 grupe mai submare gruprope ductivitate

+1 +
2

Distribuia adjectivelor n 30 de texte din manualul English for Business Studies. A course for Business Studies and Economics Students. De Ian MacKenzie.
These people are workers in a gold mine 1) Alice has got a golden watch as a birthday present. Frecvena adjectivelor (vezi tabelul de pe pagina anterioar: distribuia adjectivelor conform alfabetului englezesc). Potenialul de formare a adjectivelor conform literelor situate pe poziia I. S-au 517

+7

identificat patru grupe de formare a adjectivelor cu literele alfabetului englezesc pe poziia nti. Grupa I. Patru litere de pe poziia nti h, m, r, w au format cte 4 adjective fiecare (4x4). Grupa II. 1.Trei litere de pe poziia nti a, c, f au format cte 9 adjective fiecare (3x9). 2. Trei litere de pe poziia nti d, e, n au format cte 5 adjective fiecare (3x5). 3. Trei litere de pe poziia nti q, u, v au format cte 1 adjectiv fiecare (3x1). Grupa III. 1.Dou litere de pe poziia nti i, o au format cte 6 adjective fiecare (2x6). 2. Dou litere de pe poziia nti b, g au format cte 3 adjective fiecare (2x3). Grupa IV. Litera s de pe pozia nti a format 15 adjective (1x15). Litera p de pe pozia nti a format 10 adjective (1x10). Litera l de pe pozia nti a format 7 adjective (1x7). Litera t de pe pozia nti a format 2 adjective (1x2). Prin urmare cea mai productiv liter din alfabet este s (15), urmate de: p (10), a, c, f (9), l (7), i, o (6), d, e, n (5), h, m, r, w (4), b, g (3), t (2), q, u, v (1). Nu s-au atestat adjective cu literele: j, k, x, y, z pe prima poziie n cele 30 de texte analizate. Conversia formeaz adjective (predominant) de la substantive*. Al treilea experiment ine de formarea adjectivelor prin conversie. Sau identificat adjectivele din Dicionarul economic englez-romn, autorii Andrei Banta i Violeta Nstsescu, Ed. Niculescu SRL, 518

Bucureti, 1977. Dicionarul cuprinde 479 de pagini cu termini din diferite sfere de economie: comer, finane, bnci, contabilitate, statistic etc. Pe parcursul traducerii textelor economice, adesea ne ntlnim cu termeni i expresii care, la prima vedere, par a fi cunoscute, dar care la traducere ne creeaz dificulti. Aa numiii prieteni fali trebuie identificati, consultai n dicionare (bune) economice i memorizai. n cadrul prelegerilor ce in de terminologie, 479 de pagini ale dicionarului analizat au fost repartizate la 22 de studeni pentru a identifica adjectivele formate prin conversie, parallel, s-au indicat prile de vorbire de la care au provenit aceste adjective i ntr-o rubric separat s-au introdus adjectivele clasice, majoritatea pe care un tnr specialst, de obicei, le cunote. Doar c unele adjective clasice, care n-au intrat n circuitul comunicrii (fie oral, fie scris) mai rmn necunoscute. Prin urmare, s-a creat o ans suplimentar de a le nsui concomitent. Fiecrui student i-au revenit de selectat adjective de pe aproximativ 20 de pagini. Cele mai numeroase adjective au fost depistate la articolele din dicionar ce ncep cu literele s, a, f, e, o, c, m, g, p (cu parametrii:125, 86, 73, 71, 60, 50, 50, 47, 46) Indicii cantitativi din experimentul precedent (vezi tabelul 1). Distribuia adjectivelor n 30 de texte din manualul English for Business Studies, Ian Mackezie) unde toate adjectivele ce constituiau 113 uniti i care au fost clasificate dup gradul de productivitate (sporit de la indicii ce cuprind 9 grupe: de la 125 pn la 46, medie cu indicii ce cuprind opt grupe ncepnd cu 10 pn la 17 adjective i productivitate mic (joas) cu indicii celor patru grupe de la 18 pn la 20 (numrul total alctuind 608+214+25=847 adjective). n Dicionarul economic englez-romn cele mai numeroase adjective s-au atestat la litera s (506 uniti), adjective formate prin conversie (fr prefixe i fr sufixe; se pstreaz doar rdcina), fapt confirmat i de parametrii cantitativi ai adjectivelor din manualul English for Business Studies. Prezentm cteva exemple ale adjectivelor formate prin conversie: 1. Stowage (substantiv-s.) stowage plan adj. cargoplan 2. Sterling s. sterling silver adj. argint cu puritate 519

3. Standard s. standard gauge adj. ecartament normal 4. Scale s. scale charge adj. pre barem 5. Second s. second via adj. copia a doua a unei polie sau a unui conosament ce se expediaz pe alt rut. Traducerea unor adjective formate prin conversie se efectueaz cu ajutorul lui de i relative la (sau alte variante). 1. Salary s. salary brackets adj. categorii de salarizare 2. Salvage s. salvage lien adj. drept de retenie pentru acoperirea remuneraiei de salvare Productivitatea formrii adjectivului descrete treptat, mai ales la articolele din dicionar ce ncep cu litera a. Modelul de traducere este asemntor celui descris mai sus: 1. Advise s. de aviz, de ntiinare adj. 2. Assistant s. ajutor adj., ex. Assistant forman ajutor de maistru; 3. Assured s. asigurat sigur adj. ex. Assured tenancy nchiriere cu quantumul chiriei fixat prin lege; 4. Back s. back freight adj. navlu restant 5. Bargain s. de sold adj. ex. To make a Dutch/wet bargain a negocia cu aldma. Adjectivele provenite de la substantive 1. charter (navlosire, document), privilegiu, instituie, corporaie) ca adj. charter plane (avion charter), charter member membru fondator, charter party (contract de navlosire), chartered surveyor inspector autorizat: 2. Dac channel (canal natural) este bine cunoscut ca substantiv, atunci ca adj. (de canal) channel captain se traduce (nu cpitan care ar conduce vasul traversnd canalul, dar cel mai puternic membru al canalelor de distrubuie a mrfurilor. Mai mult ca att channel conflict se traduce n romn: conflict ntre membrii canalelor de distribuie, sau channel status word cuvnt de stare a canalului; catchpenny (s. marf ieftin) ca adj. marf de duzin. Chance (soart, ocazie) ca adj. se traduce ntmpltor, aleatoriu. Ex. chance cause cauz aleatorie, chance variable variabil aleatorie). Un alt adjectiv format de la substantivul case. Ex.: case book (cazuistica, arhiv, care conine spee), case law (precedent juridic), case 520

system (sistem de predare a dreptului pe baza speelor); built-in (construit); built-in economic stabilizers (stabilizatori economici cu aciune autonom; blanket (ptur), blanket order comand general nespecificat, blanket policy poli de asigurare general, blanket price pre global (i toate aceste adjective ce in de schimbarea categoriei gramaticale ori conversia sunt nregistrate n articolul din dicionar la liter B). Un alt criteriu de formare a adjectivelor este cel al compunerii: adj. simple i compuse. Le-am analizat pe cele compuse (16 modele). Att adjectivele formate (ase modele specifice) de la substantive (cu ajutorul sufixelor ed (ex: a whiskered man), - en (wood-wooden, gold-golden cu sensul confecionat din (made of), de la verbe (this was a make-and-break situation), de la adverbe (remember the above rule), ct i adjectivele precedate de articolul hotrt folosite ca substantive (the poor, the rich, etc.) i cele ce indic naionalitile (the English, the Chinese, but the Germans, the Russians) nu coincid cu adjectivele din L i prezint dificulti la traducere i uz. n mod similar se ntmpl i cu adjectivele compuse (ex: 1. adjective + noun (A + n) (a long distance telephone call), 2. A + Past Participle (PP) (a big framed man), 3. n + PP (snow-covered peaks, moon-lit), 4. Adv. + PP ( far-fetched, well-meant). 5. N + A (crystal - clear), 6. Adv + A (wide-open), 7. Adv + Present Participle (hard-working), 8. n + Pr. P (cancer-producing substances), 9. Verb (V) + n (a tell-tale signal), 10. V + V + n (a would-be champion), 11. V + Adv + n (a go-ahead man), 12. n + n (a second-proof room), 13. Preposition + n (Prep + n) (over ground, under age), 14. numeral (Q) + n + A + N (a ten-year-old boy), 15. Q + n + n (a forty-acre farm), 16. A + V + n referring to people: old-fashioned men; referring to clothes (a long-sleeved coat) and other examples: a double-barreled gun, a three whealed car, etc. specifice pentru limba englez i care difer de limba romn. n limbajul economic cel mai rspndit model de formare a adjectivelor compuse este modelul 12, N+N(Ex.a second-proof room) cu varianta N+A+N. Toate cele 21 de adjective formate de la substantivulsafety sunt formate cu modelul 12. Ex. safety - safety glass securit, sticl 521

incasabil, safety tyre-pneu antiderapant;Un alt exemplu: sacrifice-(de sacrificiu, adj.) sacrifice prices- preuri sub cost, preuri de sacrificiu. Modelele mai rar atestate sunt: V+V+N, V+Adv.+N cu verbul pe poziia ntia urmat de Prep+N; Q+N+A+N, Q+N+N cu prepoziie pe poziia ntia i, respectiv, cu numeralul pe poziia ntia. La studierea adjectivelor trebuie de dedicat mai mult timp la identificarea, studierea i memorizarea adjectivelor complexe, celor 16 modele identificate n limbajul economic.

CONCLUZIE
1. Rezultatele folosirii fielor terminologice confirm: adjectivele engleze (att cele formate cu ajutorul conversiei ct i cele formate prin criteriul compunerii) prezint dificulti pentru traductorul de romn i rus etc. 2. Adjectivele cu o distribuie uniform pot fi incluse n lexicul de baz al limbii, adjectivele cu gradul de distribuie sporit formeaz lexicul specific al limbajului economic. 3. n lista fielor terminologice elaborate n cadrul seminarelor studeneti, trebuie incluse obligatoriu adjectivele, deoarece, conform ratei de distribuie a adjectivelor (vezi tabelul respectiv), ele ocup locul III (491de uniti) n lexicul economic urmate de substantiv (1436 de uniti) i verb (805 uniti). 4. Este, oare, traducerea o art dup afirmaia lui Savoy (1975), un meteug dup Jacobson (1975), o art care are o baz tiinific dup Mounin (1963) sau un nou Gestalt (structur global) bazndu-se pe un act al aproximrii, al compromisului pragmatic, un act de complementaritate susinut de G.Steiner (vezi Jose Ortega)? (Decide autorul!)
BIBLIOGRAFIE:

4. Levichi Leon. Manualul traductorului de limba englez. Ed. Teora. Bucureti, 1993. 5. Marcheteau Michel. Engleza comercial. Ed. Niculescu. Bucureti, 2001. 6. Mackenzie Ian. English for Business Studies. A course for Business Studies and Economics Students.University Press. Cambridge, 1995. 7. Warriner John, Mersand Joseph, Griffith Francis. English Grammar and Coposition. Heritage Edition, 1982. Anexa 1 Distribuia prilor de vorbire n ordine descendent a funciei corelative (30 texte). Adjectivul (491) ocup locul trei dup substantiv (1436) i verb (805) Nr. Funcgrup ia de cocla- resifi- lacare tiv Total lexic specific Total S V sub- sub- verb gru- stanpe tiv A B M ad- ad- projec- verb nutiv me din Financial Times 2 3 5 1 5 6 2 2 1 2 1 3 F prepoziie Q B nu- abreme- vieri ral J conjuncii Lexic monovalent Lexic polivalent

1 2 3 4

8.616 8.0 7.912 7.0 6.950 6.0

3 3 4

1 5 35

3 4 7

16 12 48 2

1. Banta Andrei. Dicionar economic. Ed. Niculescu. 1997. 2. Babyre E. Studiu comparat al adjectivului din limba englez i moldoveneasc. Chiinu. 1976. 3. Cotelnic F.S., Ciobanu A. I., Adjectivul. Limba moldoveneasc literar contemporan. Vol. II. Redacia Drul A.M., Ciobanu. Ed.USM. Chiinu, 1970. 522

5.9154 6 80 46 20 5.0 4.95 203 6 122 50 19 4.0

148 6 180 23 523

3.9758 9 383 196 104 41 4 16 3 21 1 679 79 3.0 2.91884 10 801 499 338 160 15 11 19 30 11 1250 634 7 2.0 41 1436 805 491 213 19 19 25 58 12 2333 744 6 Distribuia unitilor lexical n 10 limbaje (economic, tiinelor exacte, umanistice) Nr. crt. 1 2 3 4 Many Last Major Linear C F M L E B N D P T 16 12 13 18 24 13 19 11 18 18 4 5 8 6 20 3 19 17 12 1 3 1 2 3 11 5 0 0 0 9 7 11 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 Anexa 2

UTILIZAREA DOCUMENTULUI VIDEO N PREDAREA LIMBII STRINE Valentina dAMIAN, lector superior, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova
REZUMAT

5 Magnetic 6 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Normal 5 9 7 4 5 7 0 0 0 4 Near Often Right Other Old Long 4 5 4 2 5 6 8 2 7 2 3 6 4 6 5 5 4 4 4 5 0 1 2 1 4 1 5 8 3 1 22 15 11 27 21 46 20 17 10 21 0 1 0 7 6 1 15 18 21 2 7 8 4 9 13 10 20 13 18 5

Tot Distibuii n al limbaje 162 Tendine de distribuie 95 n textele limbajului 28 economic 33 Tendine de distribuie n textile 21 tiinelor 41 exacte 45 Tendine de 46 distribuie omogen a 26 lexicului de 180 baz Tendine de 71 distribuie n textele 107 tiinelor umanistice

Profesorii au la ndemn o palet larg de activiti, prin care i pot atrage pe elevi spre studiul limbii strine, depinde doar de miestria fiecruia dintre ei s le aleag pe cele care sunt adecvate pentru grupul int cu care lucreaz. Printre aceste activiti se numr si utilizarea documentului video. Utilizarea unei secvene video la ora de limba strin permite profesorului s verifice o serie de competene cognitive, cum ar fi: clasarea, formularea de ipoteze, etc. De asemenea, un document video este i o surs inepuizabil de activiti comunicative att la oral, ct i n scris, depinde doar de profesor s aleag materialul cel mai potrivit pentru a-i incita pe elevi la comunicare. Activitile date ca exemplu au un singur scop: incitarea elevilor la comunicare. Acesta este cuvntul magic n cadrul orelor de limbi strine, acesta este obiectivul principal al desfurrii orelor de limbi strine: elevii trebuie s nvee s comunice, s se exprime n situaii concrete din viaa profesional i de zi cu zi. Documentul video este un material didactic care slujete foarte bine acest obiectiv. Folosirea unei secvene video n cadrul orei de limb francez reprezint o metod atractiv de predare a acestei limbi. Obiectivele generale de lucru cu documentul video sunt urmtoarele: 1. Exercitarea gndirii critice - recunoaterea diferitor tipuri de mesaje, suporturi, surse, ... - distingerea funciilor imaginilor (descrierea, naraiunea, explicaia ...) - selectarea informaiilor ... 2. Producerea adecvat a enunurilor n scris i oral - exprimarea sentimentelor inspirate de ceea ce a fost vzut i auzit; 525

524

- relatarea faptelor care au fost observate n document; - interpretarea i justificarea n scris i oral; - argumentarea, n scris i oral ; - sintetizarea gndurilor, n scris i oral; 3. Dezvoltarea imaginaiei n baza documentului video - imaginarea cauzei pentru o anumit situaie; - imaginarea urmrii pentru o secven; - transferul de cunotine din documentul vizionat n situaii inventate; Adesea n predarea limbilor strine este recomandat de a utiliza un document video, care vine s sprijine un obiectiv (gramatical, un act de limbaj ...), sau de a folosi video pentru a construi un proiect cu elevii, astfel nct acetia s poat reinvesti ceea ce a fost vzut, neles, analizat, interpretat. De asemenea video la orele de limb strin trebuie s serveasc ca baz pentru a demara sarcini ce in de nelegerea secvenei, de analiz. Acest suport poate pune nceputul unei discuii cu clasa pe tema documentului. n cadrul orelor de limb strin pot fi folosite urmtoarele suporturi: - documentare, reportaje, prezentri meteo; - pasaje din jurnale de tiri televizate nregistrate; - extrase din emisiuni televizate; - filme de scurt metraj - interviuri ale unor persoane publice - extrase din filme sau filme n integralitate - clipuri video - desene animate - publicitate - jocuri televizate ....

Activiti ce pot fi dezvoltate n baza documentului video Utilizarea imaginii fr sunet

Oricare ar fi tipul de suport video folosit (documentar, reportaj, film, secven de film ...), profesorul l va prezenta elevilor fr sunet i le va cere s noteze ceea ce ine de sens. Cutarea de informaii n timpul 526

analizei imaginii este un mijloc bun pentru a demara exprimarea oral. La nceput durata secvenei nu trebuie s depeasc 3 minute dac se dorete ca elevii s noteze ct mai multe informaii. O singur vizionare nu este suficient i trebuie completat cu a doua sau chiar a treia. 1. nainte de prima vizionare, profesorul ar trebui s stabileasc ca sarcin determinarea genului de film, a cadrului spaial i temporal, descrierea personajelor. Doar imaginea ar trebui s le permit studenilor s rspund la aceste ntrebri, pe care ei le vor trata oral mpreun cu profesorul. 2. n timpul celei de-a doua vizionri, ei vor fi interesai de aciunile personajelor din secven. Ei vor descrie oral ceea ce au vzut i face presupuneri. Elevii vor trebui s lege aciunile, s descrie ceea ce au vizionat, s fac ipoteze. 3. n cazul cnd va fi nevoie de o a treia vizualizare a secvenei, li se va cere s-i imagineze dialoguri dintre personaje (n cazul unui film), sloganuri (n cazul publicitii). Profesorul poate de asemenea s-i familiarizeze cu diferite registre posibile, sentimente ale personajelor. S-ar putea de asemenea ca ei s joace o scen vizionnd din nou documentul fr sunet. n acest caz scopul va fi de a stabili un fel de dublare audio. Pentru aceast activitate, cel mai bine ar fi de a-i face pe elevi s lucreze n grupuri a cte 3 sau 4. Se pot compara apoi interpretrile din fiecare grup. Folosirea imaginii cu sunet: Acest tip de utilizare este diferit, deoarece elevii vor trebui s-i concentreze atenia pe imagine i sunet n acelai timp, tiind c imaginea va fi de data aceasta (n multe cazuri) un ajutor pentru nelegere. 1. Se proiecteaz un minut sau dou un fragment dintr-un program nregistrat sau orice alt video, cerndu-le elevilor s determine ce fel de emisiune este. Ei vor trebui s justifice rspunsul lor argumentndu-l. 2. nainte de a vizualiza secvena selectat a doua oar, li se va cere elevilor s identifice orice informaie care le va permite apoi s descrie cadrul spaial i temporal, personajele, aciunile, registrul folosit de personaje, sentimentele fiecruia, tonurile... Aceste 527

elemente vor putea fi determinate prin vocea, tonul folosite. Coloana sonor va putea permite de a merge mai departe n analiza. 3. Apoi, n cazul unei publiciti, ei vor putea imagina sloganul. n cazul n care documentul video este o secven de film, li se va cere s-i imagineze restul. Dac acesta este un fragment de la o emisiune de tiri, elevii vor inventa informaiile care urmeaz. Aceast activitate le va oferi posibilitatea de a apela la imaginaie i creativitate.

Completarea unei istorii

Profesorul va alege un film de dou sau trei minute. Elevii vor viziona secvena i vor trebui s-i imagineze scenele anterioare. Ei vor face din nou presupuneri, utiliznd toate formele posibile i vor lucra asupra argumentrii i consecvenei. Se va putea s se lucreze asupra timpurilor viitorului i valorii de prezent a viitorului.

Utilizarea video ca un punct de dezbatere (nivel avansat)

Documentul video poate fi i o modalitate de a ncepe o dezbatere n jurul aspectelor culturale sau situaiilor problematice. Profesorul trebuie s aleag o astfel de secven de film, o reclam, un extras, n care se actualizeaz un element de societate. Orice film poart aspectele caracteristice ale unei societi, unei culturi i poate duce cu uurin la o discuie. Profesorul va trebui s-i fac pe elevi s presupun despre ce este vorba dup vizionarea secvenei, i apoi s descrie desfurarea aciunii. Odat ce subiectul de dezbatere a fost lansat, pot fi formate dou grupuri: unul pentru i unul contra. Ei vor gsi argumente, folosind, de asemenea, elemente din secvena video vizualizat. Profesorul va putea avea posibilitatea s fie moderator al dezbaterii n aceast activitate i s nregistreze punctele celor dou grupuri, tiind c un punct valoreaz dac rspunsul a fost bine argumentat.

Activitate cu secven alb

Este interesant de a copia un document video, nlocuind un pasaj de aproximativ 1 minut cu un spaiu gol. Elevii vor vedea, prin urmare, o secven de 3 minute, din care va lipsi o parte i ei i 528

vor imagina cursul acestei secvene care lipsete, lucrnd n grupuri i fcnd scenarii diferite. Acest exerciiu are scopul de a evalua capacitatea de nelegere a unui mesaj audiovizual, dar, de asemenea, de a mbunti coerena. ntr-adevr, ei vor trebui s fac presupuneri, care s corespund cu secvena anterioar i cea urmtoare. Ei vor oferi, de asemenea, argumente n sprijinul propunerilor lor. Utilizarea unui film vzut n integralitate i alctuirea rezumatului (avansat): Filmele n limba francez pot fi vizualizate n dou moduri: - fie profesorul decide s nu ntrerup vizualizarea, iar elevii vor vedea filmul n ntregime; - fie profesorul decide s segmenteze filmul, n momente strategice, oferind posibilitatea de a construi o activitate. n ambele cazuri, vizionarea filmului va fi nsoit de o sarcin specific. ntreruperile de vizionare pot oferi oportuniti pentru a verifica nelegerea printr-o serie de ntrebri deschise. n cel de-al doilea caz, profesorul va alctui alt tip de sarcini mai mult legate de scris. Elevilor se poate cere: - s rezume istoria; - s discute pe tema filmului (subiectul dat de profesor); - s-i imagineze o continuare a filmului; - s-i imagineze viaa unui personaj; - s compun un scenariu n acelai cadru ..... Utilizarea unui document video n scopul activitate de gramatic: n unele filme, putem alege fragmente care exploateaz n mod special un anumit fenomen gramatical. n cazul n care secvena conine destule cazuri de puncte gramaticale ce urmeaz a fi tratate, se poate organiza n jurul unei forme gramaticale o conceptualizare gramatical. De exemplu, utilizarea subjonctivului sau imperativului .... Studenii folosesc, n general, aceste timpuri, dar comit n continuare greeli. Aceast conceptualizare i va ajuta s reflecteze asupra funcionrii regulilor ce se refer la aceast tem gramatical i la o mai bun utilizare. 529

Cnd vizualizeaz secvena, studenii vor trebui, dup ce vor rspunde la ntrebrile de nelegere puse de profesor, s identifice punctele gramaticale pe care le vor trata, cele mai recurente. Profesorul i va ajuta s gseasc aceste puncte n cazul n care ei nu vor reui. Apoi, ei vor viziona a doua oar secvena i vor descoperi fenomenele auzite, notndu-le pe hrtie. Ei vor face apoi o punere n comun a acestor formule i vor propune ipoteze privind modul lor de funcionare, cu ajutorul documentului video. Fazele ulterioare vor fi cele de testare a ipotezelor, de formulare a regulilor i o etap de nsuire, care va trece printr-o serie de exerciii n context, n care se vor folosi personajele din film i situaia n care aciunea are loc. Utilizarea de filme n limba strin la orele de limb strin faciliteaz actul de predare i l face, desigur, mai atractiv pentru studeni, care de multe ori sunt obinuii cu suporturi mai clasice. Este vorba, de asemenea, de a avea o viziune mai clar asupra universului limbii vorbite, pe care ei ncep s-l neleag. Video este printre cele mai multe suporturi posibile, care dau posibilitatea de a varia abordarea profesorului de limb.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

PROBLEMATIZAREA CA STRATEGIE DIDACTIC DE DEZVOLTARE A COMPETENELOR COMUNICATIVE (studiul de caz) Natalia Bolgari, lector superior, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Svetlana Apachia, lector universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

The article provides an overview of problem-oriented strategy through the usage of case study technique in teaching foreign languages. It illustrates the features of the problem-solving and case study techniques, their contribution to the development of students communicative skills. Cuvinte-cheie: situaie-problem, studiu de caz, competen comunicativ, motivaie. Schimbarea de paradigm a nvrii i anume trecerea de la achiziii de cunotine la dezvoltarea de competene, valori i atitudini impune focalizarea instruirii pe activiti dominante de participare activ i voluntar a studenilor dup nevoile, interesele i profilurile lor de nvare. Dezvoltarea competenelor comunicative la leciile de limb strin este posibil prin prisma problematizrii, cu alte cuvinte, prin introducerea studenilor n situaii-problem. Problematizarea este considerat n didactica modern una dintre cele mai valoroase metode, deoarece orienteaz gndirea studentului spre rezolvarea independent de probleme. Utiliznd metoda n discuie, profesorul l pune pe student n situaia de a cuta un rspuns pertinent, o soluie pentru problema cu care se confrunt. Punctul de pornire l constituie crearea situaiei-problem, care desemneaz o situaie contradictorie pentru student, dificil, deoarece se creeaz un conflict ntre experiena de cunoatere a studentului i elementul de noutate cu care se confrunt acesta. 531

1. Jan Goes, Une initiation la didactique du FLE, Editura Siteck, Craiova 2.J-L Bourrissoux, P.Pelpel, Enseigner avec laudiovisuel, les Editions dOrganisation M. Chailley et M-C Charles, La tlvision pour lire et pour crire, Hachette Education Resurse vido http://www.prof-fle.com/prof_fle/ressources_pedagogiques/video. php Comment exploiter la vido en classe de FLE http://www.prof-fle.com/prof_fle/download/video.pdf Fiche sur lutilisation de la vido en classe de franais http://www.prof-fle.com/prof_fle/ressources_pedagogiques/biblio. php La vido en classe de FLE : Bibliographie. Liste de vidos cassettes aidant lenseignant en classe de FLE 530

Situaia-problem este necesar s prezinte urmtoarele caracteristici: s prezinte o dificultate cognitiv pentru student, rezolvarea acesteia necesit un efort real de gndire; s trezeasc interesul studentului, s-l surprind, provocndu-l s acioneze (s caute, s depeasc obstacolele, s alctuiasc, s fac legturi cu ce cunoate, s descopere, s decid); s orienteze activitatea studentului n direcia rezolvrii, aflrii soluiei de rezolvare. Rezolvarea nu este posibil fr activarea cunotinelor i experienelor dobndite anterior. Tensiunea (conflictul) este creat ntre experiena anterioar i elementul de noutate cu care se confrunt. Aceast tensiune l va determina s acioneze, s investigheze i s intuiasc soluia de rezolvare a acestei tensiuni. Rezolvarea situaiei-problem solicit logica studentului, inducia, deducia, intuiia, analogia, dar i voina de perseveren. Formularea situaie-problem i activitatea exploratorie a studentului pentru a descoperi soluia presupune patru momente fundamentale: 1. punerea problemei i perceperea ei de ctre studeni (inclusiv primii indici pentru rezolvare). Profesorul formuleaz situaia-problem, expune faptele, explic o serie de relaii cauzale care se stabilesc, apoi recepioneaz primele solicitri i ofer informaii suplimentare. Practic, profesorul dezvluie doar germenii adevrurilor ce vor fi apoi descoperite de studeni prin efort propriu; 2. studierea aprofundat i restructurarea datelor problemei (n acest moment, problematizarea se apropie de cercetarea fundamental). n aceast etap, studentul lucreaz independent: reactualizeaz cunotinele, se documenteaz n domeniu, compar informaiile, selecteaz informaiile pe care le consider necesare i relevante; 3. cutarea soluiilor posibile la problema pus. Studentul analizeaz atent i cu descernmnt materialul faptic, procedeaz la o sintez, pentru a recupera esenialul, face conexiuni logice, analiznd condiiile de producere/manifestare a situaiei, formuleaz ipoteze privind soluionarea problemei i le verific pe fiecare n parte. 4. obinerea rezultatului final i evaluarea acestuia. La acest mo532

ment, studentul compar rezultatele obinute prin rezolvarea fiecrei ipoteze. n final, studentul decide sau alege soluia optim, care se confrunt cu ideile prezentate n manual. Crearea situaiei-problem la leciile de limb strin este posibil prin intermediul studiului de caz. Studiul de caz (lat. Casus accident, eveniment ntmpltor) s-a nscut din necesitatea gsirii unor ci de apropiere a instruirii de modelul vieii reale, al activitii practice sociale sau productive. Treptat, acesta s-a impus ca una dintre cele mai active metode, de mare valoare euristic, dar i aplicativ. Studiul de caz (S.C.) se afl la baza formelor de nvmnt propuse de ctre Graduate School of Business Administration of Harward. Ea a fost iniiat n Frana, n 1926, de ctre A. Siegfried. Ulterior, s-a nregistrat o dezvoltare mai larg n sectoarele nvmntului superior. R. Yin propune urmtoarea definiie a studiului de caz: o cercetare empiric ce analizeaz un fenomen contemporan n contextul vieii reale, grania dintre fenomenul respectiv i context nefiind precis definite, i n care sunt utilizate surse multiple de date. Un studiu de caz poate fi o situaie uman complex unic, de exemplu, o decizie major cu consecinele ei, un proiect ce se implementeaz, un eveniment important etc., care urmeaz s fie investigat n context concret. n viaa social exist evenimente unice, nerepetitive, situaii rare sau extreme, chiar critice, destul de problematice, care pot fi analizate, investigate ntr-un studiu de caz singular sau multiplu. ntrebrile la care rspunde studiul de caz sunt Cum? i De ce? a avut loc un fapt, un anumit eveniment, o situaie, o decizie. I. Cerghit consider c studiul de caz mijlocete o confruntare direct cu o situaie din viaa real. S.C. lrgete cmpul cunoaterii, cci un caz invocat poate servi drept suport al cunoaterii inductive, care trece de la premise particulare la dezvluirea generalului, la formarea unor concluzii generalizatoare (noiuni, reguli, principii, legiti etc.), dar i invers, ca baz a unei cunoateri deductive, de trecere de la general la particular, de concretizare a unei idei, a unor generalizri, de aplicare a cunotinelor sau deprinderilor nsuite la situaii sau probleme noi[2]. Cazul, n opinia lui A. L. George, reprezint o situaie-problem 533

real, decupat din realitate, situaie care, evaluat i soluionat n cadrul activitilor colective ale studenilor, asigur premisele necesare formulrii de ctre acetia a unor recomandri, concluzii, reguli, legiti. Studenii i argumenteaz soluiile sau deciziile, fcnd referin la cunotinele, legitile i teoriile nvate deja[4]. Studiul de caz ofer studenilor prilejul de a analiza, de a sintetiza i de a rezolva unele probleme n situaii reale, de via, ceea ce e mult mai stimulativ dect a opera doar cu cunotine teoretice. n contextul acestor activiti, ei nva s deosebeasc aspectele relevante de cele nerelevante, apreciaz, dup propriile lor criterii, valoarea unor tehnici de lucru, percep n mod direct fapte i evenimente viabile, aplic n situaii concrete cunotinele dobndite. Cercettorul D. Campbell susine c studiul de caz poate fi privit ca un pas mic spre o mare teorie, iar R. K. Yin consider c nvarea bazat pe studiul de caz presupune angajarea activ i interactiv a studenilor n desfurarea de activiti de analiz i dezbatere colectiv a unui caz, de identificare i examinare a variantelor de aciune i de luare de decizii n conformitate cu propriul sistem de valori. Astfel, nvarea bazat pe studiul de caz are tangene i cu nvarea prin cooperare, contribuind i ea la dezvoltarea comportamentelor sociale ale studenilor, indiferent dac analizarea i soluionarea cazului se realizeaz frontal, n grupe sau individual. Trimiterea la un caz luat n studiu poate contribui la confirmarea justeei sau eficienei unui mod de a aciona, profesional sau social, la ncurajarea unui comportament, a unei conduite. Efectuarea unei analize de caz presupune cunoaterea n prealabil de ctre studeni a demersului metodic dup care trebuie s-i desfoare activitatea, adic a etapelor pe care urmeaz s le parcurg n succesiunea lor logic: - identificarea cazului; - analiza cazului; - stabilirea alternativelor de rezolvare a cazului; - optimizarea soluiei finale, adoptat pentru rezolvarea cazului. Studiul de caz ofer studentului posibilitatea i postura de creator, de investigator, de inovator al situaiei(situaiilor), unde el poate sa-i 534

formeze anumite capaciti creatoare, atitudini si convingeri, voina de a oferi soluii originale; deci, el are responsabilitatea pentru soluiile noi pe care le produce si responsabilitatea moral pentru destinaia acestor soluii. Aceast metod este ghidat de gndirea euristic i de nvarea prin descoperire. nvarea euristica nu duce numai la educarea gndirii, la formarea gndirii independente si creatoare, a unui stil de abordare a problemelor, ci i la educarea unor trsturi de personalitate, susine R. Gardner[3]. Studiul de caz implica strategia cercetrii si a descoperirii crend studentului starea de activare, i sporete atenia i interesul, ncrederea n sine astfel nct el devine capabil sa gseasc informaia de care are nevoie i s rezolve diferite probleme n mod independent, s gndeasc independent, s priveasc o problem din unghiuri diferite. Expunerea cunotinelor sub form de probleme sau nvarea pe baz de probleme l conduce pe student spre gsirea independent a soluiilor sau rezolvrilor. nvarea bazat pe studiu de caz este o metoda activ, susin cercettorii I. Bonta, I. Cerghit, I. Radu [1,2] i care dispune de un ir de avantaje: a.motiveaz intrinsec studenii i i implic n activitate; b. ofer posibilitatea de a se confrunta cu situaii-probleme reale, veridice, extrase din realitate i ansa de a le soluiona; c. pune studenii n situaia de a-i aplica cunotinele si capacitile pe care le posed n realizarea inductiv i deductiv, n dobndirea i descoperirea noului; d. este un exerciiu activ i interactiv bazat pe argumentri, descoperiri i soluionri; e. determin studenii s manifeste atitudine i spirit critic fa de diferite variante de soluionare a cazului, argumentnd n mod raional varianta optim; f. presupune dezbateri colective, n cadrul crora se produc schimbri intelectuale, confruntri, argumentri, formulri de concluzii. 535

Studenii ating cele mai complexe niveluri de gndire i nvare activ, trecnd de la aplicare la analiz, sintez i evaluare. La realizarea treptelor de parcurs n prelucrarea cazului, profesorul organizeaz i conduce ntregul proces de analiz a acestuia, dirijeaz cu abilitate, discreie i competen dezbaterile care au loc, s stpneasc situaia care s-ar putea ivi n timpul discuiilor, I. Cerghit susine c profesorul joac mai mult rolul de animator care impulsioneaz discuiile, imprimndu-le un curs vioi i fructuos, meninute pe un fga corect i la obiect. n interveniile sale trebuie s manifeste rbdare, abinndu-se de la anticiparea ipotezelor, opiniilor i soluiilor la care pot ajunge studenii prin propriile lor raionamente. Accentul cade deci pe participarea activ i productiv a ntregului grup [2]. Metoda studiului de caz se organizeaz ca discuie cu lansare a variantelor de soluii pentru o problem enunat, utilizndu-se urmtoarele tehnici: - de exprimare a soluiilor: brainstorming, brainwriting. - de analiz (S.W.O.T. Strengths/ Weaknesses/ Opportunities/ Threats) pentru una dintre soluii. Studiul de caz le formeaz studenilor competene comunicative in cea de-a doua limb, aprofundndu-le vocabularul sub aspectul culturii profesionale i a celei generale i reprezint o pist sigur n motivarea studenilor privind studierea i posedarea limbii strine ca a doua specializare la facultile economice. E necesar s precizm c formarea competenei de comunicare la limba strin se realizeaz n perspectiva motivaiei care vizeaz domeniul lingvisticii aplicate. Investigaia noastr a demarat de la ipoteza c dac formarea componentelor comunicative necesit motivaii contientizate, atunci studiul de caz are o contribuie important ca factor de motivaie n formarea competenei comunicative, n context pedagogic se presupune o angajare activ i interactiv a studenilor n procesul comunicrii. n acest sens, studiul de caz va facilita decodarea mesajului ntr-o limb strin. Studentul este transformat ntr-un participant activ, stimulndu-ise motivaia interioar. Aceast stimulare se datoreaz limbajului, el 536

avnd ca finalitate comunicarea. Numai n baza modelelor sau tiparelor de limbaj, se formeaz i se dezvolt competena de comunicare. Studiul de caz l orienteaz pe student sa gseasc atare modele sau tipare de limbaj care le trezete simul noului n activitatea de nvare, l face s aleag atitudinile corespunztoare n situaii concrete, s aib ncredere n forele proprii, s achiziioneze cunotine n domeniul (cazul) studiat, s abordeze studiul de caz n mod individualizat, personalizat i contextualizat. Menionm c modelele sau tiparele de limbaj sunt i factori de personalitate, i factori de comportament comunicaional. Competena comunicativ, subliniaz I.O. Panioara, depete competena lingvistic. Competena lingvistic vizeaz cunoaterea limbii, a sistemului lingvistic. Competena comunicativ semnific referirea la propriile cunotine asupra mai multor aspecte sociale ale comunicrii, n sensul general, i anume: modaliti de asemnare, de observaie, de instruciuni explicite, de ncercare i de eroare. Modalitile numite prefigureaz un anumit tip de model sau anumite tipuri de modele lingvistice utilizate ca material de construcie al studiului de caz. Cu ct modelul lingvistic este mai elevat, cu att i competena de comunicare interpersonal este consistent i calitativ. n acest sens, studiul de caz reclam practicarea acestor modele lingvistice n rndul participanilor la acest proces [7]. Competena comunicativ a studenilor este relevat, n baza studiului de caz, de relaia de presupoziie reciproc ntreinut de dou metalimbaje: un limbaj descriptiv centrat pe formularea semnificaiilor coninute n text i un limbaj metodologic centrat pe definirea conceptelor descriptive i pe verificarea coeziunii lor interne. Alte aspecte ce in de formarea competenei comunicative se refer la tactul profesorului i la orientarea activitilor studenilor, la utilizarea unor sintagme adecvate contextului, toate acestea fiind menite s le coordoneze exprimarea, sa-i stimuleze la o participare i la o gndire activ. Prin urmare, unele cerine de optimizare a predrii/nvrii vizeaz folosirea corect a celor mai potrivite cuvinte i expresii, coerena exprimrii, influena vorbirii, alegerea tempoului de expunere. 537

Studenii nu vor reui s investigheze un caz, nu vor putea aplica studiul de caz dac ei nu vor putea comunica unii cu alii i nu vor reui s-i conving prin comunicare pe ali participani. Am menionat deja c orice competen comunicativ deriv din competena lingvistic. n sensul acesta, i investigarea sau studiul de caz vor avea o deosebit prestan prin cultura lingvistic a limbajului, prin corectitudinea gramatical a frazelor, prin coerena semantic a textului. Studenii combin nucleele unor propoziii n mai multe feluri i apoi testeaz modul n care variantele scrise/orale contribuie, prin sens i implicaii, la identificarea modelelor de realitate, la diferenierea coeziunii i a coerenei n exprimarea scris i oral, la sesizarea relaiei dintre gradul de expectabilitate n receptare, sau la mbuntirea coerenei propriu-zise. Astfel, n baza acestor tehnici care vizeaz funcionalitatea gramatical a textului i care fortific motivaia competenei comunicative n limba strin a studenilor, am construit paradigma funcional-dinamic ce relev achiziiile lingvistice ale textului ca baz a formrii competenei comunicative a studenilor. Fiecare etap a studiului de caz relev anumite competene comunicative ale studenilor. Drept exemplu concludent prezentam urmtorul studiu de caz: Tema Comunicarea n cadrul unei companii. (Nivelul B1-B2) Studiul de caz: Probleme de comunicare n urma achiziionrii unei companii de ctre o alt companie. Obiectivele: studenii trebuie s fie capabili: s neleag cele mai important probleme de comunicare ntr-o companie; s foloseasc un vocabular necesar n vorbirea orala si comunicare cu colegii n situaia data; s discute i s gseasc soluii de mbuntire a comunicrii intre angajai; Studenii sunt divizai n dou subgrupe. Subgrupa 1: Studenii citesc scrisoarea-reclamaie din partea companiei-mame, scris de ctre un subaltern deducnd problemele de comunicare. 538

Subgrupa 2: Studenii citesc scrisoarea-reclamaie din partea companiei preluate, scris de ctre managerul ei, deducnd urmtoarele problemele de comunicare. n urma dezbaterilor, studenii au ajuns la urmtoarele probleme de comunicare ntre companiile date: lipsa de informatizare a personalului subaltern; lipsa schimbului de idei; utilizarea inadecvat a tehnologiilor de comunicare scris i oral; Ulterior subgrupele propun soluii pentru problemele depistate, evalundu-le: Subgrupa 1 propune de a introduce sistemul de monitorizare i informare a managerilor inferiori despre strategiile i deciziile luate. Subgrupa 2 vine cu sugestia de a instrui personalul n utilizarea tehnologiilor informaionale. Subgrupa 1 sugereaz ntruniri frecvente dintre departamentele ambelor companii cu scopul de a discuta planul de aciuni si performantele personalului. Subgrupa 2 nainteaz schimbul de experien reciproc prin vizitarea filialelor. Metodele de lucru folosite n cadrul analizei studiului de caz: citirea mesajului scris, brainstorming, discuii n cadrul ntrunirii. Dup cum am observat, studiul de caz a creat o situaie-problem la tema Comunicarea n cadrul unei companii, n care studenii aveau sarcina de a soluiona problemele de comunicare ce au aprut n cadrul companiei ca rezultat al prelurii unei companii de ctre o alt companie. La rezolvarea situaiei-problem date, studenii au aplicat cunotinele achiziionate anterior la tema oferit. Pentru a-i exprima opiniile, a-i argumenta punctul su de vedere, a convinge, studenii au utilizat structurile lingvistice de rigoare dezvoltndu-i competenele comunicative. Concludem c dezvoltarea competenelor comunicative la leciile de limb strin este posibil prin prisma problematizrii, cu alte cuvinte, prin introducerea studenilor n situaii-problem. Crearea situaiei-problem la leciile de limb strin este posibil prin intermediul studiului de caz. Studiul de caz a fost explorat ca factor motivaional i ca generator de formare a competenelor comunicative. 539

REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE
1. I. Bonta, Pedagogie. Tratat, Editura ALI, Bucureti, 2001. 2. I. Cerghit, Metode de nvmnt, Polirom, Iai, 2006. 3. R.C. Gardner, An Instrumental Motivation in Language

UTILIZAREA TEHNOLOGIILOR INFORMAIONALE N COMUNICARE N PROCESUL INSTRUCTIV-EDUCATIV ANdoNI Ina, lector superior universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM BACINSCHI Svetlana, lector universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

Study: Who Says It Isnt Effective? Studies in Second Language Acquisition,Newbury House, 1972. 4. A.L. George, Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured, Focused Comparison. In Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy, New York, 1979, pp. 43-68. 5. M.E Dru, Didactica disciplinelor economice, Editura ASE, Bucureti, 2002. 6. M., Ionescu, I. Radu, Didactica modern, Editura Dacia, ClujNapoca, 1995. 7. I.O. Pnioara, Comunicarea eficient, Polirom, Iai, 2004.

Nowadays our society faces rapid and deep changes. The changes determined by the evolution of modern technologies are not emphasized in the domains for which they were initially conceived. In a world in which the only aspect remains unchanged is the change, so education should integrate and adapt its proposals to the needs of the new generation of teachers and students. The aim of modern communication technologies is to help the teacher in the educational process but not to replace him. ntreaga dezvoltare trece prin educaie: valorile tiinei i tehnicii, spiritul inventiv i pragmatic, noile atitudini i mentaliti, modul de a fi i de a evolua cerut de societatea modern, toate acestea sunt nvate n cadrul sistemului educaional. n aceast lume n care singurul aspect nemodificat este schimbarea, nvmntul trebuie s se integreze i s i adapteze ofertele pentru a veni n sprijinul noii generaii. Dac schimbrile n ceea ce privete planurile de nvmnt, curriculumul, formele de organizare i toate celelalte aspecte ce in de resursele materiale sunt relativ uor de implementat i de controlat, modelarea resurselor umane este un proces mai dificil i de durat, aici intervin mentalitile, deprinderile de munc, rezistena n faa schimbrii i ali factori care pot frna toate acestea. Un exemplu concret al influenei transformrilor tehnice asupra desfurrii procesului instructiv-educativ este acela al impactului tehnologiilor informaiei i comunicrii. Dei nceputurile au fost dificile,

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acum, n aproape orice instituie de nvmnt superior, studenii i profesorii au la dispoziie computere, conectate la INTERNET, precum i nsoite de diferite echipamente suplimentare. Pn nu demult ns, aceste metode i mijloace de instruire erau preponderent tradiionale, adic bazate, n special, pe comunicarea oral i scris i, ntr-o proporie mai redus, pe folosirea unor mijloace tehnice audiovizuale. Predomina utilizarea casetofoanelor i aparatelor video. Ele corespundeau unor cerine de educaie mai limitate, fapt care fcea posibil instruirea n universiti, unde profesorii i studenii lucrau mpreun, fa n fa, n sli de cursuri, n laboratoare i alte sli specializate, nvarea realizndu-se n acest cadru i individual, fie n slile de lectur ale bibliotecilor, i la domiciliul studenilor. ncadrarea n procesul de nvmnt a unui numr de studeni care este n continu cretere a obligat universitile s gseasc soluii n ceea ce privete metodele i mijloacele de predare nvare evaluare, ajungndu-se la interferena dou tipuri de instruire i nvare: cea tradiional, realizat n lumea real, n condiii normale de via universitar, i cea modern, deplasat ntr-un mediu virtual, accesibil doar celor iniiai. Sistemul actual de nvmnt din ara noastr este rezultatul valorificrii creatoare a tradiiilor valoroase ce s-au cristalizat de-a lungul unei evoluii istorice. El este o expresie direct a unor particulariti naionale de ordin economic, social i cultural. Restructurrile i inovrile ce i s-au adus n ultimul timp sunt determinate, pe de o parte, de profundele transformri din viaa economico-social a rii, iar, pe de alt parte, de legitile interne ale funcionrii sistemului. Performanele calculatorului sunt la un nivel, care inea de domeniul science fiction. [1] Internet, e-mail, multimedia, tehnologii informaionale, biblioteci virtuale, educaie electronic (e-education sau e-learning), sistem inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Tutoring System), mediu inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Learning Evironment), nvmnt la distan, n timp real (IDD), au devenit termeni elementari n limbajul universal al pedagogilor mileniului trei. 542

Problema autoinstruirii cadrelor didactice n situaia creat de implementarea tehnologiilor informaionale rmne actual, profesorul trebuind s-i formeze capacitatea de a se orienta n avalana fluxurilor informaionale care ar putea influena procesul educaional. [2] Tehnologiile de baz ale noii epoci sunt deci, de tip informaional i extind considerabil hotarele comunicrii umane. Aplicarea tehnologiilor informaionale n sistemul de nvmnt este impus de exigenele societii actuale. Mediile de instruire bazate pe Internet aduc cu sine att un nou mediu educaional (Internet-ul), ct i noi metode de predare nvare evaluare care adaug noi valene procesului de nvmnt. Valoarea adugat de acestea vizeaz organizarea procesului de nvmnt i creterea calitii sale, dezvoltarea deprinderii de a lucra n echip i de a privi profesorul ca ndrumtor n procesul de nvare, testarea i dezvoltarea de noi mijloace de nvmnt. Necesitatea utilizrii calculatorului personal n instituiile de nvmnt a fost deja acceptat, astfel nct sunt cunoscute noiunile: cultur informaional (Information Literacy n englez) cultura informaiei nseamn capacitatea de a gsi i a utiliza informaia, fiind baza nvrii de-a lungul ntregii viei [3] educaie electronic (e-education sau e-learning) oferirea educaiei, instruirii sau nvmntul prin mijloace electronice [4] sistem inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Tutoring System) SII (Intelligent Tutoring Systems) (SII) sunt programe pe computer proiectate s ncorporeze tehnici din inteligena artificial, tiinele sociale etc. pentru a simula tutori care tiu ce predau, cui predau i cum predau [5] mediu inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Learning Evironment) prin mediu inteligent de nvare (Intelligent Learning Environment - ILE) nelegem o metodologie general cu ajutorul creia elevul este pus ntr-o situaie de tip rezolvare de probleme [6] nvmnt la distan, n timp real (IDD) - nvmntul la distan este o form flexibil de nvmnt care ofer 543

studenilor posibilitatea de a-i administra propriul proces de nvare n program comasat, n cadrul instituiei de nvmnt organizatoare. [7] Aceste noiuni rezult din utilizarea cotidian a calculatorului personal n mod profesional, la serviciu, acas sau n orice alt context n procesul de autoinstruire. Instruirea i nvarea bazat pe Web (Webbased learning) ofer astfel studenilor interactivitatea (posibilitatea schimbului de preri, opinii, materiale), mediu multimedia (materialele prezint cel puin doua elemente multimedia: text, grafic, audio, animaie, video etc.), mediu deschis (se pot accesa diferite pagini Web sau aplicaii), mediu sincron i asincron de comunicare, n dependen de echipamente, distan i timp (studenii pot utiliza orice calculator conectat la Internet i pot comunica cu persoane din orice col al lumii). Se poate spune deci c utilizarea Internetului i a tehnologiilor moderne reprezint cea mai complex form de integrare a educaiei informale n educaia formal. Dup aproape 20 de ani de activitate a ASEM-ului, a aprut un bloc de studii modern care se laud cu sli de predare cu tehnologii multimedia (computere si proiectoare). Fr profesori experimentai i cu adevrat buni specialiti n domeniu, toate calculatoarele i proiectoarele nu vor avea nicio valoare. n trecut, studenii nvau limitndu-se la un cerc restrns: profesori, prieteni, familie. Tehnologiile informaionale au extins ns acest cerc, ctre o lume deschis spre cunoatere i comunicare. Studenii au acces la resurse informaionale inepuizabile, oferindu-li-se posibilitatea de a participa la executarea unui proiect, mpreun cu colegi de aceeai vrst din alte ri. Ct privete posibilitatea asistenei procesului de predare nvare, prin intermediul tehnologiilor informaionale, putem asigura: feedback-ul ntre profesori i studeni accesul la bibliotecile electronice accesul la sistemele de asisten accesul la nvmntul la distan instituiile i profesorii cu materiale didactice 544

Referitor la gradul de cercetare se constat c problema aplicrii tehnologiilor informaionale n procesul de predare-nvare este conceput drept o parte a noilor educaii. Instruirea asistat de calculator a fost abordat din mai multe perspective: perspectiva funcionalist, axat pe exigene legate de schimbrile de funcii ale educatorului n societate, perspectiva tehnologic a formrii, bazat pe utilizarea mijloacelor tehnologice avansate n procesul de instruire, perspectiva bazat pe instruirea n clase virtuale, perspectiva centrat pe noiunea de nvmnt la distan etc. n concluzie, putem spune c pentru a realiza un nvmnt de calitate i pentru a obine cele mai bune rezultate trebuie s folosim att metodele clasice de predare, nvare, evaluare, ct i metodele moderne. Promovarea noilor tehnologii educaionale presupune organizarea instruirii, prin implementarea tehnologiilor informaionale n procesul de predare-nvare a informaticii astfel, nct s ofere studentului posibilitatea de a-i decide propriul mod de activitate, n acord cu particularitile individuale. Studiile realizate n ultimii ani n diverse ri au artat c introducerea TIC n instituiile de nvmnt contribuie ntr-o msur foarte mare la mbuntirea rezultatelor studenilor. n primul rnd, acest lucru se datoreaz faptului c TIC se adapteaz nevoilor de nvare ale studenilor i nevoilor de predare ale profesorilor. [8] De exemplu, dac anumii studeni trebuie s nvee limba englez de afaceri, folosind un software educaional [9] specializat i o conexiune la Internet pentru a accesa materiale audiovideo, profesorul le poate dezvolta deprinderi lingvistice pentru acea limb, le poate induce mult mai simplu noiunile de gramatic. ns pentru aceasta, profesorul trebuie s neleag c nu doar crile ofer cunoatere, ci i materialele documentare, tirile ori filmele artistice ntr-o limb strin. n al doilea rnd, utilizarea TIC n procesele de predarenvare face ca studenii s fie mai ateni la ceea ce se pred, crete receptivitatea lor precum i interactivitatea. Dac n sistemul clasic studentul asculta lecia i era nvat s ia notie, utiliznd TIC n predare, se formeaz atenia audiovizual. 545

Un alt avantaj important adus de introducerea TIC n educaie este acela c profesorul ajunge la fiecare student. De exemplu, dac n sistemul clasic, un profesor de englez avea posibilitatea de a conversa n limba predat doar cu maximum 10 studeni n decursul unei ore de curs, folosind un software specializat i calculatoare dotate cu cti i microfon, fiecare student poate asculta i rspunde la exerciii ca i cum ar fi cte un profesor pentru fiecare student n parte. Internetul i TIC n general elimin orice diferen ntre zonele urbane i cele rurale, ntre regiunile izolate i cele industrializate, ntre comunitile mai puin dezvoltate i cele hiper-dezvoltate. La fel de important este i faptul c TIC faciliteaz procesul de nvare nc din sal, studenii reinnd mult mai uor informaiile noi pentru c le asociaz unor imagini. Calculatorul este foarte util att studentului, ct i profesorului ns folosirea acestuia trebuie realizat astfel nct s mbunteasc calitativ procesul de predare-nvare. Calculatorul trebuie folosit astfel nct s urmreasc achiziionarea unor cunotine i formarea unor deprinderi care s permit studentului s se adapteze cerinelor unei societi aflate ntr-o permanent evoluie. Acesta trebuie s fie pregtit pentru schimbri, s le ntmpine cu entuziasm, nu cu fric i rezisten. Dac studenii sunt orientai cu ncredere spre schimbare, ei vor simi nevoia de a fi instruii ct mai bine pentru a face fa noilor tipuri de profesii. Eecul n dezvoltarea capacitii de a reaciona la schimbare poate atrage dup sine pasivitatea i alienarea. Profesorul triete el nsui ntr-o societate n schimbare, astfel nct va trebui s se adapteze, s se acomodeze, s se perfecioneze continuu. Deci introducerea n instituiile de nvmnt a Internetului i a tehnologiilor moderne duce la schimbri importante n procesul de nvmnt. Astfel actul nvrii nu mai este considerat a fi efectul demersurilor i muncii profesorului, ci rodul interaciunii studenilor cu calculatorul i al colaborrii cu profesorul. Aceast schimbare n sistemul de nvmnt vizeaz urmtoarele obiective: 1. Creterea eficienei activitilor de nvare, 2. Dezvoltarea competenelor de comunicare i studiu individual. 546

Atingerea acestor obiective depinde de gradul de pregtire al profesorului n utilizarea calculatorului, de stilul profesorului, de numrul de studeni, de interesul, cunotinele i abilitile acestora, de atmosfera din auditoriu i tipul programelor folosite, de sincronizarea explicaiilor cu secvenele utilizate, de metodele de evaluare, de fiele de lucru elaborate. Utilizarea la ntmplare, fr un scop precis, la un moment nepotrivit a calculatorului n timpul leciei duce la plictiseal, monotonie, ineficiena nvrii prin neparticiparea unor studeni la lecie, nerealizarea obiectivelor leciei i poate produce repulsie fa de acest mijloc modern de predarenvare-evaluare. De asemenea individualizarea excesiv a nvrii duce la negarea dialogului studentprofesor i la izolarea actului de nvare n contextul su psihosocial. Totui utilizarea calculatorului are numeroase avantaje: Stimularea capacitii de nvare inovatoare, adaptabil la condiii de schimbare social rapid; Creterea randamentului nsuirii coerente a cunotinelor prin aprecierea imediat a rspunsurilor studenilor; ntrirea motivaiei studenilor n procesul de nvare; Stimularea gndirii logice i a imaginaiei; Introducerea unui stil cognitiv, eficient, a unui stil de munc independent; Formarea deprinderilor practice utile; Asigurarea unui feed-back permanent, profesorul avnd posibilitatea de a reproiecta activitatea n funcie de secvena anterioar; Faciliti de prelucrare rapid a datelor, de efectuare a calculelor, de afiare a rezultatelor; Dezvolt gndirea astfel nct pornind de la o modalitate general de rezolvare a unei probleme, studentul i gsete singur rspunsul pentru o problem concret; Asigur pregtirea studenilor pentru o societate bazat pe conceptul de educaie permanent (educaia de-a lungul ntregii viei); 547

 Determin o atitudine pozitiv a studenilor fa de disciplina de nvmnt la care este utilizat calculatorul i fa de valorile morale, culturale i spirituale ale societii; Ajut studenii cu deficiene s se integreze n societate i n procesul educaional. De asemenea calculatorul este extrem de util, deoarece simuleaz procese i fenomene complexe pe care nici un alt mijloc didactic nu le poate pune att de bine n eviden. Astfel, prin intermediul lui se ofer studenilor modelri, justificri i ilustrri ale conceptelor abstracte, ilustrri ale proceselor i fenomenelor neobservabile sau greu observabile din diferite motive. Permite realizarea unor experimente imposibil de realizat practic datorit lipsei materialului didactic, a dotrii necorespunztoare a laboratoarelor sau a pericolului la care erau expui studenii i profesorul. De asemenea, calculatorul este folosit pentru dezvoltarea capacitilor de comunicare, pentru colectarea, selectarea, sintetizarea i prezentarea informaiilor, pentru tehnoredactarea unor referate. Astfel studenii i dezvolt capacitatea de a aprecia critic acurateea i corectitudinea informaiilor dobndite din diverse surse. Calculatorul permite crearea de situaii problem cu valoare stimulativ i motivaional pentru studeni, sau cu statut de instrument de testare a nivelului cunotinelor i abilitilor nsuite de ctre studeni, mbuntirea procesului de conexiune invers, datorit posibilitilor de meninere sub control a activitii studenilor. Tehnica modern i nvmntul centrat pe nevoile, dorinele i posibilitile studentului impun desfurarea de activiti difereniate pe grupe de nivel. Studentul poate parcurge materialul avut la dispoziie n ritmul propriu i numai este nevoit s rein cantiti uriae de informaie. Trebuie s tie doar s gndeasc logic i s localizeze informaia de care are nevoie. Prezentarea materialelor pe module cu grade diferite de dificultate permite studentului s cunoasc exact la ce nivel este situat, s i recunoasc limitele i posibilitile. Astfel se dezvolt contiina de sine i dorina de a reui. Va cerceta, va nva motivat devenind 548

astfel o fiin capabil de autoinstruire. Utilizarea calculatorului i a Internetului permit o nelegere mai bun a materiei ntr-un timp mai scurt. Se reduce timpul necesar prelucrrii datelor experimentale n favoarea unor activiti de nvare care s implice procese cognitive de rang superior: elaborarea de ctre studeni a unor softuri i materiale didactice necesare studiului. Se dezvolt astfel creativitatea studenilor. Acetia nva s pun ntrebri, s cerceteze i s discute probleme tiinifice care le pot afecta propria via. Ei devin persoane responsabile capabile s se integreze social. n cazul evalurii, se elimin subiectivitatea uman, studentul fiind protejat de capriciile profesorului. Poate chiar s se autoevalueze singur. Sunt reduse starea de stres i emotivitatea studenilor. Exist posibilitatea evalurii simultane a mai multor studeni cu nivele de pregtire diferite, deoarece testele de evaluare sunt realizate de asemenea pe nivele de dificultate diferite. Se pot realiza recapitulri, sinteze, scheme atractive, animate care s duc la reinerea mai rapid a informaiei eseniale. Se pot realiza jocuri didactice n scopul aprofundrii cunotinelor i dezvoltrii abilitilor practice sau n scopul mbogirii acestora, proiecte, portofolii. Deci TIC n procesul de predare-nvare te ajut: facilitezi i s dinamizezi procesul de predare-nvare; s creti atractivitatea pentru materia predat; s implici mai mult studenii n cadrul leciilor; s treci de la leciile centrate pe transferul de cunoatere la cele s centrate pe formarea de competene i dezvoltarea de cunotine; eficientizezi administrarea proceselor educaionale. s n prezent se poate constata existena unei tendine de folosire a tehnologiilor informaiei i comunicaiilor n procesul de predare nvare, i nu doar ca simple instrumente de lucru. Majoritatea profesorilor din nvmntul universitar apeleaz la TIC folosind diferite prezentri Power Point, mesaje video on-line etc. Lumea contemporan reprezint o permanent i inedit provocare pentru educaie. Existena fiecrui individ n parte, ca i a ntregii societi n ansamblul ei, capt deci un ritm din ce n ce mai alert, 549

devine tot mai marcat de necesitatea cunoaterii rapide, complete i corecte a realitii nconjurtoare, pentru ca luarea deciziilor s fie fcut ferm, oportun i competent. Aceasta duce inevitabil la creterea volumului de informaii ce trebuie analizat, la necesitatea stocrii i prelucrrii acesteia, deci la necesitatea utilizrii calculatorului att n viaa de zi cu zi ct i n procesul instructiv-educativ. Se poate spune c integrarea resurselor TIC n educaie este benefic i duce la o cretere a performanelor, cu condiia ca studenii s posede cunotine de utilizare a calculatorului. Profesorii ar trebui s posede, pe lng cunotinele teoretice i practice aferente disciplinei studiate, i abilitai de utilizare a TIC. Deci concentrarea pe utilizarea tehnologiilor informaiei i comunicaiilor de ctre profesori i de ctre cei care nva devine o prioritate.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE:

caiilor i Societii Informaionale Proiectul Economia bazat pe cunoatere, www.scribid.com [8]. 10. Kovacs S., Istenes A., Universul Internet, Editura Albastr, Cluj, 2000. 11. Noi tehnologii de e-learning, Conferina Naional de nvmnt Virtual, http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/informatica.htm, Universitatea din Bucureti, Software educaional, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2003 (ISBN 973-575-822-9) [9]. 12. Vlada M., E-Learning i software educaional, Noi tehnologii de e-learning, Conferina Naional de nvmnt Virtual, Software educaional, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2003.

1. Byerly, Greg and Brodie, Carolyn S., Information literacy skills models: defining the choices. In Learning and libraries in an information age: principles and practice. Ed. Barbara K. Stripling, Englewood: Littleton: Libraries Unlimited, p. 54-82. [3]. 2. C. Bouras, V. Triantafillou, T. Tsiatsos A framework for Intelligent Virtual Trening Environment: The Steps From Spcification To Design, Educational Technology & Society 5 (4) 2002 ISSN 14364522 [5]. 3. Carliner, S., An overview of online Learning (2nd edition). Amherst, MA: HRD Press, 2004. 4. Coverlic D., http://www.schooledu.swt.edu [2]. 5. http://depmath.ulbsibiu.ro [4]. 6. http://forum.portal.edu.ro/index.php?act=Attach&type=post& id=967144 [6]. 7. http://ro.wikipwdia.org [1]. 8. http://www.credis.ro/invatamant-distanta.html [7]. 9. J.J.Van Cuilenburg, O. Scholten, G.W. Noomen, tiina Comunicrii, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1998, Ministerul Comuni550 551

AVANTAJELE UTILIZRII TEHNOLOGIILOR INFORMAIONALE N PROCESUL DE PREDARE / NVARE A LIMBILOR STRINE Stela HRBU, lector superior univ., Cat. limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM An ideal Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) courseware remains not an alternative but a complementary tool in reinforcing classroom activities. Apart from relying on the ability of educators to create suitable CALL courseware, the effectiveness of CALL depends on the teachers readiness to adopt new attitudes and approaches toward language teaching. No doubt, computers make excellent teaching tools, especially in teaching languages in any aspect, be it vocabulary, grammar, composition, pronunciation, or other linguistic and pragmatic-communicative skills. And the major benefits offered by computer in enhancing language acquisition apparently outweigh its limitations. Trim ntr-o epoc a tehnologiilor avansate, nct aproape toate domeniile vieii noastre sunt marcate de tehnologiile informaionale (TI), de calculator i internet, aa cum acestea au devenit o parte indispensabil a societii informaionale moderne. Calculatorul se poziioneaz din ce n ce mai pregnant i n sistemul educaional. Acesta este folosit pentru diverse scopuri i n diferite moduri: ca mijloc didactic, ca un tutor inteligent n procesul de predare/nvare a limbilor strine, n grup sau individual, ca instrument de comunicare i instruire la distan (prin internet) etc. n prezent, remediile TI sunt frecvent folosite att n viaa curent, ct i n cea profesional i academic: e-learning, universiti virtuale, prezentri multimedia etc., nct procesul didactic, asistat de calculator joac un rol din ce n ce mai important. Prin urmare, va fi util, din punct de vedere pedagogic, prezena activ a noilor tehnologii n sala de studii, deoarece utilizarea tehnologiilor digitale pe parcursul orelor, sporesc motivaia studenilor pentru nvare, implicnd astfel o atenie mai mare a acestora ctre obiectivele leciei. La rndul su stu552

denii, fiind exponeni ai generaiei moderne, n cultura crora este deja nrdcinat practica calculatorului i a navigrii n reea, au dispus ca procesul didactic, mediat de tehnologiile digitale, s devin i mai accesibil. n acest sens, actul nvrii nu mai este considerat n totalitate efectul muncii profesorului, ci rodul interaciunii dintre student, calculator i profesor. Utilizarea calculatorului n procesul de predare a limbii strine are rdcini anglo-saxone, sau mai curnd nord-americane. Acum, computerul este folosit pe larg n toate rile globului i n exclusivitate la toate nivelele de instruire (de la ciclul primar pn la cel universitar). Un rol esenial pentru mbuntirea/optimizarea procesului de predare/ nvare, asistat de calculator, l joac dezvoltarea rapid a internetului, care, fiind un sistem de reele la nivel mondial, a devenit ntr-un timp foarte scurt, cel mai important mijloc de comunicare, i cea mai mare surs de informaii. Considernd calculatorul un instrument didactic, vom remarca, pentru nceput, mai multe modaliti de apariie a acestuia, n demersul instructiv-educativ: utilizarea calculatorului pentru tehnoredactarea computerizat a documentelor; utilizarea acestuia ca mijloc de predare n cadrul leciilor de comunicare de noi cunotine, de recapitulare n care calculatorul poate reprezenta suport al unei sinteze, imagini, figuri ce pot fi proiectate n scopul transmiterii de cunotine; realizarea unor bnci de date, adic stocarea de informaii, modalitate care s permit ulterior regsirea informaiilor dup anumite criterii etc. Experii din domeniul nvrii limbilor strine asistat de calculator (CALL - Computer Assisted Language Learning), explic noiunea de computer ca instrument didactic prin funciile pe care le deine acesta n cadrul cursului de limb strin. Levy, de exemplu, descrie rolul i funcia de calculator n sala de studii dintr-o perspectiv mai larg: computer as teacher, computer as tool to develop task, to complement to class and to practice language ... [3. p. 124]. Funk a identificat cinci domenii de performan ale computerului, n predarea limbilor strine, i anume: de instruire, comunicare, cogniie, de informare i de tehnoredactare a textului [2, p.5]. 553

Studiul propus se axeaz asupra avantajelor pe care le aduce computerul n procesul de studiere a limbilor strine. n acest sens, o sintez a experienei profesionale proprii, precum i a celei redate de colegii de serviciu privind instruirea asistat de calculator, ne va permite s evideniem urmtoarele avantaje ale prezenei acestui instrument didactic la studierea limbilor strine (figura 1).

Figura 1. Avantajele instruirii asistate de computer Cursurile de limb strin, asistate de tehnologii informaionale, sunt deosebit de atractive pentru studeni. Materialele multimedia bine pregtite (corect structurate, dozate) sunt, de fapt, mult mai clare i mai eficiente dect cele tradiionale. Aici pot fi combinate texte, imagini, nregistrri sonore i secvene video. O imagine face ct o mie de cuvinte spune un proverb. n mod similar, o prezentare de calitate poate transmite foarte multe informaii utile unui auditoriu, ntr-un timp foarte scurt. Cel care dorete s utilizeze produse multimedia, n scopul nvrii i aprofundrii limbilor germane sau engleze, dispune n prezent de multiple resurse didactice precum CD-uri i materiale puse la dispoziie de website-uri accesate pe Internet. Editurile germane, cum ar fi Hueber, Klett, Langenscheidt, i alte care produc manuale tiprite 554

ca Tangram, Laguna, Delfin, Deutsch im Beruf etc., i cele anglofone: Cambridge University Press sau Oxford University Press, Market Leader, produc n paralel materiale suplimentare care pot fi utilizate n cursul de limba german sau englez (editate pe suport digital). Unele materiale electronice sunt oferite n set cu manualul, altele pot fi achiziionate separat. Acestea conin cri electronice, dicionare, enciclopedii virtuale, exerciii interactive la gramatic i vocabular, cntece, dialoguri, filme, sarcini la texte de lectur i exerciii, care dezvolt competene de comunicare scris i oral. Multe dintre aceste materiale (de tip multimedia) care fac apel la imagine, sunet, text, animaie, se axeaz pe reprezentri complexe, iar atenia studentului este atras de elementele de noutate, ingeniozitate i diversitate. ntregul proces de nvare a limbilor strine, asistat de calculator, poate fi realizat prin utilizarea diferitor sisteme, tipuri de programe i forme didactice, cum ar fi DRILL-and-practice-program, programe de tutor, programe de simulare i sisteme de hipertext i hiper-mediale. Amploarea resurselor didactice a Internetului ne face s apelm la acest mijloc de informare ori de cte ori avem nevoie. Acesta poate fi un mediu de nvare att online, ct i individual sau tutorial. La web-adrese precum: www.hueber.de, www.langenschedt.com, www.DeutschLern. Net, www.dw.de, www.oup.com, www.market-leader.net i altele, sunt postate frecvent teme interactive pe diferite subiecte. Baza de date cu materiale interactive tip multimedia, ghiduri interactive, simulri, jocuri educaionale, exerciii interactive la gramatica i vocabular, comprehensiunea scris i oral, sunt la dispoziia studenilor, cu acces liber (free-online), sau prin crearea unui cont personal gratuit. Acestea ofer posibilitatea studierii individuale sau acelei mediate de ctre profesor, care i inaugureaz o pagin proprie. Materialul didactic prezentat pe aceste web-pagini contribuie esenial la dezvoltarea celor patru deprinderi integratorii ale actului de comunicare: audiere, lectur, vorbire i scriere. Web-paginile instructiv-educative ofer permanent profesorilor (de german/englez, ca limb strin) noi materiale i foi de lucru pentru descrcare, destinate cursurilor. Site-urile i sistemele de gestiune a cursurilor cum ar fi: www.DeutschLern.Net, www.goethe.de, www.vle. 555

ase.md dispun de multe faciliti importante ale unui mediu virtual de instruire. Profesorii pot lansa propriul domeniu didactic ( de monitorizare), care poate fi accesat, prin sisteme de autorizare, de ctre studeni. Un sistem intern de mesaje ofer posibiliti extinse de comunicare permanent (n regim online) cu studenii, prin iniierea de dialoguri. Prin funciile statistice de care dispun platformele de instruire, profesorul are posibilitatea de a monitoriza oricnd progresele realizate de studeni. Aici pot fi utilizate materialele publicate att de autorii site-lui, ct i cele generate de profesor, n funcie de nivelul de cunotine al grupei instruite. n plus, se pot concepe i pune la dispoziia studenilor sarcini de lucru adecvate temei abordate la orele de limb strin. Aceste sisteme de gestiune a procesului de instruire permite profesorilor posibilitatea de a insera, n platforma de instruire (anexat la web-site), propriile cursuri, exerciii, teste i autoevaluri, optimizate i destinate pentru: nvare sincron, profesorul gestioneaz n ntregime lecia: creeaz, coordoneaz i monitorizeaz mediul educaional; nvmnt asincron - studiul n ritmul personal al studentului, proiecte de colaborare (nvmnt la distan). Instruirea asistat de calculator nseamn nu doar interaciune i suport, dar i evaluare obiectiv. n cazul evalurii se elimin subiectivitatea uman. n acest caz, studentul are posibilitatea s se autoevalueze. Din motivul aprecierii cunotinelor de ctre sistem (excluderea factorului uman), devin reduse starea de stres i emotivitatea persoanei evaluate. n aceste condiii, profesorul are posibilitatea s evalueze simultan mai muli studeni, cu nivele diferite de pregtire, deoarece testele de evaluare sunt difereniate dup grade variate de dificultate (ex. nivelele A1, B1, etc., conform Cadrului european comun de referin pentru limbi [1, p.27]). Prin implementarea sistemelor de gestiune a cursurilor (platformelor de instruire), instruirea este orientat ctre fiecare student n parte, permindu-i acestuia s-i aleag coninutul i metodele corespunztoare, intereselor, necesitilor i abilitilor proprii. De asemenea nu merit neglijat i faptul c toi studenii au acces la aceleai resurse educaionale i la coninutul cursului. Fiecare student poate astfel s 556

nvee n ritm propriu, prin accelerare sau ncetinire, iar schimbul reciproc de informaii att ntre studeni, precum i ntre profesor i fiecare dintre studeni, asigur o interaciune mai eficient. Prin aplicarea unei varieti de metode de predare, crete i gradul de reinere a informaiei. Astfel, dac studentul nva mai bine prin citire, acesta se va orienta spre lecturarea textelor de pe web-site; cel cu o inteligen auditiv mai dezvoltat va cuta secvene audio; iar cei cu memorie vizual vor selecta o sarcin n form de video cu suport grafic. Instruirea asistat de calculator are la baz modelul cognitivist al nvrii. Spre deosebire de modelul tradiional care vizeaz memorarea, organizarea cunotinelor n memorie i utilizarea acestora, teoriile nvrii bazate pe utilizarea tehnologiilor informaionale propun un model n care achiziia cunotinelor este nlocuit prin transmiterea de cunotine, care devine un act didactic ce ajut la construirea piramidal a acestora (abiliti, deprinderi, informaii).

Concluzii
Metodologia predrii limbilor strine ne ofer o multitudine de metode, mijloace, procedee i strategii instructive-educative care, aplicate cu succes, pot aduce satisfacii i rezultate pozitive participanilor la actul de studiu. Nu este corect viziunea critic, conform creia apariia i implementarea tehnologiilor informaionale n cursul de limb strin vor conduce la dispariia crilor sau a tablei din slile de studii. Tehnologiile informaionale sunt propuse suplimentar metodelor tradiionale de studiu. Acestea reprezint abordri cu o baz conceptual nou, oferind noi puncte de vedere asupra unei anumite probleme sau direcii de studiu. Astfel, pentru realizarea unui nvmnt de calitate, i pentru obinerea celor mai bune rezultate, va fi necesar folosirea combinat att a metodelor clasice de predare, nvare, evaluare, ct i a metodelor moderne.

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BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Cadrul european comun de referin pentru limbi: nvare, predare, evaluare / Comitetul Director pentru Educaie Studierea limbilor i cetenia european, trad. Din lb. fr. De Gh. Moldovanu. Ch.: S.n., 2003. 2. Funk, H: Lehrwerke und andere Medien zur Integration rechnergeschtzter Verfahren in den Unterrichtsalltag in : Fremdsprache Deutsch, Heft 21: 5-13, Goethe Institut, Mnchen und Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 1999. 3. Levy, M., Computer Assisted Language Learning, Context and Conceptualization, Oxford University Press, New York, 1997. 4. Middendorff, Elke , Computernutzung und Neue Medien im Studium. Ergebnisse der 16. Sozialerhebung des Deutschen Studentenwerken (DSW) durchgefhrt von HIS Hochschul-Informations-System. Hrsg. vom Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung. Bonn: BMBF PUBLIK, 2002.

DEVELOPING DIGITAL COMPETENCES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION THROUGH WEBQUESTS Daniela MUNCA-AFTENEV, PhD, Academia de Studii Economice a Moldovei In 2006 the European Parliament and the European Council published a recommendation on eight key competences for life long learning [1] which represent a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for personal fulfilment and development, social inclusion, active citizenship and employment. In addition to being essential elements in a knowledge society guaranteing more flexibility in the labour force and allowing it to adapt more quickly to constant changes in an increasingly interconnected world, these skills are also major factors in innovation, productivity and competitiveness, thus contributing to the motivation and satisfaction of workers and the quality of work [1, p.12]. Involving the confident and critical use of information, digital skills refer to basic skills in ICT: the use of computers to retrieve, access, store, produce, present and exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the Internet. They require a sound understanding and knowledge of the nature, role and opportunities of IST in everyday contexts: in personal and social life as well as at work, such as main computer applications (word processing, spreadsheets, databases, information storage and management) and an understanding of the opportunities and potential risks of the Internet and communication via electronic media (e-mail, network tools) for work, leisure, information sharing and collaborative networking, learning and research [1, p.16]. The European Commission refers to digital competence as a very broad concept, including much more than basic skills in the use of ICT. It relates to other similar concepts such as digital literacy, eSkills and Media literacy. It encompasses the basic ICT user skills included under the term eSkills, as well as the digital part of Media Literacy. In addition to the individuals competences (basic use/operational skills, 559

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active application to aspects of life (or advanced use) and personal attitudes), the concept also includes environmental factors which relate to the availability of ICT and therefore access to it and may include computers, the Internet, smart phones, tablet PCs and other ICT devices allowing access to the Internet [2]. One of the digital projects I developped for my second year banking and finance students at the Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova was a WebQuest requiring them to explore various online sites which publish business news in Moldova, select five which they considered to be the most important for our country, summarize them and create a digital newspaper with an original name. To make the research more organised, I used Zunal, a web-based software for creating WebQuests in a short time without writing any HTML codes. The platform allowed me to create a step by step guide which included a detailed introduction, task description, resources available for my students, details regarding the evaluation and other useful information, which I shared with them, in one link, using the university group email. Both the labor market and educational approaches to teaching college students in Moldova have undergone radical changes which have particular implications for language teaching and learning. With Moldova signing onto the Bologna Process in 2005, along with four more countries: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and Ukraine, bringing the total number of signatories to 45, the students mobility, the globalisation of labour markets and of communications and the emergence of new communication technologies lead to the need to cope with new approaches to teaching at the university level, rapidly transforming higher education. When they access the labour market, Moldovan students will need to use foreign languages to communicate effectively in authentic academic and professional situations, to act strategically to adapt to new communicative situations, and to become multiliterate to manage in a new multicultural socioeconomic European context. Teaching a foreign language should take into consideration three important issues: (i) empowering students with the linguistic knowledge and skills that will enable them to use languages to 560

communicate effectively with professionals from various domains; (ii) preparing students for lifelong and autonomous learning, so that they can cope in a world where communicative situations are constantly changing; (iii) helping students become multiliterate, and train them in the active and strategic processes of meaning construction that they will need in order to understand and produce the high variety of texts of society today (including electronic texts). Integrating WebQuests in teaching business English to banking and finances students at the Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova offered me several opportunities for an effective aproach to the development of digital skills as an essential part of the teaching/ learning foreign languages process. WebQuests have proven effective in meeting all the three targets of teaching a foreign language in the 21st century: equipping students with multilinguistic skills, enhancing student autnomy and encouraging strategic thinking. Created by Bernie Dodge at San Diego State University in February 1995, a WebQuest is defined as an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that learners interact with comes from resources on the Internet [2]. Philip Benz describes a webquest as a constructivist approach to learning when students not only collate and organize information they have found on the web, but also orient their activities towards a specific goal they have been given, often associated with one or more roles modeled on adult professions.[3] A Webquest can be created in many ways: using a Wiki, a blog, Google Sites, or programming directly with HTML. For university professors not used to handling Web 2.0 tools, using free online software like Zunal would be much more time efficient and user friendly. This tool allows a Webquest to be created with an unlimited number of pages and an attractive design from 100 available templates. The interactivity and multimedia aspects are provided by the files and videos which you can add from Youtube and GoogleVideos, Google maps and games. Zunal makes it possible to create a Webquest as a test and get a preview before its publication. The creator of a Zunal WebQuest can manage the privacy of its contents, hiding or showing the different pages it contains. 561

I have been using various web tools to engance my studentsdigital skills, WebQuests being some of the most effective ones. When it comes to second/foreign language instruction they distinguish from other Internet-based research tools by three major characteristics. First, they emphasize higher-order thinking (such as analysis, creativity or criticism) which are important to develop linguistic skills. Students thinking abilities and language development are of equal value and influence upon the depth of their communication, which is why language teachers should develop both competencies if students potentials are to be fulfilled. In adition to this, language abilities and thinking competencies shape each other [4]. Second, the teacher preselects the sources, emphasizing information processing and use rather than information gathering. Finally, most WebQuests are groupwork with the task frequently being split into roles, features which are crucial in language learning. According to Prawat, exposure to a rich array of collaborative problem-solving activities in the classrooms would help students become problem solvers as adults. For this to happen in the classrooms, the traditional telling-listening relationship between teacher and student should be replaced by one that is more complex and interactive [5, p.357]. Within the key competences framework developped by the European Council, WebQuests could function as effective teaching tools, as they develop several digital skills included in the basic recommendations: they require students to: - search, collect and process information and use it in a critical and systematic way; - produce, present and understand complex information; - access, search and use internet-based services; - have a critical and reflective attitude towards available information and a responsible use of the interactive media; - develop an interest in engaging in communities and networks for cultural, social and/or professional purposes. As a rule, a typical WebQuest has six essential parts, each developping a specific linguistic, IT and other valuable skills: 562

introduction, task, process, resources, evaluation, and conclusion. The introduction provides background information and gives meaning to the task. The introduction should have a motivational component to excite the students. Thus, language learning becomes a meangingful process, focusing students attention to the final product of the activity, rather than to the grammatical, lexical or morphological aspect of language instruction so overly used in traditional teaching. The most important part of the WebQuest is the task, which refers to the formal description of what the students will produce in the end. In addition to being meaningful, the task should appeal to studntsinterests, enhance creativity and challenge their critical thinking. Language teachers should invest a considerable amount of effort in creating the task in order to allign it to the instructional objectives established by the curriculum. The task is followed by process, which establishes the steps the students should take to accomplish the task followed by a list of resources the students should use. The focus here should be on processing information rather than just locating it. Off-line resources like visiting lecturers, interviewing experts and field trips could succesfully complement the digital component of the task. The last two steps of the method include a well o rganised, clear and concise evaluation and conclusion, which is essential for final reflection through group discussion and student feedback [3]. In addition to deveopping digital skills, as studens work with online resources, WebQuests can also work on studentslinguistic skills. Processing the texts, learning new vocabulary, writing reflective papers and sharing feedback on peer work motivate students to learn a new language from authentic resources, a language which is alive, in action, and relevant to the world outside the classroom. WebQuets do not simply extend students thinking to the higher levels of Blooms taxonomy, i.e analysis, synthesis and evaluation and support critical thinking and problem solving through authentic assessment. They are valuable language teaching tools as they foster cooperative learning through collaborative activities with a group project, encourage independent thinking and motivate students to learn language structures 563

actively used in professional networks, reputable publications and real world situations, thus bridging the gap between school and real world experiences. One of the central concepts of to the Council of Europes thinking about language teaching and learning since 1979 has been learner autonomy [6]. In his Autonomy and foreign language learning Henri Holec defined learner autonomy as the ability to take charge of ones own learning, noting that this ability is not inborn but must be acquired either by natural means or (as most often happens) by formal learning, i.e. in a systematic, deliberate way, and pointing out that To take charge of ones learning is to have [] the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning [7, p.3]. Holecs report was a contribution to the Council of Europes work in adult education, which sought to promote the learners freedom by developing those abilities which will enable him to act more responsibly in running the affairs of the society in which he lives [7, p.1]. Learner autonomy, in other words, belongs together with the idea that one of the functions of (adult) education is to equip learners to play an active role in participatory democracy. That is why it remains central to the Council of Europes educational concerns [1]. When it comes to language learning, the Principles and Guidelines established by Council of Europe in 2000/2004, reflects the Council of Europes concern with the development of the language learner, which by implication includes the development of learning skills, and the development of the capacity for independent language learning; the ELP, in other words, is a tool to promote learner autonomy. The Principles and Guidelines insist that the learners exercise their ownership by planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning. In this, self-assessment plays a central role: the ongoing, formative self-assessment that is supported by the can do checklists attached to the language biography, and the periodic, summative selfassessment of the language passport, which is related to the so-called self-assessment grid in the CEF [6, p 2627]. WebQuests are online activities which aim at developing learners autonomy and multiliteracies. They seek to help students develop skills 564

for lifelong learning, which are of paramount importance in teaching languages for specific purposes in Moldova, due to factors deriving both from the teaching and learning context, such as the limited time devoted to these courses, timetable constraints that sometimes hinder class attendance and high heterogeneity in learning styles and proficiency levels. WebQuests give learners the control of their own learning and help university professors to adopt a learner-centered approach that pays attention to aspects such as learning styles, proficiency levels and learning goals and needs, motivation, self-monitoring and selfassessment. By encouraging students to reflect ontheir own learning, suggesting a variety of strategies and making them aware of which ones they are using for a particular task and why, WebQuests encourage learner autonomy and enhance independent thinking. Acording to Bhatia the ultimate goal of teaching languages for a specific purpose is to contribute to the development of students as competent professionals, as a result the discursive competence must not be viewed entirely on its own, but essentially embedded in professional practice [8]. Language learning activities should, therefore, be presented in context, which involves a task-oriented approach to language teaching and learning. Learning in real contexts, with authentic and purposeful tasks, which are related to the students current academic needs or to their future professional needs become essential tasks in teaching a foreign language. Recent research into second-language acquisition has moved away from traditional, behaviourist theories to focus on the importance of input and interaction in the target language, the idea being that interaction and immersion simulate the environment in which native languages are learnt. Authentic contexts for communication are key factors in language learning. Chapelle, for example, points out that its important that learners have an audience for the linguistic output they produce so that they attempt to use the language to construct meanings for communication rather than solely for practice. She also stresses the importance of creating situations in which the learner is expected to attempt to use target language forms that may stretch his or her competence [9]. WebQuests are organised around a set of authentic 565

tasks which require students to interact with language and through language in a similar way as in real life. Thus, they motivate students to develop competencies that will be necessary to complete the task, and to consider how they would need to use language in real communication. Webquests support most of the eignt requisite conditions for successful language learning defined by Egbert et al in 1999 [10]. The last stage of the WebQuest, the evaluation, requires both teachers and students to comment on each others work, suggest improvements and edit the final project to fit the requirements established in the task section, which meets the first condition for succesful langauge learning, which states that learners need to have opportunities to interact and to negotiate meaning [11]. As they require students to work with authentic resources posted online, WebQuests also meet the second and third conditions defined by Egbert et al, according to which learners need to interact in the target language with an authentic audience while involved in authentic tasks. As part of the final stage, students need to submit a project which would be original and individual, thus respecting the fifth condition, which suggests that language learners should be exposed to and encouraged to produce varied and creative language. WebQuests allow students to monitor and plan their own work, which can be accomplished online, while working independently at home or in the library for example, and thus giving them sufficient time and feedback while working in an atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec explained that classroom activities that employ collaborative problem solving seem to have the potential for teaching students how to deal with complex tasks they would encounter in real, adult life outside the classroom [12]. WebQuests can develop students digital skills and enhance language learning according to the recommendations established by European Council by facilitating many of the key characteristics of second language acquisition, such as authentic intput/output, social interaction, creativity and learner autonomy. This qualifies them as effective Web 2.0 applications which can open up the classroom walls, and provide a broader range of opportunities for authentic and varied language interaction in a digital era. 566

RefeRences

1. Official Journal of the European Union, L 394/10. (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. 2. European Commission, Digital Agenda, Brussels, 31 May 2011. 3. Dodge, B. (1995). Some Thoughts About Webquests. http:// edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec596/about_webquests.html 4. Benz, P. (2001). Webquests, a Constructivist Approach. http:// www.ardecol.ac-grenoble.fr/english/tice/enwebquests.htm 5. Prawat, R. S. (1992). Teachers beliefs about teaching and learning: A constructivist perspective. American Journal of Education, 100, 354-395. 6. Council of Europe, 2000/2004: European Language Portfolio (ELP): Principles and Guidelines. With added explanatory notes. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. (DGIV/EDU/LANG (2000) 33 rev.1) 7. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. (First published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe) 8. Bhatia, V.J. (2001). Integrating discursive competence, disciplinary culture, and professional practice in LSP. Plenary Lecture at the XI Congreso Hispano-Luso de Lenguas con Fines Especficos. University Jaume I, Castelln, July, 2001. 9. Chapelle, C. (1998). Multimedia CALL: Lessons to be learned from research on instructed SLA. Language Learning & Technology. 2(1), 21-39. 10. Egbert, J., C. Chao, and E. Hanson-Smith. (1999). Computerenhanced language learning environments: An overview. In CALL Environments: Research, Practice, and Ccritical Iissues, ed. J. Egbert and E. Hanson-Smith, 113. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. 11. WebQuests Explanation. Concept to Classroom Workshop: Webquests. Educational Broadcasting Corporation. (2004). Retrieved 13 March 2012. 12. Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1990). Social skills for successful group work. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 29-33. 567

PREDAREA LIMBI ITALIENE I A LIMBII FRANCEZE STUDENILOR TEOLOGI Irina-Roxana FLOREA, Asist.univ., Departamentul de Limbi Moderne pentru faculti nefilologice, Universitatea Ovidius Constana, Cristina Tama, Conf.Univ. Dr. Departamentul de Limbi Moderne pentru faculti nefilologice, Universitatea Ovidius Constana
ABSTRACT

The current paper is for students as well as theologic professionals with italian and french linguistic knowledge, from beginners to intermediate, planning to acquire the basic of the two languages, with a special use for religion and theologie. The approach starts from a general, cultural perspective, distinguishing spoken-coloquial italian and french language, that are very different than their specific uses especially when vehiculated in distinct areas, such as the otodoxism and the catholicism world. Rspndirea limbii italiene pe lng un public strin este de obicei legat, n percepia cercettorilor, precum i n statisticile oficiale, marii culturi a Evului Mediu i a Renaterii, melodramei, artei aplicate moderne.Un rol mereu activ n difuzarea limbii l-au avut i societile italiene, care au creat sedii i filiale un pic peste tot prin lume, adesea dincolo de bazinul lor cultural al granielor lor. Atenia tot mai crescut asupra limbii italiene ca limb strin, actualizat n colile romneti, ca i limb modern, este astzi o manifestare a dezvoltrii sistemului educaional romn spre limbile de circulaie internaional, pe lng francez i englez. Aceast nou orientare permite accesul liber nu doar profesionitilor culturii ctre un bel paese cum este Italia, asemntoare nou ca limb i istorie. n ceea ce privete limba francez, Romnia fiind o ar francofon, studiul acesteia a predominat n colile noastre, la nceputuri mpreun cu limba rus i mai apoi, n timpurile moderne, pe lng limba engle568

z. Exist o afinitate particular pentru limba francez a romnilor de toate vrstele, generaiile mai mari prefernd-o limbii engleze. Dar nici generaia tnr, n ciuda bombardamentului mediatic i informaional n limba englez, nu neglijeaz studiul acestei limbi. Obiectivul principal n predarea celor dou limbi moderne studenilor teologi provenind, n mare parte din seminarii teologice n care studiul limbilor strine se limita doar la una dintre cele dou, este acela de a le introduce o nou limb este cazul limbii italiene, sau de a aprofunda o limba deja studiat, orientnd nsuirea termenilor teologici de specialitate. Studiul celor dou limbi se face plecnd de la perspectiva general introdus de istoria-cultura francez i de cea italian, foarte bogate n evenimente i semnificaii, deja cunoscute studenilor. Finalitatea nu este aceea de a sufoca studentul centrnd din nou discursul predrii asupra capacitii de achiziie a noi termeni, structuri gramaticale sau de a nva pe de rost liste interminabile de cuvinte. Se urmrete modul n care studenii pot combina n mod fericit, cunotinele lor anterioare de latin, greac, francez, englez (mai puin) pentru a-i crea o baz lexical de nceput, fr a face alt efort dect cel de atenie. Motivaia redactrii acestui material este dat de scarsitatea de texte destinate predrii limbii franceze i a limbii italiene studenilor strini, mai ales pe domenii de specialitate. Dac pentru nivelul de studiu elementar aceast caren poate fi considerat relativ, pentru nivelul avansat aceasta este total. Atenia cercettorilor n metodologia predrii este ntr-adevr orientat spre nivelul iniial pn la cel mediu. Dac situaia limbii franceze, dup cum s-a vzut deja, este net diferit, datorit unor alegeri operate anterior de sitemul educaional, care au permis rspndirea i vehicularea acesteia, limba italian este, printre limbile majoritar europene, singura care nu posed nc instrumentele didactice adecvate noilor orientri ale metodologiei predrii ei ca limb strin. Lipsesc manuale bazate pe frecvena lexicului i realizate pe un criteriu de continuitate metodologic de la faza iniial pn la cea avansat. 569

Lipsesc cu desvrire teste specifice pentru laboratoare lingvistice, care sunt astzi recunoscute a fi suporturi de nenlocuit pentru achziia automatismului aptitudinilor lingvistice. n suporturile deja existente nu este prezent nicio trimitere la tipologia frecvenei erorii de limb, neexistnd aplicaii practice de lingvistic contrastiv etc. Cea mai mare parte a textelor nu in cont de un factor de importan esenial, adic marea frecven a unui discurs orientat ctre studenii de italian de coal medie i de liceu (pentru care trebuie perfecionate capacitile de exprimare n italiana standard i colocvial) i un alt tip de discurs fiind cel orientat studenilor teologi, care se confrunt cu numeroase dificulti de nvare a unei limbi noi, care va fi folosit cu scopuri precise. n ceea ce privete aspectul lexical al predrii, au fost reinute prezente aceste exigene ale studenilor romni care nva limba italian, pentru care se ncearc s se situeze discursul n cele 3000 de cuvinte cel mai uzate, descoperite prin analiza acurat a zeci de lucrri de cercetare asupra frecvenei lexicului n limbile moderne. i doar mai apoi se trece la nsuirea i perfecionarea limbajului de specialitate, preciznd ns ca terminologia se va limita tot la recurena termenilor religioi n limbile francez i italian, care au un corespondent imediat, mai mult sau mai putin fidel (dat fiind c sunt vehiculate ntr-un spaiu teologic ortodox i spaiu teologic catolic). Muli dintre termeni, chiar i recureni, fidelitatea traducerii sau a sinonimiei lor nu este tot timpul pe deplin respectat, fiecare dintre termeni cptnd importana cuvenit doar n utilizarea sa de ctre credinciosul din spaiul cruia a aprut. Limba francez i limba italian pentru teologi este un curs gndit i vzut ca un curs practic elementar, cu uz specific, pentru un scop precis. Se urmrete nu doar achiziia unui vocabular, a unor structuri, moduri de exprimare, discursuri, ci, mai ales, competena comunicativ oral i scris n domeniul religiei i al teologiei. Obiectivul principal este acela de a obinui studentul cu o nou metod de nvare a unei limbi strine, bazndu-se pe asocieri i apelul frecvent la limbi deja asimilate, n permanen integrnd i adaptnd noile coninuturi intereselor lor i cmpului lor profesional. 570

Din punct de vedere comunicativ, se vizeaz, totodat, achiziia, dar i recunoaterea structurilor i tematicilor predate prin intermediul unor conversaii tip - pe argumente religioase, teste specifice (de istorie a religiilor, coninuturi i pasaje biblice, etc), mai puin cu caracter general i uz cotidian, ct aducnd atingere argumentelor legate cmpului literaturii, filosofiei, istoriei i teologiei. Lingvistic vorbind, accentul este pus pe capacitatea studentului de a putea construi n timp realtiv scurt (durata de studiu de 2 ani a limbii strine la facultile de teologie) exemple/enunuri, legnd uniti gramaticale recent achiziionate cu altele anterior introduse i deja perfecionate. Orice demers de predare a limbii franceze i a limbii italiene cu uz specific teologic trebuie s plece de la dou tipuri de interogative: 1. Exist caracteristici proprii limbii strine a lui Dumnezeu? Adica exist o micro-limb a catolicismului i a cretinismului, n fine a religiei, adic o varietate de italian sau de francez care s se caracterizeze n plan formal i s se disting prin aceasta de limba folosit n mod cotidian? 2. Ce probleme pot ntlni persoanele care au atins deja o stpnire discret a limbii italiene i a limbii franceze, n urma unui curs de studiu specific pentru teologi, dac s-ar confrunta cu situaii concrete ale vieii reale, n posibilele lor parcursuri n Italia sau n Frana? Rspunsul la cea dinti ntrebare este unul pozitiv. Limba italian i limba francez, folosite n textele specifice religiei catolice i celei cretine, se pot identifica cu uurin. Bineneles c fiecare gen are caracteristici propri: traducerile italiene ale crilor Vechiului Testament prezint un lexic adesea arcaic, conservnd o morfosintax complex, de origine greco-latin, destul de dificil de neles i pentru un nativ de cultur medie-inferioar; aceast complexitate n structurarea perioadei atinge puncte culminante n textele de gen, extrem de filosofice cum ar fi, Scrisorile lui Pavel sau textele Parinilor Bisericii. Pe de alt parte, evangheliile au o limb popular, extrem de simpl n planul structurrii frazei sau a perioadei: evenimentele sunt narate cu foarte mare claritate, urmnd ordinea n care s-au ntmplat, 571

iar figurile retorice, mai ales similitudinile de orice tip, sunt luate din lumea concret, din experiena cotidian a acelora care ascultau vorbele primilor predicatori cretini. Bineneles sunt texte mai moderne, rugciuni mai comune. Mai exist un aspect particular al limbii italiene i al limbii franceze care pot prezenta interes pentru cine se mic n lumea religioas cretin: acela al terminologiei arhitectonice i artistice a casei lui Dumnezeu, a bisericilor, ca loc destinat liturghiei, ct i una dintre capodoperele istoriei artei. i tocmai sub acest aspect ncepe studiul limbii italiene i al limbii franceze pentru studenii teologi romni, alctuind astfel cadrul general de cultur i civilizaie, care s permit mai apoi nenumrate trimiteri i ntoarceri, integrnd fiecare cunotin nou lingvistic, ntr-un ntreg din care este dificil s se desprind vreun fragment. Cea de a doua ntrebare era mai insidioas. Plecnd de la premisa c destinatarul cursului de limb italian i limb francez pentru teologi este o persoan care a ajuns, dup un parcurs personal de via i de studiu, la o discret stpnire a limbii strine actuale, de ce are nevoie pentru a avea acces la o limb att de diferit ca cea a textelor religiei? ntre limba romn i limba italian exist numeroase similitudini i multe distincii, amndou aparinnd unor arii lingvistice diverse, fiecare dintre ele dezvoltndu-se n alte condiii istorice. Presiunea sitemului limbii materne opereaz asupra vorbitorului romn, care dorete s se exprime oral i n scris n limba strin, mult confuzii, erori, ezitri. Similitudinile neltoare mai ales ntre limba romn i limba italian, determin studentul romn s foloseasc greit cuvintele i structurile, ajungnd la un fel de romnizare a limbii strine. Exemple de genul furculition sunt deja bine cunoscute. Chiar i studenii, elevii i toti cei care pot citi cu uurin literatur modern sau presa scris n limbile studiate, francez i italian, se confrunt deseori cu dificulti n momentul n care trebuie s se exprime n mod liber i corect n aceast limb. n consecin este necesar nceperea procesului de predare cu o baz de noiuni fonetice, de accent i de punctuaie, pentru a clarifica 572

confuzii deja existente i pentru a evita greeli ulterioare. Aceast baz fonetic nu este niciodat pur teoretic, dar are scopul de a preda pentru a fi nvate o serie de cuvinte de baz, de uz frecvent n limba italian i n limba francez, uneori foarte similare cu cele din limba romn, cu trimitere constant la posibilele erori i la confuziile cel mai des ntlnite. Aceasta este metoda de studiu de nceput, mai ales cnd limba strin se ncepe de la zero, n momentul n care exist noiuni anterioare asimilate la un nivel relativ mediu, se pornete de la verificarea noiunilor asimilate anterior, trecnd n revist unitile gramaticale i structurile cele mai importante, pentru a introduce altele noi i, totodat a prezenta lexicul de specialitate. Instrumentul didactic este exemplul. Este mai util s dovedeti prin exemplu, dect s explici, chiar i foarte bine, o singur dat. Asimilarea noilor structuri ar trebui s se realizeze prin aplicarea asupra unui text logic i nu prin memorarea mecanic a tuturor formelor mpreun. Prin urmare, parcursul didactic nu include exerciii de transpunere ntrun timp determinat verbe izolate sau fraze luate dintr-un context tip: La madre buona/la mere est bonne, La chiesa bella/leglise est belle, Imparo litaliano/jetudie le franais. Cea mai bun unitate structural de folosit ca i exemplu n scopul nvrii i a exercitrii este accea reprezentat de o situaie real n derularea sa. n ceea ce privete terminologia gramatical (cea tradiional i cea modern), ntr-o prim faz, s-a evitat a fi folosit. Pentru nivelul mediu i avansat limitrile nu sunt att de riguroase. Pe de alt parte, termenul este util pentru a sugera, a ajuta memoria. Trebuie inut cont i de faptul c un anume tip de studeni, adic cei care au studiat alte limbi, vor s regseasc n limba italian i n limba francez terminologia deja cunoscut, punnd astfel profesorul n situaia de a le furniza terminologia gramatical, care conduce la schemele gramaticii greco-latine. Iat de ce trimiterea frecvent la alte limbi studiate i la toate asocierile, comparaiile, similitudinile posibile, poate facilita studentului o nvare mai rapid i fr eforturi. Astfel, gramatica este dedus direct din uz, adic de la exemplu. 573

Pentru a nu fi antitradiionaliti, nu nseamn, de fapt, a te rupe cu tradiia, s renegi de tot experiena sa, i s iei ce este mai bun i s te adaptezi la noile exigene i la noile descoperiri tinifice. i cum nu toi studenii au acelai nivel de studiu, fie de nceptor, fals nceptor sau avansat, apar multe situaii n care anumii studeni au impresia c pierd timp la curs, n timp ce alii de abia vd aezndu-se cunotinele de baz. Cu aceste idei de fond a fost gndit i conceput aceast lucrare, iar cursul de limba italian i de limba franceza pentru teologi este pentru un student care dorete s-i mbunteasc capacitatea de lectur a textelor religioase, un student care cunoate adesea latina, greaca sau cel puin o limb de circulaie internaional, prin urmare avnd acces la o parte din coninuturile vehiculate n textele religioase, ceea ce i poate permite s-i orienteze atenia asupra aspectelor lingvistice.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

OPORTUNITI METODOLOGICE DE EFICIENTIZARE A PREDRII LIMBII ENGLEZE BONDARENCO Angela, lector Universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM CHIoSEA Angela, lector Superior Universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM DIACONU Luminia, lector Universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

1. PAOLO E, BALBONI, PAOLO, TORRESAN, LItaliano di Dio, Guerra Edizioni, Perugia, Italia, 2003 2. KATERIN, KATERINOV, La lingua italiana per stranieri stranieri con le 3000 parole pi usate nellitaliano di oggi. Corso superiore, 3-a edizione, Guerra Edizioni, Perugia, Italia, 1976 3. ANTONELLA, BENUCCI, Universit per Stranieri di Siena, Curricolo di italiano per stranieri,Bonacci Editore, Roma, Italia, 1995 4. ANTONELLA, BENUCCI, Universit per Stranieri di Siena, La grammatica nellinsegnamento dellitaliano a stranieri, 2-a edizione, Bonacci Editore, Roma, Italia,1994

The paper presents language learning methods for those who teach Business English classes to university students. It also includes several strategies on how to improve their reading, writing, listening and especially communication skills, while offering advice on how to prepare them to manage in an ever-changing, interdependent, multicultural business environment. Un rol important pentru predarea cu succes a limbii engleze l au metodele active i interactive de instruire care au multiple valene formative ce contribuie la dezvoltarea gndirii critice, la dezvoltarea creativitii, implic activ studenii n nvare, punndu-i n situaia de a gndi critic, de a realiza conexiuni logice, de a produce idei i opinii proprii argumentate, de a le comunica i celorlali, de a sintetiza/ esenializa informaiile, se bazeaz pe nvarea independent i prin cooperare, studenii nva s respecte prerile colegilor. De menionat, n aceast ordine de idei, strategia didactic ce reprezint, conform Cadrului European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi, orice nlnuire organizat, orientat spre un scop i reglementat, a operaiilor alese de un individ, pentru ndeplinirea unei sarcini, stabilite de el nsui sau la care trebuie s fac fa, fiind considerate ca o punte de trecere ntre resur575

574

sele studentului (competenele sale) i ceea ce poate s fac cu acestea (activitile comunicative). Deci taxonomia strategiilor de nvare este destul de variat i deseori difer n terminologie n momentul definirii. Cu toate acestea, n opinia lui Wolf G. i Catsimali G. (1998), cei mai muli cercettori le clasific n trei categorii: 1. strategii metacognitive de direcionare a procesului de nvare. Cele mai recente cercetri din domeniul psihologiei cognitive asupra procesului metacogniiei au scos n eviden dou componente ale acestuia: cunotinele pe care le are subiectul asupra funcionrii sale cognitive i abilitile metacognitive ce asigur gestionarea activitii mentale, realizndu-se prin mecanisme i strategii specifice de planificare, control/monitorizare i reglare sau evaluarea procesului de nvare, aflate n strns legtur cu situaia i sarcina cognitiv. 2. strategii cognitive responsabile de manipularea informaiei care trebuie de studiat. Aceste strategii opereaz direct cu informaia primit, manipulnd-o n diferite moduri ce intensific nvarea. Strategiile cognitive ajut la dezvoltarea structurilor mnezice ale gndirii, ateniei, percepiei i ajut decodarea i nelegerea profund a informaiilor. 3. strategii social afective de verificare a emoiilor n cooperare cu alii, strategii responsabile de controlul emoiilor n momentul interacionrii cu o alt persoan, sau controlul propriilor emoii cu scopul de a ncuraja auto-motivarea i de a reduce anxietatea. Putem valorifica strategiile comunicative utiliznd metodele reale-active n contextul cognitiv i metagognitiv. n contextul cognitiv, metoda de comunicare i dobndire a valorilor socioumane (prelegerea magistral mbinat cu demonstraia informaiilor audiovizuale, prelegerea cu oponeni, prelegerea dialog/discuie, prelegerea n echip) ce include i metode interactive (conversaii euristice, discuii, metoda focus-group, brainstorming, seminarul-dezbatere etc.), se aplic n prezentrile de ansamblu ale disciplinei la deschiderea sau finele cursului, se solicit percepia, memoria, gndirea de tip convergent i divergent, imaginaia pedagogic, se utilizeaz diferite scheme i modele. n contextul metacognitiv, aceste metode snt valorificate prin orientarea nvrii active, prin cercetare i construirea cunoaterii ce implic: elaborarea 576

unor algoritmi euristici pentru a contientiza i a reda raportul dintre fenomenele pedagogice: legi, legiti, teorii, principii, axiome etc.; estimarea informaiei, structurarea informaiei i structurarea procesului de asimilare a conceptelor, datelor etc.; expunerea propriilor reflecii la tem cu evidenierea ideilor principale; selectarea ideilor originale i punctarea direciei de dezvoltare a acestora; restructurarea informaiei n baza unor criterii elaborate de student; analiza condiiilor problemei i propunerea soluiilor de rezolvare etc. inem s menionm c, potrivit Cadrului European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi, strategiile snt mijlocul folosit de utilizatorul unei limbi pentru a mobiliza i a echilibra resursele proprii i pentru a aplica anumite aptitudini i operaii n scopul de a rspunde exigenelor de comunicare ntr-o anumit situaie, de a ndeplini sarcina cu succes i ntr-un timp scurt n funcie de scop. Strategiile comunicative nu ar trebui, prin urmare, s se interpreteze numai conform unui model de incapacitate, ca o modalitate de remediere a unui deficit lingvistic sau o eroare de comunicare. Exist mai multe clasificri ale metodelor didactice, care mbin valorile stabile ale didacticii tradiionale cu dinamica, inventivitatea, creativitatea i tehnicitatea aduse n didactica modern. Criteriile sau perspectiva n baza crora se alctuiesc au n vedere obiectivele i scopurile activitii didactice, termenele de realizare a acestora, participanii i timpul alocat. n general, rareori n ora de studiu folosim o singur metod. Dup necesiti, pentru adecvarea la tem i la subieci procedm la combinarea mai multor metode sau la extragerea i accentuarea unor secvene dintr-o metod. Ct privete metodele de predare/nvare, avem n vedere pe acelea n care aspectul comunicativ devine instrument de lucru didactic, care favorizeaz activiti comunicative activizatoare, inter-active. Metodele constituie elementul esenial al strategiei didactice, dar ele nu pot fi mbriate fr a ine cont de obiectivele prestabilite ale activitii instructive, de nivelul i interesele cursanilor. Din aceast perspectiv, innd cont i de nivelul academic la care lucrm, avem n vedere metodele care duc la fixarea i la adncirea cunotinelor de limb strin, la dezvoltarea priceperilor 577

i deprinderilor de comunicare n context profesional, pe acelea care determin creativitate raional i expresiv, care verific i apreciaz cunotinele. Iat: conversaia, discuia, reeaua de discuii, dezbaterea, jocul de rol favorizeaz competenele de comunicare i relaionare, nelegerea conceptelor i ideilor profesionale, a normelor i regulilor de comunicare verbal, de decizie i de atitudine, pentru formarea opiniilor; studiul de caz, problematizarea, jocul de rol, exerciiul stimuleaz gndirea i creativitatea, gsirea de soluii pentru diferite probleme, reflecii critice i judeci de valoare, compararea i analiza de situaii date, dezvolt competenele necesare unor abordri complexe i integratoare: cubul, lucrul n grupe mici (2,4-6 membri) stimuleaz cooperarea, lucrul n grup/echip, dezvolt spiritul de solidaritate, ntrajutorare, corecteaz greelile i sudeaz relaii socio-afective, psiho-comportamentale n scopuri cognitive: nsuirea uneia sau a mai multor limbi strine n avantajul profesiunii este o necessitate indiscutabil; n fond, stpnirea limbajului de specialitate n limba int a devenit o condiie a integrrii socio-profesionale, dar i o valen definitorie a personalitii i a creativitii absolventului. Cu toii tim c astzi predomin, n mod curent, nvarea centrat pe motivaii i capaciti, pe experiena intelectual, pe nevoile i intersele imediate sau de perspectiv, pe participare, activizare i creativitate. Att profesorul, ct i cursanii au/i asum roluri comutative, antrennd i alternnd funciile de influen reciproc. Orientarea de baz este deopotriv psihologic, sociologic i constructivist. Premisele logice, criteriile i funciile unei activiti didactice eficiente: Factori cu inciden/influen major n continuarea nvrii unei limbi strine n anii studiilor universitare la studenii nefilologi: maturitatea afectiv i voliional a cursanilor, spectrul motivaional i exigenele din cmpul muncii (interesele i nevoile profesionale i sociale - imediate i de perspectiv, mutaiile socio-economice), 578

nivelul cognitiv atins i nivelul de stpnire a limbii din pregtirea pre-universitar, timpul alocat pentru studiul limbii strine (politica privind limbile strine n pregtirea de specialitate - integrarea acestora n curricula facultii), condiiile asigurate pentru desfurarea activitii didactice (dotri audiovideo, laboratoare multimedia, manuale de specialitate etc.), calitatea formatorilor - competena i experiena, responsabilitatea i pasiunea didactice, perfecionarea i cercetarea acestora, exigenele ntregului corp profesoral cu privire la rolul limbii n pregtire i profesie. Fr ndoial, profesorul este necesar s fie n orice moment stpn pe situaie - s cunoasc cerinele educative, s le urmreasc cu rigurozitate, dar i s cunoasc bine grupul cruia i se adreseaz. Aceasta nseamn, n cazul nostru, c fiecare trebuie s fie competent lingvistic, s fie ct mai bine informat n aria specialitii; s comunice egal cu toi, s-i antreneze i s-i stimuleze n aceeai msur pe cursani; s le cunoasc bine interesele i scopurile, potenialul, cunotinele de limb la start i s proiecteze nivelul final de care au nevoie. El trebuie s sesizeze evoluia fiecruia, dificultile de progres, momentele de regres, schimbarea atitudinilor i comportamentului lor ca vorbitori de limb strin. Funciile comunicrii n clasa de studiu, ca act psihosocial, cognitiv i moral-volitiv, valorizator i integrator al insului, se pot reduce, pe scurt i simetric, la cteva: de transmitere (cunotine noi, informaii/date - cuvinte, expresii, reguli gramaticale, norme de uz); de descoperire (sensuri lingvistice proprii, metaforice, de context); de construcie lingvistic gramatical, sintactic, stilistic (de exprimare i decodare semantic i stilistic); de tranzacionare/negociere a sensului i a mesajului (reglare, negociere, nelegerea mutual/reciproc); 579

Prin observaiile noastre am dorit s atragem o dat mai mult atenia privind necesitatea de a accentua n cadrul metodelor specifice comunicarea ca instrument didactic; acest fapt, mai cu seam n cazul limbilor strine n scopuri specifice, pentru ca limba int s devin funcional n favoarea limbajului de specialitate, comunicarea instrumentalizat ne poate aduce beneficii instructive educative. Limbajul de specialitate exersat ntr-o limb strin este, desigur, scopul iniial i final al Cursului practic de limb strin prevzut n programa de studiu. n aceast perspectiv; realizarea obiectivelor didactice de etap pretinde competen i responsabilitate, inovaie i tenacitate din partea actorilor procesului de predare-nvare. Metode tradiionale i moderne folosite n predarea limbii engleze: Prezentare, Practic, Producere (Presentation, Practice, Production) Aceasta este varianta britanic a metodei audio-linguale, observ Jeremy Harmer [2004, p. 80]. Se constituie din trei etape. n prima etap profesorul introduce elementele de limbaj ce trebuie asimilate. Studenii exerseaz folosind tehnici de reproducere i repetiie. A treia etap se refer la folosirea limbajului prezentat i asimilat ntr-un mod original i autentic de ctre studeni. La fel ca i n cazul metodei audio-linguale, vocabularul i gramatica sunt predate inductiv. Comunicarea primeaz, limba matern nefiind folosit. Modelul este profesorul, acesta fiind cel care coordoneaz activitatea. Pentru c este o metod bazat pe comunicare i evaluarea se face tot n acest fel. Metode moderne: Metoda direct (The Direct Method) Inventatorul metodei este C. Berlitz. Principalul obiectiv al acesteia este acela de a nva studenii s comunice ntr-o limb strin. Nu este admis traducerea, profesorul folosindu-se de lumea real, imagini, pantomim pentru a sugera sensul. Limba matern nu este folosit deloc. Gramatica este predat inductiv. Studenii exerseaz vocabularul n context. Toate cele patru dimensiuni ale predrii limbii snt dezvoltate: capacitatea de exprimare oral, capacitatea de receptare a mesajului oral, capacitatea de receptare a mesajului scris i capacitatea de expri580

mare scris. Tehnicile folosite snt: conversaia, citirea cu voce tare, exerciii, compuneri, repetiii. Instruirea programat, IAC - nvarea limbilor strine asistat de calculator este adesea considerat o metod de predare a limbii, dei nu ntotdeauna aa stau lucrurile. n predarea tradiional a limbilor pe baz de programe asistate de calculator, metodologia de lucru avea la baz o abordare behaviorist, ntemeiat pe nvarea programat, prin care computerul verifica datele introduse de student / cursant n calculator (adic inputul) i realizeaz feedback-ul. nvarea modern a limbilor prin programe pe calculator pune accentul pe comunicare i pe activiti ce trebuie ndeplinite sau pe sarcini ce urmeaz a fi efectuate. nvarea limbilor strine pe baz de calculator a progresat astfel de la secvena iniial date introduse-verificare-rspuns (input-control-feedback) ctre domeniul organizrii comunicrii, texte, mijloace audio sau video. nvarea unei limbi este un proces cognitiv, aadar constituie rezultatul propriei munci de prelucrare a informaiei primite (=input) de ctre student / elev dintr-o limb dat. Ceea ce se nva este rezultatul acestui proces. Bazndu-se pe datele deja acumulate n legtur cu tema asupra creia se lucreaz prin informaia nsuit din acea limb, studentul prelucreaz datele primite i le integreaz ntr-un sistem lingvistic propriu, numit Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Cu acest program, studenii i pot chiar crea unii altora exerciii, exerciiile dup model, portofoliile electronice. Portofoliile pot fi folosite i pentru verificarea studenilor. De mentionat ca metodele active se folosesc in abordarea unor situatii problematice reale (exercitiul, studiul de caz), iar metodele simulative se utilizeaza n nvarea bazat pe modele i care solicit ca elevul s-i joace rolul. Sugestopedia Inventatorul metodei este G. Lozanov. Studenii stau ct de confortabil posibil (scaune moi, muzic, o atmosfer plcut). Ei primesc noi nume i noi ocupaii, de-a lungul cursului crendu-i chiar noi biografii. Snt dou stadii ale leciei: una receptiv i una activ. Studenii particip la diferite activiti: citesc, interpreteaz dialoguri, exerseaz diverse jocuri, dramatizri. Elementele pe care se pune accent snt vo581

cabularul, capacitatea de exprimare oral, capacitatea de receptare a mesajului scris i capacitatea de exprimare scris. Gramatica nu este considerat ca fiind foarte important. Limba matern a studenilor este folosit dac e necesar. Greelile nu snt corectate imediat, accentul fiind pe fluen. nvarea limbii n comunitate (Community Language Learning) Metoda provine din consilierea n domeniul nvrii, dezvoltat de C.A.Curran, care vede profesorii drept consilieri lingvistici. Se pune accentul pe comunicare, dezvoltarea pronuniei, a capacitii de receptare a mesajului oral, capacitii de receptare a mesajului scris, precum i discutarea unor elemente de gramatic. Limba nativ a studenilor este folosit pentru ca acetia s se simt n siguran. Interaciunea are loc att ntre profesor i studeni, ct i ntre studeni. Metoda comunicativ (Communicative Language Teaching) Principalul obiectiv este fluena studenilor. Se pune accent pe comunicarea real (Harmer, 2004, p. 85). Toate cele patru dimensiuni ale predrii limbii sunt dezvoltate: capacitatea de exprimare oral, capacitatea de receptare a mesajului oral, capacitatea de receptare a mesajului scris i capacitatea de exprimare scris. Gramatica este nvat prin practic. Limba matern a studenilor nu este folosit. Tehnicile folosite sunt: discuii, dezbateri, jocuri de rol, activiti comunicative scrise, drama etc. Rolurile profesorului sunt acelea de facilitator i manager al activitii studenilor, dar i de partener al acestora, interaciunea avnd loc n special ntre studeni. Studiu de caz Aceste date teoretice stau la baza unei cercetri ce are ca scop determinarea metodelor folosite de profesorii de limba englez n ciclul predare-nvare. Metodele folosite n acest scop au fost de factur calitativ: interviuri i chestionare bazate pe ntrebri deschise. La acest studiu au participat 10 profesori care predau n licee i un grup de 10 studeni, specializarea englez din cadrul Facultii de Litere a Universitii de Vest Timioara. Concluziile acestei cercetri au dus la stabilirea faptului c meto582

dele moderne snt preferate de ctre acetia, ndeosebi metoda comunicativ. Cu toate acestea, nu snt ignorate nici cele tradiionale, anumite elemente ale acestora fiind des folosite. Avantajele acestor metode constau n faptul c asigur cunotine solide de gramatic i vocabular, dezvolt capacitile de exprimare scris. Se pune accentul pe cultura i literatura strin, care snt aprofundate. Profesorul are un mai mare control al clasei dect n cazul metodelor moderne. Dintre metodele moderne prezentate mai sus au fost menionate doar cteva: metoda direct, metoda comunicativ i metoda nvrii limbii n comunitate si IAC. Acestea snt folosite cu succes, celelalte metode descrise, Calea tcerii, Suggestopedia, Metoda rspunsului fizic total nefiind folosite. Motivele pentru care aceste metode nu snt utilizate sunt lipsa lor de eficien n cadrul unor grupuri mari, cum snt clasele de elevi cu care se lucreaz n coli i necunoaterea lor. Metodele moderne snt preferate datorit eficacitii lor sporite n ceea ce privete comunicarea, dezvoltndu-se capacitatea de exprimare oral. Alte avantaje ale acestora ar fi faptul c interaciunea ntre profesor i elevi i elevi i elevi este sporit. Concluzia final este aceea c metodele tradiionale coexist cu cele moderne n predarea limbii engleze, fiecare avnd avantajele ei, elemente ce pot fi oricnd folosite cu succes. Abordarea eclectic, dup cum o numete Chastain (1988), este aadar cea mai eficient n predare, metodele folosite adaptndu-se clasei de elevi. n consecin, scopul esenial al predriinvrii limbii engleze const n a sprijini studenii n dezvoltarea strategiilor de procesare a informaiei. Predareanvareaevaluarea nu mai pot fi privite ca un act, proces sau arta de a mprti cunotine, ci ca un act n care studentul joac un rol de constructor al cunotinelor. n prezent, nvarea este privit ca un proces activ, creativ i interactiv, iar cunotinele snt privite ca materie de construcie.

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BIBLIOGRAFIE

STRATEGIES OF TRAINING THE TRAINER Marina CHIRNICAIA, MA, Catedra de filologie englez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
ABSTRACT

1. Ausubel David P., Floyd G. Robinson. nvarea n coal o introducere n psihologia pedagogic, col. Pedagogia sec. XX, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, (1981). 2. Boco, Muata. Instruire interactiv. Repere pentru reflecie i aciune, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, (2002). 3. Bradea, Livia-Otilia. Integrarea limbilor strine n educaie i instrucie, Cluj-Napoca: Editura NAPOC ASTAR, (2000). 4. Cerghit, Ioan. Metode de nvmnt, Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, (1980) 5. Chi, V. Provocrile pedagogiei contemporane, Editura Presa Universitar clujean, Cluj-Napoca, (2001) 6. Drago, Clara-Liliana. Orientri metodice n predarea limbilor moderne, n Preocupri actuale n didactic, Universitatea BabeBolyai, Cluj-Napoca, 1991, IX. 7. Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan. English for Specific Purposes, Cambridge University Press, 1993. 8. Ionescu, Miron, Radu, Ion, Salade, Dumitru (cord.). Studii de pedagogie aplicat, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, (2000). 9. Ionescu, Miron, Radu, Ion. (coord) Didactica modern, Ediia a II-a revizuit, Cluj-Napoca, (2001). 10. Pnioar, Ion-Ovidiu. Comunicarea eficient. Metode de interaciune educaional, Iai: Editura Polirom, (2003). 11. Slama-Cazacu. Introducere n psiholingvistic, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, (1962).

, / . (IATEFL) 2011 , , , , , , , . The landscape of professional development has undergone considerable change lately. It has become one of the most important parts of getting more experience, knowledge and higher-order thinking skills. World-wide practice shows that professional development that advances teaching and learning takes place over a sustained period of time, includes updating knowledge, skills, and provides intensive support for implementation within the classroom. Today professional development can be defined as multi aspect phenomenon of qualitative competence of the educator, based on his psychological peculiarities and positive professional environment. [1;96] Teacher development is not only a matter of providing trainees with the right techniques but also adopting the reflective model of developing professional communicative competence and developing such cognitive skills as analytical thinking, thinking critically, appraising and judging, arguing rationally, seeing new relationships, etc. So, teacher trainers should foster the trainees intellectual development in order to facilitate learning through reflection. [2;21-22] 585

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Sometimes while running in-service teacher training courses trainers have to deal with the teachers resistance, which is highly predictable since they are required to depart from traditional teaching methods, to adopt those which are new for them, and, thus, to change their beliefs and attitudes. Thus, there are a lot of objective reasons which make the task of dealing with resistance and establishing group rapport one of the most important ones for teacher trainers. [3;7] One of the main reasons to pursue professional development is to be empowered to have the opportunity and the confidence to act upon ones ideas as well as to influence the way one performs in ones profession. Empowerment is the process through which teachers become capable of engaging in, sharing control of, and influencing events and institutions that affect their lives. To be an effective teacher requires a combination of professional knowledge and specialized skills as well as ones own personal experiences and qualities. Adding to knowledge and acquiring new skills are among the main reasons the teachers participate in professional development activities. For both a novice teacher and a veteran learning about new ideas and techniques in English language learning can be motivating and encouraging. Many English language teaching experts believe that ongoing professional development is essential, especially in todays world of constantly changing technology. Teachers of English who have been trained to use new techniques and resources are more inclined to try them with their students. Teachers all around the world face similar challenges due to the very nature of educational environments. They teach their classes independently from their colleagues, which makes them feel isolated. Professional development activities can alleviate some of the issues, like demands of the institutions, and also bring together the teachers who have similar experiences and interests. Just having the opportunity to share the experiences and ideas with colleagues can help a teacher gain a sense of community and belonging. Teacher development opportunities can take many forms. Some 586

are individual or informal while other occasions are collective or structured. One of the most obvious professional development activities for an English teacher is reading journal articles about teaching English, which can keep the teachers be informed about new trends and research developments. [4;2-11) A great deal should be done through participation in professional teacher development trainings, summer or winter schools that are held in many countries by such organizations as IATEFL, TESOL, British Council etc. To work with groups of teachers on day-release (or weekends or during holiday time), is far more efficient than trying to work with teachers one at a time in classrooms, especially where the groups are reasonably homogeneous in terms of preservice training and experience in various institutions. [5;41-43] One of the Teacher Development Summer School is organized annually by IATEFL-Ukraine, British Council Ukraine, and the Institute for Innovative Technologies and the Content of Education in Ukraine, different places being chosen for the event. The idea of the Summer School is to promote professional development for primary, secondary and tertiary teachers all over Ukraine as well as from other countries. The courses that are offered are the following: Train the Trainer. The aim is to help the participants develop their professional expertise in ELT teacher training and prepare them to teach other teachers. It looks at principles and practice in current approaches and methodology. An important feature of the course is the micro training where participants put learning into practice through peer training sessions. Topics covered in the course include teaching and teaching roles, learning styles, motivation, issues and challenges, feedback and evaluation TKT Essentials. This course provides with introduction to the basic theory associated with a communicative approach to English language teaching. Its structure and content are based on the syllabus of the Cambrigde ESOL Teaching knowledge Test (TKT). 587

 English for teaching. This is an in-service teacher development course which combines input on communicative, learner-centered methodology and topical ELT themes with a structured language syllabus to provide for progression from A2 to B1 (CEFR level). The focus is on developing linguistic competence and teaching expertise through a range of thematically linked tasks and activities providing models which can be adapted for classroom use. Learning technologies for the classroom. This is a teacher development course which aims to build English language teachers confidence and skill in the use of basic learning technologies. Primary Essentials/Primary ETTO. This is a development course for teachers of English working with young learners aged 5 to 12. It is based on the reflective approach, requiring active experimenting with teacher own teaching. The course consists of six modules and contains audio, classroom video and community elements.[6] The course Train the trainer included six workshops; each of each will be described below. 1) Introductory workshop. To create a stress-free and relaxed environment at the training, the ice-breakers and teambuilding activities were used. One of them was name picture dictionary. The trainees wrote down the letters of their first names in a vertical line. Next, they thought of some words beginning with the letters of their names. The words had to give some information about them they could be nouns, adjectives or verbs. The words shouldnt have been written. Instead they should have been drawn by a simple sketch, stick figures, or diagram that illustrated the words. Then the trainees shared their part of the dictionary with the other members of the group and then asked questions to find out what the sketches and words meant. They could also move to new groups and do it again. Besides, the trainees had to create a brief profile of themselves as teachers, discussing other trainees opinions and whether they 588

corresponded to their own beliefs about teaching and learning. Then the trainees had to discuss their teaching approaches (teacher-centered, learner-centered, communicative, task-based, traditional, mix of different approaches) and teaching styles, whether their approaches and styles changed and what the reasons for that were. Another important thing to talk about was to tell the difference between a teacher and trainer, what the teacher and trainer roles are, what teaching skills should be developed to become a trainer. 2) Understanding your trainees. In this workshop, the participants discussed the factors relating to a trainee profiles, such as teaching approach, teaching experience, expectations from the course, learning and teaching styles, professional goals etc. Another point of discussion was learning styles with detailed descriptions, Maslows hierarchy of needs, training and the pyramid of needs. The workshop ended by reflection on the way the activities could be modified to include learning styles. 3) Familiarisation, issues and challenges. The workshop was devoted to discussion of principles of TKT, getting to know the materials and teacher experience and its role in being a trainer. Sample activities, such as four in a row, word search, guideline snap, and scramble gave a clearer picture of the points discussed. 4) Making workshops effective. Here the trainees were to talk about the factors which make workshops effective, the problems that may appear at a workshop and how to deal with them, interactions, advantages and disadvantages of setting up pairs and groups. Besides that, different things that trainers could do to establish rapport with trainees were discussed and rated from the most important to least important, such as getting to know trainees needs and expectations, dressing smartly, understanding what motivates trainees, finding out about their learning styles, giving praise, encouraging humor, making sure feedback is always constructive, being approachable, using positive body language, showing interest in the trainees and others. The participants learnt how to make constructive feedback, its effects, how to avoid making negative feedback and what effect it can 589

have, what phrases to use while making positive/constructive feedback, (for example, well done! Interesting idea! You contributed lots of good ideas thank you; youre on the right track etc.), how to follow the three stages of making feedback, which are formulation of the problem, eliciting ideas about how the situation can be improved and then giving instructions/advice. 5) Preparing for training. The workshop was based on evaluating materials and discussion what the evaluation criteria could be. For example, attractive layout, easy to follow, fun, variety, right level of challenge, clear instructions, clear organization, motivating, easy to adapt etc. Another point under consideration was the learning outcomes and how to make them valid and appropriate. For example, By the end of the lesson/workshop, the learners will be able to understand the advantages and disadvantages of presentation techniques and use them in their presentations. This workshop presupposed participation of trainees in micro training. This involved working with the group of other trainees to deliver an activity or task to their colleagues and role playing trainees while the other groups delivered their activities or tasks. The procedures to follow when setting up and carrying out micro training were the following: 1) participants paired/grouped 2) distribution of materials 3) selections of task/topic 4) evaluation/adaptation of materials 5) decisions on who does what 6) rehearse and time 7) deliver peer training 8) feedback and discussion. The feedback criteria included the following points: clear instructions, well organized, effective monitoring, clear explanations, all trainees are engaged/involved, understanding is checked, support is given, pace and timing, objectives clear, feedback constructive, collaborative work set up effectively, presentation skills, rapport with trainees, interactions, motivating, appeals to different learning styles. At the end of the workshop each group was given a set of training materials and they had a day to prepare a 15 min activity for the next workshop. 590

6) Micro training. Each group was delivering an activity to another group of trainees, and one more group was the observer. At the end of the activity, all the three groups had to give constructive feedback. The observer had to follow feedback criteria (see above), the trainers had to say what went well and what they might do differently next time. The trainees answered what they liked about the activity, if there was something they felt could have been done differently and what comments and suggestions they had for the trainers. The activities were delivered in rotation and there were a few minutes after the completion of each activity to note down comments and feedback. The workshop finished with reflection on what the participants had learnt about teacher training from taking part in micro training and about themselves from micro training. The thing to discuss was what the participants thought of micro teaching as a teacher development tool, whether there was something about micro training that they didnt like and whether they would like to use is in the future. Thus, trainings, summer and winter schools organized for the professional teacher development are a good way to promote oneself, meet many other colleagues in the field a person works in, to get to know latest methods and techniques used in the classroom, become more confident about the things one does, and learn new skills.
RefeRences

1) Larina, Tetyana. Professional Development of Teachers Through Partnership.// XVII TESOL-Ukraine International Conference English in Globalized World, - Kamianets-Podilsky,2012. p. 96 2) Bohushevych, Nina. Developing Teacher Trainees Professional Communicative Competence in Classes of Practical English. // XVII TESOL-Ukraine International Conference English in Globalized World, - Kamianets-Podilsky, 2012. p. 21-22 3) Karpova, Tetyana. Personal and Interpersonal Issues in InService Teacher Training// 591

. - . , 2012.- p. 7 4) Murray, Alice. Empowering Teachers through Professional Development./English Teaching Forum. 2010. Vol. 48. n.1- pp. 2-11 5) Cross, David. Language Teacher Preparation in Developing Countries: Structuring Preservice Teacher Training Programmes.// English Teaching Forum. 2003. Vol. 41. n.4- pp. 41-43 6) http://iatefl-ukraine.org/IATEFL-SS-2011.html Further reading 1) www.teachingenglish.org.uk 2) Hadfield, J. Classroom Dynamics. Oxford:Oxford University Press.-1996 3) Thornbury, Scott. Watkins, Peter. The CELTA Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

LENSEIGNEMENT/ APPRENTISSAGE DE LA TRADUCTION SPCIALISE: APPROCHE LEXICO-SMANTIQUE ET PRAGMATIQUE (LA TRADUCTION JURIDIQUE) Angela GRdINARU, dr., conf. univ., Catedra traducere, interpretare i lingvistic aplicat, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova

Abstract:
Transmitting some competences from the general linguistics and applied linguistics plays an increasing role in translators training. The present paper aims at analyzing the process of teaching/learning the specialized translation from the perspective of contrastive textology because in many studies the specialized translation is limited to studying the specialized terminology, ignoring the aspects of textual character. The competences intended for the future translators and the methods of working with the specialized texts are revealed in the given article. In order to translate a specialized text properly, one should start by analyzing the general characteristics of the legal terminology, the stylistic, grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the legal text and then apply different translation procedures used in rendering the legal texts. Key words: specialized translation, specialized terminology, contrastive textology, competences, translation procedures. La transmission de certains acquis de la linguistique gnrale et de la linguistique applique joue un rle de plus en plus important dans la formation des traducteurs. La traduction spcialise profite de plus en plus des outils et des mthodologies dveloppes par la linguistique de corpus, la lexicologie/terminologie, la linguistique pragmatique. Lobjectif de cet article est de porter un regard pistmologique sur la traduction spcialise en partant du fait que la majorit des tudes ralises dans le domaine de la traduction spcialise ont port principalement sur des questions relatives la terminologie spcialise, les aspects de nature textuelle tant largement ngligs. Lacte traduisant

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est dfini comme opration qui se situe sur le plan textuel en voquant lenseignement de la traduction spcialise sous langle de la textologie contrastive [1] car elle constitue notre avis une approche prometteuse qui pourra stendre au domaine de la traduction. Le terme traduction spcialise dsigne toute traduction qui porte sur un texte propre un domaine spcialis de lactivit humaine. Le texte juridique nest pas une succession de mots ou de phrases plus ou moins obscures que lon peut traiter hors contexte, mais un discours dont la traduction passe dabord par lanalyse, par linterprtation (cest--dire la traduction des textes juridiques, traduction qui doit tre prcde dune tude approfondie du texte lui-mme). Lenseignant qui a affaire ces textes, quel que soit le degr de difficult, est invitablement confront un domaine complexe, le droit, un langage spcialis (cest une langue naturelle considre en tant que vecteur de connaissances spcialises ; fonctionnement de la lexie dans le cadre dun discours spcialis, dfini comme lensemble thorique des textes dune thmatique dtermine ) et une phrasologie particulire [2]. Il faut assurer la qualit de lenseignement de la traduction juridique par une approche professionnelle fonde sur une mthode approprie suivant la nature du texte. Un traducteur spcialis doit acqurir travers sa formation des comptences priphriques (la matrise des outils informatiques; les mthodologies de recherche documentaire; la dmarche terminologique/lexicographique), des comptences linguistiques gnrales (la comprhension, le mode de lecture de la langue de dpart ; lapprhension des concepts, des articulations logiques; les techniques dcriture en langue cible ; les registres comme composantes du sens; lapproche communicationnelle applique la traduction; les processus cognitifs les hypothses de sens), des comptences cognitives (se familiariser avec des disciplines que lon ne connat pas, la traduction comme mdiation), des comptences proprement traductionnelles (qualits mentales rigueur, cohrence logique, clart; rsistance aux calques faux amis, glissements smantiques; acquisition des reflexes ncessaires dans le passage entre deux langues, lapproche du texte). La traduction spcialise trouve son point dancrage dans 594

lacquisition dune comptence textuelle aussi bien dans la langue dorigine que dans la langue cible. Cette approche comprend deux tapes fondamentales [1]: 1. Tout dabord, ltudiant va mener une recherche dordre documentaire des textes juridiques de diffrents genres textuels (article, rapport, loi, convention, contrat, procs-verbal, arrt, dcision, etc.) dans les langues de travail, avec lesquels il constituera un corpus qui lui permettra de se familiariser avec le domaine de spcialit et daborder ensuite une analyse contrastive dbouchant sur lapprhension des conventions textuelles et lidentification et lextraction des procds au niveau macro- (linarit, symtrie, etc.) et micro textuel (marqueurs darticulations logiques, terminologie, phrasologie). 2. Tout ce travail prliminaire sensibilisera ltudiant face aux diffrences interculturelles des conventions textuelles et lui permettra dtablir des stratgies globales de traduction en fonction du genre de texte et de la culture et didentifier des particularits de la traduction spcialise. La textologie contrastive reprsente une approche mthodologique porteuse, car elle permet que les futurs traducteurs puissent prendre conscience de la spcificit culturelle des divers genres de textes qui mane des traditions discursives propres chaque culture. Cette spcificit se manifeste dans la traduction soit par des divergences dans la dynamique du texte et la structuration de la surface textuelle soit sous forme de problmes de traduction qui drivent du degr dimplication que lon accorde habituellement au lecteur au sein de chaque culture. Dans une perspective pdagogique-traductologique, il nous semble donc fondamental de prconiser lapprentissage de la terminologie spcialise par le biais de lanalyse contrastive afin que les tudiants puissent appliquer ce savoir lors de lacte traduisant. Par consquent, le texte traduire relve deux tapes importantes : lanalyse du texte et la traduction du texte. La terminologie joue un rle primordial dans la formation des traducteurs spcialiss: lemploi dun terme contribue la prcision. Elle est en fin, loutil principal dun expert dun domaine de spcialit. 595

Pour les traducteurs, la terminologie facilite la traduction dun contenu dune langue une autre. Ce processus sous-entend la comprhension du texte initial, et de ce fait, la connaissance des units terminologiques de la langue de dpart, car cest avant tout par le truchement des termes que les textes spcialiss vhiculent des connaissances. Il sensuit que le traducteur technique doit avoir une certaine connaissance du contenu de la discipline des textes quil traduit. Il doit galement bien matriser la langue darrive, dont la terminologie du domaine concern. Une bonne traduction ne doit pas seulement exprimer le mme contenu que le texte de dpart, elle doit aussi le faire en utilisant les mmes formes quemploierait un locuteur natif. Dans le cas de la traduction spcialise, ce locuteur serait un spcialiste du domaine. Par consquent, un bon traducteur technique doit se spcialiser dans le domaine o il souhaite travailler afin dacqurir un minimum de comptence pour sassurer de bien traduire. Pour leurs travaux, les traducteurs se servent souvent de dictionnaires spcialiss, bilingues ou plurilingues. Cela ne signifie pas que le traducteur nait pas de travail terminologique faire. Il doit parfois agir comme terminologue pour rsoudre les problmes poss par les termes qui ne figurent ni dans les dictionnaires ni dans les banques de donnes spcialises, puisque les dlais trs courts quimpose la majorit des travaux de traduction ne leur permettent pas avoir recours aux services des terminologues. Afin de sassurer quils emploient les bons termes, les traducteurs ont besoins non seulement dquivalents justes, mais galement de contexte dutilisation, dinformations sur la combinatoire des termes, ainsi que, si possible, des informations factuelles sur les concepts. Lquivalence terminologique est la cl de la terminologie multilingue. Les auteurs des dictionnaires techniques bilingues ou multilingues partent souvent du principe que les terminologies refltent les structures objectives de la ralit. Cependant, la structuration de la ralit dune langue de spcialit peut ne pas concider dans les deux langues, surtout dans les domaines peu structurs comme dans les sciences humaines ou sociales [3, pp.93-94]. Le traducteur doit tre attentif aux subtilits de la terminologie et notamment aux possibles synonymes ou drivs des 596

termes. Si la variante prix dachat existe, prix dacquisition nexiste pas, alors quacheteur et acqureur sont des synonymes absolus. Un autre cas cest le terme metteur en vente, une variante incorrecte, tandis que le terme mise en vente est trs employ dans lconomie. Quant la mthodologie textuelle il faut dbuter le cours par la lecture dun texte juridique afin den dgager la structure et le sens et danalyser les caractristiques gnrales de la terminologie juridique (spcificit du lexique li la justice en gnral : culpabilit / innocence ; accuser / dfendre / tmoigner; tre accus / souponn / emprisonn / relax ; un tmoin / juge / avocat / prsum innocent ; des preuves / tmoignages, etc. ; spcificit du lexique li au type et au thme prcis de laffaire : accident, vol, viol, enlvement, harclement, etc.). La terminologie juridique est la plus importante et informative partie de la langue de droit. Les termes juridiques, qui expriment la catgorie de la science de droit, sont prsents dans les diffrents textes: lgislation, documents de procdure lgale, monographies, manuels de termes juridiques, dictionnaires, encyclopdies. Parmi les problmes linguistiques de la terminologie juridique, le plus actuel est celui concernant la lgislation terminologique. Il faut commencer par dire que la lgislation fait rfrence un nombre de rgles juridiques qui existent sous forme crite tant la plus significative partie de la fonction du langage juridique. Le langage juridique et le droit sont trs lis lun lautre. La langue montre quel est le message du lgislateur et prsente ce message sous forme de rgles juridiques aux membres de la socit. Lefficacit de la communication juridique dpend de lexpression correcte du message du lgislateur. Le droit ne prsente pas la volont personnelle, mais la volont de toute la socit dun tat. Cest exactement ce fait qui explique lobjectivit de ce domaine et lemploi des termes qui soient capables de la transmettre. En fin, lorsque la langue et le droit entrent en contact, la langue de droit se standardise. Pour quon puisse parler dune bonne communication juridique, le lgislateur doit rsoudre deux problmes. Premirement il sagit de ce que la lgislation doit tre rdige dune telle faon que le lecteur comprenne le message. Par consquent, les critres de base du texte juridique sont: lintgrit, 597

la systmatisation et la prcision. La complexit du droit justifie la complexit du langage juridique. Le lexique constitue le noyau du texte juridique, parce quil est responsable de la construction correcte du message des normes. Les termes reprsentent une spcificit du texte: cest le rsultat de lintersection de la langue et du domaine juridique. Tant sur le plan smantique que sur celui expressif le texte juridique est issu dun rseau de conventions sociales caractre impratif. La structure du texte montre cette conventionalit du lexique avec une base smantique spciale et une structure morphosyntaxique impersonnelle, avec llimination de toute manifestation de crativit. Stylistiquement, le texte regorge dune smantique de contrainte. Pour aboutir une comprhension exacte entranant une traduction prcise du texte de dpart, il faut que chaque ide, dtail ou nuance soit rendu. Il ne sagit pas de raconter, rsumer ou interprter le texte franais mais le rendre fidlement. Dans ce contexte, il faut analyser les particularits lexicales du texte juridique : lemploi abondant des termes (suffrage, Constitution, rfrendum, session, loi, amendement, rglement, abolir). La majorit des termes sont univoques, ils semploient soit uniquement dans le texte juridique (greffier, juge, tribunal, infraction), soit dans le texte juridique et la langue littraire commune par la modification du sens de mots usuels, qui prennent alors une signification spciale. Le sens principal du verbe saisir cest prendre vivement et avec vigueur, alors que ce verbe en tant que terme juridique semploi aussi au sens doprer la saisie dun bien et saisir un tribunal daffaire. Le verbe arrter signifie empcher quelquun davancer, daller plus loin, tandis que dans la terminologie juridique comporte le sens de mettre en tat darrestation. Lemploi des termes est essentiel pour le style juridique; cest limproprit des termes qui reprsente son majeur dfaut. La synonymie est le rsultat de la ncessit des variations stylistiques. Le sens de tout terme est prcis dans le contexte o il apparat (inculp = accus ; arrt = sentence, verdict ; cour = tribunal ; contravention = infraction, dlit ; dlinquance = criminalit). Puisque le texte juridique est exhaustif, car il doit tout prvoir, il arrive souvent quun terme est rpt dans la mme phrase (Il ne peut y 598

avoir ingrence dune autorit publique dans lexercice de ce droit que pour autant que cette ingrence est prvue par la loi.). On doit de mme identifier la prsence des formes strotypes (Lexercice de ces droits ne peut faire lobjet dautres restrictions que celles prvues par la loi. Le texte de la Convention est prsent tel quamend par les dispositions du Protocole no 14 (STCE no 194) compter de son entre en vigueur le 1er juin 2010) ; la prsence dun grand nombre des mots composs (lge nubile) ; lemploi des pronoms et adjectifs indfinis (Nul ne peut tre tenu en esclavage ni en servitude) ; lemploi de nombreux nologismes tels que statut, vacance, dispositions, dlibration, abrogation, promulguer, dissolution, sujtion ; lemploi des mots latins: ad litteram, in abstracto, corpus, in fine, sin qua non, sine die, rfrendum, quorum ; lemploi des locutions: tre soumis la torture, sil a fait lobjet, ne portera pas atteinte. Pour obtenir une expression correcte (au niveau de la grammaire et de la syntaxe) et un style fluide donnant limpression que la traduction a t crite directement en roumain, il faut dterminer les caractristiques grammaticales du texte juridique : lemploi des phrases complexes, redondantes combines parfois avec des phrases elliptiques reprsentes par le nombre et le titre de lalina ( Article 6 - Droit un procs quitable) ; des phrases complexes, dont la principale est suivie dune cascade de subordonnes, qui leur tour sont coordonnes ou subordonnes lune lautre. Les subordonnes sont encore alourdies par des tours participes et infinitifs : (aprs avoir mis en demeure cette Partie ; en prenant en compte tous facteurs pertinents ; un recueil de la jurisprudence de la Cour comprenant, sauf dcision contraire, les arrts). Parfois les subordonnes caractre informatif concret sont arranges sous forme dun schma. Le schma est la division prfrable, parce quelle facilite la lecture et la comprhension. Si toutes les thses sont exprimes dans la mme phrase, la lecture et la comprhension se compliquent. La complexit de la phrase est due encore lemploi de lnumration (soumis certaines formalits, conditions, restrictions ou sanctions prvues par la loi) ; la conservation des formes archaques qui ne correspondent 599

plus la grammaire de nos jours, tel que lemploi de ladjectif indfini tout au singulier au lieu de pluriel (Toute personne a droit la libert de pense, de conscience et de religion) ; lemploi des subordonnes conditionnelles (Si la proposition de loi na pas t examine par les deux assembles dans un dlai fix par la loi organique, le Prsident de la Rpublique la soumet au rfrendum) ; lutilisation dun grand nombre de conjonctions (Il ne peut tre fait application ni des articles 49 et 50 ni de larticle 89 de la Constitution durant la vacance de la Prsidence de la Rpublique ou durant la priode qui scoule entre la dclaration du caractre dfinitif de lempchement du Prsident de la Rpublique et llection de son successeur.) ; lemploi de la troisime personne singulier comme rsultat du manque de la premire et de la deuxime personne singulier et pluriel (Le Prsident de la Rpublique nomme le Premier Ministre. Il met fin ses fonctions sur la prsentation par celui-ci de la dmission du Gouvernement.) ; la structure la plus simple de la phrase est la suivante: sujet + verbe + complment. Le noyau de la phrase est le verbe qui sappelle verbum regens parce quil dtermine laction qui apportera des consquences prvus par le texte (Chaque Etat contractant dsigne une Autorit centrale charge de satisfaire aux obligations qui lui sont imposes par la Convention o: Chaque Etat contractant = sujet/ dsigne = verbum regens/ une Autorit centrale charge de satisfaire aux obligations qui lui sont imposes par la Convention = complment) ; la prdominance du prsent de lindicatif (La loi favorise lgal accs des femmes et des hommes aux mandats lectoraux) ; la prdominance des phrases au passif (Le dossier est retourn au greffe du comit darbitrage aprs le prononc de larrt de la Cour.) ; la prsence des structures verbales formes avec le verbe pouvoir (Un juge ne peut tre relev de ses fonctions que si les autres juges dcident.) ; lutilisation des noms forms partir des verbes, la nominalisation verbale (Les juges restent en fonction jusqu leur remplacement ( remplacer); La dcision est dfinitive (dcider) ; Pour viser la clart dans lexpression, il faut relever les caractristiques stylistiques du texte juridique : le texte juridique 600

sorganise autour dune structure concrte: le titre, qui englobe la dnomination gnrale, valable pour tout le texte et la date de mise en uvre (Convention sur la protection des enfants et la coopration en matire dadoption internationale/ Conclue le 29 mai ; le prambule, qui est une introduction comprenant une information gnrale de ce qui va suivre ; le contenu qui englobe son tour un titre gnralisant de tous les articles auxquels il fait rfrence; et le corpus darticles numrots ( Titre II - Le Prsident de la Rpublique/ Art. 5. - Le Prsident de la Rpublique veille au respect de la Constitution. Il assure, par son arbitrage, le fonctionnement rgulier des pouvoirs publics ainsi que la continuit de ltat. Il est le garant de lindpendance nationale, de lintgrit du territoire et du respect des traits.). Larticle est la plus petite sous-division du texte juridique qui exprime un seul commandement (parfois plusieurs, mais tous sont rapports la mme ide). La numrotation se fait en chiffres arabes et doit tre continue. Elle commence avec le premier article et fini avec le dernier, tant interdite toute concidence de numro. Au cas o on ajoute des articles, on respecte la numrotation et on fait les changements adquats. Dans les textes o il y a un seul article, celui-ci nest pas numrot, il tant identifi par le syntagme article unique . Quand le contenu du texte comprend des dispositions diffrentes, la numrotation se fait aussi en chiffres romans ; et la conclusion o on trouve de linformation telle que: les parties signataires, et de nouveau la date de mise en application. Le style doit viser la simplicit, au dpouillement, la clart, laccessibilit et la prcision. Il nabuse pas dindications entre parenthses ou des digressions parce quil doit maintenir lattention du lecteur ou de lauditeur. Laccessibilit et la prcision sont ncessaires pour quun texte juridique soit compris par tous et pour quil ny ait pas de diffrentes interprtations qui amneraient des confusions ou sens quivoques. Malgr sa prcision, le texte juridique est trs hermtique et apparemment ambigu cause de la rigueur de son vocabulaire. Le texte juridique a une fonction coercitive, cest--dire il contraint quelquun, ce qui justifie lemploi des verbes dont le rle est dinterdire quelque chose (Un juge sigeant en tant que juge unique nexamine 601

aucune requte introduite contre la Haute Partie contractante au titre de laquelle ce juge a t lu.) ; le texte juridique fait rfrence un ou plusieurs articles dhabitude nomms antrieurement (La disposition prcdente nautorise aucune drogation larticle 2, sauf pour le cas de dcs rsultant dactes licites de guerre, et aux articles 3, 4 1 et 7.) Quelle que soit la nature du texte traduire, le principe reste le mme: faire passer un message dun texte dans un autre, de faon quil soit compris par la ou les personnes qui il est destin. Un postulat prime en traduction pragmatique : seul compte le sens. Ce sens, il faut le faire comprendre au destinataire, et pour cela tous les moyens et voies appropris sont bons [4, pp. 163-176]. Suivant lapproche interprtative du sens des textes juridiques, nous postulons que les procds de traduction constituent un des outils pour lapprhension du sens du texte de dpart et le moyen par lequel le traducteur r exprime ce sens dans la langue darrive en tenant compte du destinataire et de la fonction que ce texte aura dans la culture rceptrice. La connaissance et la matrise des procds de traduction permettent au traducteur dutiliser au maximum les ressources de la langue darrive et de garantir son client des rsultats conformes aux attentes de celuici. Les procds de traduction sont gnralement classs en deux groupes : les procds de traduction directe (littrale) et les procds de traduction oblique (non littrale). Les procds de traduction directe sont utiliss dans des passages o la langue de dpart et la langue darrive partagent des catgories parallles sur le plan de la structure ou sur le plan conceptuel. De ce fait, le message de dpart se transpose facilement dans la langue darrive. Les procds de traduction oblique, quant eux, sont ncessaires lorsque la langue de dpart et la langue darrive ne partagent pas dlment sur le plan structural ou sur le plan conceptuel. [5, p. 143]. Aprs avoir saisi lide gnrale, lesprit du texte, aprs avoir repr les difficults, on commence la traduction. Pour faire face aux difficults de traduction, il existe des procds de traduction (J.-P. Vilnay et J. Darbelnet : Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais) auxquels on fera appel dans la traduction des textes juridiques : lemprunt 602

(on garde le mot tel quil est dans la langue de dpart : Common Law (ang.)= Common Law (fr.) / conseillers dtat (fr.) = Conseillers dtat (ang.) /Journal Officiel (fr.) = Journal Officiel (ang.) ; le calque est une traduction mot--mot dune expression ou dune construction de phrase (dcret de clture = decret de nchidere ; proposition de loi = propuneri de lege ; la traduction littrale que Gmar appelle quivalence formelle, est la rexpression mot mot du texte de dpart dans la langue darrive. Par ce procd, le traducteur ne doit se soucier que des servitudes linguistiques. Les versions obtenues littralement peuvent tre acceptables ou inacceptables. Vinay et Darbelnet prcisent que la traduction littrale est acceptable lorsquelle permet de produire un texte correct et idiomatique. Ils la qualifient dinacceptable lorsque son utilisation produit un texte qui na pas de sens ou qui en modifie le sens, qui a une structure trangre celle de la langue darrive, qui ne correspond rien dans la langue darrive ou qui correspond quelque chose ayant un autre niveau de langue [5, p. 147]. Par exemple: tribunal interne = instan judectoreasc intern ; arrestation rgulire = arestare legal ; dlit flagrant = infraciune flagrant; la transposition on change la catgorie grammaticale en traduisant ; la modulation est un changement dclairage ou de point de vue pour viter un terme ou une formulation maladroite (passage du passif lactif, de laffirmation la ngation, du concret labstrait, de la cause leffet) - objecteur de conscience = cei care refuz s satisfac serviciul militar din motive de contiin / ge nubile = vrsta stabilit prin lege ; ladaptation - est le procd qui consiste adapter une situation une autre lorsque celle qui est dcrite dans le texte de dpart nexiste pas dans la langue darrive, ou lorsquelle ne correspond pas aux coutumes des destinataires de la traduction. Ladaptation est utilise lorsque la possibilit de traduire touche ses limites. Le domaine juridique est un domaine o la traduction atteint souvent la limite de son actualisation. Le caractre socioculturel du droit, entre autres, fait souvent en sorte que les situations dcrites ne soient pas quivalentes ou encore quelles nexistent pas dans la culture rceptrice. Lquivalence, notamment lquivalence fonctionnelle, est lun des moyens utiliss pour rendre des notions ou des ralits qui 603

ne se correspondent pas dune langue lautre [5, p. 151] - conseil de prudhommes = Consiliu de reziliere ; lquivalence est considre pour les juristes, un compromis puisque chaque langue impose ses grilles aux objets du monde, en sorte que tout passage dans une autre nest au mieux quune quivalence (traduire en justice = a da n judecat) ; ltoffement il est parfois ncessaire dajouter des termes pour la fluidit du style ; lallgement - il sagit de retirer des termes qui alourdissent la phrase ou dont le sens est implicite dans la langue darrive . En conclusion, pour faire une bonne traduction spcialise, il faut enrichir le vocabulaire franais par des lectures de journaux en franais, faire appel aux diffrents dictionnaires (unilingue, bilingue) en se rfrant au contexte, chercher ltymologie des mots, dcomposer le mot pour voir si une partie (suffixe ou prfixe) ne serait pas connue, regarder le contexte car il permet de dduire le sens de certains mots (do limportance davoir bien compris lide gnrale du texte), chercher dans le texte si le mot inconnu nest pas rutilis ailleurs ce qui en clairerait le sens, trouver une tournure qui remplace le mot.
RFRENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES :

SURSELE COMUNICATIVE-LINGVISTICE I ETICEPROFESIONALE ALE ASCULTRII ACTIVE N CADRUL COMUNICRII DE AFACERI Vasile BOTNARCIUC, dr. hab., conf. univ., Catedra tiine umanistice i limbi moderne, Universitatea Cooperatist-Comercial din Moldova Angela SAJIN, lector superior, drd., Catedra tiine umanistice i limbi moderne, Universitatea Cooperatist-Comercial din Moldova
ABSTRACT

1. http://medtrad.org/panacea/IndiceGeneral/n26_tribuna-Schnell... Lenseignement de la traduction scientifique : prcisions conceptuelles, considrations pistmologiques et implications pdagogiques. Bettina Schnell et nadia 2. http://aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/mutatis... La didactique du concept de langue spcialise : vers une approche traductologique de la question. CHRISTIAN VICENTE GARCIA. 3. Cabr M. T., La terminologie, Thorie, mthodes et applications, Presse de lUniversit dOttawa, Ottawa, 1998, - 322 p. 4. Gmar J.C Meta : journal des traducteurs / Meta : Translators Journal, vol. 47, n 2, 2002, P. 163-176. 5. Gonzalez Matthezs G., Lquivalence en traduction juridique: analyse des traductions au sein de laccord de libre- change nordamricain (Alena), Facult des Lettres, Universit Laval, Qubec, 2003, - 430 p. 604

In the information and communication century the art of listening, is in the equal position, an ability of general culture and one of the special culture. In the context of business communication, an active listening is one of the professional activity, characteristic to any business man. The author, examined an active listening based on linguistic-communication, and also gave some tasks to the economist students making them understand a lot of terms through listening. Key-words: an active listening, communication, business communication, professional ethic, understanding through listening. nelepciunea colectiv i bogata experien social au determinat poporul nostru s defineasc cu mult exactitate limba ca mijloc de comunicare i de consolidare a societii, dar i ca factor distructiv, n cazul n care nu tii s te foloseti corect de ea: Limba dulce mult aduce; Limba nu are oase, Se ndoaie dup gnd; Vorba bun mult adun; Vorbele cele dulci deschid ua cea de fier, dar i: Gura aduce ura; Gur mult isprav puin; Vorba mult/lung srcia omului/gndului. Indiferent de condiiile istorice n care triete, comportamentul social al omului este condiionat, nti de toate, de comunicarea verbal.W. von Humboldt aprecia c n timp ce o parte considerabil a 605

circumstanelor ce acompaniaz viaa naiunii - locul de trai, clima, religia, organizarea de stat, moravurile, datina ntr-o oarecare msur pot fi separate de nsi naiunea, posibil chiar pot fi izolate, doar un singur fenomen de alt natur, care constituie suflarea, nsui sufletul naiunii limba apare n acelai timp cu naiunea [1, p. 303], iar Larry King statueaz c vorbitul este cea mai important form de comunicare uman, e ceea ce ne definete ca specie [2, p.9]. Apariia concomitent a limbii i comunitii umane, precizeaz distinsul lingvist i filosof, este congenital, deoarece limba nu constituie pur i simplu un mijloc exterior de comunicare a oamenilor, de meninere a relaiilor sociale, ci e pus, e plmdit n nsi natura omului i e necesar pentru dezvoltarea forelor lui spirituale i formarea concepiei despre lume; iar lucrul acesta omul doar atunci l poate obine cnd gndirea sa e pus n legtur cu gndirea social [1, p. 51]. S-a observat, c, din orice punct de vedere n-ar fi examinat viaa individului, ea apare legat neaprat de comunicare, deoarece slbiciunea individului solitar l mpinge pe acesta spre reciprocitate cu fpturi de acelai gen i reclam, pentru eventuale iniiative colective, nelegere reciproc prin intermediul limbii [Ibid., p. 63]. n al doilea rnd, limba constituie prima form natural de exprimare a gndirii umane, ea fiindu-i n general suficient, deoarece, ca ntruchipare nemijlocit a gndirii, limba materializeaz att procesul, ct i rezultatul activitii de cunoatere a omului, fixnd n substana sa orice act cognitiv ca pe o categorie social. n acest sens, comunicarea verbal se prezint ca o condiie primordial a existenei omului n societate, permindu-i s dezvolte producerea material ca temelie a oricrei viei, menioneaz G.V.Colanschi [3, p. 3]. Orice act de comunicare uman verbal presupune n mod obligatoriu prezena cel puin a trei factori, fiecare dintre ei avnd un rol distinct: emitorul persoana care vorbete sau scrie, adresantul, receptorul persoana care ascult sau citete, adresatul, i mijlocul de transmitere a informaiei limba, codul, mesajul. Actul de comunicare, n care snt antrenai cei trei factori, se desfoar, conform lui Ian Sabol, n felul urmtor. Emitorul, prin reflecie, codific mesajul n aa-zisul limbaj 606

cerebral, care, pentru a putea fi ncadrat n actul de comunicare efectiv, este recodificat n limbaj verbal [4, p. 155]. Limbajul cerebral particip permanent n aceast activitate, deoarece fr el gndirea nu-i posibil, n timp ce limbajul verbal este prezent doar atunci cnd aparatul articulator genereaz enunul acustic, afirm I. F. Varduli [5, p. 17]. Se consider, i nu fr temei, c particularitile de baz ale comunicrii verbale sunt legate de eficientizarea transmiterii informaiei. Este vorba, nti de toate, de gradul de dexteritate al vorbitorului emitent de mesaj de a produce un limbaj, pe care vorbitorul receptor, asculttorul, s-l decodifice corect i fr dificulti. Ascultarea, sau nelegerea dup auz, drept una din deprinderile integratoare specifice educaiei lingvistice, este examinat n sursele de specialitate multiaspectual, fiind formulate condiiile eficienei sale n cadrul comunicrii. Deoarece n cercetrile realizate, precum susine I.Sabol, cea mai mult atenie s-a acordat membrului/componentului mijlociu al comunicrii limbii, i ntr-o oarecare msur autorului textului, adresantului [4, p. 154], am ales ca obiect de cercetare n studiul nostru anume receptorul i rolul care i revine n realizarea comunicrii verbale. nzestrat cu aceleai organe ca i emitorul gur, urechi, ochi, creier, receptorul dispune de ele ntr-un mod diferit de emitor. Astfel, gura asculttorului e condamnat la tcere, autorul trebuind s-i in limba dup dini, s se nfrneze atunci cnd are mncrici pe limb, l apuc gura nainte sau uit c gura tcut nu umbl btut i gura nu numai c aduce ura, ci i de multe ori capul jos l-arunc, cci vorba i are ea vremea ei i dac vorba e de argint, tcerea e de aur. Aici nu e vorba de tcere ca valoare absolut sau de o tcere prin care potenialul receptor s-ar autoexclude din actul de comunicare, ci de tcerea care eficientizeaz actul de comunicare. Abd-ru-shin spune: De tresare n tine un gnd, oprete-l, nu-l exprima imediat, ci hrnete-l, cci prin reinerea n tcere, el devine mai dens i ctig n for, precum aburul sub presiune [6, p. 39], cci presiunea i condensarea creeaz posibilitatea unei aciuni magnetice, dup legea c tot ce este mai puternic atrage ceea ce este slab. Forme de gnduri asemntoare snt astfel atrase din toate prile i reinute, ntresc tot mai mult fora 607

gndului propriu original i acioneaz totui astfel nct prima form produs este lefuit prin ataarea de forme strine, se transform i primete pn la maturitate forme schimbtoare. Tu simi n tine toate acestea foarte bine, ns gndeti tot timpul c este n ntregime propria ta voin. Dar tu nu dai n nicio mprejurare n totalitate propria-i voin, exist ntotdeauna i ceva strin n aceasta [Ibidem].Cu att mai mult cu ct a frmnta gndul sau, pur i simplu, a gndi nu nseamn a nu vorbi, ci a nu rosti. n cultur, tcerea nu nseamn lipsa vorbirii, ci ntreruperea rostirii ei. Asta explic de ce tcerea oamenilor poate fi att de elocvent [Cf. 8, p. 6-58]. Afar de aceast tcere oarecum static, actul comunicrii poate fi eficientizat printr-o tcere dinamic. Este vorba de tcerea necesar ascultrii i analizei mesajului, decodificrii mesajului transmis de emitor. Dac este adevrat c pofta vine mncnd i veselia vine rznd, menioneaz A.erbnescu, atunci este cu att mai adevrat c gndirea vine vorbind [7, p. 233]. Potenialul cooperant al tcerii se face simit mai ales n cazurile cnd se constituie ntr-o tehnic de comunicare bilateral eficient: fiecare vorbitor respect prin tcere, nonintervenie, contribuia lingvistic a interlocutorului [Ibid. 150-234]. La o examinare superficial a mecanismului comunicrii umane, s-ar putea crea impresia c ascultarea este una dintre cele mai lesnicioase. i ntr-adevr, de ce nu s-ar putea crede aa?Oare dac Dumnezeu nu ne-a lipsit de auz, nu ne rmne dect s lsm urechile de capul lori ele i vor face de minune datoria. Dar dincolo de simpla percepere a mesajului, ca urmare a ncordrii auzului, va rmne nevalorificat o cantitate enorm de informaie, de mesaje mult mai subtile, servite cu generozitate, fie sincer, deschis, fie involuntar, de limbajul paraverbal, ce ine doar de nivelul vocal al comunicrii. Acest aspect al limbajului paraverbal, n urma unui antrenament asiduu i bine dirijat, poate fi nvat de orice vorbitor. Antrenamentul paraverbalului, potrivit opiniei lui t. Pruteanu, vizeaz abilitile de reglare continu a volumului vocii, pn la dobndirea capacitii de a vorbi cu un bun control al respiraiei, fr pierderi de aer, fr striden, nazalitate sau rgueal. Urmeaz abilitatea numit dicie, care privete pronunia 608

clar i precis, fr a o fora. Apoi, abilitatea de a vorbi ntr-o gam larg de tonaliti, cu modelarea vocii i reglajul continuu al ritmului vorbirii. n sfrit, vine rndul abilitilor de a folosi pauzele, de a plasa accentele i blbele oratorice, oftaturile, suspinele sau interseciile [Cf. 9, p. 156-282]. Scopul urmrit de vorbitor este mai mult dect clar: s-l conving pe asculttor de adevrul spuselor sale, chiar i atunci cnd ele conin cu bun tiin un neadevr, s spulbere orice umbr de ndoial sau suspiciune din partea asculttorului. i nu rareori lucrul acesta i reuete pe deplin. Secretul nu e mare aici sau, mai curnd, nici nu e vorba de vreun secret. Pur i simplu n timp ce arta european de a vorbi nu doar frumos, ci i convingtor, are o istorie de mai bine de 2500 de ani, despre arta ascultrii adecvate nu se prea vorbete. Demostene, Cicero, Hristos, Ioan Gur de Aur sunt doar cteva nume de maetri desvrii n arta de a vorbi frumos i de a convinge. E de presupus c acetia au avut i asculttori pe potriv, care le-au apreciat talentul i leau nvenicit numele, dar ale cror nume nu s-au pstrat, fiindc de pe atunci s-a creat opinia greit c ascultarea este la ndemna oricui i nu necesit nici un efort pentru a o practica. i aveau dreptate, mai ales dac se avea n vedere doar captarea informaiei transmise prin cuvinte. S-a vzut ns c n totalul comunicrii umane elementul verbal (ansamblul de cuvinte care formeaz mesajul, frazele i enunurile, sintaxa textului etc.) particip cu 7%, iar cel vocal (tonul i felul n care sunt spuse aceste cuvinte, diferitele intonaii pe care le adopt vocea pentru a-i putea emite mesajul) cu 38% [7, p. 28-42]. S vedem ce ar putea descoperi un asculttor dincolo de cuvintele care transmit doar informaii. Orict ar ncerca vorbitorul s par important i stpn pe sine, vocea subiat, strident, care zgrie i scrie, l va informa pe asculttor c vorbitorul este tensionat sau anxios/ngrijorat/nelinitit. Amplificarea vocii vorbitorului dezvluie inteniile lui agresive chiar i n ipoteza c nu dorete acest lucru i nici nu contientizeaz ce face. O articulare excesiv de clar supravegheaz, cu micri accentuate ale gurii trdeaz un psihic cam disciplinat, sever i lipsit de spontaneitate. Pauzele n vorbire, printre multiple 609

alte valori, o au i pe cea care ofer indicii asupra strilor sufleteti, emoiilor, atitudinilor i inteniilor vorbitorului. Subliniind cuvntul sau ideea demn de o atenie mrit, el chiar i fr voia sa le atribuie nite semnificaii paraverbale, care merit s fie auzite i interpretate atent. Un ritm al vorbirii reglat ca un metronom ne informeaz c avem a face cu o persoan pedant, care-i controleaz sentimentele i pledeaz pentru o disciplin de fier. Am indicat doar cteva cazuri de transmitere, involuntar i necontientizat, a informaiei, care sugereaz c farmecul i puterea de convingere a cuvintelor nu numai c se poate spulbera, ci chiar s se ntoarc mpotriva emitorului, dac vocea-i este lipsit de caracteristicile unei vorbiri elevate i, mai ales, dac asculttorul dispune de abilitile necesare pentru decodificarea celor mai subtile nuane ale vocii. Altfel spus, apreciind vorbirea frumoas i convingtoare, nu trebuie s ne lsm fascinai de cuvinte, nu trebuie s cdem victim a aciunii miraculoase a cuvntului, deoarece cuvintele contribuie doar cu informaia la realizarea actului de comunicare, n timp ce vocea cu care este rostit transmite informaii despre informaii. Emoiile, sentimentele i atitudinile, negsindu-i loc n cuvinte, cad pe seama vocii [Cf.10, p. 7-43]. Referindu-se la cuvnt i la aciunea lui misterioas, Abd-ru-shin scria: De aceea pzii-v cuvntul! Cu grij dai atenie vorbirii voastre, cci i cuvntul omenesc este fapt, care, ce-i drept, poate crea forme numai la nivelul realitii dense, fine, forme care, provocndu-i efectul, se scufund n tot ce este pmntesc. Nu v nchipuii ns c promisiunile se ndeplinesc conform textului i c devin fapt, dac vorbitorul nu poart n acelai timp inteniile cele mai pure n sufletul su; dimpotriv, cuvintele formeaz ceea ce vibreaz simultan cu ele, venind din profunzimea vorbitorului. Acelai cuvnt poate astfel s aduc dou feluri de efecte, i vai acolo unde el nu a vibrat adevrat, n puritate [6, p. 151-152]. Pn acum cincisprezece ani, cnd a fost elaborat prima concepie de educaie lingvistic [11] i primul curriculum de limba i literatura romn [12], care prevd formarea n anii de colaritate a unui vorbitor 610

cult pe un sistem de activitate comunicativ-lingvistic structurat pe formarea a patru deprinderi integratoare nelegerea dup auz, vorbirea, lectura, scrierea, nvam s vorbim, s scriem i s citim din fraged copilrie, fr s fim i nvai, n condiiile nvmntului formal, dect rareori, s i ascultm mesajele. Ni se poruncea ns mereu s ascultm. A indica ns o aciune ce trebuie realizat i a-l nva pe cineva cum s realizeze aciunea dat sunt lucruri foarte diferite. Iat de ce, dei varia situaii de viaa ne nva i s ascultm, ne nva s ascultm doar cu urechile, nu i cu inima, i contiina. De aceea deseori ascultm pentru a contrazice i a riposta cu replici incisive, nu pentru a simi, a percepe i a nelege integral i profund mesajul comunicat. Doar oamenii de o anumit profesie - negociatorii, diplomaii, psihoterapeuii, avocaii, psihologii .a., nva s asculte cu toate simurile, cu ntreaga fiin [Cf. 10, p. 156-157]. H. Wald precizeaz c auzul este <...>cel mai important sim al omului. Vzul i-a fost i este subordonat <...>. Activitatea creatoare a gndirii este n primejdie ori de cte ori se acord mai mult importan vizualului dect auditivului. Scpat de sub controlul auditivului, vizualul tinde s degradeze idei n imagini i s anuleze ncetul cu ncetul distana critic dintre semnificant i semnificaie [Ibidem, p. 104]. Calitatea comunicrii este determinat, aadar, nu doar de abilitatea de a vorbi i a scrie, ci i de nelegerea de auz, deoarece, ascultnd, nvm mai multe dect am face-o doar vorbind. Ascultarea corect este determinat de trei condiii mai importante. 1. S-i priveti interlocutorul n ochi. Meninerea unui contact vizual bun pe tot parcursul conversaiei i cnd vorbeti, i cnd asculi toate converg spre a face din tine un vorbitor excelent, indiferent de locul unde te afli, de ocazie sau interlocutori. Dar, firete, totul depinde de capacitatea de a asculta. Dac depui, sincer, efortul de a asculta ce i se spune, consider Larry King, vei descoperi c este mult mai uor s-i priveti interlocutorul n ochi. Totodat, precizeaz autorul, e bine s tii c nu se recomand s priveti fix, fr ncetare, n ochii interlocutorului. Privete-i interlocutorul n ochi doar cnd pui o ntrebare sau cnd i se rspunde [2, p. 31]. 611

2. S te concentrezi n ntregime la ceea ce i se spune. S-a observat c atunci cnd atenia acordat mesajului crete, intervin comportamentele nonverbale. Asculttorul i ncurajeaz interlocutorul cu ajutorul mijloacelor nonverbale ale comunicrii: clatin din cap, l privete, spune cuvinte de aprobare. n asemenea cazuri, consider Ch. Cuingi, interlocutorul se simte mai bine, iar informaiile primite snt ameliorate att calitativ, ct i cantitativ [13, p. 38]. 3. S verifici dac nu ai neles greit un cuvnt, expresie sau un gnd [Cf.:11, p.26]. ncearc s te transpui n rolul partenerului, s te plasezi n locul su pentru a-i nelege mai bine judecata [12, p. 78]. n felul acesta, atitudinea ta va veni n ajutorul procesului de concentrare i ascultare. Pentru a capta toat informaia, pe care ne-o comunic cel care vorbete, trebuie s fii un adevrat maestru al ascultrii. Nu n zadar se afirm despre arta de a asculta, care, ca oricare alt art, are secretele sale, care se nva. Unul din marile secrete ale diplomaiei, de exemplu, este de a te arta interesat de ceea ce spune interlocutorul, chiar i atunci cnd aceasta nu te intereseaz cu desvrire. A nu acorda ntreaga atenie persoanei care vorbete este considerat azi un semn de nepolitee. De aceea, n familie i n nvmntul formal, ar trebui s domine sloganul: Ascult-l cu atenie pe cellalt! n afaceri, capacitatea nedezvoltat de a asculta este nu numai un act nepoliticos, dar i un obicei pgubitor [13, p.75-78]. Dac un vorbitor devine plicticos sau dac ceea ce spune nu prezint interes pentru asculttor, acesta poate fi copleit de gnduri ce i par mai importante n acel moment i nu d atenie celor auzite. Dar o persoan politicoas, instruit n arta ascultrii, trateaz cu respect interlocutorul, deoarece asta ar putea s-i dea ceva folositor, s-l nvee ceva important. Dar principalul ctig al ascultrii atente n afaceri este consolidarea ncrederii reciproce a celor ce comunic, iar ncrederea de cele mai multe ori se soldeaz cu dezvoltarea afacerilor. Neascultndu-i superiorii cu atenie, persoanele din corpul executiv pierd nuane sau semnalri ce ar putea cauza pierderea a milioane de euro. Un bun asculttor ns, ca s neleag perfect ceea ce se ateapt de la 612

el, i amintete toate punctele principale ale discuiei avute, confrunt impresiile sale privind felul cum arat sau vorbete cealalt persoan, analizeaz atent ideile acesteia. O aciune valoroas, care aduce succes n afaceri, snt notiele n timpul discuiei, acestea marcnd valorile mai importante ale mesajului comunicat. De asemenea, un veritabil talent managerial presupune capacitatea de a-i schimba n timpul discuiei rolul de vorbitor cu cel de asculttor, folosind timpul de ascultare pentru a nva [Ibidem]. Incapacitatea de a asculta vdete, de regul, prezena unor trsturi nedorite i lipsa unor valori de cultur general, precum infatuare, etalare, agresivitate verbal, htrie, egoism, tiranie etc., n loc de modestie, sensibilitate, nelepciune, spirit comunitar etc. [Ibidem]. n afaceri, acest tip de asculttori, de regul, snt ignorai, cci nu exprim siguran. D. Carnegie meniona cu aceast ocazie: Dac exist un secret al succesului, el rezid n capacitatea de a asculta punctul de vedere al celuilalt i de a vedea lucrurile i din perspectiva lui [14, p.54]. Potrivit mai multor specialiti, n funcie de situaie i context, cuvintele pot conta mai puin. De exemplu, n situaii de intimitate, stnjeneal, doar 7% dintre schimburile de mesaje revin cuvintelor, comunicarea producndu-se preponderent prin voce, mimic, gestic i vibraiile, atingerile, semnalele corpului uman [15, p.11-15]. Un bun i iscusit asculttor se va impune ntotdeauna prin fineea spiritului de observare a unor detalii ale nfirii, inflexiunilor, modelrii/schimbrii vocii, ritmului respiraiei, dilatrii pupilelor, micrilor involuntare a ochilor, direciei privirii, culorii tenului, umiditii ochilor i a buzelor, crisprii muchilor feei, formrii cutelor pe frunte i a gropielor pe obraji, mobilitii corpului, poziiei pe scaun, gesturilor- ample i dezinvolte sau nervoase, abia schiate. Aceste obiecte ale observrii arat ct de important i ct de complicat este s fii un asculttor cult [Cf.9]. L.Baldrige remarc cinci niveluri de ascultare: ignorare, pretindere, ascultare selectiv, ascultare atent, ascultare activ [16]. Situaia de ignorare are loc atunci cnd interlocutorul citete 613

corespondena sau un dosar, rspunde la telefon, ncepe s discute cu altcineva, ascult radioul, adic se gndete la altceva. Cuvintele partenerului de dialog nu snt ascultate, iar calitatea comunicrii este slab. n cazul situaiei de pretindere doar anumite cuvinte snt ascultate, iar cea mai mare parte a lor snt pierdute sau ignorate. Asculttorul face totui anumite eforturi s-i acorde o anumit importan interlocutorului su. Cteva semne vdesc c persoana care vorbete este ascultat, dar interlocutorul totui nu este interesat cu adevrat de cel ce vorbete. Receptnd doar un cuvnt din cinci, comunicarea de calitate nu se produce. Ascultarea selectiv are loc, de obicei, n dezbateri, cnd persoana care nu vorbete se gndete la argumentarea rspunsului su, neglijnd, pur i simplu, argumentele prii opuse. Interlocutorul ascult ceea ce l intereseaz sau ceea ce vrea s aud. Aceast situaie de confruntare n rare cazuri i cu greu poate duce la un rezultat constructiv. Ascultarea atent este atunci cnd o persoan ascult toate cuvintele interlocutorului, le nelege, le depoziteaz n memorie, dar nu ncearc s creeze legturi, s iniieze un dialog deschis cu interlocutorul su. Neajunsul acestei comunicri este faptul c ea decurge ntr-un sens unic. A asculta fr a vorbi i fr manifestri nonverbale este, de obicei, acceptarea n comunicare, asemenea gen de ascultare permindu-i interlocutorului s-i dezvolte nestingherit gndurile i ideile, iar celui care ascult s-i ncerce i s-i verifice gndurile. Ascultarea activ, numit i ascultarea empatic, const nu doar n a asculta cu atenie ce spune i cum spune interlocutorul, ci i de a-i nelege motivaia. n acest scop, persoana care vorbete este stimulat s continue expunerea prin reformulri ale mesajului propriu. Interlocutorul confirm nelegerea mesajului, fr ns a aproba prerea expus: Intenionezi deci s..., n felul acesta ai ajuns la concluzia c..., Ai o logic formidabil! Acum totul mi-i clar! Persoana care vorbete are sentimentul c este ascultat i mesajul receptat. Comunicarea decurgnd n ambele sensuri, se poate ncheia, mai mult ca sigur, cu rezultate constructive [18, p.73 i urm.]. 614

A asculta activ nseamn deci a traversa o stare de mobilizare fizic i mental, dar nu n mod obligatoriu i tensional. Actul comunicrii devine posibil numai atunci cnd persoana care ascult se implic att intelectual, ct i emoional n procesul mprtirii nelesurilor care fac obiectul interaciunii. A asculta activ i empatic, totodat, nseamn s vezi i s simi lumea cum o vede i o simte interlocutorul tu, s ncerci s nelegi ce gndete i simte el. Numai jucnd imaginar rolul celuilalt, poi s-i nelegi i s-i apreciezi raiunile [17, p.56 i urm.]. Abilitatea de a asculta activ constituie temelia pentru dezvoltarea altor abiliti aferente: - de a nelege oamenii i natura uman, pentru a-i face pe ceilali s se simt importani; - de a-i influena pe ceilali i, totodat, de a cdea de acord cu ei; - de a-i luda i seduce pe ceilali, pentru a-i promova; - de a sta de vorb i de a face instantaneu o impresie bun. Ascultarea activ, n opinia unor cercettori, trebuie s parcurg trei etape: I. ascultrii i privirii; II. imaginrii; III. simirii. I. A auzi i a vedea reprezint nivelul percepiei naturale a mesajelor verbale i nonverbale, vizuale i auditive, emise de persoana ascultat. De exemplu, n situaii cnd vorbitorul i prezint filmul vieii sale, partenerul de dialog vede i aude indici precii i obiectivi de felul: Vd pupilele tale uor dilatate, Vd o cicatrice veche, Vd o cut adnc pe fruntea ta, Vd dou gropie n obraji, Aud cum i vibreaz/ tremur vocea ta, Aud vocea ta, care devine mai sonor ca de obicei. Ceea ce vd i aud este un indice obiectiv pe care l-ar vedea i auzi oricine n locul meu. Expresiile Vd c eti suprat() sau Aud nelinite, Vocea ta etc. exprim, de fapt, ceea ce-mi nchipui c vd i aud, deci percepia este oricum subiectiv. A imagina. Imaginaia asculttorului este legat direct de mesajul interlocutorului. Asculttorul se strduie s decodifice cuvintele i semnalele nonverbale transmise. n situaia respectiv intervine nchipuirea axat pe elementele ce in de verbal i nonverbal. Asculttorul i va formula n minte enunuri de tipul: Vd pupilele tale 615

uor dilatate? mi imaginez c m placi; Aud cum i vibreaz/tremur vocea ta? mi imaginez c ai un disconfort, c te deranjeaz prezena mea [Cf. 9, p. 59-282]. Cea de-a doua faz a ascultrii (a imagina) este una profund subiectiv, fiind influenat major de atitudinea i starea sufleteasc a asculttorului. Plecnd de la ceea ce vd i ce aud, oameni diferii i vor putea imagina lucruri diferite. n ncruntarea sprncenelor tale, de pild, cineva ar putea imagina mnia, proiectnd amintirea tatlui din copilrie. Altcineva, dimpotriv, ar putea imagina o sclipire de geniu, evocnd figura lui Enescu sau Ceaicovschi. Mecanismul psihologic activat aici este proiecia, operaia subtil prin care o persoan i atribuie alteia propriile atitudini, dorine, sentimente sau nsuiri pe care i le recunoate, dar i le refuz. Proiecia influeneaz inevitabil i incontient interpretarea, pe care o coloreaz cu propriul trecut. nelepciunea unor proverbe, precum Frumuseea se afl n ochii celui care privete sau Houl se teme c va fi furat, probeaz principiul proieciei psihologice. A simi. La etapa dat asculttorul, contient sau incontient, este obligat s-i asculte vocea luntric, propriul univers intim[Vl.Pslaru, 19]. El identific ceea ce simte, ca senzaie i emoie induse de mesajul interlocutorului.Aceste percepii au un suport fiziologic, care uneori pot fi atrofiate sau disprea cu totul. Anorexicii, de exemplu, snt indivizi care n-au poft de mncare [Cf. 9, p.156-206]. Rezult c eficiena actului comunicativ depinde de interesul i maturitatea ambilor subieci ai comunicrii, ceea ce impune, n plan educaional, sarcini precum: - cunoaterea i cultivarea caracteristicilor nelegerii dup auz, n special ale ascultrii active; - identificarea i combaterea formelor de ascultare neprielnice producerii strii de atenie; - activarea vigilenei intelectuale [Cf. 20]. Metodologia dezvoltrii ascultrii active este schiat de cele apte sfaturi ale lui Yvon Dalat: - Ascult fr a ntrerupe. 616

mai bine judecata. Memoreaz-i ideile, rspunsurile i ntrebrile. Studiaz discret semnele de comunicare non-verbal. Ia cteva notie. Valideaz esenialul mesajului recepionat, reformulnd ideile principale [21, p.78]. n concluzie. Ascultarea activ n comunicarea de afaceri este indispensabil succesului n activitatea antreprenorial. Sursele ascultrii active n acest context snt de natur tripl-unitar: lingvistic, comunicativ, de etic profesional i general.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

Arat-i interesul, privete n ochi interlocutorul. ncearc s te transpui n rolul partenerului pentru a-i nelege

1. y . . . : , 1984. 2. King Larry. Secretele comunicrii. Cum s comunici cu oricine, oricnd i oriunde. Bucureti: Editura Antet, 2002. 3. .. . : , 1974. 4. . . n: . : , 1988, p. 150-157. 5. . . . : , 1977. 6. Abd-ru-shin. n limba adevrului. Mesajul Gralului. Stuttgard, 1992. 7. erbnescu A. ntrebarea. Teorie i practic. Iai: Polirom, 2002. 8. Baylon Chr., Mignot H. Comunicarea. Iai: Editura Universitii Al. I. Cuza, 2000. 9. Pruteanu t. Antrenamentul abilitilor de comunicare. Limbaje ascunse. Iai: Polirom, 2005. 10. Wald H. Limbaj i valoare. Bucureti: Editura Enciclopedic Romn, 1973. 617

11. Pslaru Vl. Concepia educaiei lingvistice i literare. n: Rev. Limba Romn, 1995, nr.5, p. 126-129. 12. Pslaru Vl., Crian Al. (coordonatori), Cerkez M. .a. Curriculum disciplinar de limba i literatura romn. Clasele V-IX. Chiinu: tiina, 1997. 13. Cungi Ch. Cum s ne afirmm. Iai: Polirom, 2003. 14. Carnegie D. Secretele succesului. Bucureti: Curtea Veche, 1997. 15. Denny R. Cum s comunici ca s ctigi. Iai: Polirom, 2003. 16. Baldrige L. Codul manierelor n afaceri. Ediie adugat i revizuit. Bucureti: Editura Amerocart, 2000. 17. Cameron M. Comunicarea prin gesturi i atitudini. Cum s nvei limbajul trupului. Iai: Polirom, 2005. 18. CoveyS.R.. The 7 habits of highly effective people. Franklin Covey, 1998. 19. Pslaru Vl. Introducere n teoria educaiei literar-artistice. Chiinu: Museum, 2001.

ROLUL INDIVIDUALITII TERMINOLOGIEI DE SPECIALITATE N PROMOVAREA PLURILINGVISMULUI Svetlana BRSAN, dr., conf. univ., Catedra comunicare economic i didactic, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova
ABSTRACT

In the conditions of the accelerated globalization of the worlds economy, the communication and the understanding between the large public and specialists, the standardization of the speciality terminology at a global level, should be facilitated through the promotion and use of a language as well as more simple and streamlined. But the terms borrowed from English represent a big phenomenon in Romanian language and usually is making abstractions of the national individuality, often forgetting the terms which were established from the respective language. Motto: Cunoaterea cuvintelor duce la cunoaterea lucrurilor. (Platon) Comunicarea prin limbaj este o activitate uman al crei coninut este schimbul de informaie ntre parteneri n vederea instaurrii i meninerii unor relaii de colaborare i nelegere reciproc. Prin comunicare se urmresc dou obiective: unul de natur cognitiv (comunicm pentru c vrem s transmitem asculttorului o anumit informaie sau vrem s aflm ceva de la el) i altul - de natur social (comunicarea e orientat spre obinerea unor anumite rezultate). Pentru a exprima un mesaj astfel nct s poat fi uor neles, vorbitorii trebuie, pe de o parte, s contientizeze importana claritii i coerenei scopului lor, iar, pe de alt parte, utilizarea adecvat a mijloacelor de limb folosite n anumite situaii concrete de vorbire. n condiiile globalizrii accelerate a economiei mondiale i a integrrii fireti a economiei naionale n acest proces, ce are loc ntr-un

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ritm mai alert ca oricnd, comunicarea i nelegerea dintre public, autoriti, mass-media i profesionitii dintr-un anumit domeniu, standardizarea terminologiei de specialitate la nivel mondial trebuie facilitate prin promovarea i utilizarea unui limbaj ct mai simplu i uniformizat. Modernizarea limbii romne prin asimilarea i ncadrarea elementelor lexicale occidentale este un fenomen complex, nceput cu mult timp nainte de apariia primelor traduceri de la finele secolului al XVIII-lea. Umanitii de la sfritul veacului al XVII-lea i nceputul secolului al XVIII-lea, cunosctori ai limbilor clasice i romanice apusene, au mbogit terminologia economic cu neologisme latino-romanice, unele dintre acestea trdnd o filier polon, rus, francez ori greac. Citm doar cteva exemple: datornic (<dator+suf. nic, lat. debitoribus), licitaie (<fr.licitation, lat. licitationem), pret (<lat. pretium), activitate (<fr. activit, lat.activitas,-atis) etc.[2,p.48-56] Inseria de termeni neologici la sfritul secolului al XVII-lea i nceputul secolului al XIX-lea s-a realizat la nivelul conceptelor, pe variate arii ale activitii tiinifice, politice, culturale i economice. Aadar, etimoanele latino-romanice fundamenteaz n bun parte limbajul economic romnesc. n absena unei terminologii economice, se introduceau un numr apreciabil de neologisme pentru a defini raporturile dintre noiuni i realitile reprezentate de acestea. Se recurge la o vorb nou pentru fiecare idee nou, cu scopul declarat de a forma o limb economic pentru cugetarea economic.[4,p.95-100] Unii termeni supravieuiesc i astzi prin valorile semantice novatoare: faliment, a valora, beneficiar, agio, asignaie, cambie, debitor, depozit, tarif, speculaie, reclamant, aciune, lichidare, capital etc. n general, pentru a fi recepionat i nsuit cu succes, un limbaj de specialitate trebuie s fie clar, precis, riguros, coerent, corect, specific domeniului respectiv, s reflecte ct mai fidel i s sugereze ct mai explicit coninutul noiunilor pe care le exprim. De acest lucru trebuie s inem cont atunci cnd vorbim de predarea, respectiv, asimilarea unei terminologii de specialitate. n acest sens, studentul trebuie s aib un bagaj lexical i gramatical suficient de bogat pentru a fi gata s nmagazineze noi cunotine speciale, pentru a fi pregtit pentru o comunicare 620

acional. Obiectivele i scopul nsuirii unui limbaj de specialitate este ca studenii s poat comunica n scris i oral, dar, n primul rnd, s se neleag i s se fac nelei de partenerii lor de afaceri. n funcie de aceste obiective, ca i de nivelul lor de studiu, profesorul va alege modalitatea de abordare a problemelor, cursul propriu-zis, metodele i procedeele considerate a fi cele mai indicate. Dup Gh. Has, exist trei cerine n ceea ce privete limbajul de specialitate: - necesitatea de descriere; - necesitatea transmiterii de informaii, de cunotine, cu ajutorul unei terminologii coerente, acceptat de toat lumea; - necesitatea de norme aplicabile la orice transmitere de cunotine. [apud 1, p.277-284] n ceea ce privete lexicul propriu-zis, trebuie s amintim c el trebuie adaptat cerinelor de dezvoltare a societii, a relaiilor sociale, economice i politice. n consecin, remarcm o mbogire a limbajului graie unor surse interne i externe. n cazul limbajului economic, observm o internaionalizare a acestuia. Aadar, n terminologia economic i gsesc un loc potrivit att de diferitele lexeme, dup provenien i structur, disagio, scaden, fiasco, incaso, cont loro/vostro/nostro din italian; antet, angro, andosare, fezabilitate, angro, en detail, conosament din francez; clearing, leasing, factoring, dealer, broker, dumping, consulting, marketing, holding, overdraft din englez; ad valorem, loco, summa summrum din latin; fraht din german; dever din turc i multe altele. Relevant considerm faptul c aceste mprumuturi i influene sunt necesare, chiar pozitive, atta timp ct nu devin exagerate. mprumutul de termeni economici anglo-americani reprezint un fenomen desfurat n limba romn mai ales n ultimele decenii. E o ptrundere masiv care continu s creasc ntr-un ritm accelerat, dar care i gsete motivaia n necesitatea de a desemna anumite realiti extralingvistice. Aceste realiti impun prezentarea lor prin termeni neechivoci (n special, termenii tehnici care necesit precizie). Terminologia unui domeniu profesional nu este o stare, ci un proces care nu se ncheie niciodat. n timpul perioadei de creare a unei 621

discipline noi, poate chiar a unei specialiti moderne, formele lexicale, dar i sensurile sunt oarecum fluctuante: termenii mai noi sunt utilizai alturi de alii deja consacrai sau chiar arhaici, mprumuturile circul alturi de formaiile autohtone, termenii simpli apar ca sinonime ale unor perifraze descriptive. n plan semantic poate persista o oarecare nedeterminare, care permite reajustri, ajungndu-se uneori pn la ntrebuinarea termenilor ntr-o accepie uor diferit de cea a autorului lor. Pe msura evoluiei unei discipline de studiu, terminologia se fixeaz, stabilitatea ei depinznd de volumul de comunicare. Odat cu popularizarea ei, termenii trec n domeniul public i pot deveni elemente ale vocabularului uzual. Deci, ntre limba curent, lexicul general i limbajul de specialitate exista o zon de interferent. S-a constatat c aproape 80% din cuvintele fundamentale ale unei limbi sunt utilizate n limbajul tiinific.[1,p.277-284] Dar limbajul de specialitate nu presupune numai elemente lexicale, acesta fiind completat de limbajul iconografic. Multitudinea de scheme, diagrame, hri, fotografii, filme etc. completeaz n mod reuit vocabularul utilizat, astfel facilitnd nelegerea sau dobndirea de noi cunotine. Credem, n contextul celor expuse supra, c ar fi potrivit s amintim i rolul simbolului, aceasta cuprinznd nu numai semne, ci i litere. Or, terminologia economic abunda n simboluri: B.E.R.D. (Banca European pentru Reconstrucie i Dezvoltare), O.P.S. (Ofert Public de Schimb), D.S.T. (Drepturi Speciale de Tragere), G.R.I. (Garanii contra riscurilor pentru investiii) etc. Pentru a le nelege, studenii economiti trebuie s cunoasc terminologia de rigoare. Aceasta nu poate fi nvat mecanic. Obinerea unui limbaj de specialitate presupune, a priori, o bun posedare a limbajului uzual i, n acelai timp, a regulilor gramaticale necesare unei comunicri scrise i orale corecte. De aceea, susinem c nsuirea limbajului economic are sori de izbnd numai dup o temeinic i profund cunoatere a limbajului uzual. Relevnd importana cunoaterii normelor gramaticale n vigoare, revenim la tendina de globalizare a terminologiei economice, care a devenit n ziua de azi foarte puternic i care afecteaz i nrurete att pozitiv, ct i negativ sistemele terminologice din limba romn. 622

Evoluia modalitilor de creaie lexical este determinat indirect de internaionalizarea cercetrii, de comercializarea pe piee din ce n ce mai largi a produselor tiinei i tehnicii, de publicitate i, n mod direct, de organismele de standardizare terminologic. Un rol important n difuzarea inovaiilor lexicale l are presa care este i un important factor cultural-educativ. Prin larga sa audien, prin autoritatea pe care o impune, presa scris i audiovizual ia parte la educaia lingvistic a publicului larg, in grosso modo, i a tinerilor specialiti, in stricto modo, dar i la diversificarea i difuzarea noilor termeni. Comparativ cu lexicul comun, n terminologia de specialitate se folosesc mai multe mprumuturi neologice, ceea ce favorizeaz comunicarea ntre specialitii din diverse arii lingvistice. n lexicul comun ptrund doar elemente disparate ale limbajelor specializate pentru care exist realii actualizate i pentru nespecialiti. Extrase din cmpul lor profesional, obiectual, aceste mprumuturi sunt ncadrate, de obicei, n sistemul limbii literare ca neologisme i profesionalisme, nelese i, eventual, utilizate ocazional de vorbitori care nu aparin sferei profesionale respective. S-a constatat c zilnic apar aproximativ 1.000 de cuvinte i expresii noi n toate domeniile tiinei, tehnicii i tehnologiei pe plan mondial (n special, din zona anglo-saxon), iar n faa acestei avalane de lexeme nicio limb nu poate produce rapid echivalente neaoe mulumitoare, i chiar dac ar face-o, acest lucru ar mpiedica serios progresul pe plan naional n domeniile respective i comunicarea ntre specialitii din ri diferite. Aspectele influenei engleze n limba romn pot fi abordate din perspectiva normativ: pe de-o parte, norma socio-cultural, iar, pe de alt parte, norma lingvistic. Norma socio-cultural reglementeaz motivaia mprumutului n raport cu specificul unui anumit domeniu sau registru al limbii. Conform celor dou categorii stabilite de Sextil Pucariu, anglicismele care-i fac loc n limba romn se pot ncadra n necesare i de lux. [apud 5, p.85] mprumuturile necesare, dup cum e bine tiut, sunt acele cuvinte, sintagme sau uniti frazeologice care nu au corespondent n limba romn sau care prezint unele avantaje n raport cu termenul autohton. n acest sens, anglicismele necesare 623

au avantajul preciziei, al brevilocvenei i, nu n ultimul rnd, al circulaiei internaionale (ex.: broker, dealer, business, cash and carry, leasing, management, designer, rating, supermarket, discount, brand etc.). Ele sunt motivate de noutatea referentului. n acelai timp, lum n calcul i o motivare denotativ i chiar una conotativ (stilistic), n unele situaii. Anglicismele denotative nu au, n general, echivalente n limba romn, ntruct denumesc realiti aprute recent n diferite domenii. Iar anglicismele de lux sunt mprumuturi inutile, care in de tendina de ordin subiectiv a unor categorii sociale de a se individualiza lingvistic n acest mod. Asemenea termeni nu fac dect s dubleze cuvintele romneti, fr a aduce informaii suplimentare (ex.: job pentru slujb; party pentru petrecere; training pentru pregtire, instruire; advertising pentru publicitate; office pentru oficiu, market pentru magazin, consulting pentru consultan etc.) Fiecare limb n parte, ca organism viu i dinamic, inclusiv limba romn, va valida, va reine i va indigeniza ceea ce se va dovedi util i viabil, i, invers, va rejecta corpii strini, artificiali, redundani sau toxici. Sarcina noastr nobil a tuturor vorbitorilor de romn ns rmne aceea de a tria cu mult grij i atenie mprumuturile, dar, n acelai timp, cu gratitudine i preuire fa de limba matern. n acest context, graie valorilor autohtone (dac, desigur, le avem, le respectm i le promovm), datorit limbii materne, suntem aceia cine suntem. Iar dac dorim ca i cei din jurul nostru s ne accepte i s ne respecte pentru ceea ce suntem, pentru valorile noastre, atunci credem c noi trebuie s ne nscriem n procesul de promovare al plurilingvismului prin individualitatea limbii noastre, prin pstrarea tezaurului terminologic autohton i doar completndu-l, dup caz, cu ceea ce este lips. Aceste argumente ne permite s opinm c toi acei implicai n activitatea economic, indiferent de specializare sau de nivel, trebuie s nsueasc limbajul specific acestui domeniu, pentru a facilita nelegerea, comunicarea i aplicarea eficient a acestuia n contextul mondializrii politice i globalizrii economiei mondiale, proces n care Moldova este implicat n mod activ. 624

REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE 1. Bidu-Vrnceanu Angela, Relaiile dintre limbajele tehnicotiinifice i limbajul literar standard, n Limb i literatur, 1990, vol. III-IV, p. 277-284. 2. Brsan Svetlana, Dinamica terminologiei financiar-bancare (domeniul financiar-bancar), Editura A.S.E.M., Chiinu, 2006. 3. Ciobanu Georgeta, Elemente de terminologie, Timioara, 1998. 4. Coteanu Ion, Terminologia tehnico-tiinific. Aspecte, probleme, n LR, XXXIX(1990), nr. 2, p. 95-100. 5. Stoichioiu-Ichim, Adriana, Vocabularul limbii romne. Dinamic, influene, creativitate, Ed. All, Bucureti, 2001, p.85 6. Terminologia n Romnia i n Republica Moldova, Cluj-Napoca, 2000, p. 69-75. 7. http://www.litere.uvt.ro/vechi/documente_pdf/aticole/uniterm/ uniterm2_2004/dchis.pdf

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PREDAREA LIMBAJULUI DE SPECIALITATE DIN PERSPECTIVA MONDIALIZRII I A INDIVIDUALITII LINGVISTICE Lucia CEPRAGA, dr., conf. univ., Catedra comunicare economic i didactic, Academia de Studii Economice din Moldova Motto: Dac tiina n-are patrie, omul de tiin trebuie s se gndeasc mereu la tot ceea ce poate face glorie Patriei sale. (L. Pasteur)
RESUME

Dans la Rpublique de la Moldavie la mondialisation linguistique reprsente un problme usual ainsi que strident, aigu et actuel. Cependant, bien que la mondialisation a un impact negative, savoir qui menace le caractre national dun peuple, en particulier, de la langue, nous voulons souligner et limpact positif, et limpact negative, dans ce contexte, la ncessit de protger nos valeurs, de mettre en valeur lunicit de la langue maternelle. Dans ces conditions, langue de spcialise doit avoir le rle de mdiateur interculturel, mais pas colonisateur. Mission de tout enseignant, quelle que soit la matire enseigne, et travers lapprentissage des langues orientation professionnelle, laide de la terminologie nologique, est de greffer et de maintenir en vie, lamour envers la patrie, la langue, in grosso modo, ce qui est lidentit nationale. Dintotdeauna cadrele didactice, n virtutea menirii pe care o au de a pregti omul ca element activ al vieii sociale, ar trebui ca n activitatea lor tiinifico-didactic s pun n capul mesei afirmaia lui L. Pasteur, care spune c Dac tiina n-are patrie, omul de tiin trebuie s se gndeasc mereu la tot ceea ce poate face glorie Patriei sale. [1] Altfel spus, profesorul, indiferent de disciplina predat i obiectivele tematice de rigoare, nu trebuie s uite s-i glorifice Patria prin cultivarea i pro626

movarea valorilor umane autohtone. Un atare obiectiv poate fi realizat i prin politica lingvistic, care, credem noi, presupune att procesul de mondializare lingvistic (interpretat de unii cercettori drept globalizare, internaionalizare), ct i cel de meninere a individualitii. n context, M.Btrn menioneaz: Globalizarea lingvistic este un fenomen reperabil cu precdere n ultimele decenii, care const n utilizarea la nivel global a unei limbi comune, iar la nivelul limbilor naionale se reflect n folosirea abrevierilor i folosirea abuziv a mprumuturilor din englez. [2, 75] Cele patru dimensiuni spaio-temporale ale globalizrii: extensiune, intensitate, velocitate i impact, propuse de David Held, Anthony Mc Grew, David Goldblatt, Jonathan Perranton n Global Transformations Politics, Economics and Culture, pot fi raportate i la procesul de mondializare (globalizare) lingvistic. n Republica Moldova, mondializarea lingvistic reprezint o problem pe ct de uzual, pe att de acut. Ab initio, menionm c salutm cunoaterea mai multor limbi strine, vorba anticilor Quot linguas calles, tot homines vales (Cte limbi tii, de attea ori eti om (valorezi ct tot atia oameni)). nvnd o limb strin, se stabilesc i se folosesc conexiuni ntre limbaje explicative sau operaii, se conecteaz culturii i civilizaiei native o cultur i o civilizaie necunoscut, se ptrunde ntr-o manier diferit de a gndi i de a percepe lumea. Dezacordul nostru ns se raporteaz la aa-numita colonizare lingvistic de ctre limba englez, n special. C un popor i pierde treptat din obiceiuri, C i mai schimb portul, ar fi niscai temeiuri... Dar c i uit limba, exemplu nu-i sub soare,/ Dect acele cazuri, cnd un popor... dispare! [3, 28] Nici n cel mai sumbru gnd nu admitem o atare uitare, n acelai timp, este destul de dureros cnd ateti nite informaii de genul celor prezentate de studiul Limbile i culturile pe Internet 2005 (date valabile la nivelul lunii martie 2005) n care se spune c ponderea limbii romne pe Internet este aproximat la circa 0.17%, cel mai mic procent ntre limbile neolatine.[4] 627

Astzi studenii, i nu numai ei, n goana de a prea ct mai cool, adic grozavi, extraordinari, formidabili, nemaipomenii, uit de limba matern, trec peste demnitatea naional i, drept rezultat, i pierd ncetul cu ncetul identitatea. Din acest considerent, credem c misiunea oricrui profesor, pedagog este de a altoi i de a menine vie dragostea fa de patrie, fa de limb, in grosso modo, fa de ceea ce reprezint identitatea naional. Identitatea cultural-lingvistic red un mod de a percepe acel set de relaii i valori umane ce se regsete n inima unui popor, aunei naiuni. Or, pstrarea nealterat i promovarea limbii romne constituie nite valori primordiale, deci trebuie s fie i nite obiective didactice indispensabile, n pofida multor circumstane lingvistice nefavorabile existente de facto. Incontestabil, necesitatea unui cod universal n comunicarea mondial a devenit o necesitate vital. De aceea, dei mondializarea are un impact negativ, i anume acela care amenin specificul naional al unui popor, mai ales, sub aspect lingvistic, vrem totui s relevm i impactul pozitiv, n spe, contientizarea nevoii de a ne proteja valorile, de a etala unicitatea limbii materne. n procesul educativ universitar, cadrele didactice de orice profil ar trebui s pun accent pe terminologia de specialitate romneasc, iar n situaiile n care este posibil s se fac trimitere la evoluia termenilor, care, de cele mai dese ori, au origine latin sau neolatin. n present, studenii se afl nu doar ntr-o perioad de tranziie sub aspect economic, dar i din perspectiv lingvistic. Motivai de actualele novaii tehnologice, care sunt oferite printr-un cod de exprimare n limba englez, ei asimileaz terminologia de profil n limba englez fr a se ntreba cel puin dac nu cumva n limba romn deja exist un termen adecvat. Respectiv, fcnd abstracie de individualitatea naional, i fiind motivai mai mult de material, dect de spiritual, nici nu-i pun scopul de a percepe mcar nite rdcini greco-latine. Dar s nu uitm c Nu se poate tri ntr-o lume construit artificial, fr rdcini, cu o existen venit de nu tim unde i, implicit, cltorind n necunoscut. [5] n acest sens, rolul profesorului de specialitate este modificat, acesta, pe lng faptul c trebuie s fie ancorat n multitudinea de informaii de 628

profil, trebuie s se conecteze ntr-o reea interdisciplinar, s cunoasc date i s performeze limbajul specific domeniului de specializare al studenilor, pornind de la ceea ce trebuie s nvee studentul pentru a face fa unor situaii autentice de comunicare, pentru a satisface nevoile sale de exprimare lingvistic, precum i pentru a valorifica tezaurul terminologic naional, rdcinile istorice daco-romane. Credem c pentru a promova individualitatea lingvistic, identitatea naional, este mult prea puin ca n procesul predrii disciplinelor de profil doar s se menioneze limba surs a mprumutului. E nevoie, mai ales n condiiile unei acute colonizri lingvistice de ctre limba englez, axndu-ne pe interlatinitate, s relevm faptul c, dei unii dintre termeni au ptruns n limba romn prin filiera limbii engleze (eventual, a cele franceze), de fapt, aceti termeni sunt de origine latin. Ilustrm printr-un ir de termeni din diferite domenii: mprumuturi englezeti din domeniul economic: audit, auditing < lat. auditus, clearing < part. perf. clear < lat. clarus, consulting < lat. consultare, dividend < lat. dividendum, factoring < lat. factor, service < lat. servitium; din domeniul informaticii: insert < lat. inserere, delete < lat. delere, enter < lat. intrare, pause < lat. pausa, copy < lat. copiare, paste < lat. pasta, save < lat. salvare, print < lat. premere. n ceea ce privete domeniul juridic, unii studeni nregistreaz goluri mari n cunoaterea terminologiei att n limba romn, ct i n cea francez, de unde au fost mprumutai un mare numr de termini de specialitate. Limbajul de specialitate trebuie s aib rolul de mediator intercultural, dar nu de colonizator. Limbajul de specialitate nu trebuie privit ca vocabular sectuit, dimpotriv, el ar trebui s reprezinte nsui simbolul revigorrii perpetue a limbajului, pentru c, n definitiv, orice tip de cercetare implic depirea propriilor limite, iar limbajul de specialitate ar trebui s gseasc n permanen noi modaliti de expresie, pentru a nu risca o trimitere n zone crepusculare. Acest limbaj nu-i va pierde esena, fiind accesibil n mare msur iniiatului, ns va deveni o modalitate nou de viziune integratoare asupra lumii. [6] Aadar, terminologia de profil trebuie s funcioneze pe post de terapie i o asemenea abordare este indispensabil studentului pentru cu629

cerirea libertii intelectuale, prin gsirea propriei identiti ntr-o lume a indiscernabilitii, unde ghidul l reprezint dasclul su.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE

Tatiana PODOLIUC, Doctor in Philology, Free International University of Moldova

ABSTRACT

1. http://www.sanatatea.com/art/component/content/article/66maxime/7822-maxime-litera-s-iretlic-tiin.html?directory=1 2. Mariana Btrn, Globalizarea lingvistic, n Revista de Administraie Public i Politici Sociale,Anul I, Nr. 3 / Iunie 2010. Arad, pag. 75 3. Napoleon Slvescu, Noi nu suntem urmaii Romei, Editura Intact, B., 2002, p.28 // http://www.scribd.com/doc/7823840/Noi-NuSuntem-Urmasii-Romei-Napoleon-Savescu) 4. http://dtil.unilat.org/LI/2005/index_ro.htm 5. Dan Berindei, Necesitatea istoriei // 6. http://foaienationala.ro/necesitatea-istoriei.html 7. Ramona Hudak, Limbajul de specialitate ca terapie personal // http://culturasicomunicare.com/?q=node/10

This article is devoted to the problem of teaching specialized translation at the faculty of foreign languages. It is not an easy task because the number of academic hours planned for this subject is limited. Thats why we have elaborated the special set of manuals for this purpose. It consists of two manuals for teaching grammar based on specialized terminology, and two manuals for specialized translation. Working with these manuals for four years we see that it is worth doing so. , , . , - - . , . , , . ; , , , , , , , , . : Embassy Protests. , , , . -, protests ; embassy : 631

630

; . ; , embassy . Deputations will be going to the American Embassy in Grosvenor Square next Thursday to protest against the supply of arms to Israel. , : . , , . . , , . , , . : , , . [5,c.3-4]. , , . , . , . , -. . , . 1 2 . 1 400 , 632

. 2 . Essential Grammar For Senior Students, I and II Parts. .. , , . , , . , , Present Tenses : The first section of this report provides introductory comments, focuses on important new developments and highlights some of the operations outside the United States. The second section analyses the results for the group as a whole. The final two sections address our consolidated cash flow and financial condition. The report concludes by pointing out the need for further investment if the group is to continue its expansion policy [1, c.6]. Present Simple(Indefinite) , , , , . , s- 3... . , , , . . . , . , developments. 1) , , , ; ; Syn: growth 2) 633

 (); 3) , . development . developments (the latest developments ; unexpected developments; current developments; recent developments). , . operations. operation 1) ) , ) , . Syn: action , activity , agency. 2) , . Syn: act. 3) , , . Syn: efficacy , influence. 4) ; . 5) , . 6) (). 7) ) , .8) , , .9) .10) , . . section. : 1.) , (, ) Syn: part 1. ) ; ; Syn: part 1. ) () 2) ) , ; Syn: area , region ) () 3) ) , ) , ( ); ) , (, ) 4) ) () ) ( , . .) 5) , , ; ; 6) , ; 7) Syn: compartment; 8) , ; 9) ( ) . :1) , 2) ( ) , , 3) . , (, ). , consolidated cash flow, financial condition expansion policy. 634

. . , , , , . . . 90 , 40 , 50 . , .. , .. , , . Texts for Specialized Translation . , , , . . , , . , . . , [ 5,c.10]. , . , . 635

 , , , , , . , , , . , _. , . , Past Indefinite . , , . : The marchers got within ten yards of their object, and then the police pushed them back, cutting the demonstration into two. As the mounted policemen pushed, there was a crush against the opposite side of the road and a plate glass window was broken. to push Past Indefinite, -. - 10 , , . , - [ 5,c.12]. , , , . , . , , , 636

, : , , . . A general plan was operated by reactionaries to rehabilitate Nazi criminals. . . - , , . A big wave of actions by all sections of workers skilled and unskilled, men and women, manual and non-manual for higher wages and equal pay, for shorter hours and a greater say in shaping the environment at work has been unleashed in Britain. , , , , . . , . : , , . , . In a display of loathsome servility the Foreign Secretary backed the 637

US denials of the bombings of North Vietnam, speaking in Parliament on December 19. - . . display: 1. , . .; 2. , , . display . to display: 1. , , ( . .); ( . .). in a display . : 19 , , , . , . , , , , , . . We mean business, said the Prime Minister in the Commons yesterday, announcing new Government moves to hasten Britain into Europe. (M. S., 1968) , -, , , . 638

, , , . , Europe . , . : The storm was terrible while it lasted. . [5,c.23]. , , . . , . To begin to understand the history of the modern hotel industry, lets look at some of the forerunners in the industry who were entrepreneurs motivated by wealth and fame on a grand scale. Ellsworth M. Statler (1863-1928) developed the chain of hotels that were known as Statlers. He built and operated a hotel in Buffalo, New York, at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. Among his hotels were ones located in Boston, Cleveland, Detroit, New York City, and St. Louis. In 1954, he sold the Statler chain of hotels to Conrad Hilton. Statler devised a scheme to open an incredible two-story, rectangular wood structure that would contain 2,084 rooms and accommodate 5,000 guests. It was to be a temporary structure, covered with a thin layer of plaster to make it appear substantial, although simple to tear down after the fair closed. . , Present Simple, . 639

. , , To begin to understand . In order to begin to understand. , , . (, , ). , .. , , , . . to open . to be , to make to tear down . , , : , , , . Ellsworth . Statler (1863-1928) , Statlers. , -, - 1901. , , , , -, -Louis. 1954, Statler Hilton. Statler , , , 2 084 5 000 . , , , . , , , 640

. , , . , , , .

1. Podoliuc T. Essential Grammar for Senior Students. (Part I). :, 2006. 101. 2. Podoliuc T. Essential English for Senior Students. (Part II). :, 2006. 96. 3. Podoliuc T. Texts for Specialized Translation. ( Part I). :, 2008. 130. 4. Podoliuc T. Texts for Specialized Translation. (PartII). :, 2008. 100. 5. .; . . : , 1973.135.

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MOTIVAREA STUDENILOR LA ORELE DE LIMB STRIN PRIN DIVERSIFICAREA MATERIALELOR DIDACTICE UTILIZND SURSELE MULTIMEDIA Irina GUUL-GoRdIENCo, lector superior universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM Lidia PANAINTE, lector superior universitar, Catedra limbi moderne de afaceri, ASEM
ABSTRACT

This article relates about the power of video in Business English teaching both as an informational tool and for language development. Using video activity gives the students more confidence to pursue their language learning. Modern technologies represent a powerful motivational tool in teaching ESP. The role of the modern university lecturer is to meet the advanced needs of his students. It was reached the conclusion that the more a specific course is tailored to student needs, the greater the level of motivation and engagement. However, when teaching English to Business Studies students, what are the needs of these learners? How can we best use the Business English materials that are already on the market, and what gaps need to be filled? Metodele tradiionale de predare a limbilor strine nu mai satisfac cerinele avansate ale studentului contemporan. Pentru o politic lingvistic european, pentru sporirea eficienei nsuirii limbajului de specialitate i pentru motivarea studentului, profesorul apeleaz la utilizarea surselor multimedia. Rolul profesorului este enorm, ntruct el contribuie la didactizarea materialelor luate din internet i elaborarea exerciiilor i studiilor de caz. Profesorul elaboreaz procesul de planificare i de desfurare a videocast-lui i aspectele didactice a introducerii filmelor scurte la lecia de limb strin. Aceast metod motiveaz studentul s participe activ la elaborarea proiectelor de co642

municare, s exploateze i s implementeze limbajul de specialitate n situaii concrete. Un rol important n predarea limbilor moderne de afaceri este stabilirea necesitilor i cerinelor studenilor, deoarece gradul de motivaie a studentului crete n raport cu necesitile acestuia. Dei manualele de limbi strine de afaceri (Business English, Wirtschaftsdeutsch .a.) ne ofer o gam larg de exerciii de lexic, gramatic i text, se cere un supliment pentru aceste manuale pentru a satisface necesitile studenilor i a-i motiva s participe mai activ la procesul de studiere a limbajului de specialitate. ntrebarea frecvent care este pus n fata profesorului este: Cum s satisfacem necesitile avansate ale studentului i cum s-i motivm? Motivaia este motorul studiilor. Motivaia i abilitile omului se afl ntr-o interdependen permanent i continu. Omul se regsete n acel domeniu spre care tinde i care reprezint un interes vdit pentru el i invers omul evit s studieze un obiect care-i provoac un dezgust i, n consecin, el va fi incapabil s reueasc n acest domeniu. nc filozofii antici-Aristotel, Heraclit, Platon, Socrate i alii s-au ocupat de studierea motivaiei activitilor umane i a animalelor, subliniind c necesitile au contribuit la evoluia omului, la dezvoltarea lui mintal i la formarea limbii, vorbirii i obinuinelor de lucru. n secolul XX, n psihologia american se nasc teorii motivaionale avnd la baz studierea omului. Celebrul psiholog A. Maslow a prezentat bazele teoriei ierarhiei nevoilor umane. Maslow observ c fiinele umane nu sunt mpinse sau atrase numai de fore mecanice, ci mai degrab de stimuli, obiceiuri sau impulsuri instinctive necunoscute. Astfel, el susine c fiinele umane sunt motivate de anumite nevoi nesatisfcute i c nevoile situate pe treptele inferioare ale piramidei trebuie satisfcute nainte de a se putea ajunge la cele superioare. Astzi teoria lui Maslow st la baza tiinelor economice. Schopenhauer a menionat pentru prima dat cuvntul motivaie n articolul su On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. n prezent exist diverse abordri tiinifice ale motivaiei. Dup K. Madcen, J. Godfrua, motivaia reprezint o totalitate de factori, care 643

determin un anumit comportament (behaviour). Dup psihologul rus E. P. Iliin, motivaia este un proces de formare a motivelor sau un sistem complex a motivelor multilaterale care reprezint diferite domenii n care activeaz omul i rolul lui n societate. Psihologia modern recunoate urmtoarele tipuri de motivaie: motivaie intrinsec - n care persoana urmrete o activitate (sau chiar mai multe) strict cognitiv, cnd aciunile ntreprinse sunt pentru tine. Ex. cnd faci o munc cu plcere. motivaie extrinsec - n care persoana urmrete, prin activitile depuse: prestigiu, notorietate, faim, bani, statut, poziie etc... motivaie negativ ( frica de eec- Theory X) motivaie pozitiv (realizri i succese personale Theory Y). n ultimii ani o problem acut n procesul de instruire este lipsa de motivaie a studentului. Metodele tradiionale de predare a limbilor strine nu mai satisfac cerinele avansate ale studentului contemporan. n consecin, scade reuita studentului i eficiena instruirii n ansamblu. Studenii mulumii de procesul de predare a limbajului de specialitate la orele de limb strin i cu o reuit nalt reprezint rezultatul instruirii, iar mijloacele spre atingerea acestui rezultat sunt profesorii, care contribuie la motivaia intrinsec. (intern). Profesorilor li se recomand s efectueze o previziune a motivaiei prin metoda observaiei. Astfel, se poate determina nivelul motivaiei studentului. Dup prerea noastr, factorii care formeaz motivaia intern i pozitiv n procesul de studii este completarea coninutului materialului didactic cu materiale din internet (texte, documente, imagini, video etc.) i organizarea activitii de instruire prin metode netradiionale, prin intermediul surselor multimedia ca mijloc de sporire a motivaiei n studierea limbajului de specialitate. Unul dintre aceste medii l reprezint computerul. Computerul este un mediu modern, care a cunoscut o dezvoltare impresionant n ultimul deceniu i care ne ofer posibilitatea de-a putea nva mai individual, mai precis, mai rapid i mai cuprinztor dect cu ajutorul altor medii. Computerul verific datele introduse de student n calculator (adic inputul) i realizeaz feedback-ul (adic o conexiune invers, transfernd informaia ctre un tip de practic adecvat scopului urm644

rit).Cadrele didactice care au folosit materiale educaionale n format electronic n procesul de predare au observat c lecia devine interactiv. Cercetarea a evideniat faptul c prin folosirea calculatorului n sala de studii pot fi diminuate anumite probleme identificate n sistemul tradiional de abordare a leciei. Folosirea computerului este bun i n aprecierea corect a nivelului de cunotine a fiecrui student n parte i mai ales la verificarea cunotinelor de care studenii dispun la nceputul cursului, pentru repartizarea lor n grupe n funcie de gradul lor de cunoatere al limbii. Profesorii de limbi strine in tot mai mult cont de aceti factori, astfel c integreaz toate instrumentele media n cursul lor i n planul de nvmnt. Profesorul poate s propun fiecrui student n parte exerciiile de care acesta are nevoie i poate analiza apoi, mpreun cu el, rezultatele obinute. nainte de folosirea unui program educativ, profesorul de limbi strine ar trebui s tie foarte bine pentru ce nivel de studiu se adreseaz acest program, ce teme i ce exerciii propune, ct timp trebuie s se exerseze i cte exerciii trebuie s fac studentul, ce deprinderi trebuie exersate, ce alte alternative exist iar dac exist o alternativ mai bun s o utilizeze pe aceasta. O generalizare a nvrii limbilor strine pe baza introducerii tehnologiei informaiei i comunicaiilor ca parte a unui cadru metodologic eficient, ar putea duce la mbuntirea competenei lingvistice a studenilor. Computerul este suportul pe care sunt derulate programele de soft. Programele educative de software aduc cu sine urmtoarele caracteristici n procesul de nvare a limbilor strine: Motivaie: nu este un fenomen msurabil, dar poate fi ntrit prin materiale interactive bine pregtite, ceea ce contribuie n mod hotrtor la succesul procesului de nvare. Exactitate: mai ales n limbile cu accente diferite, computerul nu accept dect scrierea corect. Corectur imediat: n cadrul cursurilor se pierde foarte mult timp cu corectarea fiecrui student. Computerul ofer posibilitatea unei corecturi imediate, precum i o analiz detaliat a greelilor. 645

 Repetabilitate: exerciiile pot fi repetate de cte ori este nevoie, n funcie de capacitatea fiecrui student n parte. Deblocare prin anonimat: foarte muli studeni nu particip activ la ora de curs, deoarece sufer de un anumit blocaj trebuind s depeasc o anumit stare de timiditate. Exist mai multe sisteme de creare de materiale pentru nvare, care ofer o modalitate facil de creare a exerciiilor; multe dintre acestea sunt totui dificil de nvat i folosit. Astzi, cei mai muli profesori de limbi strine i propun s aplice o metod comunicativ procesului de predare prin aceea c vor s fac din competena comunicativ scopul predrii, i prin faptul c exist o legtur de dependen ntre limbaj i comunicare. Cu alte cuvinte, predarea unei limbi strine n zilele noastre consemneaz faptul c limbajul este o activitate i c aceast activitate ar trebui s fie vizibil n orele de limbi strine. Noi propunem spre analiz una dintre metodele netradiionale, utilizarea materialelor video. Acest lucru implic o regul pentru folosirea limbii int ntr-un fel autentic i de neles. Adesea, limba int nu este vizibil n mediul studenilor economiti i singurul loc unde ei aud i au oportunitatea s o vorbeasc i s o foloseasc, este n sala de studii. Totui este adesea foarte important ca predarea unei limbi s stabileasc o practic autentic pentru a folosi limba strin n sala de cursuri. A-i lsa pe studeni s lucreze cu materialele video este unul dintre felurile care definesc acest principiu. Alt principiu de baz pentru predarea modern a limbilor strine este acela c studenilor ar trebui s li se dea oportunitatea s nvee s-i exprime ideile i opiniile cu privire la diferite probleme. Cnd se lucreaz cu materialele video, exist oportunitatea de a lsa studenii s improvizeze i s foloseasc limbajul int ei nii. De asemenea, n lucru cu video cel care nva limba strin poate s aleag nu numai ceea ce s spun, dar i cum s spun sau cum s-i prezinte un punct de vedere pe care-l nsuesc din materialele video autentice propuse de ctre situri didactice ( Oxford, Deutsche Welle, Goethe Institute). Aceste materiale includ interviuri cu oameni de afaceri care relateaz cunotin646

ele i experiena lor profesional. Ei prezint companii reale n lucru i ne demonstreaz cum ei fac fa problemelor cotidiene. Limbajul n aceste situaii este didactizat conform nivelului studentului (A2- B2) i curriculum-ului. Materialele video didactizate reprezint un avantaj pentru profesor, pentru c ele sunt nsoite de o gam de exerciii. De asemenea profesorul poate folosi un numr vast de secvene video de pe situl You Tube, care snt relevante curriculum-ui limbii strine de afaceri, unde profesorul elaboreaz un set de exerciii. Lecia cu utilizarea materialelor video necesit un plan bine chibzuit, care presupune nu doar vizionarea secvenei video, dar i efectuarea exerciiilor care urmeaz s fie clasificate n felul urmtor: pre-task: a) sociograme tematice, care pot fi completate cu cuvintele-cheie. Mindmap; b) cuvinte-cheie ca introducere in tem; c) eventual imagini tematice, care nu neaprat sunt luate din film, ns au asemnri cu coninutul filmului; d) nsrcinri scrise care pot fi elaborate n baza textelor scurte, luate din reviste, internet despre tematica filmului, provocndu-i la discuie; e) prezentarea filmului fr sunet cu scopul de a face o introducere n aciune, ori de a descrie aciunea, de a elabora mpreun un text (dialog, descriere, comentariu in funcie de model) pentru a fi comparat mai trziu cu textul propriu-zis. n timpul derulrii filmului se propun nsrcinri care s nu sustrag studentul de la recepionarea sunetului i a imaginii. Studenii sunt repartizai n grupuri de lucru. Sarcina lor este de a nelege aciunea, nelegerea global a mesajului filmului, eventual secvene mai complicate, sfritul filmului. a) rezumatul i relatarea textului; b) studenii noteaz cuvintele care ies n eviden ori caracteristici lingvistice cum ar fi gramatica sau lexicul.ex. Rektionen der Verben, zusammengesetze Worter, feste Wendungen; c) colectarea informaiei economice din secvena video; d) discuii despre aspectele creative, adic lumina-umbra; imaginea-sunetul; limba muzica; gestica-mimica. 647

Post-task: a) evaluarea secvenelor spre producerea textelor: rezumatul coninutului i relatarea lui (oral i scris), de a descrie personajele, de a descrie problema dat (B1-B2); b) sarcini lexicale i gramaticale cu fie. Elaborarea vocabularului tematic bazat pe limbajul de specialitate prezentat n materialul prezentat.(A2-B1); c) exerciii de pronunare (A1-A2); d) elaborarea proiectelor bazate pe coninutul filmului, ex: un scurt film (un spot publicitar.) Studenii pot face singuri un spot pentru o companie autohton.(A2-B1-B2); e) prerile personale despre coninutul i limbajul filmului. n contextul abordrii acionale recomandm n mod experimental producerea video de ctre studeni. A produce un material video poate fi o activitate care stimuleaz interaciunea comunicativ ntre studeni i astfel s ncurajeze relaiile de cooperare dintre ei n timpul orelor de limbi strine. n acest fel nvarea unei limbi este nu doar o problem pentru o singur persoan, ci i o problem pentru grup. Cu alte cuvinte, lucrnd cu producia video, studenii reuesc s alctuiasc un grup de lucru i devin responsabili pentru grup i nu individual. Materialul video efectuat de studeni poate fi prezentat n auditoriu, unor colegi din alte grupe academice i chiar fcut public, ca de exemplu YouTube. Totui trebuie s ne asigurm c o producie video publicat pe site-uri publice are permisiunea tuturor studenilor implicai i dac acest material este de o calitate care s-i permit publicarea. Deoarece proiectele video este o parte a orei de limbi strine, este de asemenea recomandat ca studenii economiti s fie invitai s se concentreze asupra limbajului de specialitate i a formei. A produce un material video poate fi vzut ca un instrument pentru a convinge studenii s foloseasc limba int n timpul orelor i ca un instrument pentru a dezvolta fluena i a promova folosirea strategiilor de comunicare la mai multe nivele (A2, B1, B2). S-a constatat c folosirea activ a mijloacelor video s-a dovedit a fi din ce n ce mai reuit, n orele de limbi strine din Europa. Cei mai muli studeni sunt, de obicei, motivai i se bucur s produc diferite 648

proiecte. Din punct de vedere pedagogic, este fr ndoial important s devenim contieni c proiectele i prezentrile video fcute de studeni nu ar trebui s fie prea complicate i ambiioase.
BIBLIOGRAFIE

Brandi, Marie-Luise, unter Mitarbeit von Dieter Arnsdorf: Video im Deutschunterricht. Eine bungstypologie zur Arbeit mit fiktionalen und dokumentarischen Filmsequenzen. (Fernstudieneinheit 13), Langenscheidt, Mnchen 1996. [Mit Quellenangaben und Angabe von Bezugsmglichkeiten fr Videos und Begleitmaterial] Bufe, Wolfgang: Der Einsatz der Videokamera im interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht. In: Jung, Udo O.H. (Hrsg.): Praktische Handreichung fr Fremdsprachenlehrer. Frankfurt am Main 1992, S. 199213. Esselborn, K.: Neue Beurteilungskriterien fr audiovisuelle Lehrmaterialien. In: ZD 2/1991, S. 6478. Khn, Olaf: Vom Sehen plus Hren zum Sprechen. Zu den Chancen des Videoeinsatzes im Franzsischunterricht . . ., 2001. Oxford University Press, Using multimedia in the classroom.

649

ENJEUX ET STRATEGIES DE LINSERTION NUMERIQUE DANS LENSEIGNEMENT DU FOS DANS NOTRE PAYS Ina ZAPOROJAN, lector universitar, Catedra limba francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Ludmila ZBAN, dr.hab., Catedra Traducere Interpretare i lingvistic aplicat, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Vitalina BAHNEANU, dr. conf., Catedra limba francez, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
ABSTRACT

This study is part of the integration of emerging technologies into teaching foreign languages for specific purposes research, based on a surveillance and analysis methodology concerning the tools and equipment used the rate of involvement of the concerned specialists, the available resources and decision makers in order to improve the quality of teaching process. In our country, that is often described by political and economic instability, new technologies are not sufficiently explored in teaching foreign language for specific purpose, even though we all are citizens of a world in constant motion. Dans cet article on va tenter de rpertorier les avantages de linsertion numrique dans lenseignement du FOS et de classer les apports de lInternet lenseignement/apprentissage du FOS en se basant sur lapproche centre sur la dfinition des tches pour une sance de franais juridique. Il est paradoxal que la construction plurilingue et pluriculturelle risque de passer pour un objectif ambitieux voire irralisable, alors que dans pratiquement toutes les socits contemporaines lexprience des TICE suit un rythme toujours croissant en vue de rpondre aux dfis changeants dun monde en mutation. Linsertion numrique dans 650

lenseignement du FOS reprsente un projet ambitieux qui pourra favoriser lducation dune gnration crative avec lesprit de pense critique dvelopp, toujours implique dans la recherche et qui pourra se dbrouiller dans des situations concrtes de la vie professionnelle. Notre hypothse de recherche sappui sur trois constats effectus dans notre pratique professionnelle en tant quenseignants du FLE (FOS) la Facult de Droit. Donc, il est important de dterminer les objectifs, qui devront ensuite tre transforms en un programme instrumental se composant des tches diffrentes concrtises par des actes de paroles, des expressions typiques sen servir dans la situation en question. Lobjectif de ce travail est dapporter, au premier lieu, une rflexion de plus sur le travail des enseignants du FOS pour la possibilit de pouvoir intgrer les nouvelles technologies dans lenseignement et apprentissage. Lune des principales tches de lenseignant est alors de slectionner, concevoir et grer le matriel denseignement pour pouvoir venir en aide aux tudiants (on peut commencer par lcoute dun dialogue type ou par une squence de vido) et de leur donner la rtroaction sur le travail quils effectuent. Par ailleurs, lintrt affirm pour les technologies est nuance par lexpression de proccupations qui montrent que cet intrt nest pas inconditionnel, mais trs rflchi et nourri par le souci de lintrt gnral et notamment socital : ne pas sacraliser les outils technologiques au dtriment de lhumain, sauvegarder la dimension humaine des tches lies lenseignement et la formation des jeunes; ne pas oublier les problmes dinsertion des jeunes dans le monde du travail au sortir des formations universitaires. Laccs des sources dinformation riches, diversifies et offrant une bonne lisibilit conduit lutilisation des mmes outils numriques pour la prparation des cours. Cette dmarche contribue stimuler un travail sur la forme donne la prsentation des documents et leur organisation dans un discours en prsentiel plus souvent illustr qui conduit une plus grande qualit des documents proposs, ainsi qu une plus grande clart du discours produit. 651

La varit des outils technologiques peut conduire, dans certains cas, diversifier les formes mmes de lenseignement en leur confrant une dynamique, une plus grande souplesse, avec, pour les acteurs, un plus grand sentiment de libert. La prsentation dun cours grce un logiciel de traitement de diapositives numriques, tel que PowerPoint par exemple, peut alterner avec des sances plus individualises, comme le travail sur une squence vido regarde en classe, et aussi des questions et ractions des tudiants sur le cours disponible sur Internet, sur une plateforme ddie. Il faut cependant noter le caractre trs onreux du matriel dont nous avons besoin, parfois pas de connexion Internet dans la salle de classe, pas de vidoprojecteur, aucune possibilit de faire acheter un ordinateur portable. Cest notamment dans se sens quil faut encore beaucoup defforts en vue de faire voluer la situation. Dans une socit globale o nous y sommes de petits moteurs du changement et du dveloppement, il est absolument ncessaire dexplorer les nouveaux outils disponibles, mais pas toujours utiliss pour un bon rsultat. Plusieurs avantages dcoulent de lutilisation des technologies : une actualisation aise des supports et des cours, une facilitation des tches lies lenseignement, une source de satisfaction. Laccs permanent des bases de donnes permet de mettre jour la fois les cours et le choix de supports qui les illustrent, facilement, rapidement et surtout rgulirement. Les cours sont ainsi plus complets , ils suivent lactualit et conduisent des vrifications et des remises en question permanentes . Ainsi, la relation entre enseignant et tudiant est parfois amliore par la mdiatisation. Le cours est rendu plus convivial par des outils de prsentation qui aident clarifier les contenus, qui peuvent conduire dvelopper des activits plus individualises et qui suscitent une augmentation des interactions et des questions, rendant les changes plus vivants. Un outil comme le courrier lectronique permet de communiquer des informations en dehors des temps denseignement, apportant ainsi une plus grande souplesse lorganisation temporelle et spatiale de la formation ; il permet en outre de garder, dans certains cas, 652

un historique prcieux des changes avec les tudiants et de construire avec eux un dialogue enrichissant . Limportante recherche documentaire, leffort de lisibilit, lactualisation rgulire des cours procurent une satisfaction certaine, partage par les enseignants et par leurs tudiants. Les premiers considrent que les technologies permettent de rester efficace et oprationnel , de senrichir personnellement, lesprit , contribuent stimuler la motivation par la ncessit dapprentissage permanent et dautoformation quelles comportent. Outre le caractre moderne que confre lutilisation des technologies aux enseignements universitaires, il semble que le travail sur la forme des messages qui fait craindre certains que lon sarrte l, conduit galement un travail sur le fond, la fois au niveau des contenus disciplinaires, de leur didactique, mais aussi des aspects pdagogiques lis au souci des enseignants de bien faire passer le message. Cet effort dans lamlioration des supports principaux de la communication pdagogique donne plus dimpact lintervention magistrale qui stimule lattention et la motivation des tudiants. En effet, ils disposent de cours denses et synthtiques qui souvrent davantage sur la matire enseigne et sur des proccupations qui dpassent la discipline stricte, lorsque lenseignant trouve ses exemples dans les milieux professionnels. Il arrive, de plus, que certains enseignants utilisent des logiciels que les tudiants utiliseront dans la vie active, ce qui est une source supplmentaire de motivation. Par ailleurs, grce des ressources repres sur Internet, les tudiants ont la possibilit dapprofondir leurs connaissances. Ce qui constitue un complment pdagogique de choix. Grce la richesse des informations qui leurs sont communiques et grce au cours qui parfois se trouve sur le serveur une semaine avant la sance prvue, les tudiants ont la possibilit, sils le souhaitent, de prparer une sance donne, puis de lapprofondir pas la suite. Cest ce qui fait dire certains enseignants que lapport des technologies dans les acquisitions nest pas relatif aux techniques, mais quil dpend de linvestissement de ltudiant. 653

Martel [1, pp. 142-143) propose lnumration suivante : La pense ducative sur leWEB est encore trs largement intuitive. Elle prconise, entrine et approfondit par la pratique des tendances que la didactique des langues avait dj intgres au cours des vingt dernires annes : linterculturel (par les changes et par la recherche sur les sites) la collaboration (crations collectives) lintgration du contenu en mode immersif (distinction floue entre contenu pour apprentissage des langues et contenu pour information grand public) le plurimdia (inclusion du son, image, vido et du texte) lautonomisation (vers une grande libert de recherche, dexpression et dobjectif) lapprentissage ludique et la motivation par le jeu et la rduction du stress la simulation et le jeu de rle la communication authentique (groupes de discussion, correspondance lectronique). Lapprenant dsireux de sauto-former ou de se perfectionner en langues dispose, grosso modo, de deux familles de produits multimdias : les ressources non pdagogiques (cdroms et sites Internet grand public et/ou spcialiss), dune part, les cdroms dauto-apprentissage et les sites Internet proposant des activits linguistiques (que celles-ci fassent ou non lobjet dune valuation en ligne), dautre part. Lintroduction des TIC en formation prsente ainsi la particularit de pouvoir la fois tre perue comme outil daide lapprentissage et comme dmarche de formation permettant tous laccs au savoir et aux comptences transversales requises dans une socit. Pourtant il semble encore difficile de les intgrer dans une classe de langue trangre qui devrait tre axe sur les mthodes technologiques alors quil est incontournable dadapter ces ides lenseignement de demain. Le problme des TICE en Rpublique de Moldova se situe plutt du ct du nombre limit de salles de cours dotes dun ordinateur connect au rseau de ltablissement, linternet et reli 654

un vidoprojecteur ce qui reprsente la condition sine qua non dans cette dmarche. Lvolution technologique met disposition de nouveaux moyens et permet une interactivit plus importante quil y a quelques annes, nous restons quand mme encore coincs dans limpossibilit de mettre en uvre tous ces outils en vue de tirer parti des ressources existantes. Tout gain de cause suppose donc soit quon tire parti de lapport des outils numriques pour les activits dapprentissage laide dun cadre thorique, normatif et pragmatique soit quon borne son activit didactique un processus vieilli de transfert des connaissances aux apprenants marqus ainsi par le handicap de participation, dinteraction et de valorisation des comptences. Un outil qui est tout fait rvolutionnaire est TV5.org . Cet apport augmente la motivation et le dsir dapprendre, ce qui conduit les tudiants mieux se prendre en charge et dvelopper leur autonomie; ils acquirent une nouvelle faon de travailler, de rflchir sur leurs travaux. Il semble que lautonomie des tudiants et la prise en charge de leur parcours de formation soit lun des gains importants dans des systmes flexibles o ils ont la possibilit dorganiser leurs apprentissage de manire plus souple. Dans ce contexte, nous proposons un exemple de fiche pdagogique sur un document juridique, qui est une squence vido tire de la srie Les mots du droit du site tv5.org. Il sagit dun document didactique de 14 minutes qui caractrise la comptence de la Cour dAssises de Paris. Le film a un contenu bien structur ce qui permet lenseignant de faire un plan et de le partager par squences de 2 minutes chacune. Les tapes : - collecte des donnes - identification des situations de communication - traduction en besoins langagiers ou actes de parole - rfrentiel des comptences linguistiques ncessaires la ralisation des actes de paroles Comprendre un document vido 655

RFRENTIEL DE COMPTENCES

Comptences Comptences juridiques langagires Ecouter et comprendre comprendre un un document vido de document vido spcialit assister un process dfendre un accuse prparer une plaidoirie classer un dossier traduire un texte de loi rdiger un texte de loi maitrise de la correspondance juridique discuter sur un sujet comprhension orale donner son avis production orale donner son avis contester et argumenter commenter un document vulgariser des textes de loi

Comptences linguistiques lexique spcialis

connecteurs logiques lexique des minutes syntaxe spcifique la justification connecteurs logiques reconnaitre les faits passs cohsion textuelle

la consquence

8. Quest-ce quune dlibration en Cour dAssises ? Activit 2. Regardez la suite et trouvez la diffrence entre les termes juridiques suivants : 1. jur-jury ; 2. accus-prvenu ; 3. dlibration-dlibr ; 4. acquitt-relax ; Faites-les entrer dans des phrases ou petites situations : Activit 3. On continue le travail et on propose aux tudiants de faires la traduction de larticle 304 du code de la procdure pnale. Activit 4. Rcrivez cet article du Code pnal franais dans un langage courant. Activit 5. Parlez de la Cour dAssises travers son histoire. Expliquez le mot malus . Trouvez la signification dans le dictionnaire de termes juridiques. Activit 6. Continuez la vision et donnez votre point de vue sur le procs jug par la Cour dAssises de Prigeur. Activit 7. Ecrivez un commentaire au sujet du jugement propos en titre dexemple. Activit 8. Reliez les deux colonnes et dcouvrez le sens des noms relevant de la terminologie juridique. 1. Transgresser la loi 2. Mesure de punition pour la violation de la loi 3. Mesure dicte par un acte de loi 4. Document compos de plusieurs 5. Montant pay pour une infraction 6. Opration que quelquun est contraint de faire 7. Occasion de contester la minute dune instance juridique 8. Possibilit de consulter un document 9. Attitude exprime 10. Compte-rendu a. accs b. avis c. obligation d. amende e. disposition f. recours g. sanction h. procs verbal i. alina j. manquement 657

I. Comprhension globale et recherche Activit 1. Rsumez le contenu du document en 50 mots afin de diffuser linformation sur la plateforme de votre institution. Activit 2. Dressez le plan du document II. Comprhension dtaille Activit 1. Visionnez le dbut du document et rpondez aux questions: 1. Quelle est la structure de la Cour dAssises ? 2. De quoi est-elle charge ? 3. Qui sont les jurs ? 5. Qui dirige les dbats dans la Cour dAssises ? 6. Quest-ce quune phase de plaidoirie ? 656

Activit 9. Exercices de simulation professionnelle. a. Prparez un modle de plaidoirie de la part de lavocat de dfense de laccus. b. Prparez une plaidoirie pour lavocat daccusation. Activit 9. Rdigez un article informatif sur le sujet du documentaire. Prenez comme titres les modles proposs: a. Les victimes dinceste doivent parler. b. Quinze ans de rclusion pour un pre incestueux. c. Le maon pdophile gagnait la confiance des parents. Nous esprons que lexemple ci-dessus reprsente un modle prcieux du point de vue de la possibilit dexplorer le monde numrique, tant donn que le monde actuel reste un universel qui influence toutes les activits de lhomme et le principe primordial est de transformer ces volutions dans des atouts. Ainsi, le franais sur objectif spcifique, dans le cadre dune dynamique de mondialisation, parfois, dstabilisante, se rfre en mme temps trois domaines qui coexistent, celui du franais gnral ayant trait plutt des cultures, celui des connaissances professionnelles et celui des TIC.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE

ESP FOR CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT STUDENTS Elena RUSU, Teacher of Chemistry and English, Theoretical Lyceum Budeti
ABSTRACT

1. Anglique Martel, Lapprentissage du franais sur Internet, n Les Cahiers de lAsdifle, nr. 9/1998, pp.125-149 ; 2. Anglique Martel, Vers une didactique nouvelle avec linternet, n Le franais dans le monde, nr. 306/1999, p. 29-31 ; 3. Franois Mangenot, Multimdia et activits langagires, n Oudart P. (d), Le Franais dans le Monde/Recherches et Applications, Multimdia, rseaux et formation, Paris, Hachette-Edicef, pp. 76-84 4. Franois Mangenot, Rseau internet et apprentissage du franais, n Chanier & Pothier (dir.), Etudes de linguistique applique, nr.110/1998, pp. 205-214 ; 5. Franois Mangenot, Classification des apports dInternet lapprentissage des langues, Apprentissage des Langues et Systmes dInformation et de Communication Vol. 1, Nr. 2 /1998, Universit de Franche-Comt, pp. 133-146. 658

Nowadays to learn English became a trend among students and it is a good choice because those who study at the Chemistry Department preparing for their license diploma have to consult a lot of abstracts, majority of them being in English. Having ESP course students will be more efficient in analyzing chemical contents, they will be able to write own abstracts in English, analyze chemical utensils and apparatus for the chemical reactions. Majority of the stakeholders and employers that hire the Chemistry Department Graduates are from abroad and their major requirement is the advanced level of English language especially technical one. For designing an ESP course for Chemistry department students is necessary to perform the needs analysis, establish the objectives and specified curricula. Scientists from Moldova are considered to be very skillful due to their limited resources and at the same time important researches and achievements. It is undoubtedly demonstrated that there are no limits that can stop or prevent young researches to develop their ideas, methods and conduct their experiments. However, in my opinion, regarding own experience of Chemistry Department graduate at Moldova State University, there is an urge to implement a special course of English for students. In the last year of their studies students have to consult a lot of abstracts in order to write their license work. Consulting the materials students have to know special language from Chemistry domain. So, in order to use correctly the experiments, utensils and substances, there is not enough to know General Purpose English. The course will help the students to: understand consulted chemical abstracts; write own abstracts regarding own researches; perform described experiences and adapt to own conditions and chemicals; 659

 apply for different scholarships in order co continue their studies abroad; be competitive in the process of application to different job positions; consult chemical specialized dictionaries of existed substances, their properties etc; use correctly specialized equipment after consulting Guide for use Books; recognize listened from different media resources names of chemical substances, methods, meaning and results of different experiments; increase the number of chemical abstracts written by Moldovan researches in international chemical Journals. Taking into consideration that Chemistry itself as a subject, is a difficult one and its specific terminology must be known by students, to introduce ESP course in the university curricula is necessary in the last year, when the students know already the chemical terminology in their native language. Practical tasks and activities of this course will be students own bibliographical findings regarding their researched topics. Analyzing them students will have to: perform translation of the related abstracts from English to their native language; retell in English the contents of abstracts to their colleagues; write a report about their findings in English and in Romanian; perform different experiments explained in media resources, respecting safety rules; purpose comments to colleagues contents. Completing the ten-week online teacher training course at the University of Oregon (American English Institute), called English for Specific Purpose, Best Practices I established several stages in creating an ESP for Chemistry Department Students. One of the stages is needs analysis that nowadays involves as many participants as possible in order to motivate students to study and 660

acquire knowledge, also to offer the students the impression of being a part of planning, designing an appropriate course that suits target ESP group and participate in decisional process [14, p.1-3]. By conducting an organizational and instructional needs assessment [18, p.1-6], the ESP practitioner tries to discover information about the needs of his/her learners and other stakeholders. The term stakeholder refers to all the people who have an interest in the specific ESP course under development. Stakeholders are the people who, perhaps for different reasons, want the training program to succeed. Stakeholders include the client or sponsor who requests the course (a university department, company/organization, or individual), the learners, the teachers, and potentially others. Needs analysis is neither unique to language teaching nor within language training but it is often seen as being the corner stone of ESP and leads to a very focused course [3, p.122]. Although there are various ways of interpreting needs, the concept of learner needs is often interpreted in two ways: as what the learner wants to do with the language (goal-oriented definition of needs) which relates to terminal objectives or the end of learning; what the learner needs to do to actually acquire the language (a process-oriented definition) which relates to transitional/means of learning. In the literature [20, p.1-3] of needs analysis, some of the following aspects are often recommended by experts: Placement testing (administering tests designed to assess general English ability and ability to perform adequately in work contexts this might help determine the starting level of courses in the ESP course); Linguistics needs analysis (to identify skill development, linguistic structures, lexical items, language functions and levels of formality); Learning needs analysis (identify learners attitudes towards different kinds of methodology, learning tasks and activities); 661

 Learner perceptions analysis (discover learners perceptions of themselves and others as part of their company culture, and their relationships with people from other company cultures). According to Kay Westerfield [9, p.1-6] in the needs assessment process, the ESP practitioner does his/her best to find out information about the needs of the sponsor organization, the needs and wants of the learner, and the context in which the learning will take place. This will involve conducting a Target Situation Analysis (what does the learner need to be able to do with the language in the future), a Present Situation Analysis (what can the learner do with the language now), and a Context Analysis (what is the environment in which the learning will take place). The Target Situation Analysis (TSA) includes understanding the needs and expectation of the sponsoring organization. The TSA seeks to answer the following questions: What tasks do the learners need to be able to do by the end of the course? Why is it important for them to perform these tasks in English? Why do learners want or need to learn these skills? Through the Present Situation Analysis (PSA), the ESP practitioner describes the people who are most likely to need and take the instructional program you will develop. What are their strengths and weaknesses in language and skills, and what are their past language learning experiences that can affect how they learn? Questions to ask in this process include: What is their current level of English? What strengths and weaknesses do they have in speaking, listening, reading, and writing? What do the learners who will use your curriculum already know about the content area or about the job? What is their background in this area? Which key job skills do they have or lack? What are their past language learning experiences and expectations? Why are they attending the course and what are their personal goals? 662

Sources of information include: The current target learners Content experts (People working or studying in the field who are familiar with the tasks the learners need to perform) Sample written or oral texts relevant to the field (e.g. textbooks, training manuals, DVDs, videotapes, business correspondence) Employers, supervisors Colleagues ESP research in the field

Data collection methods include: Questionnaires Examining samples of written or oral texts Discussions Structured interviews Observations (shadowing people in courses or on the job) Former students who have knowledge of the skills needed

The Context examines the environment in which the learners will be taught. By completing a Context Analysis, the effective ESP practitioner gains information about the resources and constraints that affect course design and learner outcomes. This information can help the training provider negotiate more realistic outcomes within a given time frame or gain additional resources to achieve the desired goals. Factors to consider when researching the context in which the ESP course are: people, physical settings of the course, nature of course, teaching resources and time. Next stage after needs analysis is establishment the main goal of the course. I stopped my option on: Developing scientific and technical writing, reading and listening skills through a variety of activities moving in sequence from simple to more complex. After selecting appropriate and achievable performance goals for the ESP course according [12, p. 1-5], the next step for the ESP program provider is to break these large communication tasks down into their constituent parts in order to identify learnable and teachable 663

units to include in learning (or enabling) objectives. There are two particularly useful theoretical frameworks to assist in this process. The first is that of communicative competence, the idea the goal of language acquisition is the ability to use language correctly and appropriately to accomplish a communication goal. The second framework is that of the Communication Task / Language Analysis (CT/LA), which uses the construct of communicative competence to break down a communication task, identified through an ESP needs assessment, into its separate areas of competency or skills. With this information, the ESP program provider can write measurable enabling objectives for each performance goal. The concept of communicative competence is composed of four inter-related competencies: Linguistic competence refers to the mastery of the language code. This involves knowledge of words and sentence formation (grammatical or syntactic structures), vocabulary, pronunciation, intonation and spelling needed to perform a specific communication task. Sociolinguistic competence involves mastering the socio-cultural or pragmatic rules of language that determine what is appropriate and acceptable, that is, how do you say what to whom in a specific situation Discourse competence refers to the mastery of rules that allow speakers to combine ideas in sentences and paragraphs so that they make sense. Strategic competence relates to the rules that allow speakers to make up for language that they do not have. This knowledge helps to compensate for breakdowns in communication and to enhance communication, making it more effective. Included in strategic competence are gestures, circumlocutions, code switching, and other language learning strategies. By completing a Communication Task/Language Analysis for a performance goal, the ESP practitioner will arrive at a list of: 1) key discourse functions, 2) socio-linguistically appropriate grammatical structures, 3) vocabulary, and 4) nonverbal language for each communication task. This framework of specific skills will guide the refinement of course learning objectives and the selection and organization of topics in the curriculum design process. 664

When defining the objectives of the course according Lohr, no date [10, p.1-5] A properly written objective tells you what specific knowledge, skill, or attitude is desired and what method of instruction and criteria for learner achievement are required. The ABCD method of writing objectives is an excellent starting point for writing objectives. In this system, A is for audience, B is for behavior, C for conditions and D for degree of mastery needed. 1. Audience Who? Who are your learners? 2. Behavior What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an overt, observable behavior, even if the actual behavior is covert or mental in nature. If you cant see it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you cant be sure your audience really learned it. 3. Condition How? Under what circumstances or context will the learning occur? What will the student be given or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning? 4. Degree How much? How much will be accomplished, how well will the behavior need to be performed, and to what level? Do you want total mastery (100%), do you want them to respond correctly 80% of the time, etc. A common (and totally non-scientific) setting is 80% of the time. In the source [5, p. 75-79] are several examples of well designed objectives: Example of objectives: 1. Developing writing competences. Students will be able to write: amplified definitions, classifications, abstracts, description of a mechanism, description of a process, research papers that will include at least 3-4 sources, critique peer products in regards to content and mechanisms. 2. Developing reading competences. Students will be able to: skim and scan material for information, read for meaning, derive vocabulary meaning from context, use specialized dictionary. 3. Developing speaking and listening competences. Students will be able to: deliver a 15 minute oral presentation, conduct and manage a discussion, speak with persuasion and express opinions in own presentations, take the notes and paraphrase the presentations of peers, ask for further information, repetition and clarification of topic and technical concepts. 665

After data on the language needs of employees and employers has been collected and were established the goals and objectives of the course, the next step is to evaluate the ESP textbook [6, p-10-19], if such textbooks exist. There are developed five questions to evaluate the suitability different books for teaching the English skills needed by employers and employees in different industries. 1. Does the textbook cover the language functions learners are likely to use in their future professional environment? 2. Does the textbook cover the topics/situations learners are likely to encounter in their future professional environment? 3. Does the textbook emphasize the linguistic skills most needed in the Chemistry industry? 4. Does the textbook content adequately reflect local and target language cultures? The lack of culturally relevant content in any textbook is detrimental to students motivation. Students self-confidence and motivation are boosted when instructional material is directly relevant to their culture and way of life. 5. Does the textbook take into account local teaching/learning styles? Next step is supplementing the ESP textbook. Instructors almost always need to supplement materials to a certain degree based on learners specific needs [2, p.12-15]. It is now widely accepted that the ESP teacher should not be expected to be an expert in the students specialty. However, it has also been said that it falls within our professional requirements to be at least interested in the subject, either for purely intellectual or more practical reasons. The ESP teacher should resist the temptation to act as an expert on the subject, for the common sence reason that his/her knowledge, so often picked up in a superficial and piecemeal way, may result in the loss of face and possibly of confidence on the part of the students. Secondly, the teacher should not be lured into using highly specialized materials, whose language and content she/he can hardly grasp, let alone be conversant with. 666

Three techniques can be recommended to the ESP teacher [16, p.1-6]: 1. Become familiar with the ESP course materials 2. Become familiar with the language of the subject 3. Allow students to put you right! After evaluating the books ESP practitioner can plan the course in time as in the example [15]

Regarding the dimension of complexity of the task there are 3 ways to create them [4, p.64-66]: Simple to Complex: When designing an instructional framework, workplace language training providers often start with tasks that are simple in nature and then build to those that are more complex. The Dimension of Talk Type: When a workplace language training program focuses exclusively on oral communication skills, tasks and topics can be organized according to a framework of four talk types. A talk type is defined by who is talking to whom about what. At more complex levels, task talk includes the language used when working on teams and attending meetings. 667

 The Dimension of Broadening Responsibility: The language of work tasks can also be organized along a continuum line that progresses from current to future responsibilities for the worker. The Dimension of Degree of Specificity to the Workplace: When learners have personal learning objectives and needs in addition to those directly related to the workplace, these can be incorporated into the curriculum framework as supplementary topics. According to a group of researches from Costa Rica [21, p 31], the framework for analyzing a purposed performance task in ESP looks as following:
Job performance task

In conclusion
a) for an efficient ESP course there is necessary to realize needs analysis involving interested stakeholders and students from the Chemistry domain; b) established goals and objectives of the ESP course must meet the needs of the students and potential employees; c) students together with the ESP teacher must measure and continuously assess the achievements realized by students. d) ESP tasks have to be designed using authentic abstracts, materials, utensils etc;
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Alasuutari, P. (1998). An invitation to social research. Sage: London.

Parties involved

Context Media

Who? How many? Position, Relationship, Native language

How? Experiments, Video materials, Abstracts

Language and communication competencies, strategies and skills

What? Where? When? Situation, Purpose, Urgency

Grammatical structures, Pronunciation, Vocabulary

Describe the process, Clarify information, Confirm information, Defend one's point of view ESP Task

Appropriateness, Conciseness, Assertiveness, Politeness

Known languages, Specific culture

2. Cristina Pinto da Silva (Portugal) ESP: Back to Methodology, in English Teaching Forum, vol 31, nr. 2, http://eca.state.gov/forum/ vols/vol31/no2/p40.htm 3. Dudley-Evans, T. & St. John, M.J. Developments in ESP: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998 4. Friedenberg, Joan, Deborah Kennedy, Anne Lomperis, William Martin, Kay Westerfield.Effective Practices in Workplace Language Training: Guidelines for Providers of Workplace English Language Training Services. Alexandria, VA: TESOL, 2003.Print. Pp. 64-66 5. Graves, Kathleen, Designing language course: A guide for teachers, Boston: Heinle & Heinle 2000, pp. 75-79 6. Hassan Bouzidi , Between the ESP Classroom and the Workplace: Bridging the Gap, in English Teaching Forum, nr 3/ 2009, pp 10-19 7. Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 8. Jordan, R.R. English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977 9. Kay Westerfield, An Overview of Needs Assessment in English for Specific Purposes 10. Lohr, L (no date). Objectives, sequencing, strategies, re669

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trieved May 14, 2003 from http://www.coe.unco.edu/LindaLohr/home/ et502_cbt/Unit3/Unit3_menu.htm 11. Nunan, D. The learner-centred curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 12. Phan, L.H. Munbys needs analysis model and ESP, in Asian EFL Journal, Vol. . Accessed on 20th November 2006. Available online at: http://www.asian-efljournal.com/pta_october_07_plh.php 13. PressMunby, J. Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 14. Sarjit Kaur, ESP course design: matching learner needs to aims, in English Studies Section, School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, http://www.espworld.info/Articles_14/DESIGNING%20ESP%20COURSES.htm 15. Soyeon Park at the University of Oregon, 2010 16. Strevens, P. in Chamberlain, D. The Learner and Teacher of ESP, Modern English Publications in Association with the British Council. 1988. 17. Westerfield from: Friedenberg, J., A. Lomperis, W. Martin, M. van Naerssen, and K. Westerfield., Standards for Workplace Language Training: Guidelines for Workplace Language Trainers. Unpublished manuscript. 18. Westerfield, K. An Overview of Needs Assessment in English for Specific Purposes. Best Practices in ESP ETeacher Course. University of Oregon. 2010. pp. 1-6 19. Westerfield. K. Best Practices in ESP. Online course. Two Frameworks to Aid in the rocess of Identifying Learning Objectives in an ESP Course: Communicative Competence and Communication Task / Language Analysis 20. Wright, C. (2001). The benefits of ESP. Accessed online on 20th November 2006. Available online: http://www.camlang.com/ art001.htm 21. Xinia Rodrigues, Impact: An English for occupational purposes model designed for workplace language training in Costa Rica, in Communication, nr. 001/2006, pp. 26-36. 670

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I. 1. Ammon Ulrich, Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, sterreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietten. B., New York: de Gruyter, 1995, p. 575. 2. Ammon, Ulrich/ Bickel, Hans/ Ebner, Jakob et al. Variantenwrterbuch des Deutschen, Berlin, New York, 2004 3. Ammon Ulrich, Standart und Nonstandart in den nationalen Varietten des Deutschen, Frankfurt a. M. etc., 1997, pp.171-192. 4. Ammon Ulrich, Vorberlegungen zu einem Wrterbuch der nationalen Varianten der deutschen Sprache // Neue Forschungsarbeiten zur Kontaktlinguistik, Bonn, 1997, . 1-9. 5. de Cillia Rudolf, Variettenreiches Deutsch - Deutsch als plurizentrische Sprache und DaF- Unterricht, Innsbruck, 2006. 6. Clyne Michael G., Plurizentrische Sprachen./ Ein internationales 677

Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft, 2005, pp.296-300. 7. Muhr Rudolf. sterreichisches Sprachdiplom Deutsch. Lernzielkataloge. Wien, 2000 II. 1. .., , nr. 2/2000, pp.89-101. III. 1. http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/gumanitarnye_nauki/lingvistika/ NEMETSKI_YAZIK.html Coordonatorii proectului nu-i asum responsabilitatea pentru veridicitatea informaiei expuse n comunicri.

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om. 8005 .S. Firma Editorial-Poligrafic Tipografia Central MD-2068, Chiinu, str. Florilor, 1 Tel.: 43-03-60, 44-00-91

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