Grundfos A2 Water Engineering

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL
Water Systems Engineering Manual

for Groundwater Supply and Special Applications
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
1. WATER SUPPLY PLANNING 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Sources, Quality, Quantity & Rights Groundwater & Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Supply, Hydraulics, Construction & Treatment Water Quality & Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 Drinking Water Regulations, Characteristics & Treatment Water System Capacity Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59 Rural, Public and Irrigation Systems, Sizing Pumping, Distribution and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-81 Hydro-Pneumatic System
2.
PUMP HYDRAULICS & APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS 2A 2B Pump Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 General Centrifugal Pump Operation and Types (ie. types made by Grundfos), Submersible Overview Hydraulic Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15 Density, Specific Gravity and Weight, Pressure and Head, Flow, Vapor Pressure, NPSH, Power and Viscosity Pump Hydraulic Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24 Affinity Laws, Specific Speed, Speed - Torque, System Head Curves, Parallel and Series Flow, Minimum Flow and Thrust Pumping System Application Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 Cavitation, Entrained Gas, Entrained Solids, Water Hammer, Downhole Check Valves, Corrosion, Testing, Power Consumption and Cost Engineering Properties of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
2C
2D
2E 3.
ELECTRICAL POWER, MOTORS AND CONTROL 3A 3B 3C 3D Electrical & Power Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 AC Power, Impedance, Power Factor, Phase Converters Induction Motor Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 Voltage, Frequency, Efficiency, 3-Phase, PF, Insulation Systems Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 Full Voltage Starting, Reduced Voltage Starting Grundfos Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 CU3 Controller, R100 Remote, SM100 Sensor Module, G100 Gateway Communication Interface
4. SUBMERSIBLE MOTORS 4A 4B 4C 4D Submersible Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 Overview, Motor Types, Thrust Bearings, Generator Use in Submersible Application Submersible Motor Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18 Required Cooling, Motor Derating, Motor Sleeves, Special Applications Motor Insulation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24 Dielectic Absorption Ratio Submersible Power Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26 Cable Selection Introduction i
5.
GRUNDFOS SUBMERSIBLE PRODUCTS 5A 5B Large Submersible Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 Product Overview, Features and Benefits, Pump Models, Single Stage Data, Submersible Pump Data Exploded View Drawings and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 Pump Drawings, Materials Used in Construction
Introduction
6. SUBMERSIBLE APPLICATIONS AND SIZING 6A 6B Submersible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 Sump Pumps, Can Pumps Sizing and Selection Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 Calculation of Submersible Pump and Motor Size, Installation and Start-Up Rules
7.
TECHNICAL APPENDICES AND REFERENCES 7A Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 Pipe Data, Flange Dimensions, Friction Loss, Equivalent Pipe Capacity, Pipe Flow Estimating, Conversion Tables Reference List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31
7B
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Introduction
JANUARY 1999
Grundfos
Engineering Manual for Groundwater Supply and Special Applications
INTRODUCTION FOREWORD
This manual was developed to serve three (3) principal purposes: 1. To provide the water supply professional with a technical primer applicable to many of the various system considerations and issues associated with the development of a new or expansion of existing groundwater supply systems commonly encountered in the United States. 2. To provide a single source reference for commonly required information associated with the design of groundwater supply systems utilizing submersible pumping equipment and selective special applications 3. To acquaint the water supply professional with the use, application and advantages of Grundfos stainless steel submersible pump and control products. We have taken considerable time and care to make the presentation as convenient and easy to use as possible; however, we realize there is always room for improvement and invite comment. It is our sincere hope that the user finds this manual a useful reference tool in the design and construction of groundwater systems, and associated submersible pump products.
Introduction
Introduction
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Introduction
Technology and business development center at Group headquarters in Denmark
A global business
With over 11,000 employees worldwide, and annual production of 10 million pump units per year, Grundfos is one of the worlds leading pump manufacturers. Over 60 Grundfos Companies around the globe help bring pumps to every corner of the world, supplying drinking water to Antarctic expeditions, irrigating Dutch tulips, monitoring groundwater beneath waste heaps in Germany, and air conditioning Egyptian hotels. Efficient, sustainable products Grundfos is constantly striving to make its products more user-friendly and reliable as well as energy-saving and efficient. Our pumps are equipped with ultra-modern electronics allowing output to be regulated according to current needs. This ensures convenience for the end-user, saves a great deal of energy and, in turn, benefits the environment. Research and development In order to maintain its market position, Grundfos takes customer research to heart when improving or developing new products. Our Research and Development department makes use of the latest technology within the pump industry in search of new and better solutions for the design and function of our pump solutions. Corporate values The Grundfos Group is based on values such as sustainability, openness, trustworthiness, responsibility, and also on partnership with clients, suppliers and the whole of society around us, with a focus on humanity that concerns our own employees as well as the many millions who be-nefit from water that is procured, utilized and removed as wastewater with the help of Grundfos pumps.
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Introduction
Introduction
IT IS OUR MISSION the basis of our existence to successfully develop, produce, and sell high quality pumps and pumping systems worldwide, contributing to a better quality of life and a healthier environment.
Grundfos North America
Fresno, California
Olathe, Kansas
Monterrey, Mexico
Allentown, Pennsylvania
Oakville, Canada
q q q q
North American headquarters in Olathe, Kansas Manufacturing in Fresno, California Service, distribution and light assembly in Allentown, Pennsylvania Sales and assembly located in Canada and Mexico
Introduction
Disclaimer Introduction
Considerable effort has been expended to insure the accuracy of the information presented in this manual and to the best of our knowledge, the information contained is accurate. Grundfos, its dealers and distributors, and authors of and contributors to this manual assumes no liability or warranty whatsoever, expressed or implied, for the accuracy, completeness and/or reliability of such information contained herein. Final determination of the suitability of the information or products for the use contemplated is the sole responsibility of the user. We recommend that anyone intending to rely on the guidelines and recommendations mentioned in this manual satisfy themselves as to the suitability, fitness for a particular purpose and compliance to all applicable safety and public health codes before implementation. The format, presentation and a majority of the tabulated information is copyrighted by Grundfos. Manual materials may be copied for individual use only.
PRODUCT LINES Groundwater

Grundfos offers a wide range of no lead submersible pumps for domestic groundwater system applications. Built of rugged stainless steel and superior components, Grundfos submersibles are regarded as the toughest, most reliable pumps on the market.
Commercial/Industrial
Grundfos pumps provide a multitude of commercial uses, providing high capacity pumps for universities, hospitals, hotels and high-rise buildings. Grundfos is also well recognized for industrial applications including automotive plants, paper mills, food processing machinery, offshore platforms and reverse osmosis systems.
Plumbing and Heating

Grundfos offers a full line of circulators for hydronic, hot water, and solar energy applications. Currently there are more than 3 million Grundfos circulators systems in use throughout the world.
Sewage, Effluent and Sump Pumps

Grundfos offers a line of sewage, effluent and sump pumps for applications involving residential and light commercial sewage, septic system effluent and residential sump and waste water removal.
Environmental
Grundfos Redi-Flo submersible pumps are designed for environmental groundwater monitoring, sampling and clean-up operations. Grundfos Pumps Corporation is one of the first U.S. pump manufacturers to be ISO 9001 certified for high quality standards throughout its entire product line. Advanced robotics fabrication, skilled applications engineers, CAD/CAM & Catia engineering, on-going educational training, and service and repair facilities all contribute to success at Grundfos.
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Introduction
Grundfos
SECTION 1: WATER SUPPLY PLANNING

1A WATER SUPPLY PLANNING FUNDAMENTALS Water Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-5 1-6 1-7
Section 1
1B
GROUNDWATER & WELLS Groundwater as a Water Supply Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Groundwater Hydrology & Well Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 Well Design & Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 Well Disinfection & Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34 WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT Drinking Water Regulations . Water Quality for Agriculture Water Quality Characteristics . Water Treatment . . . . . . . . .
1C
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1-37 1-44 1-45 1-50
1D
WATER SYSTEM CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS Residential / Domestic and Farm Systems . Public Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agricultural and Turf Irrigation Systems . . . Curves for Sizing Domestic Water Demand PUMPING, DISTRIBUTION & STORAGE Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydro-Pneumatic Systems . . . . . .
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1E
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1-81 1-87 1-89 1-92
Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals
1-1
1A WATER SUPPLY PLANNING FUNDAMENTALS

Planning a water-supply system begins with the identification of available water sources. The quality of water from those sources must then be investigated, as well as the quantity of water that each source can reliably supply. Finally, before a source can be selected and developed, the legal rights to the water from that source must be established.
Water Sources Section 1

There are two principal sources suitable for use as a potable water supply; groundwater and surface water. In some instances, a water supply may use a combination of both sources. Both sources are part of, and renewed by the hydrologic cycle. Refer to Figure 1-1 for a graphical depiction of the Hydrologic Cycle. Groundwater. Groundwater supplies are important sources of water supply which have a number of advantages over surface supplies. They may require little or no treatment, have uniform temperature throughout the year, are cheaper than impounding reservoirs, and amounts of water available are more certain. They are relatively unaffected by drought in the short term. Groundwater is the portion of water that infiltrates the soil not utilized by plants (evapo-transpiration) or directly evaporated. This unused water eventually reaches the zone of saturation through the force of gravity. Water in the zone of saturation is referred to as groundwater. The upper surface of the zone saturation, if not confined by impermeable material, is called the water table. The saturated zone may be viewed as a huge natural reservoir whose capacity is the total volume of pores or openings in the rocks that are filled with water. Groundwater may be found in one continuous body or several separate strata. The thickness in the zone of saturation varies from a few feet to many hundreds of feet. Factors that determine its thickness are: the local geology, the availability of pores or openings in the formations. Movement of water within the zone is a result of gradient changes as a result of natural or man made recharge and discharge. Formations or strata within the saturated zone from which ground water can be obtained for beneficial use are called aquifers. An aquifer is a water-saturated geologic unit that will yield water to wells or springs at a sufficient rate as to be a practical sources of water supply. Sand, gravel and sandstone aquifers provide the best aquifer media for high capacity water well construction. Types of Wells. In the ordinary or water-table well the water rises to the height of the saturated material surrounding it. There is no pressure other than atmospheric upon the water in the surrounding aquifer. An artesian well is one in which the water rises above the level at which it is encountered in the aquifer because of pressure in the confined water of the aquifer. A flowing well is an artesian well where the pressure raises the water above the casing head. Heavy draft upon the aquifer may so lower the hydraulic gradient that a flowing well will cease to flow. Figure 1-2 illustrates artesian conditions. Pumping will cause a lowering of the water table near the well. If pumping continues at a rate that exceeds the rate of ground water recharge, a condition known as ground water mining occurs. Prolonged groundwater mining will increase pumping cost as the water level drops, change quality and can promote salt-water encroachment in coastal areas. Springs: An opening in the ground surface form which ground water flows is a spring. Water may flow by force of gravity (from water-table aquifers) or be forced out by artesian pressure. Springs constitute only a very small portion of groundwater supply sources. Surface Water. Precipitation that does not enter the ground through infiltration or is not returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, flows over the ground surface and is classified as direct runoff. Direct runoff is water that moves over saturated or impermeable surfaces into stream channels, lakes or artificial storage sites. The dry-weather (base) flow is derived from groundwater or snowmelt. Runoff from ground surfaces may be collected in either natural or artificial reservoirs. A portion of the water stored in surface reservoirs is lost by evaporation and by infiltration to the groundwater.
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Figure 1-1: Schematic Diagram of the Hydrologic Cycle
Section 1
Figure 1-2: Subsurface and ground water phase of the hydrologic cycle
1-3
Potable Water Available in the United States. It is estimated that the earth contains 380 million cubic miles of water. About 2.5% of this is fresh water and of this, 1.5 % is in the form of ice at the polar caps. Slightly less than 1% of all water therefore remains available to man for potable use. One percent sounds like a small amount, however, it represents a tremendous quantity, far outranking all other natural resources. Water is not used up like other resources. By virtue of the hydrological cycle it is continually returned to its source. It has been estimated that ground waters in the United States have been depleted less than 1/4% of 1% in 500 years. Of all usable water available on earth, approximately 26% exists in the United States, 77% of which is contained in underground aquifers, 23% as surface water (21% in lakes and 2% in rivers and reservoirs).
Section 1
Approximately 47% of the water presently used in the United States comes from surface water. The remaining 53% is taken from groundwater sources (source: USGS 1986 National Water Summary). The major groundwater regions of the continental United Sates are shown in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3: Groundwater Availability and Regions in the U.S.
Fresh Water Availability in the U.S
Groundwater vs. Surface Water in the U.S.
Groundwater 77%
Groundwater 53%
Lakes 21% Surface Water 47%
Reservoirs Rivers
Major Groundwater Regions of the Continental U.S.
1-4
Water Quality
Precipitation in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet contains very few impurities and virtually no bacteria. It may contain trace amounts of minerals, gases, and other substances as it forms and falls through the earths atmosphere. Once precipitation reaches the earths surface, however, mineral and organic substances, microorganisms, and other forms of pollution (which tend to lower water quality) enter the water. When water runs over or through the ground surface, it may pick up soil particles. This is noticeable in the water as cloudiness, or turbidity. Water also picks up particles of organic matter and bacteria. As surface water seeps into the soil and through the underlying material to the water table, most suspended particles are filtered out. This natural filtration is partially effective in removing bacteria and other particulate materials; however, the chemical characteristics of the water may change and vary widely when it comes in contact with mineral deposits in the soil. The widespread use of synthetically produced chemical compounds; including pesticides, insecticides and solvents, has had a pronounced effect on water quality. Many of these materials are known to be toxic. Others have certain undesirable characteristics, which interfere with water use even when these materials are present in relatively small concentrations. The Safe Drinking Water Act. When selecting a source as a water-supply for potable purposes, it is necessary to carefully examine all water-quality factors that might adversely affect the intended use of the water source. As a minimum, the quality of the water must be such that it will meet (after treatment, if necessary) the standards established under the drinking water regulations of the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), as well as any additional state or local standards. When selecting a water source it is also important to consider other characteristics, including the waters palatability, its aesthetic quality and its potential for corrosion or scaling of pipes. A detailed discussion of the SDWA and associated water quality issues are presented in Section 1C. Treatment. In evaluating a source based on water quality, the availability and costs of water-treatment techniques to remove undesirable constituents must be considered. Conventional water treatment techniques; such as aeration, sedimentation, coagulation/flocculation, filtration, softening, fluoridation, adsorption and disinfection have been used for decades to produce potable water for large municipal water systems. The same techniques can be used to produce water of potable quality for smaller systems. In addition, small package treatment units using membrane separation processes, primarily reverse-osmosis (RO), are commercially available. These units, although often uneconomical for large utilities, may be a viable alternative for a small system, especially for use with brackish ground water sources. Water quality characteristics can be broken into four categories; physical, chemical, biological and radiological. Some of the treatment methods that a small utility might economically use to reduce objectionable contaminants to an acceptable level are discussed in Section 1C. Sanitary Survey. A sanitary survey is important in the development of a new water supply and is often a regulatory requirement for permit. The sanitary survey should be made in conjunction with the collection of initial engineering data covering the development of a given source and its capacity to meet existing and future needs. The sanitary survey should include the detection of all health hazards and the assessment of there present and future importance. Only persons trained and competent in public health and familiar with water supply engineering should conduct the sanitary survey. In the case of an existing supply, the survey should be made at a frequency compatible with the control of the health hazards and the maintenance of good sanitary quality, or as required by the governing regulatory agency. A general outline of the issues/ factors that should be investigated or considered in a ground water sanitary survey is listed as follows: A. Character of local geology and slope of ground surface. B. Nature of soil and underlying porous strata - whether clay, sand, gravel, rock (especially porous limestone); coarseness of sand or gravel; thickness of water-bearing stratum, depth to water table; location, log and construction details of local wells in use and abandoned.
Section 1
1-5
C. Slope (gradient) of water table. D. Extent of drainage area likely to contribute water to the supply. E. Nature, distance and direction of local pollution sources. F. Possibility of surface-drainage water entering the supply and of wells becoming flooded, methods of protection. G. Methods used for protecting the supply of pollution by means of sewage treatment, waste disposal, etc.
Section 1
H. Water quality data collected from test wells or permanently constructed monitoring wells constructed in advance of production wells. I. Well construction: 1. Total depth of well.. 2. Casing - diameter, wall thickness, material and length from surface. 3. Screen or perforations - diameter, material, construction, locations and lengths. 4. Formation seal - material (cement, sand, bentonite, etc.), depth intervals, annular thickness and method of placement. J. Protection of well head - presence of sanitary well seal, casing height above ground, floor or flood level, protection of well vent, protection of well from erosion and animals. K. Pumphouse construction (floors, drains, etc.), capacity of pumps, drawdown when pumps are in operation. L. Availability of an unsafe supply, usable in place of normal supply, hence involving danger to the public health. M. Disinfection - equipment, supervision, test kits or other types of laboratory control.. Note: Not all the items listed are pertinent to any one supply.
Quantity of Water
An important step in selecting a suitable water-supply source is determining the demand that will be placed on it. The four principal issues that must be addressed in conjunction with determining system water quantity needs are usage, flow, pressure and storage. Usage (consumption). The quantity of water must be established to determine the adequacy of the source to meet demand; as well as establishing infrastructure requirements. The quantity of water required to be supplied by a system is most easily calculated when the ultimate or end use is known. Quantity requirements are normally estimated based on average daily usage (consumption) and is expressed in gallons per day (gpd) or gallons per capita per day (gpcd) depending on the size of the system. Metering can significantly reduce consumption within a system. Surveys of public water systems, which have went from a flat rate charge to individually metered services, have reduced system wide consumption by as much as 50%. The usage rate generally will increase slightly with time after meters have been installed. Flow. Flow requirements must be determined to insure the adequacy of the system to deliver the required amount of water on demand. The first step in calculating flow requirement is to estimate the average daily consumption, which is discussed above under the heading of Usage. The average daily consumption can then be translated to a average instantaneous daily flow value, most often referred to as average demand or average flow, usually expressed in gallons per minute (gpm). The peak demand rate (peak flow) can then be estimated by multiplying the average flow by the appropriate correction factors. The peak flow requirements can be ten times greater than the average daily flow. Knowledge of the average and peak flow requirements in a system is critical for developing system infrastructure such as; pipe lines, pumping equipment, buffer storage, treatment, etc. 1-6 Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals
Pressure. For ordinary service, the typical delivery pressure ranges from 20 to 40 psi. The discharge pressure at the well head (discharge of the pump) is often 10 to 20 psi greater than system pressure to over come friction losses within the system. Optimum system pressure requirements are a function of topography, fire protection needs, building height, etc. The availability of water under pressure stimulates its use. Increasing pressure from 25 psi to 45 psi can encourage a increase water use of up to 30%. Storage. Storage is required to equalize pumping rates over the day, to equalize supply and demand over a long period of high consumption, and to furnish water for such emergency and seasonal usage such as fire fighting and landscape irrigation.
Section 1
The issues discussed above under the general heading of Quantity of Water are most applicable to public water systems. Technical issues associated with estimating usage, flow, pressure and storage requirements for several of the most common water system categories are detailed in Section 1D Water System Capacity Requirements. Special considerations, such as landscape irrigation and fire protection are addressed within the context of each water system category (system type) presented in Section 1D. Water Usage in the United States. On average, the United States uses 80 to 100 gallons of drinking water per person per day. Of the drinking water supplied by public water systems, only a small portion is actually used for drinking. A majority of residential water consumers use water for such purposes as: sanitation, cooking, cleaning and landscape irrigation. The typical daily residential water use profile is described as follows: Lowest rate of use - 11:30 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. Sharp rise/high use - 5:00 a.m. to noon. (Peak hourly use from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m.) Moderate use - noon to 5:00 p.m. (Lull around 3:00 p.m.) Increasing evening use - 5:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. (Second minor peak from 6:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m.)
A typical family of four on a public water supply uses about 350 gpd. In contrast, a typical household that gets its water from a private well or cistern uses about 200 gpd for a family of four. The commonly accepted value for individual water usage for rural/domestic populations is 100 gpd per person. Public water systems typically used a design values ranging from 125 to 175 gpd per person (175 gpd avg.) Major factors which affect consumption are metering, climate and delivery pressure. Commercial and industrial businesses may also place heavy demands on public water supplies. In most water supply systems, the predominant number of user connections are residences, but the few connections to nonresidential customers may account for a significant portion of the system-wide water use. Of the total annual U.S. water use; it is estimated 10% is consumed by residential use, with the remainder being consumed by Industry and Agriculture.
Rights to the Use of Water

The right to use surface or groundwater for domestic use, irrigation, or other purposes varies between states. Some water rights stem from ownership of the land bordering or overlying the source, while others are acquired by a performance of certain acts required by law. The three basic types of water rights are: Riparian - Rights that are acquired together with title to the land bordering or overlying the water source. Appropriative - Rights that are acquired by following a specific legal procedure, usually involving diverting unclaimed water and putting it to use. Prescriptive - Rights that are acquired by diverting and putting to use, for a period, and under the conditions specified by statute, water to which other parties may or may not have prior claims. When there is any question regarding the right to the use of water, the utility owner should consult the appropriate state authority and clearly establish the rights to its use.
1-7
1B GROUNDWATER & WELLS

Groundwater as a Water-Supply Source
Rock Types and Geology. About 98% of the earths crust is composed of 8 chemical elements. Two of the eight elements, oxygen and silicon (silica Si 02), compose 75% of the crust. Most of the elements of the earths crust have combined with one or more other elements form compounds called minerals. The minerals generally exist in mixtures to form rocks. The rocks that form the earths crust are divided into three classes:
Section 1
1. Igneous. Rocks that are derived from magma deep in the earth. They include granite and other coarsely crystalline rocks, dense igneous rocks such as basalt and other lava rocks occur in dikes and sills. 2. Sedimentary. Rocks that consist of chemical precipitates and rock fragments deposited by water, ice, or wind. These include deposits of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and the hardened derivatives of these-conglomerates, sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone, gypsum and salt. 3. Metamorphic. Rocks that are derived from both igneous and sedimentary rocks through considerable alternation by heat and pressure at great depths. These include gneiss. schist, quartzite, slate, and marble. The pores, joints, and crevices of the rocks in the zone of saturation are generally filled with water. Although the openings in these rocks are usually small, the total amount of water that can be stored in the subsurface reservoirs of the rock formations is large. The most productive aquifers are deposits of clean, coarse sand and gravel; coarse, porous sand stone; cavernous limestone; and broken lava rock. Some limestone, however, is very dense and unproductive. Most of the igneous and metamorphic rocks are hard, dense, and of low permeability, and generally yield small quantities of water. Among the most unproductive formations are the silts and clays. The openings in these materials are too small to yield water, and the formations are structurally too weak to maintain large openings under pressure. Compact materials near the surface, with open joints similar to crevices in rock, may yield small amounts of water. Formation and deposition of the various rock types can be further classified in terms of geologic time period. The time period in which the various formation deposits were made often identify the characteristic of the groundwater (Aquifer) system. Generally, younger rocks are better aquifers than older materials. Groundwater and Quality. Water movement within a ground water basin is caused by gradient changes. Gradient changes are primarily a result of recharge (inflow), stemming from precipitation infiltration and discharge (outflow) as a result of pumping. The quantity of water that can be removed from a ground water basin, without depleting storage, is referred to as the basin yield. Proper development of a groundwater source requires careful consideration of the hydrological and geological conditions of the area. Information about the geology and hydrology of an area may be available in publication of the US Geological Survey or from other federal and state agencies. The National Water Well Association may also offer assistance. Sanitary Quality of Groundwater: When water seeps through overlying material to the water table, particles in suspension, including microrganisms, may be removed. The extent of removal depends on the thickness and character of the overlying material. Clay or hardpan provides the most effective natural filtration of ground water. Silt and sand also provide good filtration if it is fine enough and in thick enough layers. The bacterial quality of the water also improves during storage in the aquifer because storage conditions are usually unfavorable for bacterial survival. Groundwater found in unconsolidated formations (sand, clay, and gravel) and protected by similar materials from pollution sources is more likely to be safer than water coming from consolidated formations (limestone, fractured rock, lava, etc.).
1-8
Section 1B Groundwater & Wells
In areas where human waste are deposited in septic tanks, cesspools, or pit privies, the bacteria in the liquid effluents from such installations may enter shallow aquifers. Sewage effluents have been known to enter directly into water-bearing formations by way of abandoned wells or soil-absorption systems. In such areas, the threat of contamination may be reduced by proper well construction-locating the well father from the source of contamination. The direction of groundwater flow usually approximates that of surface flow, and it is always desirable to locate a well so that the normal movement of ground water flow carries the contaminate away from the well. Chemical and Physical Quality of Groundwater. The mineral content of groundwater reflects the type of formation which it moves through. Generally, groundwater in arid regions is harder and more mineralized than water in regions of high annual rainfall. Deeper aquifers are more likely to contain higher concentrations of minerals in solution because the water has had more time to dissolve the mineral rocks. For any groundwater region there is a depth below which salty water, or brine, is almost certain to be found. This depth varies from one region to another. Some substances found naturally in groundwater, while not necessarily harmful, may cause a disagreeable taste or undesirable properties to the water. Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), sodium sulfate (Glaubers salt), and sodium chloride (common table salt) are a few of these. Iron and manganese are commonly found in groundwater. Regular users of water containing relatively high concentrations of these substances commonly become accustomed to the water and consider it good tasting. Concentrations of chlorides and nitrates that are unusually high generally indicate sewage pollution. Temperature. The temperature of groundwater remains nearly constant throughout the year. Water from very shallow sources (less than 50 ft [15m] deep) may vary in temperature from one season to another, but water from deeper zones remain relatively constant about the same as the average annual surface air temperature. Beyond about 100 ft (30 m), the temperature of ground water increases steadily at the rate of about 1F (5/9C) for each 100 ft. (30m) of depth. In volcanic regions, this rate of increase may be much greater.
Figure 1-4: Typical Groundwater Temperature in the U.S @ 100 Depth
Section 1
1-9
Distances to Sources of Contamination. All groundwater sources should be located a safe distance from sources of contamination. In cases where sources are severely limited, groundwater that might become contaminated may be considered for a water supply if treatment is provided. All water sources should be placed a safe distance from potential contamination with consideration to the direction of water movement. A determination of a safe distance should be based on specific local factors and addressed in the Sanitary Survey phase. Table 1-1 is a guide for determining safe distances.
Table 1-1: Guide for Determining Location of Water Source From Contamination Source
Section 1
Formation Favorable (unconsolidated) Unknown Poor (consolidated)
Minimum Acceptable distance from Well to Source of Contamination 50 ft (15 m). Lesser distances only with health department approval following comprehensive sanitary survey of proposed site and immediate surroundings. 50 ft (15 m) only after comprehensive geological survey of the site and its surroundings has established, to the satisfaction of the health agency, that favorable formations do exist. Safe distances can be established only following both the comprehensive geological and comprehensive sanitary surveys. These surveys also permit determining the direction in which a well may be located with respect to sources of contamination. In no case should the acceptable distance be less than 50 ft (15 m)
Development of a Groundwater Supply. The type of groundwater development to be undertaken depends on the geological formations and hydrological characteristics of the water-bearing formation. Development of ground water falls into two main categories: 1. Development by wells a. Nonartesian or water table b. Artesian 2. Development from springs a. Gravity b. Artesian
Note: Development of springs is outside the scope of this manual. Nonartesian wells penetrate formations in which groundwater is found under water table conditions. Pumping from the well withdrawls water, lowering the water table in the vicinity of the well, as a result of the artificially created pressure differences. Artesian wells penetrate aquifers in which the ground water is found under hydrostatic pressure. Such a condition occurs in an aquifer that is confined beneath an impermeable layer of material at an elevation lower than that of the intake area of the aquifer. When the water level in the well stands above the top of the aquifer, the well is described as artesian. A well that yields water by artesian pressure at the ground surface is a flowing artesian well. Preparation of Ground Surface at Well Site. A properly constructed well should prevent surface water from entering a ground water source to the same degree as does the undisturbed overlying geologic formation. The top of the well must be constructed so that no foreign matter or surface water can enter. The well site should be properly drained and adequately protected against erosion, flooding, damage and contamination. Surface drainage should be diverted away from the well. Well Yields. The amount of water that can be pumped from any well depends on the character of the aquifer and the construction of the well. In general, doubling the diameter of a well increases its yield only about 10 percent. The casing diameter is generally selected to provide enough room for proper installation of the pump. A more effective way of increasing well capacity is by drilling deeper into the aquifer. Consideration of the inlet portion of the well structure (screen, perforations, slots) is also important in determining the yield of a well in a sand or gravel formation. The amount of open area in the screened or perforated portion exposed to the aquifer is critical. Wells completed in consolidated formations are usually of open-hole construction.
1-10
It is rarely possible to accurately predict the yield of a well before it is completed. Knowledge can be gained from studying the geology of the area and results obtained from other wells constructed in the vicinity. This information is helpful in selecting the location and type of well most likely to be successful. The information can also provide an indication of the yield to expect. A common way to describe the yield of a well is to express its discharge capacity in relation to its drawdown. This relationship is called the specific capacity of the well and is expressed in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown. The specific capacity may range from less than 1 gpm/ft of drawdown for a low yield well to several 100 gpm/ft for high yield wells.
Section 1
Groundwater Hydrology and Well Hydraulics

Porosity. Not all of the water contained in unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers (water-bearing formation) can be used. The amount of water which can be taken out of an aquifer depends upon the porosity of this waterbearing formation. Porosity is a term describing the amount of open space between sand grains in an underground aquifer (Figure 1-5 diagram A). The term absolute porosity is the total amount of water that can be held in a given volume of the aquifer. Of the total amount of water held in an aquifer, only a portion of it is free water available for use. It is this free water which can be used promptly, that determines the useable porosity of the formation. The useable bound water is trapped (held) in the form of a thin film wetting the sides of the particles of sand (Figure 1-5 - diagram B). The more uniform the grains of sand are in size, the higher the porosity and yield from a well. A fine uniform sand will often produce more water than a coarse, mixed sand and gravel.
Figure 1-5: Porosity of a Water - Bearing Formation
Permeability and Transmissibility. The terms permeability and transmissibility are used to describe the ability of an aquifer (or water bearing fomation) to allow water to pass through it. The drawing in Figure 1-6 shows a sand and gravel water bearing formation and the arrows indicate the water flow. Permeability is a measure of the flow of water, in gallons per day, which will take place across opposite faces of a one foot cube (P) under a differential head of one foot of water. Transmissibility is the average permeability of a section (T) of the entire aquifer at a given location multiplied by the thickness of the aquifer.
Figure 1-6: Permeability and Transmissibility Illustration
1-11
Cone of Depression. When a well is pumped, the water level in the well falls below the water level out in the aquifer, creating a gradient which immediately creates a flow into the well from all directions. As a result, the free water surface in the aquifer takes the shape of an inverted cone or curved funnel. This cone is appropriately called the cone of depression. If the material of the aquifer transmits water easily, the cone is flat and wide spread. If it transmits poorly, the cone will be steep. The cone does not have a fixed shape and becomes deeper and flatter as the well is pumped. The science of aquifer hydraulics has been built around the shape and behavior of this cone. Cone of depression issues are graphically illustrated in Figure 1-13 - diagram A & B.
Section 1
Seasonal Water Level Changes. A hydrograph is a record of water levels over a period of time. To obtain a hydrograph on ground water, a recorder is installed in an observation well which is not directly affected by pumping. The water level in the observation well fluctuates with the seasons of the year. Water levels will be fairly constant during the winter months and a sharp rise in the water level is generally noted in the spring season, followed by a slow decline through summer and fall. The range of seasonal variations may be as great as five to ten feet and has a marked effect on the yield in shallow wells. Hydrographs on artesian wells show interesting effects. Changes in barometric pressure may cause a foot or more change in water level. Earthquake tremors temporarily affect levels and can be detected by sensitive hydrograph instrumentation. Pumping data obtained during the spring should be adjusted to allow for the normal decline in water levels typically observed in the fall. The collection of such hydrographic data on local ground and surface water sources is often available form the Federal and State Geological Surveys.
Figure 1-7: Seasonal Water Level Changes
Well Efficiency and Overpumping. The concept of pumped well efficiency was first presented by Jacob in 1947. Basically, well efficiency is defined as the formation loss (the head loss required to produce flow) divided by the total drawdown observed in the well. This quotient is expressed as a percentage and is typically calculated based on data compiled from a step - drawdown pump test. Figure 1-8 represents a simplified sketch illustrating the well efficiency concept. Since groundwater flow through porous medial is laminar in nature, the head loss required to produce the flow through the aquifer is directly proportional (linear) to the well discharge.
1-12
Construction and maintenance parameters to be considered in order to maximize well efficiency are:
Figure 1-8: Well and Formation Loss in a Pumped Well
Flow Static Water Level
1. Well screen aperture size (as large as possible consistent with gravel pack formation material retention). 2. Screen entrance velocity (3.5 fps or less, assuming at the design flow rate- 50% plugging of the available screen open area effective area of opening). 3. Well development (well development should be conducted immediately after completion and should be continued until there is no change in specific capacity/well yield). 4. In areas where wells are subject to plugging, as a result of incrustation and/or fouling, chemical treatment should be performed periodically to maintain acceptable well performance.
Section 1
Formation Loss Pumping Water Level Well Loss
In general, open hole completions in consolidated formations are more efficient than screened completions in unconsolidated formations assuming complete development. High efficiency does not insure higher specific capacity, as wells completed in unconsolidated formation usually have a higher specific capacity than consolidated formations. Overpumping (pumping the well in excess of the design rate) will result in decreased well efficiency. Adverse affects associated with overpumping are: Increased risk of dry run (pump-off) and/or cascading water which may damage pumping equipment. Increased risk of developing a sand problem, which can damage the well and pump. Decrease in water quality as a result of adverse gradient changes (salt water intrusion, pull in of pollutants, silt fouling, etc.) Increase incrustation potential. Deep drawdown increases oxygen exposure (oxidation) and can lead to plugging of both the well and pump. Incrustation is a function of the presence of detrimental micro-organisms and specific water quality conditions.
Figure 1-9: Overpumping Illustration 55 Static Water Level Acceptable Gradient (ft/gpm) Increasing Gradient 40
Formation Loss
10 Acceptable Well Load Overpumping

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 gpm
Careful analysis of pump test data should be made to insure pumping equipment is sized properly to avoid overpumping. Pumping to storage over a longer period of time and/or the construction of multiple wells to provide the required system demand can be used to reduce over pumping.
1-13
Well Spacing and Interference. The location of water wells in relation to one another becomes critical where: 1. 2. 3. 4. The land is limited for large spacing between wells. There is a high concentration of wells in the immediate vicinity. A high yield well field is planned. The aquifer has a low permeability and/or nearby boundaries, or when recharge is at great distance.
When determining well spacing requirements, it is necessary to have some idea of the shape and extent of the cone of influence. The cone of influence is defined as the slope of the hydraulic gradient or water surface away from a pumping well. Figure 1-13 diagram C illustrates cone of influence affect relative to well spacing. By determining the cone of influence of adjacent wells the effect of the overlapping curves can be determined, and a decision made to allow a large overlap or keep the overlap small. The cone of influence is normally determined by an aquifer pumping test. This involves measuring flows and draw- downs in the pumping well and observation wells located a distance away from the pumping well. In some highly permeable formations, wells of 2000 gpm capacity could be spaced 200 apart, as opposed to a low permeability formation 50 gpm wells might be spaced up to 1000 apart. Groundwater Mining. Excessive pumping of an aquifer or water-bearing formation is called groundwater mining. Groundwater mining occurs when the quantity of water annually pumped out of a given aquifer exceeds the quantity recharged into the aquifer. Prolong groundwater mining will result in a declining water tables and can create serious long term water supply problems, as well as increasing the cost of pumping. In certain areas, surface subsidence can occur as the water bearing formation is de-watered. The overproduction (overdraft pumping) from a well can only be maintained until the water in storage has been mined out. Pumping level on the well will continue to fall until it reaches the bottom of the well, at which time production cannot exceed the natural recharge rate. Overpumping and overdraft pumping are not directly relate; overpumping applies to exceeding the well design capacity, where as overdraft pumping refers to the long term depletion of aquifer storage. A remedy for groundwater mining is to space wells further apart to capture only the groundwater which is escaping from various water supply sources such as rivers, streams and lakes. In some areas, the deficiency is being made up by artificial recharge from surface water sources, as they become available. In arid regions such as the southwestern states, where pumpage far exceeds available recharge, there is no easy solution short of reduced pumping from the aquifer.
Figure 1-10: Ground Water Mining Flow Clay (Water Level) 1970 1980 1990
Section 1
1-14
Artificial Recharge. When the groundwater level in an area drops at an excessive rate, it is a sign that groundwater mining is occurring. In some cases it is possible to make up this shortage with surface water. If the aquifer is shallow, it may be possible to artificially recharge the aquifer by ponding or shallow recharge pits. If the aquifer is relatively deep and confined between with impervious materials, recharge wells may be required. Artificial recharge is commonly practiced in many arid regions. Increased usage of this practice is recommended in areas where the groundwater supply is being depleted. Successful use of this method requires a careful study and analysis.
Figure 1-11: Artificial Recharge
Section 1
Surface Water
Recharge Ponding
Well Water Supply
Clay
Well Sand & Gravel
Dewatering. A dewatering system is typically used to lower (depress) water levels for the purposes of construction of sub surface structures, changing aquifer flow gradient for the purposes pollutant recovery and to counter buoyancy forces which can dislodge (float out) underground structures subjected to high water table. Shallow Dewatering for construction purposes is typically accomplished through the insertion of 2 diameter well points at depths and spacings ranging from 10 - 25 and 20 - 25 respectively. The well points are typically plumbed into a central collection header system, using a single large pump equipped with a auxiliary vacuum pump, to dewater each well through a riser pipe by suction lift. Deep Dewatering (25 and greater), generally require the use of individual pumps which must be controlled based on water level within the well. Submersible pumps are typically used for this purposes, as they are ideally suited as a result of there compact design and high capacity. Control (water level maintenance) is accomplished using a variety of methods ranging from throttling valves, to on - off controls, to direct acting variable speed control or a combination of one or more of these techniques.
Figure 1-12: Typical Shallow Well Dewatering System
Note: Mutual interference between 2 or more wells depresses the water table for dewatering operations.
1-15
Water Well Hydraulics. When a well is pumped, the level of the water table in the vicinity of the well will be lowered (Figure 1-13 A). This lowering, or drawdown, causes the water level to take the shape of an inverted cone called a cone of depression. This cone, with the well at the apex, is measured in terms of the difference between the static water level and the pumping level. At increasing distances from the well, drawdown decreases until the slope of the cone merges with the static water table. The distance from this point to the well is called the radius of influence. The character of the aquifer-artesian or water table-and the physical characteristics of the formation that affect the shape of the cone include thickness, lateral extent, size and grading of sand or gravel. The radius of influence is not constant and continuously expands with continued pumping. At a given pumping rate, the shape of the cone of depression depends on the characteristics of the water-bearing formation. Shallow wide cones will form in highly permeable aquifers composed of coarse sand or gravel. Steep and narrow cones will form in less permeable aquifer. As the pumping rate increases, the drawdown increases and consequently the slope of the cone steepens. In a material of low permeability such as fine sand or sandy clay, the drawdown will be greater and the radius of influence less than for the same pumpage from very coarse gravel (Figure 1-13). When the cones of depression overlap, the local water table will be lowered (Figure 1-13). An increase in pumping lifts is required to obtain water from the interior portion of the group of wells. Wider distribution of wells over the groundwater basin will reduce the cost of pumping and allow the development of more water.
Figure 1-13: Pumping Effects on Aquifers
Discharge Ground Surface
Section 1
A. Effect of Pumping on Cone of Depression

Cone of Depression for Greater Pumping Rate
Static Water Table
Cone of Depression for Draw-Down Lesser Pumping Rate
Radius of Influence
Discharge Ground Surface
Discharge Ground Surface Static Water Table Draw-Down Cone of Depression Static Water Table
B. Effect of Aquifer Material on Cone of Depression
Draw-Down
Cone of Depression Radius of Influence Coarse Gravel
Radius of Influence Fine Sand
Discharge Static Water Table mping well A created by pu
Discharge
C. Effect of Overlapping Field of Influence Pumped Wells
e C on reated by pumping wells A and one c B C
Aquifer
1-16
Well Design & Construction

Well Specifications. High capacity water wells are usually constructed by contract, so it is advisable that careful specifications be written to insure a satisfactory well. Before specifications are written there should be considerable investigation made by the system operator or owner. Some estimates and investigation should be made of the well size and capacity by way of the methods outlined in this manual. The drilling of a test hole as part of the geophysical investigation process is recommended in order to specify in advance the well completion requirements (casing, screen, gravel pack, etc.). In areas where high capacity water well completions are not always assured, a test well may be necessary in addition to a test hole to properly assess the suitability of the well location. A sanitary survey investigation as described in Section 1C should be conducted in conjunction with the initial investigation. The contract technical specification for a production water well should address the following issues. 1. Design Targets. An estimate of the anticipated well capacity in gpm, depth and diameter must be established in order to develop preliminary well design parameters, select drilling equipment and infrastructure planning. 2. Construction Method. The drilling and completion method should be specified based on the type of water bearing formation in which the well completion is to be made. 3. Casing. The type, weight, material, diameter and wall thickness of the casing should be specified, as well as accessory item requirements. 4. Screen. The screen type, diameter, wall thickness, aperture size, etc. Note: Screen selection and installation intervals are normally based on geophysical investigative work performed in conjunction with test hole work, 5. Gravel Pack. Gradation and installation interval to be specified when applicable. 6. Annular Seals. Grout/cement mix and application interval to be specified. 7. Development & Testing. Development and testing criteria should be clearly specified. In general, development should be continued until no increase in well specific capacity (yield) is noted and the sand specification is met. Pump performance testing should be conducted for 8-72 hours (minimum of 8 hours) after development. 8. Sand Content. A typical sand specification for a new water well is: sand content not to exceed 5 ppm (mg/ l), 15 minutes after the start of pumping. A properly designed and developed well should easily maintain the sand content level substantially below 1 ppm. 9. Alignment. In general, the well should not vary from the vertical (drift) in excess of 3 per 100 of casing length (ie. 6 @ 200 is permissible). Proper alignment of the well should be guaranteed and a test of alignment required. 10. Sanitary. Sanitary requirements should be recognized by closing the top of the well so that no surface water can enter. The casing of the well should extend at least 6 (150 mm) and preferably 12 (300 mm) above the finished grade. In areas subject to flooding, the well casing should extent 24 (600 mm) above the 100 year flood level. The well should be cleaned of all debris, lubricants and mud. Disinfection of the well must be performed. All documents and records to be maintained, and submitted by the contractor should be clearly specified in the contract documents (logs, casing and screen materials, aperture size, gravel analysis, etc.). Reliable local contractors and consultants can provide valuable advice and design assistance in the development of a water well supply source. The American Water Well Association (AWWA) standard A100-84 for water wells, contains sample contract language and various design aids.
Section 1
1-17
Types of Wells. Wells are constructed using a variety of methods such as; dug, bored, driven, jetted or drilled. Table 1-2 summarizes the suitability of the various well construction methods for a specific application and geologic formation. High capacity water wells are typically drilled using either the percussion (cable tool) or rotary (direct or reverse) drilling technique and/or combination of both. High Capacity Water Well Drilling Methods. As previously mentioned, the two most common methods of drilling high capacity water wells are the cable tool and rotary drilling techniques. These techniques, as they relate to drilling and completion (casing and screen) are presented below.
Section 1
Cable Tool. In the cable tool (percussion) drilling method, the borehole is drilled by the pulverizing action of a reciprocating steel bit suspended from the drilling rig by a wire cable. As the bit strikes the bottom of the hole, the formation is crushed, creating cuttings which are removed by balling. If the formation is loose and unconsolidated, the casing must be forced into the hole periodically to prevent caving. Several procedures are available for completing wells drilled by the cable tool method. If casing is installed as the hole is drilled, it may be perforated by down-the-hole tools, forming a screen opposite the waterproducing formations. With most methods of down-the-hole perforating, a small aperture cannot be formed nor can the aperture size be precisely controlled. Consequently, finer-grained aquifers must be avoided. In general practice, the cable tool method lends itself more to drilling coarser, harder formations. Cable tool well diameters and depths range from 8 to 18 and 100 to 1000 respectively. Small diameter wells for domestic purposes, drilled in tight - consolidated formations, can be constructed using the cable tools or down-the-hole air hammers. These wells often only need a surface conductor casing installed through the unconsolidated over-burden. Water is produced from the open hole. In some cases, a protective casing is installed to the depth of the pump. Rotary. The use of the direct rotary and reverse circulation rotary drilling methods are the dominate method of construction of higher capacity production water wells. Both rotary methods can be used to construct gravel envelope wells in unconsolidated formations. Typical rotary drilled well completions in unconsolidated and consolidated formations are illustrated in Figure 1-14. Direct Rotary. In the direct rotary method, a rotating bit under controlled loading is applied to the formation. Drilling fluid (water with additives-mud, is used to provide weight and viscosity) is pumped down the drill pipe, through the bit, and circulates up the hole carrying the cuttings, which are separated and removed at the surface. Usually the finished borehole is drilled in two or more stages. A smaller pilot bore is drilled first, then reamed to a diameter 6 to 12 inches greater than that of the casing and screen. The screen is selected and designed according to information gained through analysis of the cuttings, formation and electric logs. The casing string (blank pipe & screen) is generally installed in a continuous operation. Selected gravel is placed in the annular space adjacent to the screen, between the casing and enlarged hole to stabilize the formation and provide a filter against fine sand or silt. The annular space between the borehole and blank filled with cement grout. Well diameters and depths range form 4 to 24 and 100 to 3000 respectively. Reverse Rotary. The reverse circulation rotary method varies from the direct rotary method in three major respects. The circulating fluid flows down the hole and up the drill pipe. Drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure against the formation maintains the wall of the borehole from caving both systems, usually no additives are mixed with the circulating water (drilling fluid). The reverse circulation procedures, the hole is normally drilled in one pass without staging. Well completion (blank casing, screen, gravel placement and grout) are installed in the same manner as the direct rotary process. Equipment requirements differ in that drill pipe diameters range from 6 to 10 and a high capacity suction lift pump is normally used to create the reverse flow. A compressor is required for deep well applications to induce reverse flow via air lift pumping action. The reverse rotary method is particularly applicable to unconsolidated formations, where large diameter-high capacity well construction is required. Well diameters and depths generally range from 18 to 42 and 100 to 1500 respectively.
1-18
Air Rotary. The air rotary method is similar to the rotary hydraulic method in that the same type of drilling machine and tools may be used. The principal difference is that air rather than mud or water is used as the drilling fluid. In place of the conventional mud pump to circulate the fluids, air compressors are used. The air rotary method is best suited for consolidated formation, and is especially popular in regions where limestone is the principle water source. The air rotary method requires that air be supplied at pressures from 100-250 psi. To effect removal of the cuttings, rising velocities of at least 3000 fpm are necessary. Penetration rates of 20-30 fph in hard rock are common with air rotary methods.
Table 1-2: Suitability of Well Construction Methods to Different Geological Conditions
Section 1
Characteristics Range of practical depths (general order of magnitude) Diameter Type of geologic formation: Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cemented gravel Boulders Sandstone Limestone Dense igneous rock
Dug 0-50 ft. (0-15 m) 3-20 ft. (1-6 m) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes, if soft and/or fractured No
Bored 0-100 ft. (0-30 m) 2-30 in. (51-762 mm) Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes, if less than well diameter Yes, if soft and/or fractured No Drilled
Driven 0-50 ft. (0-15 m) 1 1/4-2 in. (32-51 mm) Yes Yes Yes Fine No No Thin layers only No No Rotary Reverse 0-1500 ft. (0-455 m) 18-42 in. (305-762 mm) Yes Yes Yes Yes (Difficult) (Difficult) No No No
Jetted 0-100 ft. (0-30 m) 2-12 in. (51-305 mm) Yes Yes Yes 1/4-in (6-mm) pea gravel No No No No No
Characteristics Range of practical depths (general order of magnitude) Diameter Type of geologic formation: Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cemented gravel Boulders Sandstone Limestone Dense igneous rock
Percussion 0-1000 ft. (0-305 m) 4-18 in. (102-457 mm) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes, when in firm bedding Yes Yes Yes
Direct 0-3000 ft. (0-610 m) 4-24 in. 102-610 mm) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Difficult) Yes Yes Yes
Air 0-750 ft. (0-229 m) 4-10 in. (102-254 mm) No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes
Note: The range of values in this table are based upon general conditions.
1-19
Figure 1-14: Typical Rotary Drilled Well Completions
A. Unconsolidated Formation
Ground Surface Sloped to Drain Away from Well Plug Air Vent Discharge Sanitary Well Seal
B. Consolidated Formation
Outer Casing Top Soil Connection to Source of Power Clay Drill Hole Diameter for Cemented Casing Cement Grout
Section 1
Artesian Pressure Surface or Piezometer Surface Cement Grout Formation Seal Inner Casing Drill Hole Through Soft Formation Caving Formation Cased Out Pumping Unit Maximum Dia. Open Hole Water Bearing Sand Taper Section Screen Hole Diameter on Bottom
Dynamic (Pumping) Water Level Submersible Pump
Drilling Method Selection Factors. Many factors are considered in selection of drilling method and well design. Among them are depth, diameter, hardness of formation, presence of fine-grained aquifers that need a gravel envelope filter, accessibility of site to equipment and availability of the quantity of water required for drilling. Rotary drilling construction - particularly reverse rotary, requires large amounts of water. In some areas, gravel envelope wells permit the production of greater quantities of water than non-gravel envelope wells, but this is not always the case. Many high efficiency water wells are being constructed today by the cable tool method. The diameter of a well should be selected only after a careful consideration of all factors such as the desired yield; the type of well construction; the type of pumping equipment to be used; the physical character of the water bearing formation; etc. The ability to produce sand-free water from water-bearing sands is related to the diameter of the well. A larger well diameter coupled with screen open area will decrease the velocity of the water as it enters the well. Decreased velocity reduces the possibility of pumping fine sand. Sanitary Construction of Wells. Although there are different types of wells and construction methods, there are basic sanitary aspects that apply to all. The broad issues are described as follows: The annular space outside the casing should be filled with a watertight cement grout or suitable impermeable material form the surface to the deepest level of excavation or as deep as necessary to prevent entry of contaminated water, whether from surface runoff or other aquifers. For artensian aquifer, the casing should be sealed into the overlying impermeable formations so as to retain the artesian pressure. When a water-bearing formation containing water of poor quality is penetrated, the formation should be sealed off to prevent infiltration of water into the well and aquifer. 1-20 Section 1B Groundwater & Wells
A sanitary well seal with an approved vent should be installed at the top of the well casing to prevent entrance of contaminated water or other objectionable material. The well seal should be installed per the appropriate regulatory requirements. A pitless adapter and cap assembly should be used in situation where applicable. For large-diameter shallow wells, it is difficult to provide a sanitary well seal to the depth normally required by most regulatory authorities. A typical surface completion consisting of a reinforced concrete slab, overlapping the casing and sealed to it with a flexible sealant or rubber gasket are normally used to affect a sanitary seal. The annular space between the casing and bore hole should first be filled with suitable grouting or sealing materials before surface completion.
Section 1
Well Completion Considerations. The well size and completion method depends upon four principal issues: 1. The type of water bearing formation. a. Consolidated formations - limestones, sandstones, granites, etc. b. Unconsolidated formations - alluvial, glacial, sand and gravel deposits, etc. 2. The permeability of the water bearing formation. (The ability of the formation to yield water). 3. Design capacity of the well. 4. The type of deep well pump to be utilized. High capacity submersible pumps may require a larger diameter than turbine pumps to facilitate power cable installation; although alignment may be less critical. Type of water bearing formation a. Wells drilled into consolidated formation are normally more expensive and deeper than shallow unconsolidated wells, the diameter is normally kept as small as possible in line with the diameter of pump to be used. Normally, a minimum of 2 is allowed between the pump end/ bowl and the casing, and 3 between the casing and borehole. b. In unconsolidated formations, the screen diameter may depend upon the bowl /pump diameter but may be increased to: 1. Reduce the entrance velocity through the screen. 2. Increase the screen opening area for longer life if mineral deposition from the ground water is a problem. 3. A minimum of 8 is added to the screen diameter for the gravel wall diameter (4 annulus). A 12 increase (6 annulus) is recommended; however, larger annular clearance may improve well performance. Note: Typical guidelines for screen and gravel pack selection are overviewed in Section 1B. Permeability of the Formation Increasing the well borehole diameter in a consolidated formation will increase the yield somewhat, depending on how many additional crevices are encountered by the increased diameter. In unconsolidated formations it is often wise to increase the well diameter in formations with low permeability so that the maximum flow can be obtained. The higher the permeability the less the well diameter will increase the specific capacity (well yield). Design Capacity Local knowledge from existing well completions, local hydrology and geology studies can be used to estimate well yield and estimate pump size. The pump chamber casing diameter can be determined by estimating the maximum pump unit diameter (based on well yield) by adding at least 2 the minimum pump diameter, 3 is recommended for ease of installation of submersible units casing diameter vs pump/motor size are listed in Table 1-4. Downhole Logs and Geophysical Investigative Methods. Numerous instruments and techniques are available for special investigations of sub-surface and groundwater conditions. Logging equipment can be lowered into a well via wireline, measurements and other data are recorded at the surface by electrical means. Several of the most commonly used logging techniques used in the water supply industry are presented as follows: 1. Electric log: (single point, short normal - 16 and long normal - 64): Used in uncased fluid filled boreholes and are typically used for; identification of lithologic (sand, clay, etc.), determine high and low permeability zones, and casing depth in cased hole applications 2. Caliper log: Measures hole diameter at any depth; useful to locate large casing breaks, determine of size and position of casing and liners, location of caving formations (shales, cavernous limestone, etc.), determination of the effectiveness of shooting for well development and/or enlarging diameter, etc.
1-21
Section 1
3. Temperature log: Measures water temperature at any depth; useful in locating sources of flow into the well, casing leaks, etc. 4. Fluid Velocity log: Measures flow (natural or artificial) at any point in hole-either up or down; useful in determining contributing permeable and thief zones, casing leaks, etc. 5. Radiation log: Similar in use to electric logging, but can be used in cased well or open hole. Radio- active logs are generally source collecting and measure the natural radioactivity of the fomation material. They are extremely useful where formation materials are known to have higher natural radioactivity compared to others (ie. clays are often more radioactive than sands in certain geologic areas). 6. Water Sampler: Permits collection of water samples for analysis from any depth in the well. 7. Video log: Video logs are predominately used to identify the location of casing imperfections (breaks), screen damage or verification of prominent features at the proper depth. Other geophysical methods, such as surface seismic and electrical resistively surveys, have been successfully used in many areas to map the bedrock surface in order to identify sub-surface water-bearing sand or gravel. Such surveys do not replace a program of test drilling, but merely serve to aid in selecting the most favorable sites for test holes and/or wells. These special geophysical investigative method are normally conducted in area where geology is highly variable and well productivity is highly variable. Logs and Samples. In drilling any well, regardless of the method used (i.e. cable tool, rotary, etc.) the driller should keep an accurate formation log and completion records. The logs and records should include: the location of the well; name of owner; owners well number; total depth of borehole, casing and screen; borehole size; elevation at the surface (if known); depth, thickness, and character of each type of formation material penetrated (lithologic information); depth (s) at which water was encountered - if possible; depth to water level upon completion of the well; the date the well was started and completed. The state or regulatory agency having regulatory jurisdiction will require a driller report be filed. The driller report will generally require the above minimum information. Well production data (flow rate, draw-down, water levels, etc.), as well a final pump installation data if known, should be complied. In the construction of high capacity water wells, the drilling and pump contractor may be different, making record collection difficult if not specifically identified by contract. Such records are invaluable as they are required for proper pump sizing and future system expansion-particularly if additional wells are to be drilled nearby or if the well requires any repair or reconditioning. Actual formation and geophysical logs (electric logs, etc.) are usually much more valuable than the written log kept by the driller, both samples and logs should be kept for analysis and maintained until all regulatory reports are filed and/or contractual data is provided to the owner or its agent. In unconsolidated formations, where a gravel pack well completion is to be made, representative formation samples in the water bearing zone, collected during the drilling process are often analyzed. The purpose of the analysis is to determine formation grain size distribution via sieve analysis. The grain size distribution of water bearing formation is key factor in gravel pack selection and/ or screen aperture size selection. Water Well Casing and Pipe. There are several kinds of steel pipe suitable for casing drilled wells. The commonly types are; standard pipe, line pipe, drive pipe, reamed and drifted (R&D) pipe, and water-well casing. Steel possesses high strength and resiliency required for water well service, and is weldable. There are certain differences in size, wall thickness, type of connection and method of manufacture. Well casing must meet certain generally accepted specification for quality of steel and wall thickness. Both are important because they determine resistance to corrosion and consequently the useful life of the well. Strength of the casing may also be important in determining whether certain well-construction procedures may be successfully carried out, particularly in cable-tool drilling where hard driving of the casing is sometimes required. The most commonly accepted specifications for water well casing are those prepared by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Petroleum Institute (API), and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). Table 1-3 lists the minimum acceptable wall thickness requirements for carbon steel water well casing based on diameter and depth. If conditions are known to be corrosive; consideration should be given to corrosion resistant material such as stainless steel, plastic, fiberglass or the use of greater wall thickness carbon steel pipe. PVC plastic casings should be made of a material approved for use with potable water by the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). 1-22 Section 1B Groundwater & Wells
Table 1-3: Suggested Minimum Thickness for Carbon Steel Water Well Casing
Casing Depth (ft.) 0-100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-600 600-800 800 +
6 12 12 10 10 10 3/16 3/16
8 12 12 10 8 8 3/16 3/16
10 12 10 8 8 3/16 3/16 3/16
Casing Diameter (in.) 12 14 16 18 10 8 8 3/16 3/16 3/16 1/4 10 8 8 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 8 8 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 8 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16
20 8 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16
22 8 3/16 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 3/8
24 8 3/16 1/4 1/4 5/16 3/8 3/8
30 3/16 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 3/8 7/16
Section 1
Note: 1. Diameter thickness in U.S standard gauge or fraction of a inch. 2. A minimum of 1/4 wall thickness is normally specified for high capacity water well for municapal purposes. Refer to Section 7A for a overview of the various tubular products used in the water supply industry. Well Casing Diameter vs. Pump Size. The diameter of the upper pump housing casing must provide sufficient clearance between the largest pump component diameter and the casing. In addition to accommodating the obvious pump and motor dimensional requirements, a clearance allowance must be made for power cable and a water level measurement device. No well is exactly straight (perpendicular to ground level) and operation will be unsatisfactory if there is severe misalignment. In addition, consideration should be given to the possibility of corrosion product buildup which may lock the pump to the casing. It is recommended that pump housing casing should have a minimum diameter at least two inches greater than the nominal diameter of the largest pump component (ie. pump, motor or column pipe collar) required for desired yield. Table 1-4 and 1-5 can be used as a guideline for determining the minimum casing size for a given flow, pump diameter or speed.
Table 1-4: Casing Diameter vs. Well Capacity and Pump Diameter
Q (gpm)
Minimum Casing Dia. (in.) 4 ID 6 ID 8 ID 10 ID 12 ID 14 OD 16 OD 18 OD
Recommended Casing Dia. (in.) 6 ID 8 ID 10 ID 12 ID 14 OD 16 OD 18 OD 20 OD
*Pump/ Motor Dia.(in.) >4 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0 to 25 0 to 100 100 to 300 300 to 700 700 to 1400 1400 to 2000 2000 to 3000 3000 to 4500
* Pump, motor or column pipe coupling diameter whichever is larger.
1-23
Table 1-5: Casing Diameter vs. Well Capacity & Pump Operating Speed
Nominal Pump Diameter (in.) 2 ** 3 ** 4* 6*
Nominal Op. Speed (rpm) 3600 3600 3600 1800 3600 1800 3600 1800 1200 3600 1800 1200 3600 1800 1200 1800 1200 1800 1200 1800 1200 900
Capacity/Yield (gpm) 0 - 10 2 - 25 5 - 75 50 - 350 100 - 200 100 - 500 50 - 275 200 - 1200 150 - 600 100 - 400 500 - 1800 200 - 1500 370 - 670 600 - 2500 400 - 2300 250 - 1500 1000 - 4500 800 - 3500 2000 - 5200 1300 - 3400 3200 - 5400 2200 - 4000 2800 - 3000
Minimum Casing Dia. (in.) 2 3 4 6 8 10
Recommended Casing Dia. (in.) 3 4 6 8 10 12
Section 1
7 8
10
12
14
12
14
16
14 16 18
16 18 20
18 20 24
Note: (1) For non-domestic submersible applications, it is recommended that the well inside diameter (I.D) be a minimum of 2 larger than the largest submersible component. (2) For pump settings in excess of 400 feet, the minimum well ID should be increased to the next larger standard size when practical. * Domestic sized pumps and motors are typically 1 smaller than the casing I.D. ** Special use submersible pumps or shallow well suction lift pumps Well Casing Accessories. In addition to the casing and screen, high capacity water wells completed in sand and gravel formations using the rotary drilling method will often employ special components to enhance the completion. Several of the most commonly employed casing accessories are: (1) welding collars, (2) carbon steel to stainless steel change over connector, (3) compression section, (4) casing guides, (5) float plates and (6) taper (reducer reduction) section. 1. Welding Collars are factory installed to one end of each casing or screen joint to facilitate quick casing installation by reducing set-up, welding and alignment time. Lap welded collared joints provide a stronger connection than butt welded joints. 2. Carbon Steel to Stainless Steel Change Over Connectors are used reduce the rate of galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals, which can occur when stainless steel well screen is joined to carbon steel blank casing. Change over connectors range from insulated couplings to special slip weld connections, where there is no direct weldment between the stainless steel and carbon steel material. The slip weld connection relies on the formation of a oxide layer on the carbon steel surfaces where it contacts stainless steel to inhibit corrosion. If
1-24
stainless steel is welded directly to carbon steel, the carbon steel section should be at least two times the thickness of the stainless. 3. Compression Sections are often used in areas prone to subsidence as a result of groundwater mining, and in earthquake prone regions. The compression section provide a casing stress relief point should the ground surface drop in the immediate vicinity of the well head. 4. Casing Guides are used primarily to center screen within the borehole. In water well applications, guides are typically attached by welding and are placed at forty foot intervals. Three to four guides are used at each interval and are placed equidistantly around the screen. Guides are not typically used with blank casing, unless special cementing (grouting) requirements are specified. 5. Float Plates are installed in the casing, where the weight of the casing (screen and blank casing) exceed the safe lifting capacity of the drill rig. The float plate allows for buoyancy forces to counter the weight of the casing as it is installed. The weight of the casing is reduced by the weight of the fluid displaced. Fluid is added to the casing after each successive connection to force the casing down. When the casing operation is completed the float plate, is removed by impact (striking) with drill pipe or bailer. Float plates are typically constructed of cast iron, which has high strength but low impact resistance. 6. Taper Sections are used to provide a smooth transition from casing and/or screen of different diameters. Long transition (3 - 4 ft.) fabricated diameter reductions are preferable to abrupt changes in diameter from a construction and maintenance stand point. Gravel Pack. The gravel filter pack envelope well serves two vital purposes; (1) stabilizes the casing (blank casing and screen) between the boreholes by filling the annular space and (2) provides a graded filter for the fine grained particles in the aquifer. Neither purpose can be achieved if the gravel pack is not placed in a continuos and uniform manner in the annulus. Formation analyses associated with the gravel pack and screen aperture size selection process are discussed in greater detailed later in Section 1B. Gravel pack selection based solely on formation sampling can be misleading as it assumes formation samples are truly representative of the aquifer. Strict adherence to good formation sampling collection and analysis procedures are required where no historic data is available. In well established groundwater basins, field experience and past applications can be used to supplement analytical techniques. Grouting (Annular Seal). The penetration of a water bearing formation by a well provides a direct route for possible contamination of groundwater. This space must be filled with grout to prevent surface contaminants from running down the annulus and into the aquifer. A properly installed grout seal reduces the possibility of contamination. Sealing the annulus in the non-producing formation zones has other advantages, in addition to sealing out poor quality water from an overlying aquifer; it increases the life of the well by protecting the casing against exterior corrosion; and it stabilizes the soil and rock formation to help prevent caving. Water Well Screen. Screens or slotted casings are installed in wells to permit sand-free water to flow into the well and to provide support for unstable formations to prevent caving. In a drilled well, the screens are normally placed after or at the same time the casing is installed. In a driven well, the screen is a part of the drive assembly and is sunk to its final position as the well is driven. The size of the slot (aperture) for the screen or perforated pipe should be based on a sieve analysis of selected samples from the water-bearing formation that is to be developed or gravel packed. The analysis is usually made by the screen manufacturer or contractor. If the slot size is too large, the well may yield sand when pumped. If the slot size is too small, it may become plugged with fine material, and the well yield will be reduced. Common types of manufactured screen include; milled slot, wire wrap, bridge slot and shutter screen. Slots cut with a down hole mill knife or holes burned into the bottom end of the casing string should not be substituted for a manufactured well screen.
Section 1
1-25
The relationship between screen open area and entrance velocity of water through the openings should be considered if maximum hydraulic efficiency is desired. Loss of energy in the form of incereased draw down and formation material transport is kept to a minimum by holding velocities between 0.1 fps and 0.5 fps. These low entrance values are often unobtainable and as a practical matter, velocities up to 3.5 fps have been employed without appreciable loss in well efficiency or transport of formation material, in properly designed gravel pack wells. Since slot size is determined by grain size distribution in the aquifer sand or gravel pack, the required open area must be obtained by varying the diameter or, if aquifer thickness permits, by varying the length of the screen. Manufacturers of well screens provide tables of capacities and other information to facilitate selection of the most economical screen dimensions. A screen is seldom required in wells that tap bedrock fractures or tightly cemented sediments such as sand stone or limestone. Well Screen Diameter Considerations. Well screen diameter does not have much effect on production water yield; however, there are strong reasons for specifying identical casing and screen diameters (with the exceptions of telescoped screen installations and under-reamed gravel envelope well designs). Equal internal diameters facilitate well development, redevelopment and provide options should special conditions such as formation gas, incrustation, corrosion or sand become a issue. The possibility of damage due to dropping a pump or tools is minimized. Maintaining identical diameters reduces head loss through the screen and improves well efficiency. Wells smaller than six inch diameter are difficult to repair and larger diameter wells are easier to deepen where well construction and formation condition make such practices possible. In wells deeper than 1,200 feet, a reduction of four inches in screen diameter can be practical. This is generally limited to high capacity wells where the screen diameter is a minimum of 12 inches. The saving in screen and borehole costs may offset other considerations. This reduction normally begins at the bottom of the pump housing casing. Formation Analysis - Gravel Pack and Screen Aperture Selection. Evaluation of representative formation samples (sand in the interval to be screened) is performed to determine screen aperture (slot) size. The two principal forms of high capacity water well completions in unconsolidated water bearing sands are gravel pack and naturally developed. (1) In a gravel pack completion, the well diameter in the vicinity of the screen is typically 12 larger than the screen and graded gravel is used as a filter media to prevent sand pumpage. The screen aperture is sized to retain a majority of the gravel pack. (2) In a naturally developed well completion, the well is drilled no larger than required to insert the screen and casing. The screen aperture is sized to retain a majority of the natural formation material. Filler gravel is sometimes used to fill void space between the borehole/casing string annulus. A complete course in well design and gravel pack selection is outside the scope of this manual; however, general screen aperture size selection criteria and related information are presented in the following figures and tables.
Section 1
1-26
Table 1-6: General Screen Aperture (slot) Size Selection Criteria
Naturally Developed Wells Step 1) Obtained samples representative of formation materials Step 2) Perform formation grain-size (sieve) analysis Step 3) Select slot size that retains > 70% of formation materials Gravel Packed Wells Step 1) Obtain samples representative of formation materials Step 2) Perform formation grain-size (sieve) analysis Step 3) Select filter medium (sand) based on 70% retained formation grain size multiplied by: 3 if formation is fine and uniform, or 6 if formation is coarse and non-uniform (uniformity coefficient of filter medium should be less than 2.5) Note: Gravel pack selection is sometimes based on maintaining a Grave Pack Ratio (GPR = 50% gravel pack size/50% formation size) of 5 to 7. The gravel pack distribution should parallel the formation distribution. Step 4) Select a slot size that retains 95 - 100% of filter pack materials Note: Uniformity Coefficient = Grain Size Retained @ 40%/Grain Size Retained @ 90%
Table 1-7: Common Screen Aperture (slot) Size Selection Practices vs Filter Pack/ Grain Size
Section 1
Aperture Size in. 0.006 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.060 0.080 mm (0.15) (0.25) (0.50) (0.75) (1.0) (1.5) (2.0)
Media Distribution U.S. Sieve Size Range 50 - 100 20 - 40 12 - 20 12 - 20 8 - 12 6-9 4-8
Figure 1-15: Typical (% Retained) Grain Size Distribution

100 CUMULATIVE % RETAINED 80 60 40 20 0
Grain Size Distribution % Retained
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
GRAIN SIZE, THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH
1-27
Table 1-8: Physical Properties of Water Bearing Sand and Gravel Formation Materials
Sieve Standard Tyler Standard U.S. Standard Sieves Sieves 4 4 6 6 8 8 9 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 20 20 24 25 28 30 32 35 35 40 48 50 60 60 65 70 80 80 100 100 150 140 200 200 250 230
Sieve Opening Opening Opening (Inches) (Microns) .250 6350 .187 4699 .131 3327 .093 2362 .078 200 .065 1651 .055 1400 .047 1180 .039 1000 .0328 850 .0276 710 .0234 600 .0195 500 .0164 425 .0116 295 .098 250 .0082 210 .069 175 .0058 147 .0041 105 .0029 74 .0024 62 20
Grain Size Classification (USGS Method) Medium Gravel
Fine Gravel
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Silt & Clay
Transport Velocity Lifting Settling (fps) (fph) 2.75 0.58 0.35 1181 0.25 626 496 378 248 177 0.10 94 71 45 7
Section 1
Note: (1) microns = mm x 1000, (2) fps = ft./ sec., (3) fph = ft./ hr. (4) AWWA Material Classification by Grain Size Gravel 0.080 (2.032 mm) Very coarse sand 0.040 - 0.080 (1.016 - 2.032 mm) Coarse sand 0.020 - 0.040 (0.508 - 1.016 mm) Medium sand 0.010 - 0.020 (0.254 - 0.508 mm) Fine sand 0.005 - 0.010 (0.127 - 0.254 mm) Very fine sand 0.003 - 0.005 (0.076 0.127 mm) Silt and clay < 0.003 (< 0.076 mm) Well Development. Developing the well is necessary to obtain its maximum capacity for a given drawdown. The developing process usually uses hydraulic agitation to remove the fine material from the formation near the well casing perforations, thereby opening up passages so that the water can enter the well more freely. Typical methods used for well development include but are not limited to; air lift pumping, swabbing - via surge block and test pumping. All three methods agitate and surge the water-bearing strata adjacent to the well screen, which washes out the fine material from the formation. The method of development must be suited to the aquifer and the type of well construction. Proper development is necessary to maximize well yield and remove formation materials that might otherwise damage production pumping equipment or plug the well. Well development is required/recommended after completing most drilling and well construction processes.
1-28
Sand Content. Issues associated with sand content concentration levels are discussed in Section 2D, under the heading of Entrained Solids (Sandy Water). In general, the sand content of a new and fully developed water well should not exceed 5 mg/l, 15 minutes after start-up. Performance Testing. After the well is developed, a long term pump (yield) test is normally conducted on the well using a test pump. Depending on the formation and historical data, the duration of a long term pump test at the design flow rate can range from 8 to 72 hours. The pump test should be conducted until the pumping water level remains stable and/or as required by contract. It is important that the test pump be accurately sized for the well in order to obtain the best test results. The test pump should have variable speed capability, with 10 - 50% greater capacity and lift than anticipated at full load speed. Test data should include the static water level (standing water level), pumping water level, discharge rate, water level, sand content, recovery measurements and duration. Long term pump test data can be used for aquifer analysis in conjunction with water level recovery data. Water level recovery (residual drawdown) measurements can provide significant aquifer information and typically range from 1 - 24 hours. A step drawdown test is sometimes performed at several flow rates to develop a well performance curve for the purposes of determining well efficiency. Pump test data is used to select the production pumping equipment for the intended application, and should be corrected for seasonal variations as applicable. Failure of the well to recover completely to the original static water level within the same time period as the pump test, is an indication of aquifer storage depletion. Well Alignment - Pump Setting Limits. The Bureau of Reclamation recommends that all casing to the lowest contemplated pump setting should not deviate for vertical more than 3 inches per 100 ft. for casings up to 6 inches diam., 4 inches per 100 ft. for casing 8 to 12 inches diam., and 6 inches per 100 ft. for casing 14 to 18 inches diam. All casings up to 20 inches diam. should be sufficiently straight to permit free passage of a 40 ft. length of pipe with couplings at each end and in the middle, of the next smaller size than can enter the well casing. The AWWA recommends that the outer diameter of the plumb or dummy should not be more than 1/2 inch smaller than the diameter of the part of the casing or hole being tested. The dummy is recommended to consist or a rigid spindle with 3 rings each 12 inches wide and truly cylindrical. If the dummy fails to move freely throughout the length of the casing or hole to the lowest anticipated bowl setting, or should the well vary from vertical in excess of 2/3 of the smallest diameter of that part of the well being tested per 100 ft. of depth, it is not satisfactory. Impact of alignment deviation on pump installation are: A drift of 3 per 100 ft. of well depth is of little or on consequence. A drift of 3 to 6 per 100 ft. of well depth is less desirable but not serious if the well is straight. A drift of more than 6 per 100 ft. of depth may be extremely troublesome unless the pump is much smaller than the well casing. Note: A dog-leg in the well is a problem regardless of alignment drift. Plumbness and Alignment Survey. AWWA standard A100 - 97 provides a procedure for conducting a Plumbness and Alignment (deviation) survey. The purposes of such a survey is to graphically depict well alignment, as well as identification of dog-legs which can make a well unusable depending on the location and surverity. The alignment survey procedure is addreviated as follows: Test Fixture Set-up. Using the test fixture as shown in Figure 1-16. The horizontal center of the pulley C should be exactly 10 feet above the top of the well. The vertical center of the pulley must be so located that the plumb line A will come off its outer edge exactly over the center D of the well casing. Unless this point is closely established the well survey will not be corrected. The plumb ring E should be 1/4 smaller than the inside diameter of the well casing and should be heavy enough to keep the plumb line taut. The ring must not be solid as the water must pass through it as it is lowered in the well. The hole F through which the plumb line A passes must be in the exact center of the ring. Marks should be made every 10 feet on the plumb line, to indicate the depth the ring has been lowered in the well.
Section 1
1-29
Drift Calculation Procedures. Well drift characteristics are determined by lowering the plumb ring 10 feet at a time and taking a reading at each 10 interval. If the plumb line passes exactly through the center line D at any location, the well is plumb at the depth the plumb ring is suspended. If the line A does not pass through D, the well at that depth is out of plumb by the distance A varies from D plus an equal distance for each 10 feet that the plumb ring E is below the reference datum level.
Example 1-1: Well Alignment - Drift Calculation.
Section 1
Assume that c is exactly 10 above the reference datum and D is at datum level. (1) If plumb line A varies 1/16 of an inch form the center of the well at D and the plumb ring E is 10 feet below the reference line, then the well is 1/8 out of plumb at the 10 foot level. (2) If A varies 1/16 inch form the center of the well D when the plumb ring E is 50 feet below the datum at D, then the well is 1/16 plus 5/16 or 3/8 of an inch out of plumb at the 50 foot level. The amount of drift is related to the proportional relationship of similar triangles, and is illustrated as follows: 60 ft. 10 ft. x 1 16 = 3 8
Drift calculations at the various depths tested may be plotted on graph paper for a graphical depiction of alignment. Typical forms of plumbness and alignment presentation are illustrated in Figure 1-17 and 1-18.
Figure 1-16: Alignment Survey Text Fixture Guide Pulley "C" Exact Center "F" Figure 1-17: Typical Alignment Survey Longitudinal Projections
10'0" Exact Well Center "D"
Plumb Line "A" Frame "B" Datum
Plumb Ring "E"
Knots Every 10 ft.
"E"
1-30
Table 1-9: Typical Plumbness and Alignment Test Data Sheet
Well No. 1 Date: 3-21-75 Size of Hole or Casing = 19-1/4 in., ID Size of Plummet = 18-1/4 in. OD. Height of Apex Above Top of Well = 10.0 ft. Depth of Plummet Below Top of Well (ft) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 North .01 .10 .01 .01 .01 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 0 Horizontal Deflection of Plumb Line (ft) South East 0 West 0 .01 .015 .015 .015 .015 .015 .02 .02 .02 .01 .01 .005 0 0 .005 .005 .01 .01 .01 North .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .35 .04 .045 .05 .055 .06 .065 0 Calculated Drift of Well (ft)
Section 1
South
East 0
0 .005 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
0 0
0 .075 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21
0 0
West 0 .03 .06 .075 .09 .105 .12 .18 .20 .22 .12 .13 .07 0 0 .085 .09 .19 .20 .21
Figure 1-18: Graphical Representation of Plumbness Requirements
Drift is greatest at depths 100 ft. and 200 ft. Depth ft. 100 200 Actual Drift in. 2.75 3.63 Allowed Drift* in.
Depth 100 ft
North .20 ft
12.83 25.66
West
.10 ft
t=2 .75 in .
.23 f
Imaginary Vertical Line East .10 ft .20 ft
*For 19.250 in. ID casing.
.20 ft
.10 ft
63
in .
3.
.10 ft
.20 ft South
Depth 200 ft
Note that this well meets the specifications for plumbness.
.3 0
ft
1-31
Well Covers and Surface Seals. Every well should be provided with an overlapping, tight-fitting cover at the top of the casing or pipe sleeve to prevent contaminated water or other material from entering the well. The sanitary well seal for a well exposed to possible flooding should be either watertight or elevated at least 2 ft. (0.6 m) above the highest known flood level. When it is expected that a well seal may become flooded, it should be watertight and equipped with a vent line that has an opening to the atmosphere at least 2 ft. (0.6 m) above the highest known flood level. Under normal circumstances, the minimum height or vent is usually specified by the regulatory agency having jurisdiction for public water supplies.
Section 1
The seal in a well not exposed to possible flooding should be either watertight (with an approved vent line) or selfdraining (non-watertight) type, all openings in the cover should be either watertight or flanged upward and provided with overlapping, downward flanged covers. All sanitary well seals, pitless adapter units, and caps must be approved by local or state health departments. Pumps should have a supporting base that can be effectively adapted to seal the upper terminal of the well casing. There are several acceptable sanitary well seal designs for submersible pumps consisting of an expandable neoprene gasket compressed between two steel plates (Figures 1-19 and 1-20), which are easily installed and removed for well servicing. If the pump is not installed immediately after well completion, the top of the casing should be closed with a metal cap screwed or tack-welded into place, or covered with a sanitary well seal. A well slab alone is not an effective sanitary defense and alone, may not be permissible for public water supply purposes. A cement grout formation seal is far more effective. Concrete slab or floor around the well casing to facilitate cleaning and improve appearance should be placed only after the formation seal and/or the pitless installation have been inspected. Well covers and pump platforms should be elevated above the adjacent finished ground level. Pump room floors should be constructed of reinforced, watertight concrete, and carefully leveled or sloped away from the well so that surface and wastewater cannot stand near the well. The minimum thickness of such a slab or floor should be 4 in. (100 mm). Concrete slabs or floors should be poured separately from the formation seal. All water wells should be readily accessible at the top for inspection, servicing, and unobstructed access for wellservicing equipment.
Figure 1-19: Typical Large Submersible Pump (LSP) Discharge Styles & Surface Plate Assemblies
Notes: 1. Well seal surface plates are for use where a sanitary well sealing is required; a flange must be welded to the casing by a continuous watertight weld or the plate must be grouted in place. Ordinary surface plates may be used where sanitary well seals are not required. 2. The surface discharge assembly must physically comply and be installed in accordance with state or federal sanitary requirements having jurisdiction. Vent well as required for service and/or sanitary requirements.
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Figure 1-20: Typical Submersible Pump (Small Submersible) Discharge and Well Seal Completion Pipe Plug Power Cable Drop Pipe Access Plug (Threaded) Basket Well Vent Wire Mesh Discharge Line
Bolt Well Cap
Section 1
Casing
Concrete Base
Drop Pipe from Submersible Pump
Submersible Pump Cable
Abandoning Wells. Unsealed, abandoned wells constitute a potential hazard to the public health and welfare of the surrounding area. Sealing an abandoned well presents certain problems, and the solution involves consideration of well construction and the geological and hydrological conditions of the area. Factors to be considered when sealing an abandoned well are elimination of any physical hazard, prevention of any possible contamination of groundwater, conservation and maintenance of the yield and hydrostatic pressure of the aquifer, and prevention of contact between desirable and undesirable waters. When a well is to be permanently abandoned, the well should be filled with concrete, cement grout, neat cement, or clays with sealing properties similar to those of cement in accordance with the regulatory agency having jurisdiction. Care should be taken to insure sealing material does not bridge during installation. It is recommended that the top of the casing be cut-off five feet below the finished grade after the well is filled with impermeable material. Well Failure. Over a period of time, wells may fail to produce for any of the following reasons: Failure or wear of the pump. Declining water levels. Plugged or corroded screens. Accumulation of sand or sediments in the well.
Proper analysis of the cause necessitates measuring the water level before, during, and after pumping. To facilitate measuring the water level, an entrance for a tape or wire line electrical measuring device into the well in the annular space between the well casing and the pump column should be provided. A perminately installed airline or submersible water level transducer are often used to measure water levels and is recommended for applications requiring frequent measurements or where it is difficult to insert portable devices. The airline method is not generally as accurate as the tape, electric wire line or the pressure transducer method. If the well is completed as a pitless-adapter installation, consideration should be given as to how water level measurement can be taken.
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Any work performed within the well including insertion of a measuring line could potentially contaminate the water with coliform bacteria and other organisms. Care should be exercised when procuring water level measurements. All access holes should be tightly plugged or covered following the work. Special Considerations in Constructing Artesian Wells. To conserve water and ensure good productivity from an artesian well, it is essential that the well casing be sealed into the confining stratum. Otherwise, water loss may occur by leakage into lower-pressure, permeable strata at higher elevations. A flowing artesian well should be designed so that the movement of water from the aquifer can be controlled. Water can be conserved if such a well is equipped with a valve or shut off device.
Section 1
In general, water can not be extracted from a flowing artesian well via pumping, greater than the natural flow.
Well Disinfection and Treatment

Disinfection of Wells. All newly constructed wells should be disinfected to eliminate contamination from equipment, material, or surface drainage introduced during construction. Every well should be disinfected promptly after construction or repair. An effective and economical method of disinfecting wells is use of calcium hypochlorite containing approximately 70% available chlorine. This chemical can be purchased in granular or tablet form at hardware stores, swimming pool-equipment outlets, or chemical supply houses. When used to disinfect wells, calcium hypochlorite should be added in sufficient amounts to provide a dosage of approximately 50 mg/L of available chlorine in the well water. When calcium hypochlorite is not available, other sources of available chlorine-sodium hypochlorite (12-15% of volume) can be used. Sodium hypochlorite, which is also commonly available as liquid household bleach with 5.25% available chlorine. Table 1-10 shows quantities of disinfectants to be used in treating wells of different diameters.
Table 1-10: Chlorine Compound Required to Dose 100 feet (30 meters) of Water-Filled Casing at 50 mg/l
Diameter of Casing in. (mm) 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 (50) (100) (150) (200) (250) (300) (400) (510) (610)
(70%) Calcium Hypochlorite 2/ (Dry Weight) 1/4 oz 1 oz 2 oz 3 oz 4 oz 6 oz 10 oz 1 lb 1 1/2 lb (7 g) (28 g) (57 g) (85 g) (113 g) (0.2 kg) (0.3 kg) (0.45 kg) (0.7 kg)
Chlorine Compounds (25%) Chloride (12%) Sodium of Lime Hypochlorite (Dry Weight) (Liquid Measure) 1/2 oz 2 oz 4 oz 7 oz 11 oz 1 lb 2 lb 3 lb 4 lb (14 g) (57 g) (113 g) (0.2 kg) (0.3 kg) (0.45 kg) (0.9 kg) (1.4 kg) (1.8 kg) 1 1/2 oz 7.8 oz 13.9 oz 1.4 pt 2.0 pt 3 1/2 pt 2/3 gal 1.0 gal 11/2 gal (44 ml) (233 ml) (.4 l) (.7 l) (1 l) (1.7 l) (2.7 l) (3.8 l) (4.7 l)
(5.25%) Sodium Hypochlorite (Liquid Measure) 2 oz 9 oz 20 oz 2 1/8 pt 3 1/2 pt 5 pt 1 gal 1 2/3 gal 2 1/3 gal (59 ml) (266 ml) (0.6 l) (1.0 l) (1.7 l) (2.4 l) (3.8 l) (6.3 l) (8.8 l)
Note: 1. Some authorities recommend a minimum concentration of 100 mg/l. To obtain 100 mg/l concentration level, double the amounts shown in the table above. 2. 70% Calcium Hypochlorite tablets (ie. HTH, Perchloron, Pittchlor, etc.) 3. Where dry chlorine is used, it should be mixed with water to form a chlorine solution prior to placing it into the well. Dry chlorine should always be added to water - not vice versa, and should be added slowly. These precautions are necessary to lessen the possibility of a violent chemical reaction. 4. 5.25% Sodium Hypochlorite solution - household bleach (ie. Chlorox, Purex, etc.) 5. 12% Sodium Hypochlorite solution - commercial bleach.
1-34
General Well Disinfection Practices. The chlorine solution should remain in the well for at least 4 hours, preferable longer. After disinfection, the well should be pumped to waste, until the odor of chlorine can no longer be noticed. The well should then be tested for bacteriological quality to determine the chlorines effectiveness. In the case of deep wells having a high water level, it may be necessary to use special methods of introducing the disinfecting agent into the well, so as to ensure proper diffusion of chlorine throughout the well. Flowing Artesian Wells. The water from flowing artesian wells is generally free from contamination after it is allowed to flow a short time. It is not generally necessary to disinfect flowing wells; however, should it become necessary to disinfect a flowing artesian well, chlorine solution should be placed at the bottom of the well and the well shut-in for 24 hours. Bacteriological Tests Following Disinfection. The water from the system should not be used for domestic and cooking purposes until the results of the tests indicate that the water is safe for such uses. If bacteriological examination of water samples collected after disinfection indicates that the water is not safe for use, disinfection should be repeated until tests show that water samples from that portion of the system being disinfected are satisfactory. Samples collected immediately after disinfection may not be representative of the water used. Sampling is recommended (may be required) to be repeated several days after disinfection to verify the water delivered under normal conditions of operation, meet the bacteriological requirements of the National Drinking Water Regulations. Water Well Treatment. In water wells, decline in production basically is caused by: 1. 2. 3. 4. Lowered static water level - depletion. Worn, corroded or debri plugged pump parts. Incrustation and micro - organism growths. Mud, sand and silt fouling.
Section 1
Well treatment is effective only in the latter two types of situations. General. Water quality is the key indicator as to the incrustation potential of a groundwater source (see Table 1-8). The kinds and amounts of dissolved minerals and gases in groundwater determine its tendency either to corrode or to deposit mineral matter as incrustation. When the groundwater formation is penetrated by a well and exposed to changing conditions (ie. oxygen introduced, pressure/velocity changes, etc.), the natural balance is changed. The change in local aquifer conditions coupled with water quality conducive to the formation of mineral deposits, can lead to well and/or pump plugging. The four primary causes of plugging, in order of frequency of occurrence are: (1) incrustation from precipitation of carbonates of calcium and magnesium or their sulfates; (2) incrustation from precipitation of iron and manganese compounds, primarily their hydroxides or hydrated oxides; (3) stoppage due to slime produced by iron bacteria or other slime-forming organisms; (4) stoppage resulting from deposition of soil materials, such as silt and clay, carried up to the well screen in suspension. Guide to Chemical Treatment Methods. It is impossible to prescribe a method of well treatment that is applicable to every well condition. Hence the methods prescribed should be tailored to provide the optimum treatment for a specific well. Study of the well log, well record, and water analysis are often of value. The majority of chemical treatments are made with the pump in the well. If the pump is removed, variations in the application of the selected treatment method may be required to remove treatment spoils. Air-lift pumping for removal of the expended (spent) treatment solution, debris and associated dissolved materials is commonly used in the absence of a pump. Treating Solutions. Any chemical used in the treatment of a water well must be non-toxic and not impart a taste or odor to the water supply. The concentration of the treating solution is of the utmost importance. A solution that is too weak will not be effective. One that is too strong will displace or dissolve more material than can be carried by the spent chemical solution. Heavy gels or flocculent precipitates with plugging properties may result.
1-35
No one chemical solution is a cure-all. The type of chemicals, volume, concentration, and method of treatment must be selected carefully for optimum results. Several of the most common well/pump treatment methods, based on the plugging mechanism identified are briefly described as follows: 1. Chlorine Treatment. The chlorine solution is applied to the well and/or pumping equipment for sterilization and for the destruction of plugging micro-organism (bacteria and slime) growth. 2. Acidizing Treatment. Acidizing of wells and pumping equipment serves to dissolve carbonate, manganese, magnesium, and iron encrustations; and for the specific destruction of specific micro-organisms. It is also used in the development process for enlarging the pores of limestone formations, and in some cases can be used to loosen stuck drilling tools in and soluble rock formation. Acid treatments should be used in conjunction with a inhibitor to reduce corrosive attack on metal components. If zinc or magnesium anodes are used in the pump for cathodic protection, the anodes or the pump must be removed from the well prior to any acid treatment. No galvanized pipe or fittings should be used in the acid treatment. The acid quickly reacts with and dissolves the zinc or magnesium, inhibited or not generating gaseous hydrogen. 3. Phosphate Treatment. Phosphates are primarily used as a treatment for mud and silt fouling, and rely on the dispersive - detergent effect of the phosphate solution. Phosphates are sometimes used in the development process to remove excessive drilling mud. Phosphate treatments generally require mechanical surging with a surge block to be affective, which requires pump removal. A improper phosphate treatment can be extremely detrimental to the water bearing formation, and will further reduce yield. 4. Explosive Treatment. Explosive treatment shooting is primarily used as a well development tool for increasing the yield in tight consolidated sand stone formations. Explosives are rarely used for incrustation treatment purposes. 5. Dry Ice Treatment. Compressed carbon dioxide gas, or dry ice, has been used to some extent in well development. Its efficiency is about equal to the air lift development process. It is an inexpensive and convenient method of agitating and obtaining some back-pressure effect. It does not dissolve incrustations. In areas where well and pump plugging is a possibility or a known problem, specific well performance should be monitored on a periodic or continuous basis. Flow, drawdown and kWh/1000 gal. (energy) data can be used to establish well/pump cleaning and service intervals. Continuous monitoring instrumentation, such as the Grundfos CU3 control unit, are available for such purposes. Maintaining well efficiency through the prevention of water level decline from plugging, as a result of incrustation or fouling is extremely important. Energy costs to pump can be many times the initial cost of the pumping equipment over the service life, making good well maintenance a key factor in overall system reliability and efficiency.
Section 1
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1C WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT

Drinking Water Regulation
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). In 1974, the US congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA, Public law 93-523) establishing a cooperative program among local, state, and federal agencies to help ensure safe drinking water in the United States. Under the SDWA, the primary role of the federal government is to develop national drinking water regulations that will protect public health and welfare. The states are assigned the responsibility of implementing the regulations and monitoring the performance of public water systems. The public water systems themselves are responsible for treating and testing drinking water to ensure that its quality consistently meets the standards set by the regulations. As directed by the SDWA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed primary and secondary drinking water regulations designed to protect public health and welfare. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) cover contaminants that have adverse effects on human health. These regulations are most enforced by the State or the USEPA. The Secondary Drinking Water Regulations cover contaminants that adversely affect the aesthetic quality of drinking water, such as taste odor, and appearance. Contaminants covered by Secondary Regulations do not normally affect health directly. There regulations are intended as guidelines and are not enforceable by USEPA; however, individual states may choose to enforce some or all of the Secondary Regulations. Refer to Table 1-15 for a listing of the secondary standard as applied to a typical ground water supply. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. The NPDWR are the drinking water regulations that apply to all public water systems in the United States. In order to provide adequate public health the SDWA makes it clear that the owners and operators of public water systems are responsible for ensuring that their systems meet the regulations. To help fulfill this responsible for ensuring that their systems meet the regulations. The SDWA and NPDWR address, five principal areas: Definition of public water system Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) Sampling frequencies Record-keeping requirements Regulatory reporting requirements
Section 1
The discussion refers only to the USEPA regulations; individual states can adopt more stringent regulations. Most states have primacy responsibility under the SDWA with respect to enforcement of regulations and are responsible for their enforcement. A water supplier need only check with the appropriate state agency to learn exactly what regulations apply to the water system. Public Water System. A Public Water System (supply) is defined in the SDWA as those systems that either (1) have 15 or more service connections or (2) regularly serve an average of 25 or more people daily for at least 60 days each year. The NPDWR applies to all public water systems. There are two types of public water systems defined by the NPDWR: Community systems and non-community systems. A community system is one that serves a residential (year-round) population. A non-community system is one that serves intermittent users, such as a campground. Since certain contaminants have adverse health effects only when consumed regularly over a long period of time, the distinction between community and non-community systems is important in determining which contaminants must be monitored to protect public health. As of 1998, there are approximately 59,000 community water systems in the U.S. Maximum Contaminant Levels and Health Effects. Under the SDWA regulations, the USEPA has issued water standards for drinking an established maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for more than 80 contaminants. The standard limit the amount of each substance allowed to be present in drinking water. A process called risk assessment is used to set drinking water quality standards. In developing drinking water standards, USEPA assumes that the average adult drinks 2 liters of water each day throughout a 70-year life span. Section 1C Water Quality & Treatment 1-37
Risks are estimated separately for cancer and non-cancer effects. For cancer effects, a risk assessment estimates a measure of the chances that someone may get cancer because they have been exposed to a drinking contaminant. USEPA generally sets MCLs at levels that will limit an individuals risk of cancer from that contaminant to between 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 1,000,000 over a lifetime. For non-cancer effects, the risk assessment estimates an exposure level below which no adverse effects are expected to occur. MCLs are set based on known or anticipated adverse human health effects, the ability of various technologies to remove the contaminant, their effects, the ability of various technologies to remove the contaminant, their effectiveness, and cost of treatment. All MCLs are set at levels that protect public health. The limit for many substances is based on lifetime exposure so, for most potential contaminants, short-term exceedances pose a limited health risk. The exceptions are the standards for coliform bacteria and nitrate, for which exceedances can pose an immediate threat to health. Table 1-12 lists the MCLs specified in the NPDWR for various contaminants, there potential health effects and typical source of contamination. Public water purveyors will often report water supply quality data periodically as general mineral, general physical, inorganic & organtic chemicals (pesticides and volatile organics). Table 1-11 lists a typical summary presentation of general mineral, general physical and organic constituents. Table 1-11 lists a typical summary presentation of organic contaminants, radioactivity and microbiology quality. Monitoring & Reporting Requirements. To ensure that drinking water meets the standards set by the SDWA. USEPA has established pollutant specific minimum testing schedules for public water systems. Table 1-11 shows the major groups of contaminants and the minimum frequency that public water systems must test. If a problem is detected, there are immediate retesting requirements that go into effect and strict instructions for how the system informs the public about the problem. Until the system can reliably demonstrate that it is free of problems, the retesting is continued. Refer to the appropriate water quality regulatory agency having jurisdiction for reporting requirements.
Table 1-11: Typical Monitoring Schedule
Section 1
Contaminant Acute Contaminants Bacteria Protozoa and Viruses Nitrate Chronic Contaminants Volatile Organics (e.g., benzene) Synthetic Organics (e.g., pesticides) Inorganics/Metals Lead and Copper Radionuclides
Minimum Monitoring Frequency Monthly or quarterly, depending on system size and type Monthly monitoring for turbidity and total coliforms, as indicators Annually Ground water systems, annually for 2 consecutive years; surface water systems annually Larger systems, twice in 3 years; smaller systems, once in 3 years Ground water systems once every 3 years; surface water systems, annually Annually Once every 4 year
Note: General requirements may differ slightly based on the size or type of drinking water system. Source: USEPA - A consumers guide to the Nations Drinking Water
1-38
Section 1C Water Quality & Treatment
Record keeping. The SDWA requires record keeping for compliance. In addition to the compliance requirement, records are useful in evaluating system performance, planning improvements and writing reports. Records must be maintained and stored for specific time periods, as established by the NPDWR. Storage periods range from 3 to 10 years pending record type and category. Regulatory Reporting Requirements. To ensure that prompt attention is given to potential health problems, the NPDWR require water systems to submit routine reports to the appropriate regulatory agency. The regulatory agency is most often the State; however in some states the USEPA has primary responsibility for implementing the SDWA.
Section 1
There are three types of reports that must be sent to the state (regulatory agency): Routine sample reports Check sample reports Violation reports
Refer to the appropriate water quality regulatory agency for sampling, report frequency and MCL violation reporting. Public Notification. Public Notification is a requirement of the SDWA which requires water suppliers to notify their customers when their system is in violation of the NPDWR. The purpose of the notice is to protect consumers from water that may be temporarily unsafe, as well as to increase public awareness of the problems water systems face and the costs of supplying safe drinking water. Violation notification by mail is sufficient for all cases except violation of an MCL, which requires newspaper and broadcast notice as well. Refer to the appropriate water quality regulatory agency for specific public notification requirements of violations.
1-39
Table 1-12: National Primary Drinking Water Standards Contaminants Fluoride Volatile Organics Benzene Carbon Tetrachloride 0 0 0.075 0 0.007 0 0.2 0 0 N/A N/A 0 N/A 0 0 7MFL 2 0.004 0.005 0.1 0.2 0.002 10 1 0.05 0.0005 0 0.4 0 0.003 0.04 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.6 0.07 0.1 0 0 0.007 0 0.005 0.005 0.075 0.005 0.007 0.005 0.2 0.002 TT TT TT <5%+ TT TT 0.006 7MFL 2 0.004 0.005 0.1 0.2 0.002 10 1 0.05 0.002 TT 0.4 0.002 0.003 0.04 0.002 0.1 0.2 0.0002 0.6 0.07 0.1 0.005 0.005 0.007 3EE-8 Cancer Cancer Cancer Cancer Cancer Cancer Liver, nervous system effects Cancer Gastroenteric disease Legionnaires disease Human and animal fecal waste Natural waters; can grow in water heating system Some foods; gas, drugs, pesticide; paint, plastic industries Solvents and their degradation process Room and water deodorants, and mothballs Leaded gasoline, fumigants, paints Plastics, dyes, perfumes, paints Textiles, adhesives and metal degreasers Adhesives, aerosols, textiles, paints, inks, metal degreasers May leach from PVC pipe; formed by solvent break down MCLG (mg/L) 4.0 MCL (mg/L) 4.0 Potential Health Effects from Ingestion of Water Skeletal & Dental Fluorosis Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water Nat.l deposits; fertilizer, aluminum industries; water additive
Section 1
p-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,1- Dichlorobenzene Trichloroethylene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Vinyl Chloride Giardia Lamblia Legionella Standard Plate Count Total Coliform* Turbidity Viruses Inorganics Antimony Asbestos (>10um) Barium* Beryllium Cadmium* Chromium* (total) Cyanide Mercury* (inorganic) Nitrate* Nitrite Selenium* Thallium Organics Acrylamide Adipate Alachlor Atrazine Carbofuran Chlordane* Chlorobenzene Dalapon Dibromochloropropane Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethylene trans-1,2 Dichloroethylene Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Dinoseb Dioxin
Coliform & Surface Water Treatment
Indicates water quality, effectiveness of treatment indicates gastroenteric pathogens Human and animal fecal waste Interferes with disinfection, filtration Soil runoff Gastroenteric disease Cancer Cancer Circulatory system effects Bone, lung damage Kidney effects Liver, kidney, circulatory disorders Thyroid, nervous system damage Kidney, nervous system disorders Methemoglobulinemia Methemoglobulinemia Liver damage Kidney, liver, brain, intestinal Cancer, nervous system effects Decreased body weight Cancer Mammary gland tumors Nervous, reproductive system effects Cancer Nervous system and liver effects Liver and kidney effects Cancer Liver, kidney, blood cell damage Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory Cancer Liver, kidney effects, cancer Thyroid, reproductive organ damage Cancer Human and animal fecal waste Fire retardants, ceramics, electronics, fireworks, solder Natural deposits; asbestos cement in water systems Natural deposits; pigments, epoxy sealants, spent coal Electrical, aerospace, defence industries Galvanized pipe corrosion: natural deposits, batteries, paint Natural deposits; mining, electroplating, pigments Electroplating, steel, plastics, mining, fertilizer Crop runoff, natural deposits, batteries, electrical switches Animal waste, fertilizer, natural deposits, septic tanks, sewage Same as nitrate; rapidly converted to nitrate Natural deposits; mining, smelting, coal/oil combustion Electronics, drugs, alloys, glass Polymers used in sewage/wastewater treatment Synthetic rubber, food packaging, cosmetics Runoff from herbicide on corn, soybeans, other crops Runoff from use as herbicide on corn and non-cropland Soil fumigant on corn and cotton; restricted in some areas Leaching from soil treatment for termites Waste solvent from metal degreasing processes Herbicide on orchards, beans, coffee, lawns, road/railways Soil fumigant on soybeans, cotton, pineapple, orchards Paints, engine cleaning compounds, dyes, chemical wastes Waste industrial extraction solvents Waste industrial extraction solvents Paint stripper, metal degreaser, propellant, extraction Soil fumigant; waste industrial solvents Runoff of herbicide from crop and non-crop applications Chemical production by-product, impurity in herbicides
1-40
Table 1-12: National Primary Drinking Water Standards (continued) Contaminants Diquat 2,4-D Endothall Endrin Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Ethylene Dibromide Glyphosate Heptachlor MCLG (mg/L) 0.02 0.07 0.1 0.002 0 0.7 0 0.7 0 MCL (mg/L) 0.02 0.07 0.1 0.002 TT 0.7 0.00005 0.7 0.0004 0.0002 0.001 0.05 0.0002 0.04 0.2 0.0002 0.0005 0.001 0.006 0.5 0.004 0.1 0.005 1 0.003 0.05 0.07 0.005 10 TT+ TT# Potential Health Effects from Ingestion of Water Liver, kidney, eye effects Liver and kidney damage Liver, kidney, gastrointestinal Liver, kidney, heart damage Cancer Liver, kidney, nervous system Cancer Liver, kidney damage Cancer Cancer Cancer Kidney, stomach damage Liver, kidney, nerve, immune, circ. Growth, liver, kidney, nerve effects Kidney damage Cancer Cancer Liver and kidney effects, cancer Cancer Kidney, liver damage Cancer Liver, nervous system damage Cancer Liver, kidney, nervous, circ. Cancer Liver and kidney damage Liver and kidney damage Kidney, liver, nervous system Liver, kidney, nervous system Kidneys, nervous system damage Gastrointestinal irritation Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water Runoff of herbicide on land & aquatic weeds Runoff from herbicide on wheat, corn, rangeland, lawns Herbicides on crops, land/aquatic weeds; rapidly degraded Pesticide on insects, rodents, birds, restricted since 1980 Water treatment chemicals, waste epoxy resins, coatings Gasoline, insecticides, chemical manufacturing wastes Leaded gasoline additives, leaching of soil fumigant Herbicide on grasses, weeds, brush Leaching of insecticides for termites, very few crops Biodegration of heptachlor Pesticide production waste by-product Pesticide production intermediate Insecticide on cattle, lumber, gardens, restricted 1983 Insecticide for fruits, vegetables, alfalfa, livestock, pets Insecticide on apples, potatoes, tomatoes Coal tar coatings, burning org. matter, volcanos, fossil fuel Coolant oils from electrical transformers, plasticizers Wood preservatives, herbacide, cooling tower wastes PVC and other plastics Herbicide on broadleaf and woody plants Herbicide on grass sod, some crops, aquatic algae Plastics, rubber, resin, drug ind., leachate from landfills Improper disposal of dry cleaning & other solvents Gasoline additive, manufacturing and solvent operations Insecticide on cattle, cotton, soybeans, cancelled 1982 Herbicide on crops, golf courses, cancelled 1983 Herbicide production, dye carrier Solvent in rubber, organic products, chemical prod. wastes By-product of gasoline refining, paints, inks, detergents Natural/industrial deposits, plumbiing, solder, brass Natural/industrial deposits, wood preservatives, plumbing Decay of radionuclides in natural and man-made deposits Decay of radionuclides in natural deposits Natural deposits Natural Deposits, Smelters, glass, electronics wastes, orchards Drinking water chlorination by-products
Section 1
Heptachlor Epoxide 0 Hexachlorobenzene 0 Hexachloro-cyclopentadiene 0.05 Lindane Methoxchlor Oxamyl (Vydate) PAHs (Benzo(a)pyrene) PCBs Pentachlorophenol Phthalate (di(2-ethylexyl)) Picloram Simazine Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Toxaphene 2,4,5 - TP 1,2,4 - Trichlorobenzene 1,1,2 - Trichloroethane Xylenes (total) Lead and Copper Lead* Copper Other Interim Standards Beta/Photon Emitters Alpha Emitters Combined Radium 226/228 Arsenic Total Trihalomethanes 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 1.3 0.0002 0.04 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.004 0.1 0 1 0 0.05 0.07 0.003 10
4mrem/yr Cancer 15 pCi/L Cancer 5 pCi/L 0.05 0.10 Bone cancer Skin, nervous system toxicity Cancer
Notes: 1. Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) is a non-enforceable goal at which no known adverse health effects occur. 2. Maximum contaminant level (MCL) is a federally-enforceable standard. 3. TT-Treatment Technique requirements established in lieu of MCLs: effective beginning December 1990. 4. MFL = Million Fibers per Liter longer than 10 um. 5. *Contaminants with interim standards which have been changed. 6. + = Less than 5% positive samples. 7. ++ = Action Level 0.015 mg/L. 8. # = Action Level 1.3 mg/L. 9. Source: USAEPA publication EPA 815-K-97-002 (July 1997).
1-41
Table 1-13: Typical Ground Water Quality Summary (General Mineral, General Physical & Inorgonic Chemicals)
Parameter/ Units of measurement General Mineral pH (Standard Units) Carbonate mg/L Bicarbonate mg/L Chloride mg/L Sulfate mg/L Calcium mg/L Magnesium mg/L Sodium mg/L Copper mg/L Zinc mg/L Iron mg/L Maganese mg/L General Physical Specific Conductance umhos/cm Foaming Agents (MBAS) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/L Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3 Hardness mg/L as CaCO3 Color CU Odor TON Turbidity NTU Inorgonics Chemicals Aluminum mg/L Antimony mg/L Arsenic mg/L Barium mg/L Beryllium mg/L Cadmium mg/L Chromium mg/L Cyauide mg/L Fluoride (Raw Water) mg/L Lead mg/L Mercury mg/L Nickel mg/L Nitrate (NO3) mg/L Nitrite (N) mg/L Selenium mg/L Silver mg/L Thallium mg/L * California Standard
Avg. Conc. 7.3 <5 142 8 9 23 9 19 <.005 <.02 <.1 <.005
Max Conc. 7.6 <5 269 12 12 45 21 30 <.005 <.02 <.1 <.005
Min Conc. 7.1 <5 87 6 6 12 5 14 <.005 <.02 <.1 <.005
Allowable Limit No Standard No Standard No Standard 500 500 No Standard No Standard No Standard 1.3 (1.0)* 5 0.3 0.05
Section 1
279 <.02 214 116 94 <2 NDO .39
463 <.02 372 220 199 <2 NDO 1.0
182 <.02 136 71 55 <2 NDO <.1
1600 0.5 1000 No Standard No Standard 15 3 5
.06 0 .001 .167 0 <.005 <.005 0 0.2 <.002 <.0005 0 2.8 0 <.002 <.01 0
0.2 ND .006 0.371 ND <.005 .005 ND 0.3 <.002 <.005 ND 3.5 ND <.002 <.01 ND
ND ND ND 0.101 ND <.005 <.005 ND 0.1 <.002 <.0005 ND <.5 ND <.002 <.01 ND
1.0 0.006 .05 2 (1.0)* 0.004 0.005 0.01 0.2 1.6** 0.05 0.002 0.1 10 1.0 0.02 (0.01)* 0.05 0.002
** Fluoride added to maintain 1.0 mg/L mg/L = milligrams per liter (parts per million) umhos/cm = micro-mhos per centimeter
CU = Color Units ND = Non Detectable NDO = No Detectable Odor NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units TON = Threshold Odor Units
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Table 1-14: Typical Ground Water Quality Summary (Organics chemicals, Radioactivity & Microbiological)
Parameter/ Units of measurement Organic Pesticides Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) ug/L Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) ug/L Voltile Organics Benzene ug/L Carbon Tetrachloride ug/L Ethylbenzene ug/L Pentachbrophenol (PCP) ug/L Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) ug/L Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) ug/L Trichoroethylene (TCE) ug/L Vinyl Chloride (VC) ug/L Xylenes ug/L Radioactivity Gross Alpha Activity pCi/L Radon 222 pCi/L Microbiological Coliform Bacteria % sample
Avg. Conc. < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 ND ND < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 1.0 646 1.02
Max Conc. < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 ND ND < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 4.0 1365 3.92
Min Conc. < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 ND ND < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 0.7 318 0
Allowable Limit < 0.02 < 0.02
Section 1
1.0 0.5 680 1.0 0.5 5.0 5.0 0.5 1.75 15.0 No Standard 5
Note: Additional organic chemicals are monitored and tested periodically as required by the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) ug/L = micrograms per liter (parts per billion) ND = Non Detectable pCi/L = Pico curies per liter
Table 1-15: Typical Ground Water Quality Summary (Secondary - Drinking Water Regulations)
Parameter/ Units of measurement Aluminum ug/L Chloride mg/L Color CU Copper mg/L Corrositivity Fluoride mg/L Foaming agents mg/L Iron mg/L Manganese mg/L Odor TON pH Silver mg/L Sulfate mg/L TDS mg/L Zinc mg/L
Avg. Conc. 6 6 5 ND 0.2 ND 37 ND 0 7.7 ND 13 183 ND
Max Conc. 190 20 17 ND 0.3 ND 58 ND 3 8.2 ND 47 380 ND
Min Conc. ND 0 ND ND 0 ND ND ND ND 7.3 ND 0 96 ND
Allowable Limit 500 250 15 1.0 non-corrosive 2.0 0.5 300 0.05 3 6.5-8.5 0.09 250 500 5
Note: Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCLs) are Federally non-enforceable and establish limits for contaminants in drinking water which may affect the aesthetic qualities and the publics acceptance of drinking water (e.g. taste and odor). ND = Non Detectable TDS = Total Dissolved Solids TON = Threshold Odor Number CU = Color Units Section 1C Water Quality & Treatment 1-43
Water Quality for Agriculture

The exchange of ions alters the physical characteristics of the soil. Clay that carries a good excess of calcium or magnesium ions tills easily and has good permeability. If the same clay takes up sodium, it becomes sticky and slick when wet and has very low permeability. It shrinks when dry into hard colds which are difficult to break up by cultivation. High concentration of sodium salts develops alkali soils in which little or no vegetation will grow. If the irrigation water contains magnesium ions in a quantity that equals or exceeds the sodium, a sufficient concentration of calcium or magnesium will be retained on the clay particles of the soil to maintain good tilth and permeability. Such water serves well serves well for irrigation, even though the total mineral content may be quite high. These facts lead to the adoption, in 1948, of a factor called the sodium percentage as an approximate indicator of the suitability of water for irrigation (Table 1-16). This percentage is the ratio of the sodium ions to the total sodium hazard. In making the calculation, the amount of each constituent must be converted form parts per million to equivalents per million equivalents per million are calculated by dividing parts per million by the chemical combining weight of each ion. Expressed in this way, equal concentrations of different ions are equivalent to their tendency to form any possible chemical combination. Multiplying parts per million by the following conversion factors will give the concentration of each of the ions in equivalents per million. Ion Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Factor .04990 .02884 .04350
Section 1
In 1954, the U.S. Salinity Laboratory proposed that the sodium-percentage idea be replaced by a more significant ratio termed the sodium-adsorption ratio, or SAR. This ration is calculated from the following formula, the concentrations of the ions being expressed in equivalents per million: SAR = Sodium+ Calcium++ + Magnesium++ 2
Development of excess sodium in soil will result from the use or irrigation water that has a high SAR value. Values of 18 or more are considered high; ratios of 10 to 18 are medium; values below 19 are low and offer little danger of creating a sodium problem. Plants take up very little of the dissolved minerals form irrigation water. Most of the minerals in irrigation water, remain in the soil or remain dissolved in the unused portion of the water. If repeated irrigation results in too much build-up of mineral salts, the productivity of the irrigated soil may be destroyed. Flooding of arid soil to facilitate leaching salts from soil is often employed. Chemical analyses of water do not indicate that the water is free from harmful bacteria and hence suitable for domestic use. Most groundwater, when sufficiently low in mineral content to be suitable for such use, are potable unless contaminated by the activities of man. The sanitary quality should be checked periodically if they are to be used without treatment to insure their continued freedom from harmful bacteria.
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Table 1-16: Irrigation Water Classification - Sodium Percentage Method
Constituent Class I TDS Chloride Boron* % Sodium** 0 - 700 ppm 0 - 150 ppm 0 - 0.5 ppm Under 60%
Classification (see footnotes) Class II 700 - 2,000 ppm 150 - 500 ppm 0.5 - 2.5 ppm 60 - 75%
Class III Over 2,000 ppm Over 500 ppm Over 2.5 ppm Over 75%
Section 1
* - Boron is critical factor only in certain localities. ** - Percent of sodium (sodium & potassium) by weight. Convert parts per million of sodium (& Potassium), calcium, and magnesium to equivalents per million (EPM) by multiplying by the appropriate conversion factor. % Sodium = EPM Sodium (& Potassium)/EPM Sodium + EPM Magnesium x 100 Classification: Class I, waters regarded as entirely safe for irrigation under ordinary conditions of climate and soil, even for sensitive crop plants; Class II, intermediate water which may be safe for certain conditions or certain crops, yet may be unsafe under other conditions or for other crops; Class III, water with concentration of one or more constituent too great to be safe for irrigation use, or at least unsafe in a great majority of cases. Other factors must necessarily be considered, such as: a) climatic conditions, b) amount of irrigation in proportion to natural rainfall, c) soil conditions, and d) the species of crop irrigated. Any or all of these factors can be as important as the chemical character of the irrigation water.
Water Quality Characteristics

Physical Characteristics. Potable water should be free from all impurities that are offensive to the senses of sight, taste and smell. The physical characteristics of water include turbidity, color, taste and odor, temperature and foamability. Turbidity - The presence of suspended material such as finely divided organic material, clay, silt and other inorganic material in water is known as turbidity. Turbidities in excess of 5 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units) are easily detected in a glass of water and are usually objectionable for aesthetic reasons. A turbidity level of less than 1 NTU is desirable. Color - Dissolved organic material from decaying biological life can cause color in water. Color is not normally an issue for groundwater sources at the well head, however, contamination can occur within the distribution system. Practical treatment techniques for ground water supplies are filtration, RO, adsorption with activated carbon and chemical oxidation (chlorine, ozone, etc.). Taste and Odor - Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic compounds, inorganic salts or dissolved gases. These materials may come from domestic, agricultural or natural sources. Water should be free of any objectionable taste or odor at point of use. Aeration, filtration, chemical oxidation or adsorption with activated carbon can remove taste and odors. Temperature - The most desirable drinking water is consistently cool and does not have temperature fluctuations of more than a few degrees. Ground water and surface water from mountainous areas generally meet these criteria. Most individuals find that water having a temperature between 50F and 60F (10C and 15C) is most palatable. Foamability - Foam in water is usually caused by detergent concentrations greater than 1 mg/L. Foamability is not normally an issue for ground water supplies.
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Chemical Characteristics. Formation material not only affect the quantity of water that may be recovered but also its quality. As surface water percolates towards the water table, it dissolves portions of the minerals contained in the soils and rocks. Ground water, therefore, usually contains more dissolved minerals than surface water. Man-made chemicals, on the other hand, are more likely to be found in surface waters. The chemical characteristics that are normally analyzed in a water sample are discussed as follows: Alkalinity - Alkalinity is imparted to water by bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide components. The presence of these components is determined by standard methods involving titration with various indicator solutions. Knowledge of the alkalinity components is useful in the treatment of water supplies. Chlorides - Most waters contain some chloride. It can be caused by the leaching of marine sedimentary deposits and pollutants. Chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/L usually produce a noticeable taste in drinking water. An increase in chloride content may indicate possible pollution from sewage sources, particularly if the normal chloride content is known to be low. Where only waters of very high natural chloride content are available, reverse-osmosis or electro-dialysis units may be used to produce potable water. Copper - Copper is found in some natural waters, particularly in areas where copper has been mined. Excessive amounts of copper can occur in corrosive water that passes through unprotected copper pipes. Copper in small amounts is not considered detrimental to health, but will impart an undesirable taste to the drinking water. The recommended limit for copper is 1.0 mg/L. Copper is rarely found at such high levels as to require treatment, however, it can be removed by conventional coagulation, sedimentation and filtration by softening or RO. Corrosivity - The tendency of a water to corrode pipes and fittings is health-related as well as being of economic importance, since the materials released into the water by corrosion may include lead, cadmium and other toxic metals. The corrosivity of a water cannot be measured simply. However, equations have been developed that predict corrosivity reasonably well on the basis of temperature, total dissolved solids, calcium content, pH and alkalinity. These equations indicate the calcium carbonate stability of water - the tendency to either deposit or dissolve calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the most common scale-forming compound. In most cases, a water that is neutral or slightly scale-forming is preferred. Water that is excessively corrosive can be stabilized - made noncorrosive - by the addition of lime and soda ash to increase the pH and alkalinity, or by the addition of polyphosphates or silicates to form protective coatings on the pipe walls. These treatment processes are relatively complex, requiring trained operators and regular monitoring. Fluoride - In some areas, water sources contain natural fluorides. Where the concentrations fall within a certain range, the incidence of dental caries have been found to be below the rate in areas without natural fluorides. It has been established that the presence of about 1mg/L of fluoride in a water supply will help prevent tooth decay in children. Excessive fluorides in drinking water supplies may produce fluorosis (mottling) of teeth, which increases as the optimum fluoride level (0.7 - 1.2 mg/L).
Table 1-17: Optimal Fluoride Concentrations and Fluoride MCLs
Section 1
Annual Average of Maximum Daily Air Temperature* F C 53.7 and below 53.8 - 58.3 58.4 - 63.8 63.9 - 70.6 70.7 - 79.2 79.3 - 90.5 12.0 and below 12.1 - 14.6 14.7 -17.6 17.7 - 21.4 21.5 - 26.2 26.3 - 32.5
Recommended Control Limits of Fluoride Concentration (mg/L) Lower Optimal Upper 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.8
Maximum Contaminant Level (mg/L) 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4
* Based on temperature data for minimum of 5 years.
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Excess fluoride can be removed by ion-exchange using bone char or activated alumina, a relatively complex process requiring trained operators. RO units are a simpler alternative that may be appropriate for smaller systems having access only to waters of high-fluoride content. Hardness - Hard water retards the cleaning action of soaps and detergents, causing an expense in the form of extra work and cleaning agents. When hard water is heated it deposits a hard scale on heating coils, cooking utensils and other equipment with a consequent waste of fuel. The scale formed by hard water coats the inside of distribution system piping, which can eventually cause significant reductions in water-carrying capacity. Soft water, on the other hand, may be corrosive, leading to the destruction of unprotected metal piping.
Section 1
Calcium and magnesium salts are the most common cause of hardness and can be divided into two general classifications: carbonate (temporary hardness) or noncarbonate (permanent hardness). Carbonate hardness is also called temporary hardness because heating the water will usually remove it. Carbonate hardness is responsible for scale formation as a result of carbonate precipitate which adhere to heated surfaces and the inside of pipes. Noncarbonate hardness is called permanent hardness because it is not removed when water is heated. Noncarbonate hardness is due largely to the presence of the sulfates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium in the water. A hardness of 75 - 100 mg/L as CaCO3 is usually considered optimal for potable water. Water harder than 300 mg/L as CaCO3 is generally unacceptable. Water softer than 30 mg/L as CaCO3 will often cause serious problems with corrosion. Chemical (lime-soda ash) or ion-exchange softening processes can be used to produce acceptably soft water where only excessively hard water is available. RO may reduce hardness to an acceptable level; however, in some cases an RO unit will produce water having almost no hardness, which may cause corrosion problems unless further treatment is used to stabilize the water.
Table 1-18: Hardness Classification of Potable Quality Water (Carbonate Hardness)
Water Characteristics Soft Mildly hard Hard Moderately hard Very hard
Hardness Range (ppm) < 50 51-150 151-200 201-300 > 300
Notes: 1) 2) 3) 4)
Commercial laundries prefer water at 50 ppm or less total hardness Public water supplier generally prefer water in the mildly hard range. Hardness of water is demonstrated most commonly by the amount of water required to produce suds. Carbonate Hardness is measure of the CaCO content of the water.
Iron - Small amounts of iron are frequently present in water because iron is present in the soil and because corrosive water will pick up iron from unprotected pipes. The presence of iron in water is considered objectionable because it imparts a brownish color to laundered goods and affects the taste of beverages. The recommended limit for iron is 0.3mg/L. A variety of methods are available for iron removal. Conventional coagulation, sedimentation and filtration are generally effective; however, chemical oxidation, aeration and certain softening processes are more practical for small-system ground water supplies. Manganese - There are two reasons for limiting the concentration of manganese in drinking water: (1) to prevent aesthetic and economic damage to property and (2) to avoid any possible physiological effects from excessive intake. The domestic water user finds that manganese produces a blackish color in laundered goods and affects the taste of beverages. The recommended limit for manganese is 0.05 mg/L. Essentially the same treatment processes used to remove iron are used to reduce manganese levels. However, manganese is harder to remove than iron, because its precipitation is more pH dependent.
1-47
Nitrates - Nitrate (NO3) can cause methemoglobinemia (infant cyanosis, or blue baby disease) in infants who have been given water or fed formulas prepared with water having a high nitrate concentration. A domestic water supply should not contain nitrate concentrations in excess of 10 mg/L (1 mg/L expressed as nitrogen). Water in excess of normal concentrations, often found in shallow wells, may be an indication of seepage from livestock manure deposits. In some polluted wells, nitrite will also be present in concentrations greater than 1 mg/L, and is even more hazardous to infants. A sophisticated ion-exchange process, requiring complex facilities and trained operators, has been used to remove excess nitrate for large municipalities. RO units are more practical for small ground water systems.
Section 1
Organic chemicals - Organic chemicals include pesticides, herbicides, trihalomethane and volatile synthetic organics. Careless use of pesticides and herbicides can contaminate water sources and make the water unsuitable for drinking. The use of these chemicals near wells is not recommended. The SDWA sets maximum contaminant levels for several common pesticides and herbicides. Trihalomethanes are a group of organic compounds that form when chlorine reacts with humic and fulvic acids (natural organic compounds that occur in decaying vegetation). Trihalomethanes, potential carcinogens (cancercausing agents), should not exceed 0.1 mg/L in drinking water. Volatile synthetic organics occur in the waste products of various industrial processes and are commonly found in groundwaters near heavily industrialized areas. At very high levels these chemicals have toxic effects, and at trace levels they are suspected of being carcinogenic. Limits for many volatile organics have been established by the USEPA and are regulated under the SDWA. Organics can generally be removed by adsorption with activated carbon. Trihalomethanes can often be avoided by altering the chlorination process. Most volatile organics can be eliminated with aeration. pH - pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in water. It is also a measure of acid or alkaline content. The pH values range from 0 to 14, where 7 indicates neutral water, values less than 7 indicate increasing acidity and values greater than 7 indicate increasing alkalinity. The pH of water in its natural state varies from 5.5 to 9.0. Determination of the pH value assists in the control of corrosion, the determination of proper chemical dosages and adequate control of disinfection. The treatment processes used to control corrosivity and scaling involve pH adjustment. Sodium - The sodium content of water is usually unimportant because the sodium intake from salt is so much greater; but for persons placed on a low-sodium diet because of heart, kidney or circulatory ailments, or complications of pregnancy, sodium in water must be considered. When it is necessary to know the precise amount of sodium present in a water supply due to dietary constraints, a laboratory analysis should be made. The usual low-sodium diets allow for 20 mg/L sodium in the drinking water. When this limit is exceeded, persons on low-sodium diets should seek a physicians advice on diet and sodium intake. When water is softened by the ion-exchange method, the amount of sodium is increased. For this reason, water that has been softened should be analyzed for sodium if a precise record of an individuals sodium intake is recommended. High sodium levels can be reduced with RO or electrodialysis units. Sulfates - Waters containing high concentrations of sulfate caused by the leaching of natural deposits of magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) or sodium sulfate (Glaubers salt) may be undesirable because of their laxative effects. Sulfate content should not exceed 250 mg/L. RO, ion-exchange or electrodialysis can be used to reduce sulfate concentrations. Total Dissolved Solids - Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the waters content of various dissolved materials. Water with no dissolved solids usually has a flat taste, whereas water with more than 500 mg/L TDS usually has a disagreeably strong taste. Depending upon the chemical nature of the dissolved solids, RO, softening or ion-exchange may be used to reduce TDS content.
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Table 1-19: Classification of Water by Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Content
Water Characteristics Fresh Water Slightly Saline (Brackish) Moderately Saline (Brackish) Very Saline (Seawater) Brine
Dissolved Solids Range (ppm) <1,000 1,000-3,000 3,000-10,000 10,000-35,000 >35,000
Section 1
Heavy (Toxic) Metals - Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium and silver can all cause serious health problems if present in drinking water in more than trace amounts. Table 1-20 lists the maximum permissible levels for these toxic metals, also termed heavy metals. Softening processes and RO units can both be used to reduce the concentrations of toxic metals. Ion-exchange and precipitation with alum are also effective for certain metals.
Table 1-20: Allowable Concentrations of Heavy Metals
Concentration Substance Arsenic (As) Barium (Ba) Cadmium (Cd) Chromium (Cr)
mg/L* 0.05 1 0.010 0.05
Concentration Substance Lead (Pb) Mercury (Hg) Selenium (Se) Silver (Ag)
mg/L* 0.05 0.002 0.01 0.05
*Milligrams per liter (mg/L) and parts per million (ppm) are essentially the same. Zinc - Zinc is found in some natural waters, particularly in areas where zinc has been mined. Zinc is not considered detrimental to health, but it will impart an undesirable taste to drinking water. The recommended limit for zinc is 5.0 mg/L. Softening, RO, ion-exchange or electrodialysis will reduce zinc concentrations. Biological Characteristics. Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be free from disease-causing organisms. These organisms include bacteria, protozoa, virus and worms. Bacteriological quality - The specific disease-causing organisms present in water are not easily identified, and the techniques for comprehensive bacteriological examination are complex and time consuming. It has been necessary, therefore, to develop tests that indicate the relative degree of contamination in terms of a single, easily performed test. Many of the microorganisms that cause disease in man are transmitted through fecal wastes of infected individuals. The most widely used method of testing the bacteriological quality of water involves testing for coliform bacteria that are always present when fecal contamination occurs. Coliform bacteria normally inhabits the intestinal tract of man, and is also found in most domestic animals, birds and certain wild species. The methods used to test specifically for coliform are the membrane filter test and the multiple-tube fermentation test. A third test, the heterotrophic (standard) plate count, determines the total number of bacteria in a sample that will grow under certain conditions. The SDWA establishes microbiological standards that drinking water must meet. Most ground water sources properly protected and developed, can meet these standards without treatment; however, disinfection is a recommended safeguard and may be required by some state or local health agencies. Chlorination of ground water also introduces a disinfected residual that helps maintain bacteriological quality of the water in the distribution system. Other biological factors to be considered for ground water sources are; iron bacteria which can cause problems with staining, tastes and odors. Sanitary well-drilling procedures will prevent the entrance of iron bacteria into a new well. Iron bacteria in an existing well can usually be eliminated by temporarily introducing a high chlorine concentration. Section 1C Water Quality & Treatment 1-49
Radiological Characteristics. Natural radiation occurs in water, food and air. The amount of radiation to which the individual is normally exposed varies with the amount of background radioactivity. Water of high radioactivity is unusual; nevertheless, it is known to exist in certain areas, either from natural or man-made sources. Human exposure to radiation or radioactive materials is known to increase cancer risks, and any unnecessary exposure should be avoided. The concentrations of radioactive materials specified in the current regulations of the SDWA are intended to limit the human intake of radioactive substances so that the total radiation exposure of any individual will not exceed those defined in the radiation protection guides recommended by the Federal Radiation Council. Softening techniques and RO units are both effective in removing radioactive chemicals.
Section 1
Water Treatment
Raw water obtained from natural sources may not be completely satisfactory for potable use. Surface water may contain disease organisms, suspended matter, or organic substances. Groundwater is less likely to contain pathogenic organisms than surface water, but it may contain undesirable tastes and odors or mineral impurities that limit its use or acceptability. Some of these objectionable characteristics may be tolerated temporarily, but suitable treatment should be used to raise the quality of the water to the highest possible level for long-term use. Public water utilities must provide potable water, which meets the standards required by the SDWA and specified in the NPDWR. Even where a nearly ideal water source can be developed, it is still advisable to provide the treatment equipment necessary to ensure aesthetically and bacteriologically safe water at all times. Some of the treatment processes that may be used by a water utility, depending on the characteristics of the water drawn from its ground or surface source, are as follows: Pretreatment Aeration Coagulation/flocculation Sedimentation Softening Filtration Adsorption Reverse osmosis Fluoridation Stabilization (corrosion control) Disinfection
The order in which the processes are listed approximates the order in which they would typically be performed. Some of the processes have overlapping functions, and no utility would need to perform all of the processes. The one process that should be used by every utility is disinfection. The following material gives a brief description of each of the treatment processes. Water-quality goals and watersource characteristics must clearly be established to optimize the treatment process. Where the treatment process has no or limited application to ground water sources, it will only be briefly discussed for completeness. Pretreatment. Processes used to condition the water before it enters the main treatment processes are known as pretreatment. Pretreatment is normally applied to surface water sources exclusively; however, there are selective application to groundwater. Surface waters may require screening, microstraining, presedimentation, and chemical pretreatment for algae and other nuisance organisms, depending on their quality. Typical forms of pretreatment for groundwater are centrifugal sand separation, where improperly constructed or damaged wells must be used and chemical pretreatment to control iron bacteria. Controlling Iron Bacteria. When dissolved iron and oxygen are present in the water, a group of organisms known as iron bacteria derive the energy they need for their life processes from the oxidation of the iron to its insoluble form. They accumulate within a slimy, rust-colored gelatinous mass, which coats submerged surfaces and indicates their presence. Although this problem may occur in surface waters having high iron content, it is especially prevalent with groundwater sources. Iron bacteria tends to incrust piping (reduce diameter), reducing the carrying capacity by increasing frictional losses. The bacteria may impart an unpleasant taste and odor to the water; they may discolor and spot fabrics and plumbing fixtures; and they may clog pumps, well screens, valves, and meters. A detectable slime also builds up on any surface with which the water containing these organisms comes in contact. Iron bacteria may be concentrated in a specific location and may periodically break loose and appear at the faucet in the form of rust. Iron bacteria in 1-50 Section 1C Water Quality & Treatment
wells also create an environment favorable to the growth of other organisms that can produce hydrogen sulfide, an explosive gas that gives water a strong rotten-egg taste and odor. The most effective solution to iron-bacteria problems is to eliminate the bacteria by injecting a hypochlorite solution into the well. Successful application within the well by the hypochlorite solution may be difficult to achieve, and persistent problems may require repeated or even regular applications of hypochlorite. When pretreatment methods are unsuccessful, other treatment processes will be required to produce a water of acceptable quality. These may include aeration (to remove both iron and hydrogen sulfide gas), breakpoint chlorination, or a combination of processes designed to oxidize the iron and remove it by coagulation and filtration.
Section 1
Aeration. Areation brings air into intimate contact with water. It can be used to oxidize dissolved iron or manganese, changing then into insoluble forms. A short period of storage may be needed to permit the insoluble material to settle, and in some cases the precipitated iron or manganese cannot be removed successfully except by filtration. Because of the time needed to oxidize manganese, waters with excessive manganese levels often require oxidation with some added chemical, such as chlorine. Aeration also increases the oxygen content of water deficient in dissolved oxygen. Carbon dioxide and other gases that increase the corrosiveness of water can be eliminated largely by effective aeration; however, the increase in corrosion caused by increased oxygen may partially offset the advantage of the decrease in carbon dioxide. The aeration process can be used to remove odors from water and modified to remove man made Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from polluted groundwater. Many methods for effective aeration are available, including spraying water into the air, direct air injection into the flow stream, allowing water to fall over a spillway in a turbulent stream, or distributing water in multiple streams/droplets through a series of perforated plates. If aeration is performed in an open system, adequate precautions should be taken to eliminate possible external contamination. Whenever possible, a totally enclosed system should be provided to reduce the possibility of outside contamination. Sedimentation and Coagulation/Flocculation. Sedimentation is a process of gravity settling and deposition of comparatively heavy suspended material in water. Sedimentation is normally followed by a coagulation/flocculation step. Coagulation/Flocculation is used to combine small particles together into larger particles which can be settled out by further detention (after sedimentation detention) or filtration. Coagulation and flocculation requires chemical additive and mixing. Sedimentation and Coagulation/Flocculation has limited application to groundwater sources but is often employed in surface water supply and wastewater treatment processes. Softening. Water softening is a process that removes minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium, that cause water hardness. Softening is used where scale from hard water is a problem. It may also be used to remove undesirable heavy metals. Water may be softened by either the lime-soda ash or the ion-exchange process, both processes increase the sodium content of the water, a factor that should be considered by people on low-sodium diets. Each softening process has advantages and limitations. Other methods can also be used to soften water, such as electrodialysis, distillation, freezing, and reverse osmosis. Although each of these processes can produce softened water, they are used only in unusual circumstances. Softening in generally performed when hardness exceeds 200 ppm carbonate hardness. Refer to Table 1-19 for an overall hardness classification. Lime-Soda Ash Softening. In the lime-soda ash process, lime and soda ash are added to the water and react with various salts of calcium and magnesium to form two insoluble precipitates, calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. The lime-soda ash process has greatest applicability for large water systems utilizing surface water. Ion-Exchange Softening. The ion-exchange method removes hardness ions by exchanging or replacing them with sodium ions, which do not contribute to hardness. In this softening process, ion-exchange materials, such as polystyrene resins, are placed in an ion-exchange unit through which unsoftened water is passed. The resins are normally regenerated by passing brine (a salt-water solution) through the ion-exchange unit. The ion-exchange process is used in household softeners and is favored in small water utilities using groundwater supplies. Filtration. Filtration is the process of removing suspended matter from water as it passes through beds of porous material. The degree of removal depends on the character and size of the individual grains of filter media, the
1-51
depth of the media, and the size and quantity of the suspended matter. Groundwaters seldom requires filtration, but most surface water sources must be filtered before disinfection. Types of filters that may be used include: Slow-sand gravity filters Rapid-sand and high-rate gravity filters Pressure filters. Slow-Sand Gravity Filters. In a slow-sand filter, water passes slowly down through beds of fine sand at rates averaging 0.05 gpm/sq. ft. of filter area.
Section 1
Rapid-Sand and High-Rate Gravity Filters. Rapid-sand and high-rate filters are the two systems most commonly used by large water users. In these installations, water moves down through a filter bed of sand (rapid-sand filters) or sand and anthracite coal (high-rate filters) supported by a layer of gravel. Filtration rates range from 2 to 8 gpm/sq. ft., so relatively small filter plants can provide large volume of water on a daily basis. Cartridge Filters. In Cartridge filters, water is pumped through a extended surface-porus filter medium under high pressure. The filter media is generally provided in the form of synthetic porus fabric attached to a cartridge core. Filtration rates can range from 2 to 10 gpm/sq. ft. depending on application and filter duty. There are a variety of high capacity cartridge filter types commercially available. Pressure filters are commonly used to process water in a wide variety of domestic, industrial and agricultural applications. Most cartridge filters can be set-up to backwash automatically and operate with only periodic attention. Such units are particularly appropriate for small utilities/installations. Filter trains can be inexpensively paralled for high capacity application. Adsorption. Adsorption is used primarily to remove organic materials. It can also be used to remove organic ions (volatile organics, pesticides, etc.), fluoride and arsenic. In the adsorption process, water is brought into contact with a material to which specific types of molecules will adhere. Since the molecules adhere only to the surface of the adsorbent material, a large surface area is required. This requirement is met by using porous adsorbent materials, which can provide a large surface area within a relatively small volume. The type of adsorbent material used depends on the contaminate to be removed. For adsorption of organics from groundwater, the material used is generally granular activated carbon (GAC). GAC is used when adsorption is needed continuously. The GAC is used like a filter media, similar to sand in a rapid-sand filter. The filter like tank housing containing the GAC is called a contactor. GAC loses its ability to adsorb, depending on load, after 3 - 12 months and must be replaced or reactivated. Reverse Osmosis and Electrodialysis. Several recently developed processes use semipermeable membranes to remove undesirable constituents from water. Membrane separation processes currently in use by utilities include reverse osmosis, membrane filtration, ultra filtration, and electrodialysis. Both reverse osmosis and electrodialysis can be used to produce potable water from sea water or groundwater having a high concentration of dissolved solids, both processes can be used to remove a fairly broad range of chemicals. Power costs for the operation of the membrane processes are relatively high, and some water characteristics can cause membrane fouling. Reverse Osmosis. In a reverse-osmosis unit, a pump forces water through a specially designed plastic membrane at extremely high pressure, in the 300 psig (2100 kPa) range. The water passes molecule by molecule through openings in the molecular structure of the membrane, leaving a high percentage of the contaminating chemicals behind. The contaminants removed remain in the water on the inlet (high-pressure) side of the membrane; they are not deposited on the membrane itself. The efficiency of removal for a given chemical depends on the characteristics of the membrane. Most water require some pretreatment before reverse osmosis, usually filtration and sometimes softening and /or chemical additions, to prevent fouling of the membrane. RO can be so effective in removing minerals, that water hardness can be dropped to such a level as to be corrosive, requiring stabilization. Commercial package treatment units using reverse osmosis are available that provide the necessary pretreatment. Such units may operate with minimal attention; however, the necessary periodic maintenance and chemical additions require that the operators have some training, which should be provided by the manufacturer of the RO unit.
1-52
RO units are commonly used to desalinate saltwater where fresh water supplies are not available. The RO technique is also used in the manufacture of high purity water for use in the electronics and medical industry. Electrodialysis. Like reverse osmosis, electrodialysis separates chemicals form water by the use of semipermeable membranes. Instead of using pumps and high pressure to force water through the membrane, the electrodialysis unit is equipped with electrodes that pull negatively and positively charged atoms out of the water through selective membranes. Since only charged atoms (ions) are removed, electrodialysis does not remove as wide a range of constituents as reverse osmosis. The process has been used most widely for desalination of brackish water. Fluoridation. Fluoridation is used to maintain fluoride concentrations in drinking water at levels known to reduce tooth decay in children. Fluoridation (fluoride addition) is a optional enhancement to the water supply and is not mandated by federal regulation. The level must be closely controlled; too low a concentration will have no effect, and too high a concentration can cause mottling and pitting of the teeth. The optimum concentration varies with the average annual air temperature, since children will drink more water in hot weather. Precise recommendations are available from the appropriate regulatory agency. Refer to Table 1-17 for fluoride concentration levels based on air temperature. Stabilization (Corrosion Control). Corrosion control is important in maintaining the structural strength and watertight integrity of the distribution system and in ensuring that treated water does not pick up trace quantities of hazardous metals from distribution and home pipelines. Whenever corrosion is minimized there is an appreciable reduction in the maintenance and possible replacement of water pipes, water heater, and other metallic appurtenances of the system. Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction in which metal deteriorates or is destroyed when in contact with environmental elements such as air, water, or soil. Whenever reaction occurs, electric current flows from the corroding portion of the metal toward the electrolyte or conductor of electricity, such as water or soil. The point at which current flows from the metal into the electrolyte is called the anode and the point at which current flows away from the electrolyte is called the cathode. Any characteristic of the water that tends to allow or increase the rate of this electrical current will increase the rate of corrosion. The important characteristics of a water that affect its corrosiveness include the following: Acidity. A measure of the waters ability to neutralize alkaline materials. Water with acidity or low alkalinity ( a measure of the concentration of alkaline materials) tends to be corrosive. Conductivity. A measure of the amount of dissolved mineral salts. An increase in conductivity promotes flow of electrical current and increases the rate of corrosion. Oxygen content. The amount of oxygen dissolved in water. The amount dissolved promotes corrosion by destroying the thin protective hydrogen film that is present on the surface of metals immersed in water. Carbon dioxide. Forms carbonic acid, which tends to attack metallic surfaces. Water temperatures. The corrosion rate increases with water temperature. Chemical Corrosion Control. When the primary cause of corrosion is acidity, it is best controlled by neutralization with the addition of a soda ash solution (strong base). Film forming corrosion inhibitors can be employed (with regulatory approval) to reduce corrosive attack on a water distribution system infrastructure. Typical film forming additives are polyphosphates and silicates which tend to coat and protect the interior of metallic piping. Inhibitors are affective when the pH is 7.0 or greater. Non - Chemical Corrosion Control. The two steps involved in the corrosion process are oxidation and reduction. If either can be interrupted, the corrosion process can be halted or minimized. Non -chemical preventative techniques commonly employed to reduce corrosion in a distribution systems are; (1) cathodic protection, (2) anodic protection and (3) coatings: (1) Cathodic protection. Cathodic protection can be provided in two ways, impressed current or galvanic (sacrificial anode). The impressed current technique involves the application of a DC voltage to the metal which allow electrons to flow in at a rate equivalent to the loss to corrosion. The impressed current technique is particularly applicable in preventing corrosion of steel structures such as large, elevated and ground level steel tanks. The
Section 1
1-53
galvanic technique involves the use of a sacrificial anode. The anode must be of a higher corrosion potential than the material being protected. Magnesium is most commonly used in waterworks application, as it does not form a corrosion resistant oxide layer or exhibit corrosion resistant behavior with respect to iron (steel). (2) Anodic protection. Involves a metal treatment technique, in which the metal is subjected to high voltage and/or chemical processing, which forms a polarized protective film. The metal surface characteristics are changed from a cathodic state to anodic condition as a result of the alignment of the oxide layer. The technique is commonly known as passivation as it changes the metal from an active readily corrodable state to a passive corrosion resistant state.
Section 1
(3) Coatings. Coating can be provided in two forms, metallic or chemical. Metallic coating include hot dipping, electroplaying, cladding, mechanical plating, etc. Typical chemical coatings include paints, epoxy, tape and linings. Metallic coatings are generally used for the protection of specific equipment components such as pumps and valves. Chemical coatings are often employed to protect metallic piping and above ground infrastructure. Coatings are principally designed to isolate the metal surface from corrosive conditions. The most common corrosion stabilization techniques utilized by small systems are the installation of dielectric or insulation unions at problem locations in the distribution system, reduction of velocities and pressures, removal of oxygen or acid constituents, and lining or use of non-corrosive materials (plastics) for distribution lines. Corrosion and scale (incrustation) are related problems. The essential effect of corrosion is to destroy metal. Incrustation/scale, tends to clog open sections and line surfaces with deposits. A thin coating of mineral (calcium carbonate) scale may help to protect pipes from corrosion and /or leaching of lead from old lead or lead packed joint pipelines. Disinfection. The most important water treatment process is disinfection, the destruction of all disease-causing bacteria and other harmful organisms that may be present in water. Disinfection is usually the last treatment process performed. After disinfection, water must be kept in tanks or other storage facilities that will prevent recontamination if it is not used soon after disinfection. The methods available for disinfection of drinking water fall into the three general categories; heat treatment, radiation treatment and chemical treatment. Heat treatment (boiling) or pasteurization (holding water at 161 F for 15 seconds), is not practical for most system. Disinfection with radiation, typically ultraviolet light is generally impractical. Both the heat treatment and radiation processes require significant energy and does not have residual disinfection capacity. The most common means of disinfection in the United States is chemical treatment, primarily with chlorine and chlorine compounds. Chemicals used less frequently include bromine, iodine (not recommended for utilities serving permanent populations), and ozone. Disinfection of water with chlorine involves the addition of pure chlorine or a chlorine-releasing compound. A period of time is necessary after chlorine addition to allow disinfection to take place, and the chlorine concentration must be such as to ensure that disinfection will be completed before the water reaches the first user in the system. A slight residual chlorine concentration, in the distribution system, is desirable to prevent the regrowth of organisms after the water is treated. In systems where a chlorine residual is maintained, the absence of residual in a given area of the distribution system can indicate the possibility of a cross connection to a sewer or other nonpotable line. The ability to provide this residual is one of the primary factors in favor of using chlorination instead of some other means of disinfection. Operation of a chlorination system requires a certain amount of training in operating, safety, and testing procedures. Publications and training programs designed for operations of chlorination systems are available through water supply regulatory agency and the American Water Works Association. A brief overview of chlorination chemistry, equipment, and operating procedures is discussed below. Chlorination Chemistry. The chemical reactions occurring when chlorine is added to water are relatively complex and not always intuitively obvious. Some of the important chemical concepts relating to chlorination can be introduced by defining terminology and noting the major factors affecting dosages.
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The following Chlorination terminology is used to describe the chemistry of the chlorination process. Chlorine concentration. The concentration of chlorine in water is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L). For water, the terms parts per million (ppm) and mg/L indicate essentially equivalent concentrations. Chlorine feed or dosage. Chlorine dosage is the concentration of disinfectant, measured in mg/L, that is fed into the water system by feeder or automatic dosing apparatus. Since some of the chlorine combines with other compounds in the water, the chlorine dosage must usually be greater than the concentration of chlorine needed for adequate disinfection. Chlorine demand. Chlorine demand is a measure of the amount of chlorine fed into the water that combines with the impurities and, therefore, may not be available for disinfection action. Impurities that increase chlorine demand include organic materials and certain reducing materials such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous iron, and nitrites. Break point. The chlorine dosage at which the minimum residual occur. Breakpoint chlorination is adequate to disinfect but no residual is carried through the system. Combined available chlorine residual. In addition to organic materials that exert a chlorine demand, chlorine can combine with ammonia or other nitrogen compounds present in water to form chlorine compounds that have some disinfectant properties. These chlorine compounds are called combined available chlorine residual. (Available indicates they are available to act as a disinfectant.) Free available chlorine residual. The uncombined chlorine that remains in the water after any combined residual has formed is called free available chlorine residual. This is the most effective disinfectant form of chlorine. Total available chlorine residual. The total concentration of chlorine compound available to act as disinfectants, including both free and combined chlorine residuals, is called total available chlorine residual. Chlorine contact time. Contact time elapses between the time when chlorine is added to the water and the time when that particular water is used. The contact required for chlorine to act as an effective disinfectant varies from 30 min to 2 hours, depending on the concentration of the chlorine residual.
Figure 1-21: Free Available Chlorine vs. Total Dosage
5
Section 1
Factors Affecting Chlorine Dosage. When turbidity is less than 1.0 NTUs, which is typical of groundwater, the primary factors that determine the disinfectant efficiency of chlorine are listed as follows:
RESIDUAL CHLORINE, IN PPM
Chlorine concentration. The higher the concentration, the more effective the a 3 disinfection and the faster the disinfection em ed l d n ua e bi rate. id in m s or re Co Type of chlorine residual. Free chlorine is hl c 2 ee ro a much more effective disinfectant than Fr Ze combined chlorine. Contact time between the organism and 1 chlorine. The longer the contact time, the Breakpoint more effective the disinfection. 0 Temperature of the water in which 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 contact is made. The higher the CHLORINE ADDED, IN PPM temperature, the more effective the disinfection. The pH of the water in which contact is made. The lower the pH, the more effective the disinfection.
nd re sid ua
As a general rule, the chlorine dosage should be large enough to satisfy the chlorine demand and provide a free available chlorine residual of 0.4 mg/L after a chlorine contact time of 30 min before the water reaches the first user beyond the point of chlorine application. Water can usually be properly disinfected if a minimum contact time of 30 min is ensured.
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Superchlorination-dechlorination is used to overcome the problem of insufficient contact time in certain water systems. In this method, chlorine is added to the water in relatively large concentrations (superchlorination) to provide a minimum free available chlorine residual of 3.0 mg/L for a minimum contact period of 5 min. The excess chlorine is often removed (dechlorination) to eliminate objectionable chlorine tastes. Chlorination chemicals. Three forms of chlorine are available for use in the disinfection of water: (1) pure chlorine gas (actually shipped and stored as a liquid in pressurized containers); (2) calcium hypochlorite, sold as a granular powder or in tablet form; and (3) sodium hypochlorite, a high-strength form of liquid bleach. Large utilities use gaseous chlorine almost exclusively, because of its economy. The operation of a gas chlorination system is fairly complicated, and special safety equipment is required in case of chlorine gas leaks. Smaller utilities commonly select systems using calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite, because of their relative simplicity and somewhat less stringent safety requirements. Chlorination equipment. The equipment required for a chlorination system depends on the type of chemical used. Both calcium and sodium hypochlorite systems use hypochlorite solution feeders (hypochlorinators) to meter the liquid stock solution into water. Calcium hypochlorite also requires mixing and storage tanks for making up the stock solution from powder or tablets. Gas chlorination systems require a different type of chlorine feed system, as well as specialized equipment for handling and safety. Typical chlorination requirements for hypochlorinators and gas systems are shown in figures 1-22 and 1-23 respectively. Chlorine can be extremely corrosive at the point of injection. Care should be taken to insure that chlorine is introduced into the system in a manner that does not corrode piping in the immediate vicinity of the injection point.
Figure 1-22: Hypochlorinator Equipment To Point of Application
Section 1
Mix Tank Solution Feeder
Day Tank
1-56
Figure 1-23: Typical Gas Chlorinator Deep Well installation Showing Booster Pump
Section 1
Chlorination Monitoring. Residual chlorine in water can be measured as a chlorine compound (combined available chlorine residual), as free chlorine (free available chlorine residual), and as both combined and free available chlorine (total available chlorine residual). Chlorine is typically measured in terms of free chlorine for groundwater applications. Wherever chlorination is required for disinfection, chlorine residual should be tested at a frequency adequate to insure and demonstrate adequacy of the disinfection process. The regulatory agency having jurisdiction over the water supply, will generally specify a minimal sampling frequency. Records should serve as an indicator that proper chlorination is being accomplished and as a guide in improving operations. Ozone. Ozone is a powerful disinfecting agent. Its disinfecting properties stem from the oxidizing properties of ozone. Ozone (O ) is unstable and loses one atom of oxygen readily when mixed and injected into the flow stream. The single free oxygen atom is responsible for oxidizing and killing water borne bacteria. Ozone must be manufactured near the point of injection and is created by high voltage electric discharge in dry air. Ozone requires mixing to be affective as it is only slightly soluble in water. Ozone is also effective reducing odor and color, and improving taste. The disadvantages of ozone are its cost of manufacture and the lack of residual disinfection capability. Treatment System Maintenance. A maintenance routine should be developed so that all treatment equipment is checked on a regular schedule. Almost all equipment will have daily, weekly, monthly, semiannual, and annual maintenance requirements, which must be followed to ensure trouble-free operation. A general physical inspection of the treatment facilities and equipment should be performed daily, if not remotely monitored electronically. Under no circumstances should the physical inspection interval exceed one week. Facility protection from freezing must be provided based on climate requirements. Safety equipment must be well maintained and training should be conducted at a frequency adequate to maintain operator proficiency. Treatment Process Overview. Ground water does not normally require substantial treatment; however, a variety of treatment processes are available to remove contaminants. These individual processes may be arranged in a treatment train to remove undesirable contaminants from the water. The most commonly used processes include filtration, flocculation and sedimentation and disinfection. Some treatment trains also include ion-exchange and adsorption. A typical water treatment plant would have only the combination of processes needed to treat the contaminants in the source water used by the facility.
1-57
Flocculation/Sedimentation. Flocculation refers to water treatment processes that combine small particles into larger particles, which settle out of the water as sediment. Alum and iron salts or synthetic organic polyesters (alone, or in combination with metal salts) are generally used to promote coagulation. Settling or sedimentation is simply a gravity process that removes flocculated particles from the water. Flocculation/sedimentation is not normally used in treating ground water supplies. Filtration. Many water treatment facilities use filtration to remove remaining particles from the water supply. Those particles include clays and silts, natural organic matter, precipitants from other treatment processes in the facility, iron and manganese, and microorganisms. Filtration clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. Ion-Exchange. - Ion-exchange processes are used to remove inorganic constituents if they cannot be removed adequately by filtration or sedimentation. Ion-exchange can be used to treat hard water. It can also be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride, nitrites, radium and uranium. Adsorption. - Organic contaminants (pesticides), color, taste and odor-causing compounds can stick to the surface of granular or powdered activated carbon (GAC or PAC). GAC is generally more effective than PAC in removing these contaminants. Adsorption is not commonly used in public water supplies. Disinfection (chlorination, ozonation). - Water is often disinfected before it enters the distribution system to insure that dangerous microbes are killed. Chlorine, chloramines or chlorine dioxide most often are used because they are very effective disinfectants, and residual concentrations can be maintained to guard against biological contamination in the water distribution system. Ozone. - A powerful disinfectant, but it is not effective in controlling biological contaminants in the distribution pipes. Ultra-violet light can also be used to disinfect water supplies. Cost of Treatment and Delivery. Water treatment and delivery costs in the United States average slightly more than $2/1,000 gallons and generally range from $1.00 to $5.00/1,000 gallons. Treatment accounts for about 15% of the total cost of water. The remaining 85% is a result of capital cost associated with facilities and equipment, labor for operations and maintenance, and energy.
Section 1
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1D WATER SYSTEM CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS

There are no universally accepted rules for determining water system capacity requirements, as each must be evaluated on its individual merits. The guide lines for sizing a individual domestic water system very greatly from that of a self supplied industrial facility or public water supply. The focus of the discussion is on groundwater supply systems, although the analysis presented may be applicable to other water supply sources as well. The four (4) most common areas of application requiring a water capacity analysis are:
Section 1
1. Rural/Residential Domestic and Farm Systems 2. Public Water Systems 3. Agricultural and Turf Irrigation Systems The methodologies typically employed in determining water quantity, flow, pressure and storage requirements for each application are discussed as follows.
Residential Domestic and Farm Systems

Quantity. A correctly designed ground water system must supply the quantity of water needed every day throughout the year. The issue of quantity has two interrelated components, the first being the adequacy of the source to produce the required volume and the second being the adequacy of the system to deliver the required volume when needed. The adequacy of both are tied to the maximum daily usage requirement. At a minimum, the source must be capable of providing the peak day water quantity over a 24 hour period. Ideally, the source should be capable of meeting quantity requirements under peak use conditions. Usage and flow requirements are discussed below. Usage and Flow Requirements. Water usage/flow requirements can be classified as a intermittent or sustained use. Intermittent uses normally last no more than 7.5 minutes (10 min. max.) and include all household water consuming activities during the peak usage period. The intermittent usage is typically used to determine peak flow. Sustained use are those uses that last more than 10 minutes and include lawn watering, car washing, etc. Sustained uses can be further classified as competing or non-competing. A competing sustained use would be lawn watering at the same time that peak household uses are taking place. Competing sustained uses should be avoided; however, when this is not possible, the flow requirement should be included in the peak flow calculation. Common rural household planning provides 50 gpd per person, of which one-third to one-half is for flushing toilets. Peak daily use may reach 100 gpd per person during hot weather. If the peak use rate exceeds the maximum source capacity (well yield) , intermediate storage should be installed to help supply water during peak use periods. Water System Flow Rate. The instantaneous flow rate during peak use periods is referred to as the peak flow. Peak flow rates determine pump capacity, pipe size, temporary storage capacity and other water system features. In a small groundwater system, the well pump should be capable of supplying the peak flow without the need for storage. When storage is required, peak flow must be met using a booster pump and storage. Peak flows can be estimated as follows: Home (Rural/Residential) Water System. The minimum flow rate for any rural/residential water system should be 6 gpm; 10 gpm is more desirable. The system should ideally be capable of supplying the peak flow continuously for 1 hour. A minimum of flow capacity of 10 gpm @ 30 psi is recommended for fire protection. In order to prevent undersizing, the flow rate should never be less than the peak demand of the largest single fixture. For example, a flow rate of 20 gpm is needed to properly backwash some kinds of water filters. Future water requirements should be estimated so that an adequate flow rate will be available when needed. See tables 1-21 below for estimating peak flow and table 1-23 for estimating water usage requirements.
Section 1D Water System Capacity Requirements
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Table 1-21: Flow Rate Guide Lines for Private (Home) Water Systems - 7.5 Minute Peak
No. of Bedrooms 2 Bedroom 3 4 5 6
Flow Rate in gpm in Relation to Number of Bathrooms and Baths 1 Bath 1 1/2 Bath 2 Bath 3 Bath 6 gpm 8 10 8 gpm 10 12 13 10 gpm 12 14 15 16 16 gpm 17 18
Section 1
Note: Always add sustained competing usage requirements that are likely to be used during household peak flow periods if not otherwise accounted for. Farmstead Water System. Where water for livestock production is supplied through the same system as water for the home, the flow rate must be increased to meet those needs. The minimum flow rate for farmstead should be 8 gpm; 10 gpm is more desirable. The water system for a farm or farmstead should supply the peak flow rate continuously for 2 hours. Larger farm enterprises with high capital investment, it may be desirable to provide at least 20 gpm at 30 psi for fire control. System flow rates for livestock based on consumption are listed in table 1-22. The farmstead flow rate is the sum of those flow rates added to the flow rate for the farm home, plus any additional special uses. Table 1-23 can be used to estimate farm and other various sustained uses.
Example 1-2: 600 hog production unit plus residence (family of 4), 100 sq. ft. of lawn and garden, 200 sq. ft. swimming pool, 1 hired worker
A. Farm 1. 600 hogs @ 6 gal./hog = 2. 1 farm worker @ 60 gal/day = 3. Flow rate @ 3600 gpd = (livestock) B. Residence 4. 4 people @ 100 gal./person = 5. 4000 sq. ft. lawn @ .5 gal./sq. ft. = 6. 200 sq. ft. pool @ .3 gal/sq. ft. = 7. Flow rate (4 br., 2 bath) = Totals (peak day):
3600 gpd 60 gpd 24 gpm
Table 1-23 (6) d. Table 1-23 (7) d. Table 1-22
400 gpd 2000 gpd 600 gpd 14 gpm 4860 gpd
Table Table Table Table
1-23 (1) 1-23 (4) a. 1-23 (4) b. 1-22
38 gpm (min.)
* Note: It is recommended that the pump/source capacity be of at least 125% of the minimum calculated flow requirement (ie. 47.5 gpm).
Table 1-22: Flow Rates for Livestock production. *
Peak Use (gpd) Up to 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 4000 5000
Flow Rate (gpm) 8 (minimum) 12 16 20 24 28 32
Peak Use (gpd) 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 12,000 15,000
Flow Rate (gpm) 36 39 42 45 48 50 55
* Flow rates are optimum for designing new systems and take into consideration expansion, fire control, sanitation and hydraulic waste removal. 1-60 Section 1D Water System Capacity Requirements
Table 1-23: Typical Rural/Residential and Farm Water Usage, Flow and Pressure Requirements Use/Fixture (1) Rural/Residential Overall Usage (per person) (2) Domestic Uses a. Drinking Water b. Shower c. Bath tub d. Toilet e. Lavratory sink f. Kitchen sink g. Garbage disposal h. Laundry (8 lbs.) i. Car Washing j. Dishwasher (Automatic) (3) Water Treatment a. Water Softener (regenerative) b. Backwash filter (4) Lawn & Garden a. Sprinkler Irrigation (per 100 sq. ft.) b. Pond or Swimming Pool (per 100 sq. ft.) c. Sprinkler/ea. d. 1/2 hose & nozzle e. 3/4 hose & nozzle (5) Rural/Residential Fire Protection (6) Farm/Livestock a. Cow (dairy)/ea. b. Cow (dry or beef)/ea. c. Horses or mules/ea. d. Hogs/ea. e. Sheep or goats/ea. f. Chickesn/100 ea. g. Turkeys/100 ea. (7) Farm / Misc. Uses a. Dairy Sanitation (per head) b. Floor Sanitation (per 100 sq. ft.) c. Sanitary Hog Waller (per head) d. Worker (8 hr. shift) (8) Farm/Fire Protection (9) Fixture Count a. 1-2 fixtures/fix. b. 3-5 fixtures/fix. c. 6-10 fixtures/fix. d. 10-20 fixtures/fix. e. Over 20 fixtures/fix. Usage Max. (gpd) 100 Usage Avg. (gpd) 60 Usage Min. (gpd) 50 Usage Comments Includes all typical daily Domestic Uses .25/.5gal/day/person 20-30 gal./shower 30-40 gal./bath 3-7 gal./use Flow Max. (gpm) * Flow Avg. (gpm) * Flow Min. (gpm) * Pressure Min. (psi) 20
50 30 * 35 15 12 6 2 9 20 200 10 100 50 -
25 10 * 35 12 12 4 2 6 15 150 10 75 30 -
10 5 * 20 11 10 4 1 4 10 100 10 50 15 -
20-45 gal./load5 10-20 gal./load 50-150 gal./cycle 100-300 gal./cycle .10-.50 gal./sq. ft. (per watering) .05-.30 gal./sq. ft. (per day)
5 5 5 4 5 5 2.5 5 2 8 15 10 5 7
4 4 4 2.5 0 3 2 2.5 1.5 5 3 5 8 5 -
1 1 3 1 2 2 1.5 2.5 1 2 2 3 4 5 20
12 8 15 10 10 0 -
Section 1
15 20 20 30 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 15 30
Min. Vol. Req. = 600 gal. @ 10gpm for 1 hr.
* * * * * * * 10
10 gal./100sq. ft.
10 -
Min. Vol. Req. 2400 gal.@20 gpm for 2 hrs. Fixture count can be used to calculate additional flow rate requirements for non residential structures 2.50 2.00 1.75 1.25 1.00
Notes: 1. Use maximum usage values for developing peak flow requirements and storage needs. 2. Average consumption values are applicable in the temperature range of 50-90F. 3. Above requirements are based average maximum consumption, use will vary with location, climate, specific animal type, dry matter, etc. 4. The amount of water for livestock and foul can be roughly estimated using the rule-of-thumb of; water reg. = 2 x amount of feed consumed
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Table 1-24: Public and Commercial Individual Water Usage Requirements
Type of Establishment Airport (per passenger) Apartment, multiple family (per resident) Bathhouse (per bather) Camp: Construction, semipermanent (per worker) Day, no meals served (per camper) Luxury (per camper) Resort, day and night, limited plumbing (per camper) Tourist, central bath and toilet facilities (per person) Cottage, seasonal occupancy (per resident) Club: Country (per resident member) Country (per nonresident member present) Dwelling: Boardinghouse (per boarder) Additional kitchen requirements for nonresident boarders Luxury (per person) Multiple-family apartment (per resident) Rooming house (per resident) Single family (per resident) Estate (per resident) Factory (gallons per person per shift) Highway rest area (per person) Hotel: Private baths (2 persons per room) No private baths (per person) Hospital (per bed) Laundry, self-serviced (gallons per washing [per customer]) Motel: Bath, toilet, and kitchen facilities (per bed space) Bed and toilet (per bed space) Park: Overnight, flush toilets (per camper) Trailer, individual bath units, no sewer connection (per trailer) Trailer, individual baths, connected to sewer (per person) Picnic: Bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets (per picnicker) Toilet facilities only (gallons per picnicker) Restaurant: Toilet facilities (per patron) No toilet facilities (per patron) Bar and cocktail lounge (additional quantity per person) School: Boarding (per pupil) Day, cafeteria, gymnasiums, and showers (per pupil) Day, cafeteria, no gymnasiums or showers (per pupil) Day, no cafeteria, gymnasiums, or showers (per pupil) Service station (per vehicle) Store (per toilet room) Swimming pool (per swimmer) Theater: Drive-in (per car space) Movie (per auditorium seat) Worker: Construction (per person per shift) School or office (per person per shift)
Usage Avg. gpd 4 60 10 50 15 120 50 35 50 100 25 50 120 40 60 60 120 20 5 60 50 300 50 50 40 25 25 50 20 10 8 2.5 80 10 400 10 5 5 50 15
Usage Range gpd (L/day) 3-5 60 10 50 15 100-150 50 35 50 100 25 50 10 100-150 40 60 50-75 100-150 15-35 5 60 50 250-400 50 50 40 25 25 50 20 10 7-10 2-1/2-3 2 75-100 25 20 15 10 400 10 5 5 50 15 (11-19) (227) (38) (189) (57) (379-568) (189) (132) (189) (379) (95) (189) (38) (379-568) (151) (227) (189-284) (379-568) (57-132) (19) (227) (189) (946-1514) (189) (189) (151) (95) (95) (189) (76) (38) (26-38) (9-11) (8) (284-379) (95) (76) (57) (38) (1514) (38) (19) (19) (189) (57)
Section 1
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Table 1-25: Public Building - Water Flow Requirements by Fixture Count
Number of Fixtures Type of Building Hotels and Clubs Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm Gpm per Fixture Min. Capacity, gpm Man. Capacity gpm
0-50 51-100 101-200 201-400 401-800 801-1200 Over 1200 See Notes
.65 25 33 1.0 25 50 .5 16 25 1.3 40 65 1.1 35 55 1.0 20 50
.55 35 55 .8 55 80 .35 30 35 .75 70 75 .70 60 70 .60 50 60
.45 60 90 .6 85 120 .30 40 60 .70 80 140 .60 80 120 .50 70 100
.35 100 140 .5 125 200 .28 65 115 .60 150 240 .50 140 200 .40 110 160
.27 150 210 .4 210 320 .25 120 200 .55 250 440 .37 210 300 .40 180 320
.25 225 300 .4 330 480 .24 210 290 .50 460 600 .30 320 360 .40 340 480
.20 300 .4 500 .24 300 .50 620 .27 380 .40 500 -
AB
Hospitals
AB
Section 1
Apartments and Apartment Hotels Mercantile
AC
Office
AC
Schools
A. Tables are based on equal number men and women. If major number of occupants are women increase capacity 15%. B. Where laundry is operated in connection with building increase capacity 10%. C. These estimates do not include water for special process work. The extra amount should be determined and added to the total capacity requirement.
Table 1-26: Public and Commercial - Typical Load Values Assigned to Fixtures
Fixture Water Closet Water Closet Urinal Urinal Urinal Lavatory Bathtub Shower head Service sink Kitchen sink Drinking fountain Laundry machine (8 lbs.)
Occupancy Public Public Public Public Public PublicFaucet Public Offices Commercial Offices Commercial
Types of Supply Control Flush valve Flush tank 1 flush valve 3/4 flush valve Flush tank PublicFaucet 3. Mixing valve Faucet Faucet 3/8 valve Automatic
Lead Value (gpm) Cold Hot Total 10. 5. 10. 5. 3. 1.5 3. 3. 2.25 3. 0.25 2.25 10. 5. 10. 5. 3. 2. 8 4. 3. 4. 0.25 3.
Pressure (psi) 15 8 15 15 8 8 12 8 8 15 10
1.5 4. 3. 2.25 3. 2.25
Note: 1. For fixtures not listed, loads should be assumed by comparing the fixture to one listed using water in similar quantities and at similar rates. The assigned loads for fixtures with both hot and cold water supplies are given for separate hot and cold water loads and for total load, the separate hot and cold water loads being three-fourths of the total load for the fixtures in each case. 2. The pressure specified above is the pressure in the supply near the water outlet while running. A 20 psi minimum system pressure is recommended.
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Table 1-27: Industrial - General Water Usage Requirements Industry CHEMICALS Alcohol, industrial (100 proof) Alumina (Bayer process) Ammonium Sulfate Butadiene Calcium Carbide Carbon Dioxide (from flue gas) Cottonseed Oil Gunpowder or Explosives Hydrogen Oxygen, liquid Soap (laundry) Soda ash 58% (ammonia soda process) Sodium Chlorate Sulfuric acid 100% (contact process) FOODS Bread Canning (general) Unit of Production gal ton ton ton ton ton Gal ton ton 1,000 cu ft ton ton ton ton Usage (gal.) per Production unit 120 6,300 200,000 20,000-660,000* 30,000 20,000 20 2000,000 660,000 2,000 500 18,000 60,000 650-4,875* Industry ALCOHOLIC SPIRITS Brewing Distilling Wine PAPER & PULP Ground wood pulp Paper Paper Board PETROLEUM Gasoline Oil refining Refined products SYNTHETIC FUEL By coal hydrogenation From coal From natural gas From shale TEXTILES Cotton: Cloth Processing Fiber to fabric Rayon: Cuprammonium (11% moist.) Viscose Weave, dye & finish Woolens MISCELLANEOUS Aluminum Cement, portland Coal & coke: By product coke Washing Electric power (stm. gen.) Iron ore (brown) Laundries: Commercial Institutional Leather tanning: Rock wool Rubber synthetic: Bauna S GR-S Steel (highly finished) Steel (rolled) Sulfur mining Unit of Production 42 gal bbl. bu. grain ton of grapes Usage (gal.) per Production unit 470 300-600 625-2800
Section 1
Dry ton ton ton
4,600-5000* 39,000-60,000 15,000-90,000
gal 42 gal bbl. 42 gal bbl.
20 770 150-150,000*
100 bbl. 100 bbl. 100 bbl. 100 bbl.
728,600 1,115,000 373,600 87,300
ton 100 cases (#2 cans)
5000-1,000+ 750-25,000
ton ton ton yarn ton yarn 1,000 yard ton produced
10,000-360,000 74,000 90,000-160,000+ 200,000 15,000 140,000
Canning (specific): Tomatoes Peaches Olives Corn Dry Pack: Garlic Raisins Fresh Pack: Artichokes Cherries Brussel Sprouts Corn (wet-milling) Corn syrup Gelatin (edible) Meat Seafood Dairy: Milk Butter Cheese Sugar: Beet sugar Cane sugar
ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton bu. corn bu. corn ton ton on the hoof ton of raw prod. gal. ton ton ton ton
150-1870 1800-5900 3000-10,400 1,000 2800 2000 766 11,932 813 140-240 30-40+ 13,200-20,000+ 4,130-6000 3700 5 5,000 1700-4000 2,160 1,000
ton ton ton ton kwhr ton ton work ton work 100 lbs. raw hide ton ton ton ton net ton ton
1,920,000 750 1,500-3,600+ 200 80-170* 1,000 8,600-11,400+ 6,000 800 5,000 631,450 28,000-670,000* 65,000 15,000-110,000* 3,000
Note: 1. The water quantities reported above are for total plant intake, the amount which is piped into an establishment. The wide ranges sometimes given reflect not only differences in processes or products, but differences in the use of water. In arid areas, where the most rigorous conservation methods are economically feasible, intake is only a fraction of what it may be in areas where water is abundant, although consumptive use is virtually the same. 2. Data compiled from various sources * Range from no reuse to maximum recycling. + Range covers various products or processes involved.
1-64
Public Water System

Usage Requirements (Consumption for Various Purposes). The water furnished by a public water system can be classified according to its ultimate or end use. System usage in a large system is normally figured based on gallons per capita per day (gpcd) values, which can be translated to a total daily usage in gallons per day (gpd) by multiplying the gpcd values by the population served by the system. System usage in a small system can be directly estimated in gpd using the requirements of the individual service connections. The typical uses are described as follows: Domestic. This includes water furnished to houses, hotels, etc., for sanitary, culinary, drinking, washing, bathing and other purposes. It varies according to living conditions of consumers, the ranges from 20 to 100 gal (75 to 380 liters) per capita day. These figures include air conditioning of residences and irrigation of gardens and lawns, a practice that may have a considerable effect upon total consumption in some parts of the country. The domestic consumption may be expected to be about 50 percent of the total quantity of water produced in the average city; but where the total gpcd consumption is small, the proportion will be much greater. A conservative estimate of 100 gpd per person or 350 gpd per household is often used by small water system providers to estimate the quantity requirements for a primarily residential system base. Commercial and Industrial. Water so classified is that furnished to industrial and commercial plants. Its importance will depend upon local conditions, such as the existence of large industries, and whether or not the industries utilize the public water supply. The quantity of water required for commercial and industrial facilities supplied by water systems can be approximated based on the floor area of the buildings served. The generally accepted water usage estimates based on building square footage is 0.3 gal./ft. per day. Specific water supply requirements for industrial and commercial facilities can be estimated using Tables 1-25 and 1-27. The calculated requirement can be used to determine service size if larger than normally provided by a public water system based on facility floor area. Public Use. Public buildings, such as city halls, jails, and schools, as well as public service-flushing streets and fire protection-require much water for which, usually, the city is not paid. Such water amount to 10 to 35 gpcd. The actual amount of water used for extinguishing fires does not figure greatly in the average consumption, but fires will cause the rate of use to be high for short periods. Loss and Waste. This water is sometimes classified as unaccounted for, although some of the loss and waste may be accounted for in the sense that its cause and amount are approximately known. Unaccounted-for water is due to meter and pump slippage, unauthorized water connections and leaks in mains. Unaccountedfor water, and also waste by customers, can be reduced by careful maintenance of the water system and by universal metering of all water services. In a system 100 percent metered the unaccounted-for-water, exclusive of pump slippage, will be about 10 percent. The total consumption will be the sum of the foregoing uses and the loss and waste. The probable division and breakdown of water consumption in the U.S. is shown in Table 1-29. The average daily per capita consumption is estimated at 175 gpcd (670 lpcd), although the usage in various American cities ranges from 35 to 530 gpcd. Factor which affect water consumption include but are not limited to; system size, presence of industries, quality of the water, cost, delivery pressure, climate, characteristics of the population, metering and system efficiency.
Section 1
1-65
Table 1-28: Projected Consumption of Water for Various Purposes
Use Domestic Industrial Commercial Public Loss & Waste Total:
Average gpcd 80 42 26 15 12 175
Consumption Range % 44 24 15 9 8 100
gpcd 20 - 100 0 - 232 0 - 143 10 - 35 5 -20 35 - 530
Section 1
1. 2. 3. 4.
Note: 1. gal. = liters x .264 2. The values listed in the above table are most applicable to systems having a population of 25,000 or more. 3. Public use requirements for small systems are recommended to be at 35 gpcd, which would increase the average consumption to 195 gpcd. Accurate population forecasting and knowledge of the system user base are critical for the accurate determination of water quantity requirements in a large system. Flow Requirements (Rates of Consumption). In the absence of reliable water usage information and historical data, maximum daily consumption is likely to be between 180 and 200% of the annual average daily consumption. Table 1-29 lists various historical rates of consumptions for various U.S. Cities. Rules of thumb, based on the R.O. Goodrich formula are listed as follows: Max. day consumption = 180% of avg. daily consumption Max. week consumption = 148% of avg. weekly consumption Max. month consumption = 128 % of avg. monthly consumption Min. day consumption = 25% to 50% of avg. daily consumption
Note: The rules of thumb are most applicable to a small municipality with a primarily residential base population. Larger cities will generally have smaller peaks. The maximum hourly consumption is generally taken as 150% of the average for that day. Knowing the user population or the number of service connections (typ. 2 people per connection) and the average gpcd consumption, the peak delivery flow rate (gpm) required of the system can be calculated. Various calculations are illustrated below, assuming 175 gpcd annual average consumption and 100 service connections (200 person system). 1. 2. 3. 4. Q Q Q Q max. day pk. = 175 (1.8) (1.5) (200) 2.5 = 236, 250 gpm avg. day pk. = 175 (1.5) (200) (2.5) = 131,250 gpm avg. day = 175 (200) (2.5) = 87,500 gpm min. day = 175 (200) (2.5) (.25) = 21,875 gpm
Note: 1. Small water systems using average system wide gpd values, in lieu of gpcd, can use the same flow rate correction factors. 2. Q max. day pk. = (gpcd) x (max. day consumption factor) x (max. hour factor) x (population) x (gpcd to gpm conversion). Table 1-29 lists consumption statistics for various cities. Peaks of water consumption in the system will affect design of the distribution system. Peaks ranging from 1000 to 300% of the annual average are not uncommon in predominantly residential areas. Commercial and industrial users tend to reduce peaks.
1-66
Table 1-29: Recorded rates of water consumption in various U.S. Cities
City Albany, N.Y. El Paso, Tex. Albuquerque, N. M. Waterloo, Iowa Fort Smith, Ark. Tyler, Tex. Monroe, La. Pomona, Calif. St. Cloud, Minn. Salina, Kan. Ashtabula, Ohio
Average daily per capita consumption (gal) 177 118 106 101 125 98 154 166 73 159 202
Maximum one-day consumtpion in a 3-year period (gal) 227 195 202 165 172 196 231 288 185 358 260
Maximum in proportion to average, % 128 165 190 163 138 200 150 173 254 225 129
Section 1
Population Densities. General population density estimates for use in approximating water requirements in large public water systems are presented below. This information should only be used in the absence of specific population data for which the water system is serving. Municipal population density rarely exceed 30 to 40 people per acre. Densities generally range from 15 per acre in sparsely built-up residential areas to 35 to 40 per acre in closely built-up single family residential areas with small lots. In apartments, populations densities can range from 100 to 500 per acre. In commercial districts the population will be highly variable according to development. Pressure Requirements. There are wide differences in the pressures maintained in distribution systems in various U.S. cities. The differences stem primarily form topography, user make-up of the system and capabilities of the distribution system. A service pressure range of 20 to 40 psi (150 to 300 kPa) is generally adequate for systems with a residential user base. Commercial and Industrial users prefer delivery pressures in the 30 to 50 psi range. Service pressure for fire fighting purposes, via direct connection to distribution system through hydrants, is best accomplished at a pressure range of 60 and 75 psi for residential and commercial/industrial services respectively. The lower pressures are generally adequate provided pumper trucks are used to boost hydrant pressure. The American Water Works Association (AWWA) recommends a nominal system static pressure of 60 to 75 psi (400 to 500 kPa) as presenting the following advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. It will supply ordinary consumption of buildings up to 10 stories in height. Effective automatic sprinkler service is possible in buildings up to four stories. It permits direct hydrant service for a hose stream, thus insuring quick action by fire departments. A larger margin is allowed in fluctuations of local pressure to meet sudden drafts and to offset losses due to partial clogging of service piping.
The disadvantages of increased system pressure are; (1) the availability of water under pressure stimulates its use, (2) increases leakage and (3) requires greater energy to maintain system pressure. An increase in pressure from 25 to 45 psi is often accompanied by 30% increase in consumption. In a poorly maintained system, higher pressure will increase loss and waste (leakage) within the system. An increase in the average pressure from 40 to 50 psi is likely to increase system wide loss and waste by 10.6%. The relationship between pressure and flow is: gpm (1) = gpm (2) = psi (1) psi (2)
1-67
A pressure increase from 40 to 50 psi will also increase energy consumption for a given volume of water by approximately 25%. Main pressures should not exceed 100 psi or drop below 20 psi. Pressures greater than 100 psi often exceed the rating of piping material resulting in breakage. High system pressures also promote leakage losses within the system. At pressures less than 20 psi; internal distribution problems are created for users and fire fighting capacity is adversely impacted. Pressure zoning via pressure regulating valves and/or booster stations are utilized where system topography would otherwise create high and low pressures outside established norms. Low pressure within the systems where topography is not an issue; can often be remedied with the construction of parallel feeder mains, a new supply source (water well) or storage tank centrally located within the zone of low pressure. Storage Requirements. Water is stored to equalize pumping rates over the day, to equalize supply and demand over a long period of high consumption, and to furnish water for emergencies such as fire fighting and breakdown (pump failures, line breaks, etc). Ideally, the best storage system is one that allows for the water to be stored with maximum potential energy, allowing stored water to flow back into the system under the force of gravity. Elevated storage is ideal from this stand point however, they are often to expensive to erect for small systems and undesirable in siesmicly active areas. Elevated steel tanks are available in capacities up to 4,000,000 gallons. Hydropneumatic tanks can also accomplish these objectives; however, there storage capacity is extremely limited and are not generally acceptable for fire protection. Use of Hydropneumatic pressure tank are normally confined to small system. Other storage methods include surface tanks and aquifer storage which is growing in popularity. Surface tanks normally receive water direct from the well and are boosted from the tank into the system via pressure controlledstaged pumping. Aquifer storage has applicability in groundwater supplied systems where construction of high capacity water wells are possible. Well pumps are sized based on the maximum practical yield of the well and controlled by Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) to maintain system pressure. Aquifer storage requires the availability of emergency power to supply the system should power be lost. Systems which employ VFDs require minimal buffer storage during periods of low activity. Regardless of the storage method employed, storage should be disbursed throughout the system to better service peak demand. Storage located in the immediate vicinity of wells result in poor pressure distribution throughout the outlying areas of the system. Storage capacity is a function of the load characteristics of the system. A value of 15% to 30% of the maximum daily use is generally considered adequate for larger systems. A value of 2 times the average daily summer season consumption is sometimes used to approximate storage requirements for small systems. Storage capacity needs, in systems where wells of limited capacity requires considerable scrutiny. It is desirable for pumping plants to provide the average daily system demand, with the excess being pumped to storage during off peak periods. Storage in conjunction with direct supply, must be capable of meeting peak day demands and flows. Storage needs are best determined through the analysis of demand records and consideration of future potential increases in demand. The Insurance Services Office (ISO), grades cities based upon their fire defenses facilities. The adequacy of the water system to meet the average consumption for the maximum day demand and calculated fire flow (maximum 12,000 gpm for large systems) at a minimum delivery pressure of 20 psi will result in favorable insurance rating. Fire flow requirements for small systems is beyond the scope of this discussion.
Section 1
1-68
Agricultural and Turf Irrigation Systems

Agricultural Irrigation. The information presented in this section is intended to provide overview of the various irrigation system types, issues and considerations for the purposes of preparing course estimates of system requirements such as system pressure, flow and water requirements based on crop type, soil and climatic conditions. Irrigation is primarily used to supplement natural rainfall to supply the total crop water usage (evapo-transpiration ET) needs, except in the arid areas (western U.S.) where irrigation is often required to provide the total crop needs as a result of the lack of precipitation during the summer growing season. The correct amount of water to apply will depend on the crop - which determines the overall amount of water to be applied and root zone penetration depth requirements, the soil - which determines the application rate and duration, and climatic conditions - which determines the frequency of application. Crop Water Usage & Irrigation Scheduling. The ever increasing cost of water and associated cost to pump, have lead to the development of more efficient irrigation schemes and methods in which predict the precise amount of water required to facilitate optimal crop yields. Crop water usage estimates and irrigation scheduling has evolved into a highly refined science. Techniques commonly employed to predict specific irrigation needs in areas where water cost and/or avail-ability are at a premium are ETp (evapotranspiration potential) and soil moisture analysis via moisture meters (moisture probe tensiometers). In the absence of such information, irrigation requirements can be estimated using the information tabulated in this section. The forecasting of irrigation water requirements using ETp involves calculating a base vegetative water usage in inches per day/week/month and multiplying it by the specific crop coefficient to yield the specific crop water usage over the time period analyzed. Soil moisture metering is used to directly measure the soil moisture content, which when considered with the soil type, can be used to predict when irrigation is required. Soil Considerations. Clay soils can hold as much as 40% of their dry weight in moisture, in contrast to sandy soils which may retain less than 8%. Not all of the moisture contained in soil is available for crop use. When the available soil moisture content is reduced to a value of approximately 2% for sandy soils and 25% for clay soils, plant roots can not access the trapped water. Unless water is applied, the plant will wilt and eventually die off. Water should be applied before the wilting percentages are reached, to prevent crop damage (over stressing). Sandy soils retain little moisture and require frequent irrigations, a 1 inch application of water will result in a 12 inch penetration. Loam soils retain more moisture relative and require less frequent irrigations when compared to sandy soils, a 1 inch application of water will result in a 6 to 10 inch penetration. Clay soils hold a higher percentage of water when compared to other soil types and require infrequent irrigations, a 1 inch application will result in a 4 to 5 inch penetration. Methods of Irrigation & System Considerations. Irrigation methods can be classified into two broad categories; surface and subsurface, with surface irrigation being the most prominent. Surface irrigation can be further broken down into three categories by application methods; which are sprinkler, flood and drip (micro-irrigation). Sprinkler irrigation methods include solid set, center pivot, linear and hand move systems. Flood irrigation methods generally include furrow, boarder strip and check / ponding methods. Drip irrigation methods include traditional emitter types, misters, micro sprinklers, trickle and porous tubing. Subsurface irrigation methods require the distribution tubing and dripper to be buried. The selection of the irrigation method is a function of many factors; which includes but is not limited to the cost and availability of water, type of crop (orchard, row crop, permanent pasture, etc.), frost protection capability, salt leaching and pre-irrigation needs. Sprinkler and drip irrigation method require a pressurized distribution to properly apply water, but generally have a much higher application (irrigation) efficiency than flood systems. Drip and related subsurface system generally require course filtering of the water supply before introduction into the system. General system issues and considerations are summarized in Table 1-30.
Section 1
1-69
Table 1-30: Agricultural Irrigation Method Comparisons

System Type Sprinkler (impact) Fixed-stationary hand move-aluminum center pivot/linear move Traveling (water cannon) Pressure Reg. 40-80 psi 40-80 psi 60-100 psi 80-120 psi 1-5 psi 1-5 psi 1-5 psi 20-50 psi 20-50 psi 20-50 psi Application Efficiency moderate moderate moderate moderate moderate-low moderate-low low high high high Energy Efficiency Cropping Initial Cost high high high moderate low moderate low high high high Labor Req. low high low low moderate low low low low low Maint. low moderate moderate moderate low low low moderate moderate moderate Filtration NR NR NR NR NR NR NR (1) Reg. (1) Reg. (1) Reg.
moderate perm./field moderate row/field moderate-low perm./field low field (2) high (2) high (2) high high high high row perm./field perm./field permanent permanent permanent
Section 1
Flood furrow boarder strip (concrete piping delivery) check Drip/Subsurface emitter types micro sprinklers porus tubing
Notes: (1) Drip & subsurface irrigation methods generally require course filtration prior to introduction into the irrigation system. (2) Energy efficiency relative to pumping is high for flood type system, as above ground head requirements are relatively low; however, more water (longer pumping) is often required to meet crop water requirements.
Irrigation Efficiency. Irrigation efficiency is optimized when just enough water is applied to increase the soil moisture content of the root zone to the maximum water holding capability of the soil. Over irrigation (deep irrigation) will force water below the root zone, where it can not be recovered by the plant. Under irrigation (shallow irrigation) can lead to high evaporative losses and insufficient water available to the crop. Irrigation efficiencies typically range from 90% to 25% for well operated and monitored systems. Low efficiency is principally a function of the irrigation method; typical efficiencies for sprinkler, flood and drip irrigation methods range from 80-50%, 60-25% and 90-70% respectively. As an example, crops irrigated using impact sprinkler (overhead) methods will require 20-50% more water be applied than the plant actually requires for optimum growth. Energy Efficiency. Irrigation efficiency and irrigation energy efficiency are not directly related; however, the latter can often be improved by using one or more of the following conservation devices / systems; such as reservoir storage, off peak pumping, variable frequency / speed drives and low head irrigation systems where applicable. Run-Off Recovery & Drainage. Recovery of surface drainage / run off water (tail water) from irrigation via flood methods, is often employed to increase irrigation efficiency, and conserve water and energy. Estimating tail water recovery system requirements (pump size, reservoir requirements, piping, etc.) should be performed on a specific system basis. In the absence of specific data, the following rules of thumb may be employed to estimate run-off flow rates Surface drainage - field (row) crops: 10 gpm per acre Surface drainage - truck (vegetable) crops: 15 gpm per acre Subsurface Drainage. Subsurface drainage of irrigated fields is sometimes required in the presences of alkali soils and / or in fields which have a underlaying hard pan / confining layer, which retains water to such a degree that makes crop growth and tillage impossible. Subsurface drainage is typically accomplished using tile drainage system. The generally accepted rule of thumb for estimating subsurface drainage flow rate is: Subsurface drainage - 7 gpm per acre The water quality associated with subsurface drainage is generally not suitable for irrigation water without treatment and/or dilution. In general, subsurface drainage water has a significantly higher mineral (salt) content than irrigation water supplies. Sprinkler System Design Procedure. A complete discussion of the design issues / considerations associated with the various irrigation methods is outside the scope of this manual. The stationary (fixed / permanent set) sprinkler
1-70
irrigation method procedure is illustrated below in Figure 1-24 below, as it is the most applicable to both the turf and agricultural irrigation market, and is the most illustrative of the various concepts developed in this section.
Figure 1-24: Stationary Type - Sprinkler System Design Process Flow Chart
Turf & Landscape Irrigation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates on the average, that healthy turf requires one inch of water per week (1/wk.). One inch of water per week over an acre equals 27, 150 gallons. Warmer / arid clients can require significantly more than 1/wk. during the summer months to maintain healthy turf. Applications rates should be limited to 0.25/hr., as run-off can become a problem at higher rates. Landscape foliage and flowering plant water requirements can very significantly from the guidelines for turf. In the absence of specific data (plant type, planting density, exposure, etc.), landscape water usage is often approximated at 50% of the value specified for turf over the total landscaped area. Purely landscaped zones generally require less frequent irrigations than turf.
Section 1
Turf water requirements not met by natural precipitation are most frequently met by sprinkler irrigation. Turf sprinkler systems are typically designed to handle the total (maximum) irrigation needs of the landscape foliage and turf requirements without the benefit of supplemental precipitation. Where large expanses of turf as encountered; such as golf courses, parks and cemeteries - reservoir storage is commonly used in the form of artificial lakes, ponds and/or storage tanks. This intermediate holding step is done for a variety of reasons ranging from ascetics to energy conservation to application flexibility. In cases where there is a significant temperature differential between the water supply and ambient surface temperature, surface storage is often used to bring the irrigation water supply temperature closer to ambient for improved turf health. Turf and landscaping irrigation water requirements can have a significant impact on both public and private water supplies and should be carefully considered in the system design. In the arid portions of the U.S., the irrigation load may account for 50% or more of the water volume used on a daily basis during the summer months. Golf course irrigation water requirements are discussed below to illustrate the impact associated with large expanses of turf and landscape on a water supply system. Golf Course Irrigation. On the average 18 hole golf course; greens and tees are typically watered in sets at flow rates in the range of 150 to 175 gpm @ 30 to 40 psi. Fairways averaging 300 yards long by 60 yards wide (52 acres) are typically watered in sets at flow rates in the range of 475 to 500 gpm @ 30 to 50 psi. At 27,150 gallons per week, a 52 acre fairway will utilize approximately 1,415,000 gallons each week. A well maintained 18 hole course can consume up to 25,470,000 gallons of water per week during the peak irrigation season. Sprinkler pumping is normally done over fifty hours each week (3000 minutes). The average 18 hole golf course sprinkler irrigation system is operated seven hours per night, seven nights per week. Section 1D Water System Capacity Requirements 1-71
Table 1-31: Irrigation - Application Rates for Various Crops @ 100% Irrigation Eff.*
Crop Pasture Alfalfa Grain Potatoes Beets Orchards Orchard w/cover
Cool Climate Acre - in. gpm per Acre per per day Acre .15 .12 .15 .10 .12 .15 .20 2.8 2.3 2.8 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.8
Moderate Climate Acre - in. gpm per Acre per per day Acre .20 .16 .20 .12 .15 .20 .25 3.8 3.0 3.8 2.3 2.8 3.8 4.7
Warm Climate Acre - in. gpm per Acre per per day Acre .30 .25 .22 .14 .20 .25 .30 5.7 4.7 4.2 2.6 3.8 4.7 5.7
Section 1
* The above application rates are ideal and assumes the total amount of water applied is used by the crop (100 % irrigation efficiency), the tabulated values require corrected for actual irrigation efficiency. Typical efficiency correction factors are: for Hot Dry Climate: 1.67 (flood)/1.25 (sprinkler)/1.10 (drip) for Moderate Climate: 1.43 (flood)/1.20 (sprinkler)/1.05 (drip) for Humid or Cool Climate: 1.25 (flood)/1.15 (sprinkler)/1.05 (drip)
Table 1-32: Irrigation - Area by Depth of Coverage
Flow gpm 20 50 100 150 225 300 400 700 900 1200 1600 3000 4500 6000 7000 8500 10000 14000 cfs .045 .111 .223 .335 .502 .668 .891 1.560 2.008 2.675 3.565 6.680 10.030 13.360 15.610 18.950 22.250 31.150 1 .53 1.33 2.96 3.98 5.97 7.96 10.61 18.58 23.85 31.82 42.35 79.50 119.30 159.10 185.70 225.50 265.00 371.00 2 .26 .66 1.33 1.99 2.99 3.98 5.31 9.28 11.95 15.92 21.20 39.75 59.70 79.60 92.80 112.80 132.50 185.50
Number of acres covered in 12 hours Depth of water 3 4 6 8 .17 .44 .88 1.33 1.99 2.66 3.54 6.18 7.96 10.61 14.15 26.50 39.75 53.00 61.90 75.20 88.30 123.70 .13 .33 .66 .99 1.49 1.99 2.65 4.64 5.97 7.95 10.61 19.88 29.85 39.75 46.45 56.35 66.25 92.75 .09 .22 .44 .66 .99 1.33 1.77 3.09 3.98 5.31 7.07 13.25 19.90 26.52 30.95 37.60 44.20 61.80 .07 .17 .33 .50 .75 .99 1.33 2.32 2.98 3.98 5.31 9.94 14.93 18.89 23.20 28.19 33.15 46.35
10 .05 .13 .26 .40 .60 .80 1.06 1.86 2.38 3.18 4.23 7.95 11.93 15.91 18.57 22.55 26.50 37.10
12 .04 .11 .22 .33 .50 .66 .88 1.55 1.99 2.65 2.53 6.62 9.95 13.26 15.47 18.79 22.10 30.95
1. Acrefoot = 1 acre covered to a depth of 1 ft. = 43,560 cu. ft. / 1.0 cfs (cu. ft./sec.) = 449.5 gpm
Table 1-33: Irrigation - Annual Water Requirement for Selected Crops
Crop Alfalfa Almonds Barley Beans Beets, Sugar
* Acre - ft. 3 to 4 1/4 1 3/4 to 2 1/2 dryland to 1 1 1/4 to 1 3/4 2 to 3
Crop Cotton Citrus Grapes Grain, Sorghums Orchard, Fruit
* Acre - ft. 3 to 3 1/2 2 1/2 to 3 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 1 1/2 to 2 2 to 3 1/2
Crop Permanent Pasture Potatoes Rice Tomatoes Walnuts
* Acre - ft. 3 to 4 1/2 2 3/4 to 3 1/2 6 to 15 2 to 3 3 to 4
* Amounts will vary according to location and climatic conditions. For more precise information, consult your local Farm Advisor. Crops on sandy soils do not need more water than on heavier soils, only more frequent applications with less water per application. 1-72 Section 1D Water System Capacity Requirements
Table 1-34: Irrigation - Application Rates Applied by Overhead Sprinklers (gpm/acre over 24 hours)
Frequency (days) 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1 2.69 2.36 2.10 1.88 1.71 1.57 1.45 1.35 1.26 1.18 1.11 1.05 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63
1 1/2 4.03 3.52 3.14 2.82 2.56 2.36 2.18 2.02 1.88 1.77 1.66 1.57 1.49 1.41 1.35 1.28 1.23 1.18 1.13 1.09 1.05 1.01 0.97 0.94
2 5.37 4.70 4.19 3.76 3.42 3.14 2.90 2.69 2.55 2.36 2.22 2.09 1.98 1.88 1.80 1.71 1.64 1.57 1.51 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.30 1.26
Inches per Irrigation 2 1/2 3 6.70 5.88 5.23 4.70 4.27 3.92 3.62 3.36 3.14 2.94 2.77 2.62 2.48 2.36 2.24 2.14 2.05 1.96 1.88 1.81 1.75 1.68 1.62 1.57 8.06 7.05 6.28 5.65 5.13 4.71 4.35 4.04 3.76 3.54 3.33 3.14 2.98 2.83 2.69 2.57 2.46 2.36 2.26 2.18 2.10 2.02 1.95 1.88
4 10.75 9.40 8.36 7.54 6.84 6.27 5.80 5.38 5.02 4.71 4.44 4.18 3.97 3.77 3.59 3.43 3.28 3.14 3.02 2.90 2.78 2.69 2.60 2.51
5 13.43 11.75 10.47 9.40 8.55 7.85 7.25 6.73 6.28 5.90 5.55 5.24 4.96 4.71 4.49 4.28 4.09 3.92 3.76 3.62 3.49 3.36 3.25 3.14
6 16.10 14.10 12.58 11.30 10.28 9.40 8.70 8.08 7.54 7.06 6.65 6.28 5.95 5.66 5.39 5.14 4.91 4.71 4.52 4.35 4.18 4.03 3.90 3.76
Section 1
Note: 1. For 12 hour operation (12 hr. set), multiply above values by 2 For 8 hour operation (8 hr. set), multiply above values by 3 2. Maximum precipitation rates for overhead irrigation on level ground: Light sandy loam soils - 1.5 to 0.75/hr. - 679 to 339 gpm/acre. Medium textured clay loam soils - 0.75 to 0.50/hr. - 339 to 226 gpm/acre. Heavy textured clay soils - 0.50 to 0.20/hr. - 226 to 90 gpm/acre. Allowable rates increase with adequate cover and decrease with land slopes.
Table 1-35: Irrigation - Typical Quantity and Frequency Requirements for Various Cropsa
Crop Pasture Alfalfa Root Crops (carrots, potatoes, etc.) Vegetable (lettuce, beans, etc.) Berries2 - 3 Orchards (citrus, stone fruit, etc.)
Quantity (in./irrigation) 2 3 2 2 15 4 3 6 3 3 30 6
Frequency (days between irrigation) 14 30 15 14 21 45 30 21
30 - 60
Note: 1. The number of irrigations required is a function of planting time, growing season and occurrence of rainfall. 2. In general, 4/month is considered adequate to grow crops. Irrigation should provide the supplement water crop needs not provided by natural rainfall.
1-73
Curves for sizing domestic water demand

Is there a need for an alternative to the Hunter curve? Without question there is. The old method of fixture units vs. flow (gpm) has been used for many years as the basis to determine peak water demand for apartment, commercial, and institutional buildings, such as: Apartments Condominiums Schools Hospitals Motels Hotels Dormitories
Section 1
Plumbing system designers have learned through experience that for many applications the Hunter curve is ultraconservative. Many have developed, through experience, certain techniques to modify it and bring the designed peak demand to a more realistic value of actual requirements. Curves LT1025S through LT1028S, shown on the following pages, are submitted as alternatives to Hunters curve. They are based upon metered data, observation, numerous successful installations and other accumulated data from various sources. Each curve is representative of that peak demand normally calculated from fixture units, and extraneous loading, such as cooling tower make-up, restaurant, laundry, health club, etc., must be added to the curve value. Pay particular attention to the notes with each figure. Our findings are that no single curve can adequately represent all different usage criteria unless the curve reflects maximum values to cover all conditions likely to be encountered, such as the Hunter curve. This type of curve, obviously, will cause gross oversizing in many instances. On the other hand, values must be adequate to avoid undersigning, and herein lies the question: How much can we reduce the size based on Hunters curve? We have found instances where any reduction would cause selection of an undersized system. The increasing use of water pressure booster systems dictates more efficient operation. Skyrocketing power costs, interest rates, inflation, and other variables make it a necessity to conserve energy. Overdesign is an unaffordable luxury. Too large pumps, motors, and piping increase first cost. Add carrying charges plus energy cost and you have created an insatiable monster for the life of the installation. The accompanying curves place additional responsibility on the system designer. No longer should he select a system with a 20-40-40 percent split unless he is prepared to risk inadequate standby capability. Such a system has only 60 percent system capability should either of the larger pumps fail. It is recommended that any system selected from the curves have a minimum residual capacity of 80 percent should any pump fail; two-pump systems should have an 80-80 percent split; three-pump systems should have a 25-55-55 percent split, etc. Specific job considerations could change the split. However, these must be analyzed individually. Note that the only curve using fixture units vs. gpm is Curve LT1028S schools and dormitories. The values do not conform to those on the Hunter curve, however. All other curves use different criteria to determine flow (gpm): number of dwelling units, square feet of floor space, or number of beds. Refer to the notes on each figure. Curves LT1025S, Fig. 1-25 and 1-26, provide selection data for six different classes of occupancy. First examination may raise questions. However, an in-depth evaluation proves the validity of the curves. The elderly are low water users, both from the standpoint of peak demand and total water consumption. High income occupancy reflects low peak demand usage but fairly high total water consumption. As income levels fall, density per dwelling unit increases as does peak demand.
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In other words, the number of dwelling units, income range, personal habits, mobility, and density are all values to consider. Peak demand is determined upon the interplay of all these factors. We are not concerned about total water usage nor is this a consideration when calculating peak demand. Curve in Curves LT1025S, Fig. 1-25 and 1-26, can also be used for hotels and motels (laundry facilities not included) by the substitution of the number of rooms for an equal number of apartments. While the total volume of water used by the middle income people living in multifamily residential housing will be two or three times that of hotels/motels, the peak demands are comparable. Curves LT1026S, 1027S and 1028S office buildings, hospitals, schools and dormitories define the qualifications for their use on the curves. Note that on Curve LT1028S may also be used to determine peak demands for stadiums (as qualified). These curves must be used for reference only.
Section 1
1-75
Figure 1-25: Apartments and Condominiums Capacity Sizing
Apartments and Condominiums

CURVE #1 Elderly CURVE #2 High Income CURVE #3 Upper Income CURVE #4 Middle Income CURVE #5 Low Income CURVE #6 Public Housing
Section 1
Curve #4 Can be used for Motels - Hotels by substitution of rooms for apartments. Curve #5 Can be used for Medical Personnel. Sizing is based on number of apartments and represents that load usually calculated from fixture units. Extraneous load such as cooling tower make-up, restaurant, etc., must be added.
350
300
NUMBER OF UNITS
250
200 4 5
150
100
LIQUI-TROL SYSTEMS INC.

50 LIQUI-TROL SYSTEMS INC. 1980
LT1025S
40
80
120
160
200
240
GALLONS PER MINUTE
1-76
Figure 1-26: Apartments and Condominiums Capacity Sizing
Apartments and Condominiums
Section 1
1280
1120
960
NUMBER OF UNITS
800
640
480
320

LT1025S
300
400
500
600
700
800
GALLONS PER MINUTE
1-77
Figure 1-27: Office Buildings Capacity Sizing
Office Buildings
Sizing is based on square feet of floor space (overall dimensions). Curve represents that demand usually calculated from fixture units. Commercial area is included. Extraneous loads such as cooling tower make-up, restaurant, gang flush systems, etc., must be added.
Section 1
*Multiply by 105
32
28
24 SQUARE FEET FLOOR SPACE
20
16
12

LT1026S
120
240
360
480
600
720
GALLONS PER MINUTE
1-78
Figure 1-28: Hospitals Capacity Sizing
Hospitals
Sizing is based on number of beds and includes a cafeteria. Extraneous loads such as cooling tower make-up, laundry, etc., are to be added.
Section 1
800
700
600
NUMBER OF BEDS
500
400
300
200

LT1027S
100
200
300
400
500
600
GALLONS PER MINUTE
1-79
Figure 1-29: Schools and Dormitories Capacity Sizing
Schools and Dormitories

CURVE #1 Boy's Dormitories CURVE #2 Girl's Dormitories CURVE #3 Schools
9000
Section 1
Sizing is based on fixture units. Extraneous loads such as cooling tower make-up, cafeteria, etc., must be added. Curve #3 can be used for sizing peak demand in stadiums based on fixture units. Gang-flush systems must be calculated and added. Before making final size determination we suggest you check with the flush valve manufacturer for maximum flow rate through the valve under design pressure. We recommend continuous flush during peak demand with load calculated accordingly.
7000
8000
6000
FIXTURE UNITS
5000
4000 1
3000
2000

LT1028S
100
200
300
400
500
600
GALLONS PER MINUTE
1-80
1E PUMPING, DISTRIBUTION & STORAGE

After water is drawn from the source and treated to bring it up to potable quality, it is carried to consumers through a network of pipes, pumps, and storage tanks; known as the water distribution system. Regular maintenance of this system, is essential to ensure a reliable and sanitary supply of water. In planning a new or extending a distribution system, longevity and ease of maintenance are important considerations. Installation of the system must be performed with consideration for worker safety and maintaining sanitary conditions. Water System Economics. Economics plays an important part in the water supply planning and design process. Design objectives must be clearly established at the outset and the economics associated with service life, cost, ease of expansion, etc., carefully considered. In connection with design, the water consumption (usage) throughout the design life must be estimated. Overdesign is not conservative since it may burden a relatively small public water supply or community unnecessarily. Different segments of water treatment and distribution system may be appropriately designed for differing periods of time using differing capacity criteria. The same issues apply to self supplied individual, commercial, industrial and agriculture systems to a verying degree. The six (6) chief issues associated with water supply facilities planning are outlined below and discussed more thoroughly throughout this manual. 1. Development of source. The design period and service life will depend on the source. For groundwater, if it is easy to drill additional wells, the design period will be short, perhaps 5 years. The service life for a well typically ranges from 30 to 40 years depending on materials of construction and ground water quality. The design period for surface water supplies can be as much as 50 years. The design capacity of the source should be adequate to provide the maximum daily demand anticipated during the design period, but not necessarily upon a continuous basis. 2. Pumping plant. The design period is generally 5 years since modification and expansion are easy if initially considered. Pump selection requires knowledge of maximum flow and sustainable well yields, including fire demand, average flow, and minimum flow during the design period. 3. Distribution system. The design period is indefinite and the capacity of the system should be sized to accommodate the maximum anticipated development of the area served. Anticipated population densities, zoning regulations, and other factors affect flow should be considered. Maximum hourly flow including fire demand is the basis for design. 4. Pipe lines from source. The design period is generally long since the life of pipe is long and the cost of material is only a portion of the cost of construction. Twenty-five years or more would not be unusual. The design capacity of the pipe with consideration being given to provision of suitable velocities under all anticipated flow conditions. 5. Amount of storage. The design period may be influenced by cost factors peculiar to the construction of storage vessels, which dictate a minimum unit cost for a tank of specific size. Design requires knowledge of average consumption, fire demand, maximum hour, maximum week, and maximum month, as well as the capacity of the source and pipe lines from the source. 6. Water supply treatment. The design period is generally short since expansion is generally simple if it is considered in the initial design. Most treatment processes are designed for average daily flow. Water treatment is normally a small portion of a groundwater supply source. Water source development and treatment issues as described above in items 1 and 6, are discussed in Section 1B and 1C respectively. The other water supply topics (items 2-5) are reviewed and discussed later on.
Section 1
Pumping
Pumps in a small utility are used to draw water from the source and move it through the distribution system. In some utilities, a single pump at the well may be the only pump required. Other system may have booster pumps to move water and maintain distribution pressure within the distribution system. Large municipal utilities have complex networks of pump installations, often controlled and monitored from a central location. The power cost associated with pumping is often one of a utilitys major annual budget items, making the selection of efficient and reliable pumping equipment an important issue.
Section 1E Pumping, Distribution & Storage
1-81
Types of Water Well Pumps. Three types of pumps are commonly used in small water supply and distribution systems. They are; (1) positive displacement pumps, (2) centrifugal pumps - which include submersible and turbine types, and (3) jet pumps. Positive displacement and jet pumps are generally of limited capacity and so not represent a significant portion of the pumps used in the public water supply industry. Positive displacement pumps are outside the scope of this manual and are not addressed. Well pumps can be further classified as deep or shallow well pumps. Pumps which rely on suction lift are generally considered shallow well pumps. Deep well pumps generally rely on the positive submergence of the pumping element.
Section 1
Centrifugal Pumps. Centrifugal pumps contain a rotating impeller mounted on a shaft turned by the power source. Water enters the center of the rotating impeller and is thrown outward at high velocity into a surrounding casing shaped to slow down the water flow by converting the velocity into pressure. A centrifugal well pump overview is presented in Table 1-36. Each impeller and matching casing is called a stage. When the pressure is more than can be practicably or economically furnished by a single stage, additional stages are used. A pump with more than one stage is called a multistage pump. In a multistage pump water passes through each stage in succession, with an increase in pressure at each stage. Multistage pumps commonly used in individual water systems are of the turbine and/or submersible types. The number of stages necessary for a particular installation is determined by the pressure needed for the operation of the water system and the height the water must be raised from the surface of the water source. Turbine pumps. The vertical turbine pump consists of one or more centrifugal pump stages with the pumping unit located below the drawdown level of the water source. A vertical shaft connects the pumping assembly to a drive mechanism located above the pumping assembly. The discharge casing, pump housing , and inlet screen are suspended form the pump base at the ground surface. The weight of the rotating portion of the pump is usually suspended by a thrust bearing located in the pump head. The intermediate pump bearings may be lubricated by either oil or water. Lubrication of pump bearings by water is preferable, since lubricating oil may leak and contaminate the water. Submersible pumps. A centrifugal pump driven by a closely coupled electric motor constructed for submerged operation as a single unit is called a submersible pump. The electrical wiring to the submersible motor must be waterproof, and the electrical control should be properly grounded to minimize the possibility of shorting and damaging the entire unit. The pump and motor assembly are supported by the column (drop pipe). The submersible pump forces water directly into the distribution system; therefore, the pump assembly must be located below the maximum drawdown level. This type of pump can deliver water across a wide range of pressures and flows, with the only limiting factor being the size of the unit and the horsepower applied. When sand is present or anticipated in the water source, special precautions should be taken before this type of pump is used, since the abrasive action of the sand during pumping will shorten the pumps life. Jet Pumps. Jet pumps can be supplied in a deep well or shallow well configuration. The shallow well jet pump relies completely on suction lift created by a surface or internal ejector assembly. The deep well jet pump requires that the ejector be mounted submerged within the well. In the deep well configuration, a portion of the discharged water from the centrifugal pump is diverted through a nozzle and venturi tube located near the water level of the source (usually a well). Because a pressure zone lower than that of the surrounding area exists in the venturi tube, water from the source flows into this area of reduced pressure. The velocity of the water the nozzle pushes it through the pipe toward the surface where the centrifugal pump can lift it by suction. Shallow well jet pumps differ from shallow well centrifugals in that suction lift is created by ejector (venturi) action. Jet pumps generally have greater lift capabilities than centrifugals. In both the deep and shallow well configuration, the centrifugal action of the pump forces water into the distribution system. Jet pumps are usually economical for low-volume/shallow water level installations.
1-82
Table 1-36: Centrifugal Pump Overview for Water Well Application Usual WellPumping Depth Usual Pressure Heads
Advantages
Type of Pump
Practical Suction Lift Disadvantages Remarks
Centrifugal: 1. Shallow well 3-15 ft. (1-5m) 80-150 ft. (24-46m) Smooth, even flow High reliability Open or closed impeller designs available Can be used as a booster pump. Produces smooth, even flow All electrical components are accessible, above ground High efficiency. Efficiency depends on operating under design head and speed. Requires straight well large. Lubrication and alignment of shaft critical. Abrasion from sand. Repair to motor or pump requires pulling from well. Sealing of electrical equipment from water critical. Abrasion from sand. Produces smooth, even flow Easy to frost-proof installation Short pump shaft to motor Quiet operation Well straightness not critical Vandal resistant. Loses prime easily
15 ft. (5m)
Similar to jet pump but does not require internal jet nozzle or ejector for suction lift. Usually provided in horizontal configuration 1800 rpm models normally used for water well applications. 150 ft. max. setting @ 3600 rpm.
2. Deep well a. Vertical line shaft turbine (multi-stage) 50-500 ft. (15 - 150 m) typical 100 - 800 ft. (30 - 245m)
Impeller submerged
b. Submersible turbine (multi-stage) 1,000 ft. setting practical limit
Pump and motor submerged.
100 - 800 ft. (30 - 245m)
3500 RPM models most popular because of smaller diameters and high capacity, are more vulnerable to wear and failure from sand and other causes. 1800 rpm models available.
Jet: 1. Shallow well 15 - 22 ft. (5 -7 m)
15-22 ft. (5-7 m)
80 - 150 ft. (24 - 46 m)
High capacity at low heads. Simple in operation. Does not have to be installed over the well. 80 - 150 ft. (24 - 46 m) Same as shallow well jet. Well straightness not critical.
Capacity reduces as lift increases. Air in suction or return line will stop pumping.
Certain manufacturers and models will overload if used for booster service.
Section 1

25 -120 ft. (8-37 m) 200 ft. (61 m) max.
2. Deep well
15-22 ft. (5-7 m)
Same as shallow well jet. Lower efficiency, especially at greater lifts.
The amount of water returned to ejector increases with increased lift - 50% of total water pumped at 50 ft. (15 m) lift and 75% at 100 ft. (30 m) lift.
1-83
Selection of Pumping Equipment. The type of pump selected for a particular installation should be determined on the basis of the following fundamental considerations: Yield of the well or water source. Daily needs and instantaneous demand of the system. The usable water in the pressure or storage tank. Size and alignment of the well casing. Total operating head pressure of the pump at normal delivery rates, including lift and all friction losses. Difference in elevation between ground level and water level in the well during pumping. Availability of power. Ease of maintenance and availability of replacement parts. First cost and economy of operation. Reliability of pumping equipment.
Section 1
The rate of water delivery required depends on the time of effective pump operation as related to the total water consumption between periods of pumping. Determining total water use is discussed in Section 1D. The period of pump operation depends on the quantity of water on hand to meet peak demands and the storage available. If the well yield permits, a pump capable of meeting the peak demand should be used. When the well yield is low in comparison to peak demand requirements, an appropriate increase in the storage capacity is required. The life of an electric-drive motor will be reduced when there is excessive starting and stopping. The water system should be designed so that the interval between starting and stopping is as long as practicable. Generally, high capacity pumps should not start and stop more than four to five times per hour (6 times - max). Shallow well pumps, which operate based on suction lift should be installed with a foot valve at the bottom of the suction line or with a check valve in the suction line in order to maintain pump prime. The selection of a pump for any specific installation should be based on competent advice. Factory representatives of pump manufacturers and consulting engineering firms are often qualified to provide application and installation information. Sanitary Protection of Pumping Facilities. The pump equipment should be constructed and installed so as to prevent contamination or objectionable material from entering the well or the water that is being pumped. The following factors should be considered: Design the pump head (well head) or enclosure so as to prevent pollution of the water by lubricants or other maintenance materials used during operation of the equipment. Pollution from hand contact, dust, rain, animals or insects, and similar contaminates should be prevented from reaching the water in take of the pump or the source of supply. Designing the pump base or enclosure so as to facilitate the installation of a sanitary well seal within the well cover or casing. Design for frost protection, including pump drainage within the well as necessary. Overall design consideration so as to best facilitate necessary maintenance and repair, including overhead clearance for removing the drop (column) pipe and other accessories. When planning for sanitary protection of a pump, each installation must be considered on a case by case basses. See Figure 1-20 for typical submersible well head completions. Check Valves. A check valve between the pump and storage should be located within the well or at least upstream from any portion of a buried discharge line. This will ensure that the discharge line at any point where it is in contact with soil or a potentially contaminated medium will remain under positive system pressure, whether or not the pump is operating. There should be no check valve at the inlet to a pressure tank or elevated storage tank. This requirement does not apply to a concentric piping system, with the external pipe constantly under system pressure. Some pumps (submersibles, jets) often have a check valve installed within the well.
1-84
Well Vents. A well vent is recommended on all wells except for special applications. The vent prevents a partial vacuum inside the well casing as the pump lowers the water level in the well. The well vent, whether built into the sanitary well cover or conducted to a point remote from the well, should be protected from mechanical damage; have watertight connections; and be resistant to corrosion, vermin, and rodents. The opening of the well vent should be located not less than 24 in. (610 mm) above the highest known flood level. It should be screened with durable, corrosion-resistant material or otherwise constructed so that openings exclude insects and vermin. Well vent requirements may be subject to specific regulation requirements. Miscellaneous. It is desirable to provide a water-sampling tap in the pump discharge line. The sampling tap should be modified to exclude the tap from being used for no other purpose than sampling. Installation of Pumping Equipment. Where and how the pump and motor are mounted depend primarily on the type of pump used. The vertical turbine centrifugal pump, with motor mounted directly over the well and the pumping assembly submerged within the well, is gradually being replaced by the submersible unit, with both the electric motor and the pump submerged within the well. Similarly, the jet pump is gradually giving way to the submersible pump, especially for deeper installations, because of the latters inherently superior performance and better operating economy. A minimum annular clearance of 0.75 inches (1.5 inches overall) is recommended between the well casing and the maximum diameter of the largest down hole component of the pump string. If there is any doubt about whether there is enough room for the pump, a piece of pipe with dimensions slightly greater than those of the pump should first be run through the casing to make sure that the pump will pass freely to the desired depth of setting. It is recommended that all wells be equipped with an access pipe in to the well, independent of the well seal to allow measuring devices to be easily inserted and withdrawn into the well. The remote access pipe permits chemical treatment of the well without removing the sanitary well seal and pump. Vertical Turbine Installations. In the vertical turbine pump installation, the power unit (usually an electric motor) is installed directly over the well casing. The pump portion is submerged within the well, and the two are connected by a shaft enclosed within the pump column. The pump column supports the bearing system for the drive shaft and conducts the pumped water to the surface. Submersible Installations. Because all moving parts of a submersible pump are located within the well in a unit, this pump can perform well in casings that might be to crooked for vertical turbine pumps. The entire weight of the pump, cable, drop pipe, column of water within the pipe, and reaction load when pumping must be supported by the column pipe. It is important that the column pipe and couplings be of good quality materials suitable for the service and tensile load. A torgue arrestor should be considered if plastic pipe of hose is used for low capacity/shallow installations. Cast-iron fittings should not be used where they must support a tensile load. The entire load of submersible pumping equipment is normally suspended form the sanitary well seal or cover. An exception to this would be the pitless installation (Figure 1-31). Jet Pump Installations. Jet pumps may be installed directly over the well or alongside the well. Since there are no moving parts in the well, straightness and plumpness do not affect the jet pumps performance. The weight of equipment in the well is relatively small, being mostly pipe (often plastic), so that loads are supported easily by the sanitary well seal. There are also a number of good pitless adapter and pitless unit designs for both single and double-pipe jet systems. Pumping Plants and Appurtenances for Submersible Applications. Pumping plants and supporting structures should be installed above ground. Structural floor system should be of watertight construction, preferable concrete, and should slope uniformly away in all directions from the well casing or pipe sleeve. all structures should be of fire proof construction, pleasing in appearance, well lighted, easy to clean and serviceable. Electrical equipment should be housed in appropriate enclosure type for the service. Well sites/pumping plants should be designed for year round access. In cold climates, it should not be necessary to use an underground discharge connection if an insulted, heated pumphouse is provided. A pitless adapter can be used if a pumphouse facility is not practical.
Section 1
1-85
In areas where power failure may occur, an emergency generator power supply should be considered. A natural disaster (severe storm, hurricane, tornado, blizzard, or flood) may cut off power for hours or even days. A electrical generator is often used to supply the power requirements of the pump, basic lighting, cooling, and other emergency needs. Lightning Protection. Voltage and current surges produced in powerlines by lightning discharges are a serious threat to electric motors. The high voltage can easily perforate and burn the insulation between motor windings and motor frame. The submersible pump motor is more vulnerable to this kind of damage because it is submerged in groundwater-the natural ground, making lightning protection a serious issue for submersible pumps in electrical storm prone areas. Actual failure of the motor may be immediate or it may be delayed for weeks or months. Simple lightning arresters are available to protect motors and appliances from near miss lightning strikes. (They are seldom effective against direct hits.) The two types available are the valve type and the expulsion type. The valve type is preferred because its sparkover voltage remains constant with repeated operation. Just as important as selecting a good arrester is installing it properly.
Figure 1-30: Annual Frequency of Electrical Storms in the U.S.
Section 1
Pitless Adapters. Because of the pollution hazards involved, a well pit to house the pumping equipment or to permit accessibility to the top of the well is not recommended. A commercial unit know as a pitless adapter eliminates well-pit construction. A specially designed connection between the underground horizontal discharge pipe and the vertical casing pipe makes it possible to terminate the permanent, watertight casing of the well at a safe height (8 in. or more) above the final grade level. The underground section of the discharge pipe is permanently installed, and it is not necessary to disturb it when repairing the pump or cleaning the well. There are numerous makes and models of pitless adapters available. Refer to Figure 1-31 for a illustration of the various pitless adapter applications.
1-86
Figure 1-31: Typical Submersible Pitless Adapter Units
Standard
Custom
Booster
Section 1
* Courtesy of Monitor, a division of Baker Mfg. Co.
Distribution Lines
The pipes, valves, and fittings that distribute treated water to a community comprise a large part of a utilitys capital worth. These distribution lines require relatively little maintenance, but their initial selection should take into account local water and soil conditions to ensure long life. Periodic monitoring of distribution line condition is advisable to check for conditions of corrosion or scaling. Pipe and Fittings. For economic reasons and ease of construction, distribution lines for small water systems are ordinarily constructed of plastic. Other common types of pipes used are steel and ductile cast iron. Under certain conditions and in certain areas, where metallic piping is used, it may be necessary to use protective coatings, galvanizing, or have the pipes dipped or wrapped. When corrosive water or soil is encountered, the use of plastic is generally more cost effective. Plastic pipe for cold-water piping is usually simple to install, has a low initial cost and has good hydraulic properties. When used in a potable water system, plastic pipe should be certified by an acceptable testing laboratory (such as the National Sanitation Foundation-NSF) as being nontoxic and non-taste producing. It should be protected against crushing by proper trench bedding and from attack by rodents. Fittings are usually available in the same sizes and materials as piping; valves are generally cast iron, bronze or other alloys. In certain soils the use of dissimilar metals in fittings and pipe may create electrolytic corrosion problems. The use of nonconductive plastic inserts between pipe and fittings or the installation of sacrificial anodes helps to minimize such corrosion.
1-87
Pipes should be laid in trenches as straight as possible. Air-relief valves or hydrants should be located at the high points on the line. Failure to provide for the release of accumulated air in a pipeline on hilly ground may greatly reduce the capacity of the line. It is necessary that pipeline trenches be excavated deep enough to prevent freezing in the winter. Pipes placed in trenches at a depth of more than 3 ft (1m) will help to keep the water in the pipeline cool during the summer months. A 10 to 15 degree F change between summer and winter distribution temperature is not unusual. Pipe Capacity and Head Loss. Any pipeline selected should be able to deliver the required peak flow without excessive loss of head-without decreasing the discharge pressure below a desirable minimum. The normal operating water pressure for household or domestic use ranges from 20 to 60 psi at the fixture. Pipe line velocities at maximum flow should not exceed 6 ft/s (2 m/s). A design values of 3ft/s (1 m/s) is customarily used at the average flow rate anticipated for the main. Pipeline capacity is determined by its size, length, and interior surface condition. Assuming the length of the pipe is fixed and its interior condition established by the type of material, the usual problem in design of a pipeline is selecting the required diameter. Refer to Section 7 for piping friction loss data. Additional head losses may be expected from the inclusion of valves and fittings in the pipeline. These losses may be expressed in terms of equivalent length of pipe, which would produce an equivalent loss. Fitting losses are not particularly important for fairly long and low velocity pipelines (length > 300 and velocity < 3 ft./sec.). Fitting losses are very important in short complicated piping network and have a direct bearing system performance. Refer to Section 7 for fitting friction loss/equivalent length data. Protection of Distribution Systems. Sanitary protection of new or repaired pipelines can be facilitated by proper attention to certain details of construction. All connections should be made under dry conditions, either in a dry trench or, if it is not possible to completely dewater the trench, above the ground surface. Soiled piping should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before connections are made. Flush valves or clean outs should be provided at low points where there is no possibility of flooding. Before a distribution system is placed into service it should be completely flushed, disinfected, and tested for bacteriological quality. There should be no cross-connection, bypass, or other piping arrangement whereby polluted water or water of questionable quality can be discharged or drawn into the domestic water-supply system. Disinfection of a Water Distribution System. Disinfection of water distribution piping, tanks, pumps and associated devices are required before placing a system into service. Disinfection is required under the following normal operating conditions. Disinfection of a system that has been in service using raw or polluted water, preparatory to transferring the service to treated water. Disinfection of a new system on completion and preparatory to placing in operation with treated water or water of satisfactory quality. Disinfection of a system after completion of maintenance and repair operations The entire system should be thoroughly flushed with water to remove any sediment that may have collected during construction, maintenance or operation. The system should then be filled with a disinfecting solution of hypochlorite and treated water. This solution is prepared by adding 1.2 lb (0.5kg) calcium hypochlorite (70% available chlorine) to each 1000 gal (3800L) of water or by adding 2 gal (8L) of ordinary household liquid bleach to each 1000 gal of water. A mixture of this kind provides a solution having not less than 100 mg/L of available chlorine. The disinfectant should be retained in the system if possible for not less than 24 hours, examined for residual chlorine, and drained out. If no residual chlorine is present, the process should be repeated. The system is then flushed with treated water and put into operation. More detailed procedures for disinfection of tanks and mains are listed in American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards.
Section 1
1-88
Storage
Storage facilities are necessary so source pumping and treatment facilities can be sized and operated at an average rate, rather than being operated at a peak rate for a few hours each day and running at far less than maximum capacity for the remainder of the day. Where ground water sources are used that have sufficient capacity and require little treatment, only a small artificial storage facility may be needed. Approximation used by water system designers to estimate usable storage are listed as follows: 1. 2-5 gallons storage for every 10 gpm capacity (small system-capacity adequate to meet peak flow) 2 2 times the average summer daily consumption (small system-capacity insufficient to meet peak flow) 3. 15 to 30% of the maximum daily use (large system-adequate capacity) Actual storage requirements are highly dependent on system capacity, fire flow requirements, availability of emergency power and system operational scheme. Four types of storage facilities are commonly used for small water-supply systems. They are ground-level tanks (reservoirs), elevated storage tanks, pressure tanks and aquifer storage. Ground-level tanks (reservoirs): Ground level tanks are simple to construct and maintain. They can be located on a hill with sufficient elevation so as to provide adequate system pressure, or they can configured to collect water pumped from wells for boosting into the distribution system. See Table 1-37 for storage capacity for various rectangular and round tank configurations. Elevated storage: The major advantage of elevated storage tanks is that not only do they hold water in storage, they also hold it at a height that maintains pressure to the distribution system without the need for continuous pumping. The height needed for an elevated tank can be calculated as 2.31 times the required system pressure in psig. For example, a system pressure of 60 psig can be supplied by a tank 139 ft high (measured from the ground to the water level in the tank). Areas prone to siesmic events are less likely to utilize elevated storage in new construction. Pressure tanks: Pressure in a distribution system served by a hydro-pneumatic tank is maintained by pumping water directly to the tank from the source. This pumping action compresses a volume of entrapped air. The air pressure is equal to the water pressure in the tank and can be controlled between desired limits by means of pressure switches, which stop the pump at the maximum setting and start it at the minimum setting. Pressure tanks are normally designed to meet only peak demands and prevent excessive pump cycling. Only 10-40 percent of tank volume is usable for storage. Hydro-pneumatic systems are most commonly used for small water systems and self supplied commercial industrial facilities. Tank selection is a function of several factors; such as population, well capacity and regulatory policy. The Ten-State Standards selection guide lines for pressure tanks are listed as follows: Hydro-pneumatic systems should not be used to serve more than 150 living units. Pressure tank storage should not be considered for fire protection purposes. The tank should be located above normal ground surface and be completely housed where required by climate. The capacity of the wells and pumps serving the system should be at least ten times the average daily consumption rate. The gross volume of the tank (in gallons) should be at least ten times the capacity of the largest pump, rated in gallons per minute (for example, if the largest pump produces 250 gpm, the tank should hold at least 2,500 gallons). Where practical, the access manhole should be 24 in diameter. The exact requirements for the water system are determined by the regulatory agency having jurisdiction. Aquifer storage: In areas where high capacity water well are possible to construct, traditional storage techniques have given way to aquifer storage. Well pumps are controlled by varidable frequency drives (VFDs) which maintain constant system pressure by increasing or decreasing pump speed in response to demand. Wells and pumps are designed to meet the peak system and fire flows requirements with the aquifer acting as the supply and storage reservoir.
Section 1
1-89
Automatic transfer of emergency generator power to pumping equipment eliminates the need for significant system storage to supply water during abnormal operating conditions. Minimal buffer storage is generally required within the system for efficient operation. Protection of Storage Facilities. Suitable storage facilities for relatively small systems may be constructed of concrete, plastic or steel for above or below ground applications. All storage tanks for domestic water supply should be completely covered. They should be constructed and located so as to prevent pollution of the tank contents by outside water or other foreign matter.
Section 1
All tanks require adequate screening of any openings to protect against entrance of small animals and insects. Water supply, distribution and storage facilities should be secured and locked to prevent access by unauthorized persons. The water in storage tanks or pipelines should not be contaminated with an emergency water supply that has not been treated prior to transmission. Disinfection of storage facilities after construction, repair or maintenance should be carried out in accordance with the recommendations noted in Section 1C.
1-90
Table 1-37: Capacity of Rectangular Storage Tanks in gal./ft. of depth
Width of Tank (ft.) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 4.5 67.32 84.16 100.99 117.82 134.65 151.48 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 5 74.81 93.51 112.21 130.91 149.61 168.31 187.01 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 5.5 82.29 102.86 123.43 144.00 164.57 185.14 205.71 226.28 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 6 89.77 112.21 134.65 157.09 179.53 201.97 224.41 246.86 269.30 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 6.6 97.25 121.56 145.87 170.18 194.49 218.80 243.11 267.43 291.74 316.05 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 7 104.73 130.91 157.09 183.27 209.45 235.63 261.82 288.00 314.18 340.36 366.54 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 7.6 112.21 140.26 168.31 196.36 224.41 252.47 280.52 308.57 336.62 364.67 392.72 420.78 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 8 119.69 149.61 179.53 209.45 239.37 269.30 299.22 329.14 359.06 388.98 418.91 448.83 478.75 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 8.6 127.17 158.96 190.75 222.54 254.34 286.13 317.92 349.71 381.50 413.30 445.09 476.88 508.67 540.46 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 9 134.65 168.31 202.97 235.63 269.30 302.96 336.62 370.28 403.94 437.60 471.27 504.93 538.59 572.25 605.92 *** *** *** *** *** *** 9.5 142.13 177.66 213.19 248.73 284.26 319.79 355.32 300.85 426.39 461.92 497.45 532.98 568.51 604.05 639.58 675.11 *** *** *** *** *** 10 149.61 187.01 224.41 261.82 299.22 336.62 374.03 411.43 448.83 456.23 523.64 561.04 598.44 635.84 673.25 710.65 748.05 *** *** *** *** 10.5 157.09 196.36 235.63 274.90 314.18 353.45 392.72 432.00 471.27 510.54 549.81 589.08 628.36 667.63 706.90 746.17 785.45 824.73 *** *** *** 11 164.57 205.71 246.86 288.00 329.14 370.28 411.43 452.57 493.71 534.85 575.99 617.14 658.28 699.42 740.56 781.71 822.86 864.00 905.14 *** *** 11.5 172.05 215.06 258.07 301.09 344.10 387.11 430.13 473.14 516.15 559.16 602.18 645.19 688.20 731.21 774.23 817.24 860.26 903.26 946.27 989.29 ***
Length of Tank (ft.)

12 179.53 224.41 269.30 314.18 359.06 403.94 448.93 493.71 538.59 583.47 628.36 673.24 718.12 763.00 807.89 852.77 897.66 942.56 987.43 1032.3 1077.2
3 44.88 56.10 67.32 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
3.5 52.36 65.45 78.54 91.64 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
4 59.84 74.80 89.77 104.73 119.69 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Table 1-38: Capacity of Round Storage Tanks
Section 1
1-91
Vertical Tank Horizontal Tank Dia. Vol. Area Dia Vol. Area Dia. Vol. Area Dia. Vol. Area Depth Ratio % of total (ft.) (gal./ft.) (sq. ft.) (ft.) (gal./ft.) (sq. ft.) (ft.) (gal./ft.) (sq. ft.) (ft.) (gal./ft.) (sq. ft.) (% filled) Volume 1.00 5.87 .785 5.50 177.72 23.76 10.00 587.52 78.54 19.00 2120.90 283.53 .1 (10%) 5.22 1.25 9.18 1.227 5.75 194.25 25.97 10.50 640.74 86.59 19.50 2234.00 298.65 .2 (20%) 14.2 1.50 13.22 1.767 6.00 211.51 28.27 11.00 710.90 95.03 20.00 2650.10 314.16 1.75 17.99 2.405 6.25 229.50 30.68 11.50 776.99 103.87 21.00 2591.00 346.36 .3 (30%) 26.2 2.00 23.50 3.142 6.50 248.23 33.18 12.00 846.03 113.10 22.00 2843.60 380.13 2.25 29.74 3.976 6.75 267.69 35.78 12.50 918.00 122.72 23.00 3108.00 415.48 .4 (40%) 37.4 2.50 36.72 4.909 7.00 287.88 38.48 13.00 992.91 132.73 24.00 3384.10 452.39 2.75 44.43 5.940 7.25 308.81 41.28 13.50 1070.80 143.14 25.00 3672.00 490.87 .5 (50%) 50.0 3.00 52.88 7.069 7.50 330.48 44.18 14.00 1151.50 153.94 26.00 3971.60 530.93 3.25 62.06 8.296 7.75 352.88 47.17 14.50 1235.30 165.13 27.00 4283.00 572.66 .6 (60%) 62.6 3.50 71.97 9.621 8.00 376.01 50.27 15.00 1321.90 176.71 28.00 4606.20 615.75 3.75 82.62 11.045 8.25 399.88 53.46 15.50 1411.50 188.69 29.00 4941.00 660.52 .7 (70%) 73.8 4.00 94.00 12.566 8.50 424.48 56.75 16.00 1504.10 201.06 30.00 5287.70 706.86 4.25 106.12 14.186 8.75 449.82 60.13 16.50 1599.50 213.82 31.00 5646.10 754.77 .8 (80%) 85.8 4.50 118.97 15.90 9.00 475.89 63.62 17.00 1697.90 226.98 32.00 6016.20 804.25 4.75 132.56 17.72 9.25 502.70 67.20 17.50 1799.30 240.53 33.00 6394.87 854.87 .9 (90%) 94.8 5.00 146.88 19.63 9.50 530.24 70.88 18.00 1903.60 254.47 34.00 6788.27 907.46 .10 (100%) 100.0 5.25 161.93 21.65 9.75 558.51 74.66 18.50 2010.80 268.80 35.00 7193.45 961.63 Note: 1. To find the capacity of tanks greater than the largest given in the table, look in the table for a Tank of one-half the given size and multiply its capacity by 4. 2. The above referenced figures are based on flat tank ends. The actual volume of the tank with curved/dished ends will be somewhat greater. 3. The volume in cu. ft. = Area in sq. ft for 1.0 ft. of depth.
Hydro-Pneumatic Systems
The hydro-pneumatic (pressure tank) system is a means of meeting varying water needs within a stable pressure range. A properly designed hydro-pneumatic system will minimize pump cycling, and provide continuous and adequate supply of water to all connections in the system. The key components of a hydro-pneumatic system are the pump, pressure switch, tank and air volume controls. For the purpose of this discussion, all references will apply primarily to the use of submersible pumps and public water systems. Slightly different requirements may be required for shallow well centrifugal, jet and vertical turbine pumps. Hydro-pneumatic storage is normally considered buffer storage and should not be counted on to supplement peak demand lasting longer than 10 minutes or fire protection. The water supply must be capable of meeting peak demand on its own, if no intermediate storage is provided. Pressure tanks are normally constructed of steel and are most commonly rated for a working pressure of 100 psi (125 and 150 psi ratings available). Precharged diaphragm and bladder type tanks are not commonly employed by public water systems. In a hydro-pneumatic system, a quantity of water compresses a quantity of air. It is this air pressure (stored energy) which forces water through the system. Air is a gas and can be compressed; the pressure being related to the volume of space occupied by the air according to Boyles law Pressure A = Volume of Space B = Pressure B = Volume of Space A Thus, if pressure A is 10 psi and volume of space it occupies is 100 cubic inches (volume of space A), then to reduce the pressure to 5 psi (pressure B), the volume of space B must be increased to 200 cubic inches. This is true only if the temperature of the air remains constant. In practice, this temperature effect can be ignored in the average hydro-pneumatic water system. Forcing water into the tank compresses the air remaining. As water is removed (drawdown storage), this air expands and reduces in pressure until it reaches a point where the pressure is too low to force out any more water. The water remaining is unusable and cannot be considered storage capacity. A typical hydro-pneumatic system utilizing a submersible pump is shown in Figure 1-32.
Section 1
System Design.
Step 1. Determine the maximum demand of water. Refer to Section 1D for estimating demand for various applications. Step 2. Determine the minimum tank pressure allowable in psi (P tank min.) needed in the system. This is the sum of: a) Minimum allowable system pressure in psi (P min) at the highest and/or the most distant point from the tank. b) Vertical height in feet (Hv) of the highest and/or the most distant point form the tank. c) Pressure drop (head loss) in the length of pipe to reach highest and/or the most distant connection from the tank. The head loss (Hl) value in feet should be based on the average flow out of the tank for large systems and peak flow for small system at the average tank pressure. Refer to Section 7 for estimating pipe friction losses (Hl). P tank min. = P min + Hv /2.31+ Hl/2.31 This information will establish the minimum pressure needed in the tank at all times to supply the system needs. The selection of the high pressure point is limited by safety considerations and has a definite effect on the efficient use of the tank, as well as the usable storage. The usable storage capacity for a given size tank decreases with an increase 1-92 Section 1E Pumping, Distribution & Storage
in pressure. A tank having adequate storage capacity when operated over 20 - 40 psi pressure range may be to small when operated at 40 - 60 psi. Refer to Table 1-39 for pressure range vs. usable tank volume relationships. Commercial pressure switches are commonly available with a pressure differential of 20 psi. Thus, if the minimum pressure needed is 40 psi, a maximum pressure of 60 psi is usually adopted. Typical low/high ratios are 20/40, 30/50, 40/60, 50/75, and 50/80.
Table 1-39: Pressure Range vs. Usable Storage Volume
Pressure Range (psi) 20 30 40 50 50 40 50 60 75 80
Avg. Design (psi) 30 40 50 60 65
Usable Tank Vol. (%) 15.5 10.2 7.2 6.2 7.1
Storage Correction Factor
Section 1
.50 .70 1.00 1.15 1.00
Note: Usable (draw down) tank volumes are based on an initial atmospleric (atm.) charge of 14.7 psi. Usable tank volume is doubled for every 14.7 psi charge above the initial atm. charge. As the minimum pressure increases, the pressure differential must increase for efficient use of the tank capacity. The design objective is to draw off as much water from the tank as possible before the pressure is reduced to the minimum point in order to hold the number of times per hour (cycles per hour) the pump must start and stop. Step 3. The pump should be selected with a capacity of at least 125% of the calculated peak demand against a total head equal to the average design pressure, plus the head required to get water to the tank from the deep well or other source. The 25% greater capacity provides a factor of safety against inaccurate consumption estimates and loss of pump capacity as a result of long term wear. Step 4. The tank should be large enough to limit the number of pump cycles to 6 per hour (10 to 15 cycles per hour may be acceptable in small domestic systems). Under simplified conditions, 6 cycles per hour allows the pump to run 5minutes and to be off 5 minutes. At an average demand, the number of cycles will reduce to a much smaller figure. The maximum number of cycles occurs when demand is equal to 1/2 of the pump capacity. If the demand is greater than this, the pump operates longer than five minutes (up to continuous operation when demand equals pump capacity) and at lesser demand the pump operates less frequently (down to zero cycles at zero demand). Correct tank size depends on pressure differential and relative volume of air maintained in the tank. A common technique used to determine pressure tank size for general water supply applications, where the maximum number of pump cycles should be limited to six (6) or less is described as follows: The gross volume of the tank should be at least 10 times the capacity of the pump at the average tank pressure (ie. 250 gpm pump capacity - 2500 gallon tank volume) at a base pressure range of 40 - 60 psi, corrected for usable storage. This guide line provides approximately .75 gal./gpm of usable storage. A value of .5 gal./gpm is acceptable where 10 to 15 cycles per hour is permissible. A conservative value of 1.0 gal/gpm should be used when the usage is not clearly defined.
Example 1-3: 100 gpm, 30 - 50 psi range
1) Est. tank size (40 - 60 psi) 100 gpm x 10 gal./gpm = 1000 gal. 2) Tank volume (corr. for usable vol. @ 30 - 50 psi) 1000 gal (.70) = 700 gal,
Table 1-39
Note: Tank sizes listed in Table 1-40 are based on the above referenced general selection guidelines
1-93
Air Controls. When air and water in a pressure tank are in direct contact, water absorbs some of the air. If the absorbed air is not replaced, the tank becomes water logged and causes the pump to rapid cycle any time a water outlet is opened. The typical air controls used for hydro-pneumatic systems are discussed as follows. Constant - Air. These devices are designed as part of the pressure tank and range from a movable separator to an elastic air container. Tank utilizing the constant air process are commonly referred to as captive air or bladder tanks which can be precharged to increase the usable storage capacity for given size tank. These types of tanks are limited primarily to small domestic systems. Add - Air. The air compressor and associated controls are the most common add-air method utilized in large hydropneumatic systems. The air/water volume relationship is maintained through the addition of air when the water level within the tank rises above the ideal level based on the operating pressure range. Compressor system are generally acoustically enclosed for quite operation. In its simplest form, the add-air method involves the periodic draining of the pressure tank to allow for the addition of a fresh air charge. Air-Release. These devices are designed to release excess air that is forced into the tank by the pump. If the excess air is not released the tank will become air bound, affording little storage. The air venting valve must be placed on the tank at the proper height to maintain the correct air/water volume relationship for the operating pressure range selected. The air release technique is commonly employed in both small and large systems. Refer to Table 1-41 for air/liquid relationships for optimum tank efficiency (optimum air/water ratio) for common pressure ranges. Submersible Pump/Air Control Considerations. A submersible pump equipped with a built in /or inline check valve can be easily applied to any of the tank air volume control methods. When the constant or add-air method is employed, no special modifications are needed. The air-release method will require the addition of a bleeder valve and snifter value (modified schrader valve) to drain a short internal of pipe and provide a point of entry for the air charge respectively. Air is added to the tank at the start of each cycle. When the submersible is not operated with a down hole check valve, the three air volume control methods are still applicable. It will be necessary to use an air release valve in the discharge line to exhaust all air in the column pipe ahead of the tank when the constant or add-air controls are used. On deep settings, it may also be desirable to exhaust a majority of the excess air when utilizing air-release tank volume controls to reduce the noise associated with tank venting. It is also a good practice to set the minimum pressure switch setting 5 psi above the actual minimum pressure requirement in deep submersible setting where no down hole check valves are used. A backspin (time delay) timer should also be incorporated into the control scheme to eliminate possible start-up during backspin. Air/Vacuum Release Valve Sizing. If an air/vacuum release valve is required, the rate of air that must be exchanged can be determined from the formula: cfm = Q/7.48 where; Q = pump flow in gpm @ open discharge cfm = cubic feet per minute of exhaust air 7.48 = gal./cu. ft. conversion
Section 1
The actual selection of the air/vacuum release valve is generally based on exhaust air requirements and maximum pressure differential of 2 psi. A pressure differential of .5 psi or less is recommended for quiet operation.
1-94
Figure 1-32: Typical Hydro-Pneumatic System
J-Box Pressure Switch Discharge Elbow Discharge Companion Flange Flex Coupling (to reduce noise) *Air-Release Valve Gauge Glass (optional) Check Valve Gate Union
**Add-Air, Compressor System
Pressure Relief Valve (valve rating to be less than tank working presure rating)
Section 1
*Air-Release, Air Venting System
LL
HL
Union
Gate Outlet
Slope *Snifter Valve *Bleeder Valve, place 4' below well seal Pipe size to match discharge elbow on short runs
Drain
Note: 1. Consult water supply regulatory authority for specific system requirements. 2. Tank may be mounted in any secure fashion. Provisions must be made to avoid scratching and noise, as the tank expands and contracts. 3. Set tank where it will not be subject to freezing temperature or extreme heat. 4. Place pump as near a practical to well. * Controls/appurtenances required for Air-Release tank air/water maintenance controls, when pumps equipped with built-in or in-line check valve. ** Controls/appurtenances required for Add-Air tank air/water maintenance controls, when pumps equipped with built-in or in-line check valve.
1-95
Table 1-40: Minimum Recommended Pressure Tank Capacity (Gal)
PUMP (gpm) 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
20 - 40 50 (82) 75 (82) 100 (120) 150 (180) 200 (220) 250 (315) 300 (315) 350 (525) 400 (525) 450 (525) 500 (525) 625 (1000) 750 (1000) 875 (1000) 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 2800 3000 3500 4000 5000 5500 6000
30 - 50 70 (82) 105 (120) 140 (180) 210 (220) 280 (315) 350 (525) 420 (525) 490 (525) 560 (1000) 630 (1000) 700 (1000) 875 (1000) 1050 1225 1400 1750 2100 2450 2800 3500 4200 4900 5600 3600 7000 7700 8400
PRESSURE RANGE (psi) 40 - 60 100 (120) 150 (180) 200 (220) 300 (315) 400 (525) 500 (525) 600 (1000) 700 (1000) 800 (1000) 900 (1000) 1000 (1000) 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 11,000 12,000
50 - 75 115 (120) 173 (180) 230 (315) 345 (525) 460 (525) 575 (1000) 690 (1000) 805 (1000) 920 (1000) 1035 1150 1438 1725 2013 2300 2875 3450 4025 4600 5750 6900 8050 9200 10,350 11,500 12,650 13,800
50 - 80 100 (120) 150 (180) 200 (220) 300 (315) 400 (525) 500 (525) 600 (1000) 700 (1000) 800 (1000) 900 (1000) 1000 (1000) 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 11,000 12,000
Section 1
Note: 1. The above referenced steel tank sizes are minimums, based on the general rule of thumb for calculating gross volume of 10 gal./gpm at a base pressure range of 40-60 psi (corrected for usable/drawdown storage). 2. Bracketed ( ) figures represent readily available trade size steel hydro-pneumatic tanks. Always select a tank equal to or larger than the minimum volume specified above. 3. Steel pressure tanks available in sizes ranging from 18 gal. to 30,000 gal. Bladder/captive air tanks are typically used when flow rates are 50 gpm or less.
1-96
Table 1-41: Relationship Between Air & Liquid
Diameter Horizontal Tank
Vertical Tank
Height HL
Section 1
HL LL LL
Legend: HL = High tank water level @ cut-out pressure for optimum A/W ratio LL = Low tank water level @ cut-in pressure for optimum A/W ratio A/W = Air/Water ratio for specified pressure range w/o external air charge Pressure Range (psi) 20 30 40 50 50 40 50 60 75 80 Cut-out/ Cut-in Pressure Ratio 1.58 1.44 1.37 1.38 1.47 Water Level (WL) for optimum tank efficiency (optimum A/W ratio) for the specified pressure Horizontal (% Diameter) Vertical (% Height) Cut-in (LL) Cut-out (HL) Cut-in (LL) Cut-out (HL) 55 63 67 71 71 67 71 75 77 78 57 67 74 77 77 74 77 80 83 85 Tank Volume (%) LL 57.7 67.2 73.2 77.4 77.4 HL 73.2 77.4 80.4 83.6 84.5 Usable/ Drawdown Volume (%) 15.5 10.2 7.2 6.2 7.1
Note: 1. Air-Release (air vent valve) tank air volume controls should be installed at the LOW LEVEL (LL) height as indicated for the specified pressure range. 2. Add-Air (compressor WL maintenance probe) should be placed at the HIGH LEVEL (HL) height as indicated for the specified pressure range
1-97
Table 1-42: Typical Captive Air or Bladder Tank Sizing (pre-charged/supercharged pressure tanks) Air Fill Valve
Bladder or Diaphram
Section 1
Water
Pump (gpm) 1 2.5 5 6 6 7.5 7.5 10 15 18 20 30 45 60
Amtrol Model No. WX-101 WX-102 WX-103 WX-104 WX-104S WX-200 WX-201 WX-202 WX-203 WX-205 WX-250 WX-251 WX-302 WX-350
Dimensions Diameter Height (in.) (in.) 8 11 11 15 3/8 15 3/8 15 3/8 15 3/8 15 3/8 15 3/8 22 22 22 26 26 12 5/8 15 24 3/4 17 3/8 19 1/4 22 23 7/8 31 5/8 46 3/4 29 1/2 35 5/8 46 3/4 47 3/16 61 7/8
Total Volume (gal.) 2.0 4.4 8.6 10.3 10.3 14.0 14.0 20.0 32.0 34.0 44.0 62.0 86.0 119.0
Drawdown/Usable Vol. (gal.) @ various cut-in/out pres. (psi) 20/40 30/50 40/60 .7 1.6 3.1 3.8 3.8 5.2 5.1 7.3 12.4 16.3 22.9 31.8 44.0 .6 1.4 2.7 3.2 3.2 4.3 4.3 6.2 9.9 10.5 13.6 19.2 26.7 36.9 .5 1.2 2.2 2.8 2.8 3.8 3.7 5.4 8.6 9.1 11.9 16.7 23.2 32.1
Typ. Sys. Connection (in.) 3/4 NPTM 3/4 NPTM 3/4 NPTM 1 NPTF 1 NPTF 1 NPTF 1 NPTF 1 NPTF 1 NPTF 1 1/4 NPTF 1 1/4 NPTF 1 1/4 NPTF 1 1/4 NPTF 1 1/4 NPTF
Typ. Tank Ship Wt. Precharge (lbs.) (psig) 5 9 15 20 25 25 27 35 43 61 69 92 123 166 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 38 38 38 38 38
Note: 1: Drawdown can be affected by various ambient and system conditions. Including temperature and pressure. 2. Data reprinted with permission of Amtrol, Inc. (WXT-SCRD91) 3. Pump flow rate (gpm) based on approximately 5 gal. useful (drawdown) storage for every 10 gpm @ 40/60 psi pressure switch setting. Information provided to give a relative tank input/output capacity. 4. For every 14.7 psi air charge above the initial atmospheric charge, the usable capacity of a standard tank will be doubled.
1-98
Grundfos
SECTION 2: PUMP HYDRAULICS & APPLICATION CONSIDERATION

2A PUMP FUNDAMENTALS Types & Classifications of Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal Pump - Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Submersible Definitions & General Information . . . . . . . . . Submersible Pump Performance Characteristics and Curves . . Submersible Pumping System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Submersible - Sizing & Installation Dimensional Relationships HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS Density, Specific Gravity and Weight Pressure and Head . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NPSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power, Efficiency and Energy . . . . . Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HYDRAULIC RELATIONSHIPS Affinity Laws - Pump Speeds Specific Speed . . . . . . . . . . . Speed Torque Relationships . System Head Curve . . . . . . . Parallel and Series Operation Minimum Flow - Temperature Axial Thrust - Maximum Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Section 2
2B
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2-15 2-15 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-21 2-22
2C
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2-24 2-25 2-26 2-28 2-31 2-34 2-36
2D
PUMPING SYSTEM APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS Cavitation, Vortexing and Submergence . . . . . . Entrained Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Entrained Solids (Sandy Water) . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Downhole Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power Consumption and Cost . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2-38 2-40 2-42 2-43 2-45 2-46 2-52 2-56
2E
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF WATER: Table 2-15: Altitude vs. Barometric Pressure and Boiling Point of Water Table 2-16: Elevations for Various Municipalities (U.S. & Canada) . . . . . Table 2-17: Vacuum to Suction Lift Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2-18: Properties of Water from 32F to 300F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2-32: Suction Lift Correction for Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2-33: Suction Lift Correction for Water Temperature . . . . . . . . .
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2-60 2-60 2-61 2-62 2-63 2-63
Section 2A Pump Fundamentals
2-1
2A PUMP FUNDAMENTALS
Types & Classifications of Pumps
Pumping equipment can be broadly divided into two general categories, positive displacement and dynamic types (centrifugal). Centrifugal pumps are further typed by their general mechanical configuration or by impeller type (ie. axial flow, mixed or radial flow). The most common centrifugal pump types by mechanical configuration are; turbine, propeller and volute (centrifugal). The multi-stage submersible is a turbine pump sub-group. The classification relationships are illustrated below in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1: Pump Type Overview
Section 2
Pumps
Dynamic/Centrifugal (Variable Torque) Positive Displacement (Constant Torque)
Radial Flow Mixed Flow Axial Flow Reciprocating Rotary
Jet Volute/Centrifugal Split Case Turbine/Submersible Propeller
Shallow Well Horiz. Booster Dry Pit Deep Well Vert. Booster Canned Wet Pit Sump
Water Well Pumps. Pumps used for water well service are sometimes classified as shallow or deep well types. A pump installed above the well, which takes in water by suction lift is called a shallow well pump (lift generally <25). Typical shallow well pumps are jet pumps and single stage centrifugals with foot valve. A pump installed in the well, with the pump inlet initially submerged below the pumping level is called a deep well pump (positive submergence pump). Typical Deep well pump types are vertical turbines and submersibles. Deep Well Pumps. Deep wells are generally pumped by multistage diffuser centrifugal pumps commonly called vertical turbines. These pumps develop high head by using a series of small impellers rather than a single large one. Line shaft vertical turbine pumps may be either oil or water lubricated. Water lubricated pumps are sometimes called open line shaft pumps since the drive shaft is exposed to the flow (Figure 2-2, A). Deep well pumps may be driven either by a motor at the top connected to the pump by a line shaft, or by a submerged motor (submersible) below the pump (Figure 2-2, B).
Figure 2-2: Deep Well Pump Type
Diagram A Vertical Turbine Pump
Diagram B Submersible Well Pump
2-2
Centrifugal Type - Submersible Pumps. In a centrifugal pump, pumping action is generated by means of centrifugal force. A submersible pump is a multi-staged centrifugal pump. The essential components of a submersible pump are the intake, impellers, pump/bowl shaft, diffuser and discharge; all driven by a electric motor prime mover. Each rotating impeller and stationary diffuser element is commonly referred to as a stage or intermediate. A simplified submersible diagram is illustrated in Figure 2-3 below:
Figure 2-3: Submersible Pump Elementary Overview Diagram
Centrifugal Pump Theory of Operation

As the impeller rotates, liquid is taken in at the eye of the impeller and forced out along vanes to its tips. The liquid moves faster at the tips of the impeller than at the eye. The fluid is then gathered in the diffusing section, where velocity energy is converted to pressure energy in progressive stages until discharge. The rapid outward movement of fluid from the eye of the impellers creates a low pressure region within eye, which pulls more fluid into the intake at the same rate as discharged. Pressure and flow performance of a submersible pump is a function of impeller diameter, speed, number of stages, width of internal impeller/diffuser water passages and vane configuration.
Discharge
Section 2
Impeller Stages
Motor Shaft Water Intake
Impellers are generally classified as open, semi-open or enclosed. Enclosed impellers can be of the floating or fixed type based on Motor the industry or application requirements. Groundwater submersible pumps, 6 and larger, are typically of the enclosed fixed type configuration. The information presented in this manual is specifically applicable to the enclosed - fixed type impeller configuration.
Submersible Pump Definitions and General Information

A submersible pump can be broadly described as a pumping unit in which the pump and its driving motor operate submerged in the liquid being pumped. This broad definition applies to many pump types; however, the focus of this manual is on the deep well submersible pump with enclosed - fixed type impellers. A deep well submersible pump consists of a multistage centrifugal pump directly coupled to an electric-motor which is designed to operate completely submerged in cool water. Generally the pressure or pumping depth capabilities vary with the number of impellers used and the capacity varies with the impeller design. Most submersibles utilize a 2 pole - 3600 rpm (ideal speed) motor designed to fit typical water well diameters (4 - 20). Domestic sizes range from 1/4 to 2 Hp and commercial sizes are available to 250 Hp and larger, for special applications. The advantages are low cost per gallon of water pumped, ability to be installed at great depths, quiet operation, ease of installation and low over all installation cost especially for deeper settings. Priming is automatic Section 2A Pump Fundamentals 2-3
and maintenance is no problem. The primary disadvantage of a submersible pumping unit, assuming good design practices are followed, is the necessity to pull the entire pump regardless of problem (electrical or mechanical). Figure 2-4 illustrates a typical form of construction and associated terminology used in the manufacture of submersible pump-motor units. This assembly shown is of the threaded bowl/intermediate construction, employed by Grundfos, although bolted construction is used by many pump manufacturers.
Figure 2-4: Typical Multistage Submersible Pump Construction Sectional Drawing Pos. 1 2 3 4 6 Description Valve casing Valve cup Valve seat Top intermediate chamber Top bearing Lower bearing Neck ring Intermediate bearing Spacing washer for stop ring Bottom intermediate chamber with stop ring Nut for split cone Nut for stop ring Split cone Impeller Suction interconnector Shaft Strap Nut for strap Coupling Spring for valve cup Ring for strap Valve guide complete Washer Wear ring 17 71 19 10 8a 11c 12 7 14 24 3 2 4 6 16 8 11 13 72 6b
69 70 39 1
Section 2
6b 7 8 8a 10 11 11c 12 13 14 16 17 19 24 39 69 70 71 72
Pump connection to motors of different sizes is typically accomplished through the bolting of the inlet adapter (suction interconnector) to the motor bracket. Shafts are typically stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant material. Intermediate stages (bowls), impellers and other fabricated/cast components may be of cast iron, bronze, molded thermoplastic, stainless steel or special alloy, depending on the operating environment and pump application. Impellers may be mounted to the bowl/pump shaft through the use of a key, formed shaft, (spline shaft), split cone or lock collet. Rubber and/or bronze bearings are typically used in water supply applications. Most manufacturers offer a variety of designs, features and material options. Specific product information is normally provided by the manufacture in catalog format.
2-4
Submersible Pump Performance Characteristics and Curves

General. Centrifugal pumps have head-flow characteristics, just as motors have speed-torque characteristics. At a fixed speed, the head developed by a pump will decrease as the flow is increased. Different pump designs will produce different characteristics, as illustrated in Figure 2-5 below: Reading a pump curve is fairly straightforward. Figure 2-5: Pump Characteristic Illustration Pump/performance curves consist of a simple graph with flow rates (Q) along the horizontal axis and pressures/head (H) along the vertical axis. The data graphed on the curve is typically based on a fixed speed.
HEAD
Section 2
Performance Characteristics. Performance Pump B characteristics of centrifugal/turbine type FLOW submersible pumps are described in curves developed by pump manufacturers. Typical performance curve presentations are illustrated in Figure 2-7 and describes the relationships between (1) capacity and total dynamic head, (2) capacity and efficiency, (3) capacity and brake horsepower, and in some cases, (4) capacity and net positive suction head (NPSH). Individual curve parameters are discussed below.
Pump A
Performance Curves 1. Total dynamic head- capacity (H-Q) curves show the total head developed by the pump at a given capacity. Figure 2-6 shows that a pump will operate over conditions ranging from shutoff (no flow) to maximum flow. Maximum total head usually occurs at shutoff. As capacity increases, total head developed decreases. Maximum flow will occur with minimum head. The characteristic curves for a multi-stage turbine type submersible pump depend upon the number of stages or impellers. Each impeller normally will have the same characteristic curve as the next, the composite curve is obtained by adding the head per stage at a given discharge (flow rate) to determine the effect of series installation. The H-Q performance curves for engineered submersible pumps are typically show the head developed by one stage. If a multistage pump is used, the total head developed at a particular capacity, (based on a single stage performance curve) can be calculated using the formula: H = n x Hs where; H = total head of pump, n = number of stages, Hs = head per stage.
2. Efficiency-capacity (PE - Q) curves describe the relationship between pump efficiency and capacity. Efficiency is maximized at the design capacity where hydraulic, mechanical, and leakage losses within a pump are minimum. These losses included leakage between impeller and intermediates; fluid friction losses in all flow passages such as diffuser vanes, impeller, intermediates and thrust bearing friction. If the pump operates at capacities greater or less than at the design capacity, pump efficiency will decrease. The efficiency may change as more stages are added. Efficiency corrections for multistage pumps are provided with the manufacturers performance curve. 3. Brake horsepower-capacity (BHp-Q) curves show the brake horsepower required by the pump at a given capacity within its performance range. They can be used to select and properly size a motor, as well as quantify the impeller loading characteristic as nonoverloading or overloading. In the nonoverloading case, BHp varies Section 2A Pump Fundamentals 2-5
Figure 2-6: Elementary H-Q of Performance - Multistage Turbine Type
slightly over the pumps operating range with the maximum BHp occurring at or near the point of maximum efficiency. A change in operating conditions will not overload the motor if the motor is sized for maximum efficiency 3 stage conditions. Overloading curves are characterized 2 stage by large changes in BHp over a pumps operating range such that a motor selected for one set of 1 stage operating conditions FLOW may become overloaded if changes in these conditions occur. Pumps with overloading performance curves are rarely used in submersible water supply applications. The type of BHp-Q curve depends primarily on the impeller design; (1) Radial flow impellers usually have overloading curves where BHp increases as capacity increases (2) Axial-flow impellers also have overloading curves; however, BHp increases as capacity decreases and maximum BHp occurs at shut off (3) Mixed-low impellers generally have non-overloading curves. The total BHp requirement for a multistage pump, (based on a single stage performance curve) can be calculated using the formula: BHp = n x BHp/stg. where; BHp = required BHp for multistage pump, n = number of stages, BHp/stg. = Hp required by one stages.
HEAD
Section 2
4. Net Positive Suction Head - Capacity (NPSH-Q) curves show the required NPSH (NPSHR) for a particular pump design to operate without cavitation. Pump NPSH requirements increases as capacity increases. Pump NPSH requirements are determined by the manufacturer. The topic of NPSH is discussed in detail in Section 2B. In addition to the minimum parameters described above, submergence minimums and hydraulic thrust data are often presented on the performance curve for engineered products. Many manufacturers feature a single stage curve with head and capacity (H-Q) shown for full-sized impeller and for one or more trimmed (reduced diameter) impellers. Other manufacturers present a cluster of curves where capacity and head are shown for each stage up to the maximum permissible number of stages. The closed impeller design (upper and lower shroud) is most commonly used in submersible applications. Semi-open and axial flow impellers can not be effectively used in submersible applications as axial (lateral) clearance adjustments for optimum performance are difficult to maintain.
2-6
Figure 2-7: Typical 8" Submersible - 3600 rpm Multi-Stage Performance Curve
1400
1300
385S1000-13 (100 HP)
OPERATING RANGE: 260 TO 550 GPM CAPACITIES BELOW 300 GPM SEE MODEL 300S EFF. (%)
3450 3525 RPM
1200
385S1000-12 (100 HP)
80
385S1000-11 (100 HP) 1100
70
385S750-10 (75 HP) 1000
60
385S750-9 (75 HP) 900
EFFICIENCY (%)
Section 2
50
385S750-8 (75 HP) 800 HEAD (FEET)
385S600-7 (60 HP) * 700
600
385S500-6 (60 HP) *
385S400-5 (40 HP) * 500
385S400-4 (40 HP) * 400
385S250-3 (25 HP) 300
385S200-2 (20 HP) 200
385S100-1 (10 HP) * 100
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 CAPACITY (GPM)
2-7
Figure 2-8: Typical 8" Submersible - 3600 rpm Single-Stage Performance Curve
385 GPM, Single Stage Curves, 60 Hz

100 EFFICIENCY (%) 90 80 70 HEAD (FEET) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 HP 8 6 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 CAPACITY (GPM) 5 80 70 60 50 40 30
25
HEAD (FEET)
20 30 25 10 20 15 10
Section 2
CAPACITY (GPM)
Note: When a pump is connected to a system, the system pressure will dictate the natural operating point for the pump. Performance - Speed Relationships. Many manufactures who build both submersible and turbine pumps will provide H-Q performance based on the speed of the surface motor driver. Submersible motors have slightly lower full load speeds compared to comparable surface motors as a result of their compact design. Typical 2-pole speeds for surface and submersible motors range from 3570 - 3500 rpm and 3540 - 3450 rpm respectively. The resulting H-Q differences can be neglected in most applications. Should a more precise H-Q representation be required, the performance curve can be derated using the affinity laws. Note: Speed difference also exists between submersible motor designs and sizes. Always verify the pump performance curve basis of calculation with the actual full load speed of the motor to be used. Shape of Pump Curve. There are three types of H-Q curves steep, flat and drooping. Steep curves are characterized by a large change in total head between shut off and capacity at maximum efficiency, while a small change occurs for flat curves. Drooping curves are characterized by an increase in total head to some maximum value as capacity increases, then a decrease as capacity Figure 2-9: Pump Characteristic Curve Shapes continues to increase; maximum head does not occur at shutoff.
Steep drooping Steep rising
HEAD
Flat rising
DISCHARGE
Steep and flat curves are called stable curves because only one capacity exists for a particular head. Drooping curves are called unstable curves, as two operating capacities for given head are possible on either side of the maximum head point. The instability created by the existence of two
2-8
NPSH (FEET)
15
possible discharge rates at the same head can cause a system to hunt back and forth between capacities. Performance curves also may have irregularities or flat regions which can cause unstable performance if the pump operates within the unstable region. Radial-flow (low specific speed) impellers generally have flat H-Q characteristic curves, while axial-flow (high specific speed) impellers have steep curves. Mixed-flow impellers have intermediate characteristics. In most water supply applications pumps with moderately steep characteristics are preferable. Hydraulic Characteristic and Curve Standards. The head (in feet of liquid) developed by a centrifugal pump is independent of the specific gravity, water at normal temperatures (60 - 70F) with a specific gravity of 1.00 is the liquid almost universally used in establishing centrifugal pump performance characteristics. If the head for a specific application is determined in feet, then the desired head and capacity can be read without correction as long as the viscosity of the liquid is similar to that of water. The horsepower (BHp) curve, which is also based on a specific gravity of 1.0, can be used for fluids other than water (if viscosity is similar to water) by multiplying the horsepower for water by the specific gravity of the liquid being handled. The hydraulic characteristics of centrifugal pumps usually permit considerable latitude in the range of operating conditions. Ideally, the design point and operation point should be maintained close to the best efficiency point (BEP); however, substantial variations in flow either to the right (increasing) or to the left (decreasing) of the BEP are usually permissible, operating back on the curve at reduced flow, or at excessive run out may result in radial thrust, or cavitation causing damage. For pumps in the centrifugal range of specific speeds (radial flow impellers) the relationships between capacity, head and horsepower with changes in impeller diameter and speed can be predicted using the affinity laws. The affinity law topic is discussed in detail in Section 2C.
Section 2
Submersible Pumping System Overview

Application. The submersible pump is especially suited to deepwell and booster service for industrial, commercial, agricultural and municipal water systems. The pump utilizes a submersible induction motor coupled directly to the pump end (bowl assembly) and is designed to operate completely submerged in the fluid being pumped. Power is supplied to the motor through waterproof electrical cable. In deepwell applications the pump, motor and cable are suspended in the well by the column (riser) pipe. Booster applications involve installing the unit vertically in a barrel (can) or sump, or horizontally in a pipe line or tank. Since the entire unit is either enclosed or below the surface of the ground, there are several applications where the submersible pump has many advantages when compared to line shaft vertical turbines. These advantages and application are: Deep settings and high head Crooked wells Quiet and vandal resistant Low initial equipment and installation costs Vertical or horizontal application Unaffected by weather extremes No routine maintenance required Minimum space requirement Small diameter - high flows High temperature (100F +) and abrasive environments are generally not conducive to submersible applications. In such cases, the line shaft vertical turbines are usually more suitable. Typical Operation. Submersible pumps may be operated and controlled in the same manner as any other types of turbine pumps in similar applications. No special consideration peculiar to the submersible is generally necessary, with the exception of the motor starting equipment. The motor, being installed in the pumped fluid, may not be subjected to the same ambient temperature as the overload relays in the starter. Submersible Pumping System Component Overview. Submersible pumping system equipment requirements can be broken down into two component categories, sub-surface and surface. A typical submersible pumping system is shown in Figure 2-10.
2-9
The major
sub-surface components are: Submersible Motor Power Cable Column (Riser/Drop) Pipe
Pump End (Bowl Assembly) Check Valve
The major surface components are: Starter Panel (Controller) Surface Discharge Piping
Surface Discharge Transformers
A brief description of the major functional components, as well as general selection and application criteria guide lines are presented as follows: Submersible Motor. The electric motors most commonly used in submersible pump water supply applications are two pole (3600 rpm), 3 - phase, squirrel cage, induction type - operated at 60 Hz. Motor construction is typically of the hermetically sealed - canned type, in which the winding is insolated from the motor liquid (de-ionized water). Motor liquid is required to dissipate heat and for thrust bearing lubrication. The motor is attached to the pump end assembly via a coupling and bolted interconnector, which creates integrated submersible unit. The motor thrust bearing carries the entire thrust load of the pump. See Section 4A for a detailed discussion of submersible motors. Submersible motors rely on fluid movement over the external housing to remove heat. The primary factors which contribute to early motor failure are; insufficient or lack of cooling flow, prolong low voltage operation and high ambient fluid temperature. Mitigation of adverse motor operating conditions are discussed in Section 4B under the general heading of motor cooling. Pump End. The pump end (bowl assembly) consists of single or multiple stages to meet exact system requirements. A wide range of pump end sizes are available to meet system capacity requirements. Grundfos standard construction utilizes all stainless steel construction and industrial grade rubber (NBR) seals and bearings. Stainless steel standard construction allows for a greater range of application when compared to cast iron - bronze fit (CIBF) standard construction. See Section 5 for a detailed presentation of Grundfos submersible pumping products. Submersible pumps are relatively trouble free under most operating condition. When problems do arise, they can usually be attributed to inadequate suction/intake condition or the presence of sand (abrasives) in the water. Mitigation of adverse pumping conditions are discussed in greater through out this section. Power Cable. Power cable is used to transmit power from the starter (controller) to the motor and is selected according to load, voltage and length required. One extra foot for each fifty feet of length should be allowed, plus an additional ten to fifty feet for surface connections. Electrical losses in the cable contribute to reduced overall plant efficiency, and for this reason it may be advantageous to oversize cable on some installation (year round operation - deep setting). Cable is typically supported on column pipe by means of cable clamps and stainless steel bands, nylon ties or tape. Check Valves. Column check valves are recommended for pump settings in excess of 450 feet. For pump settings in excess of 750 feet two check valves are recommended. The bottom check valve should be located 40 to 60 feet above the pump, if the pump is not equipped with a built-in check valve. In no case should the distance between check valves and the surface discharge plate be equal. Unequal distances are essential to prevent harmonic valve hammer. It is recommended that column check valve(s) be utilized on any installation where there is danger of pump start during back spin or danger of well damage as a result of surging created by rapid column drainage. In cases where it is desirable to drain the column pipe - a slow leak check valve should be used in conjunction with a backspin timer. Care must be used when installing a check valve on the surface or within the well above the static water level. A implosive vacuum can form if water recedes rapidly down the column pipe or destructive water hammer can occur as the void created by the vacuum is filled. A vacuum/air relief valve should be considered for installation in the discharge header or a snifter (air inlet) valve located in the upper most column joint as a fail safe should a down hole check valve fail. The air relief/inlet valve should be placed on the downstream side of a surface check valve or on the upstream side of a column pipe check valve to prevent vacuum formation. 2-10 Section 2A Pump Fundamentals
Section 2
Brass plug drain valves are available for small diameter column pipe. Drain valves are sometimes use to prevent the pulling of a wet/heavy piping string. Drain valves are typically installed one joint above the check valve. Column Pipe. Discharge pipe is usually provided in random length (16-22) with thread and coupled (T&C) end connections. Ten or twenty foot lengths are typically specified. Tapered pipe thread (NPT) are normally used to facilitate installations and resist motor torque. Starting torque will tend to loosen right hand threads if not adequately made up. When using straight thread pipe, all joints must be locked. Pipe should be sized to maintain a minimum velocity of 5 feet per second. The column pipe length should be sufficient to keep complete submersible unit (pump and motor) submerged at all times. Starter/Controller. Fixed speed-submersible motor starting equipment is sized and designed to deal with quick heat build-up commonly associated with the compact submersible motor designs. Conventional starters and pumping plant panels with 3 leg protection may be used. Properly sized quick trip ambient compensated overload protection is necessary for proper protection and is normally required to satisfy the motor manufactures warranty requirements. Overload relays should be of the current sensing type rather than thermally activated. In addition to overload protection; voltage parameter (high/low/balance) should be monitored. Each phase should be equipped with its own lightning arrestor. Installations subject to rapid cycling should be equipped with a time delay relay. Surface Discharge. The surface discharge is referred to in several different ways, common references are; discharge head, discharge elbow, well seal, surface plate, etc. The function of the surface discharge is to carry the suspended weight of the complete pumping unit and associated sub-surface components when full of water, and normally incorporates an elbow or fitting for connection to surface discharge piping. Some form of surface discharges is required for well or booster application, with the exception of pitless adapter installation. The surface discharge should accommodate specific system needs such as a; junction box, lifting eyes, air vent/inspection port, cable seal, discharge connection, etc. The surface discharge assembly must physically comply and be installed in accordance with applicable State or Federal sanitary requirements. Typical submersible pump discharge configurations are shown in Figure 2-10. Surface Discharge Piping. Surface discharge piping should be designed and configured to provide for the functional needs of the system. Piping typically is of the same diameter as the column pipe. Valving should be configured to provide isolation between the pump and the system to facilitate service. Other surface discharge appurtenances such as a; check valve, flow meter, air/vacuum larger. Layout should allow for a system bypass for pumping to waste and a reasonable test section for relief valve, flex coupling, control valve, etc. - should be provided based on specific application requirements. Transformers. The most common function of power distribution transformers serving a pumping plant, is to reduce voltage from distribution to utilization levels (ie. 4160 to 460V). In most water supply applications, transformers are provided by the servicing utility, along with power metering equipment. Transformers are rated on the basis of KVA and must be size to handle the total connected load which is often greater than the pump alone. A full three phase transformed bank is recommended for three phase motor application. The open delta configuration should be avoided when possible.
Section 2
2-11
Figure 2-10: Submersible Pumping System Component Overview
Utility Supply
Flex Coupling Discharge Elbow Cable Seal/J-Box Surface Plate (Well Seal)
Check Valve System Isolation Valve
System Bypass Valve Snifter Valve (Air Inlet - As Req)
Motor Controller
Power Cable
Cable Splice
Section 2
Cable Clamp Check Valve Pump End
Strainer
Motor
Well
2-12
Submersible Pumping System - Sizing and Installation Dimensional Relationships

Figure 2-11 illustrates the typical dimensional reference data required to size a deep well submersible pump. The various hydraulic, water level and installation dimensional parameters are defined as follows:
Figure 2-11: Schematic of Key Submersible Pump System Dimensional Sizing Parameters
Static Pressure System Hf Discharge piping AGH Q TH or H Ground Level at Well - Datum SWL PWL CL DD SD TSD
Section 2
Hs
Hv Note: TDH = H + Hv Pump and motor assembly
SWL = Static water level is the distance in feet/meters measured from the surface datum (ground level as illustrated) to the natural water level when the pump is not operating. The standing water level after pumping has been stopped for five minutes (ie. well has recovered for 5 minutes) is often used as the SWL for pumping calculations. DD = Drawdown is the stabilized distance in feet/meters to which the water level drops below the static water level while the pump is operating. Drawdown varies with well yield and pump capacity - (DD = PWL - SWL). PWL = Pumping water level is the distance in feet/meters measured from the surface datum (ground level as illustrated) to the stabilized level of the water with the pump operating at a predetermined capacity - (PWL = SWL + DD). CL = Column / riser pipe vertical length in feet/meters typically measured from the well seal/discharge elbow mating flange (ground level as illustrated) to the discharge connection of the pump. SD = Pump setting depth is the vertical distance in feet/meters, typically measured from the well seal/ discharge elbow mating flange (ground level as illustrated) to the pump inlet. TSD = Total vertical setting depth is the vertical distance in feet/meters, typically measured form the well seal/discharge elbow mating flange (ground level as illustrated) to the most distant vertical point of the pump string. The most distant point is generally the bottom of the motor housing. Hs = Submergence is the distance in feet/meters from the pumping water level to the pump inlet. Section 2A Pump Fundamentals 2-13
AGH = Static discharge head (pressure) or above ground head is the vertical elevation in feet/meters from the surface datum reference (ground level as illustrated) to provide the service pressure required to meet the point of use needs. Pressure may be converted to feet by multiplying by 2.31. Hf = Friction head loss is the hydraulic energy loss in feet/meter of liquid needed to overcome the resistance to flow in pipe and fittings. Hf always includes sub-surface friction losses and can include surface discharge losses depending on the application. H or TH = Total discharge head is the sum of the total hydraulic head requirements for the pump in feet/meter and consists of the above ground static discharge head (AGH), pumping water level (PWL) and friction head (Hf)- (H = TH = AGH + PWL + Hf). Hv = Velocity head expressed by the formula V2/2g can be defined as the equivalent head, measured in feet or meters, of a stream of liquid with velocity V, if the kinetic energy involved were completely converted to head. Hv losses are a factor in calculating the total dynamic head (TDH), their value is relatively small and in most cases can be neglected when velocity is less than 10 fps (ie. Hv = .10 @ 10 fps). Hv losses are normally ignored in calculation of total dynamic head (TDH) in most applications; however, they are often included in compiling manufacture test data. TDH = Total dynamic head (not shown in schematic) is the differential head developed across the pump which equals the algebraic sum of above ground discharge head (AGH), pumping water level (PWL), friction head (Hf), and velocity head at the discharge pipe (Hv) - (PWL = AGH + PWL + Hf + Hv). When sizing pumps for water supply applications TDH = H = TH. Additional Application Factors. The most crucial application parameters to be established for the proper selection and sizing of pumping equipment are capacity (Q), total head (H) and Power-Horsepower (Hp) requirements. Additional factors to be considered when selecting a submersible pump and motor are: 1. Maximum number of stages: Pump manufacturers limit the total number of stages in a pump assembly. When using a single stage curve, check the manufacturers data to ensure that the maximum number of stages is not exceeded in seeking a certain head and capacity. 2. Downthrust: The thrust bearing of a submersible motor is designed to carry the weight of the rotating elements of the pump and motor assembly, as well as the hydraulic thrust created by the pump while it is operating. Each manufacture has a specific method for determination of hydraulic thrust loads. The maximum hydraulic thrust plus the pump rotating element weight should not exceed the thrust capacity of the motor. See Section 4A for expansion of this application issue. 3. Upthrust: Upthrust may occur when pumps are operated at flow rates greater than those suggested by the manufacturer. If the pump is to be operated under these conditions, consult the pump or motor manufacturer for recommendations. See Section 2C for expansion of this application issue. 4. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): NPSH combines the factors affecting the suction pressure at the inlet of the pump. They include pump intake losses, static suction lift (normally not encountered in submersible applications), vapor pressure, friction losses, and atmospheric conditions. See Section 2B for expansion of this application issue. 5. Submergence: Submergence is the distance between the liquid level and intake setting. In order to insure proper hydraulic performance, the pump manufactures minimum submergence requirements should be followed. Submergence is necessary to maintain prime, prevent vortexing and may be required to provide the pumps NPSH requirement. See Section 2D for expansion of this application issue.
Section 2
2-14
2B HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
This section is not an attempt to present a course in Hydraulics, but rather a review of the terms, formulae, and applications commonly encountered in the water supply industry involving submersible pumps. The science of hydraulics is the study of the behavior of liquids at rest and in motion. We are interested in the information and data necessary to aid in the solution of problems involving the flow of liquids commonly pumped by electrically driven centrifugal pumps. The fluid of primary interest is cool water in the temperature range of 50 -85F, other selective fluids, which can be handled with centrifical pumps, are mentioned for completeness. In most water supply pumping applications, variations in water viscosity and density associated with temperature variations can be neglected, as a result of the narrow fluid temperature operating range commonly encountered. In order to move (pump) water against gravity or to force it into a pressure vessel, and/or to simply overcome pipe friction and associated losses, work must be expended. The various hydraulic and special pumping application relative to this objective are discussed throughout this section.
Section 2
Density, Specific Gravity and Specific Weight

Density. The density of a liquid is its weight per unit volume. Fresh water has a density of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (lbs./cu. ft.) or 8.34 pounds per gallon (lbs./gal.). A liquid has many different numerical terms to describe its density but only one specific gravity (sg). In solving any pumping problem, it is advisable to convert density to sg. Specific Gravity. Specific gravity (sg) is a relative measure of fluids density as compared with water at a standard temperature (most often 60F). The sg of water at 60F is 1.0. If the density of the fluid is greater than water, its specific gravity will be greater than 1. A sg of 1.2 means its density is 20% greater than water. The sg of liquid does not affect the performance of a pump except for the horsepower which is required. Specific gravity is sometimes expressed in terms relative to a specific industry. Two of the most common alternative methods for expressing sg are degrees API (sg usually < 1.0) and Baume degrees (sg usually > 1.0). Both scales can be related to the sg of water by the following formulas: sg = 141.5/131.5 + API degree sg = 145/145 - degree Baume
Refer to Table 2-18 for a listing of sg for water over a temperature range of 32 -300F. Specific Weight. The specific weight of a fluid can be determined by multiplying the fluid density by the sg of the fluid relative to the density of water (8.34 lbs./gal.). Gasoline with a sg = .72, weights approximately 6.0 lbs./gal. (.72 x 8.34 lbs./gal.)
Pressure and Head

Pressure. Pressure is a force per unit area and is commonly expressed in terms of pounds per square inch (psi). The pressure existing at any point in a liquid at rest is caused by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the surface, plus the weight of liquid above the point in question and/or any externally applied pressurization. The pressure is equal in all directions and acts perpendicularly to any surface in contact with the liquid. Head. Head is a term used to describe pressure in terms of height of liquid above given datum point. The relationship between pressure and head is a function of the fluids specific gravity (sg). The concept is best illustrated by example as shown in Figure 2-12. In the vernacular of the pump industry, when the term pressure is used it generally refers to units in psi; whereas, head refers to feet of the liquid being pumped.
Section 2B Hydraulic Fundamentals
2-15
Figure 2-12: Pressure - Head - Specific Gravity Relationships
Pressure-head relationship of identical pumps handling liquids of differing specific gravities
H = 115.5 ft.
H = 115.5 ft.
60 psi
50 psi
35 psi
Section 2
sp gr = 1.2
sp gr = 1.0
sp gr = .70
Pressure-head relationship of pumps delivering same pressure handling liquids of differing specific gravity.
H = 165 ft. H = 115.5 ft. H = 96 ft.
50 psi
50 psi
50 psi
sp gr = 1.2
sp gr = 1.0
sp gr = .70
Head and pressure are related mathematically by the formula:
Head (ft.) = psi (2.31)
A column of water (sg = 1.00) one foot high (1.0 ft. of head) will produce a pressure of 0.433 psi at the base of the column. A pressure of 1.0 psi at the base of a column will result in a water column 2.31 ft. in height. The head (expressed in feet) at the base of a given column of liquid will always be the same, regardless of what liquid is used. The pressure (expressed in psi) at the bottom of the column will vary with the specific gravity of the liquid. Pressure and head are simply a different way of expressing the same value in the most advantages form for the hydraulic application. Gauge and Absolute Pressure. psig and psia are the abbreviations for pounds per square inch - gauge and pounds per square inch - absolute. Zero psig is the pressure above atmospheric pressure, which is 14.7 psia at sea level. Zero psia is the absolute pressure above a perfect vacuum. A pressure gauge calibrated to read in psia would show a reading 14.7 psi greater than a gauge calibrated in psig. A through understanding of this difference is essential for calculating involving NPSH, suction lift, siphons, etc. When the term psi is used alone, it refers to psig.
2-16
Velocity Head. The above discussion refer to static head, velocity head is the energy in the fluid as a result of fluid momentum and can be calculated using the formula: Velocity Head (ft.) = (sg) (fluid velocity in ft./sec.) /64.4 The velocity head is normally neglected in the total head calculation for applications involving submersible pumps. It is only a small part of the total head and is typically disregarded except in extremely low head applications.
Fluid Flow
Water is practically incompressible with a compressibility of approximately .33% volume reduction for every 1000 psi. Because of the relative incompressibility of water, there is a definite relationship between the quantity of liquid flowing in a conduct and the velocity of flow. The relationship is known as the continuity equation and is expressed as follows: Q = AV or V = Q/A = 0.410 (gpm)/(ID) Where;
Section 2
Q = Capacity in cubic feet per second (cfs) A = Area of conduit in square feet (sq. ft.) V = Velocity of flow in feet per second (fps) ID = Internal diameter of circular conduit/pipe (in.) Volume. The standard volume unit for water supply application in the U.S. in the gallon (gal.) and to a lesser degree the cubic foot (cu. ft.). The rate of flow is expressed in gallons per minute (gpm) and in cubic feet per second (cfs) where large volumes of water is being moved. Volume flow rates in gpm can be converted to a mass flow rate in pounds per hour (lbs./hr.) utilizing the formula: gpm = (lbs./hr.) /* 500 (sg) Note: 1. Specific gravity (sg) corrections for temperatures are not normally required at normal groundwater temperatures. Refer to Table 2-18 should precise sg values be required. 2. * One gallon of water weighs 8.43 lbs./gal. @ 60F; therefore, 60 x 8.34 = 500
Vapor Pressure
The best way to understand vapor pressure is to consider a container which is completely closed and half filled with liquid. If the container is completely evacuated of air, a portion of the liquid will vaporize and fill the upper half of the container with vapor. The pressure of the vapor in the upper half of the container, is by definition, the vapor pressure of the liquid at that liquid temperature. The concept of vapor pressure is illustrated in Figure 2-13. Vapor pressure is measured in pounds per square inch absolute (psia) and is generally a function of the temperature of the liquid. It can be thought of as the pressure at which the liquid molecules begin to separate, forming a vapor. At 60F, the vapor pressure of water is approximately 0.3 psia. At the boiling point of water, (212F), the vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, 14.7 psia. A listing of vapor pressure vs. temperature for water over a temperature range of 32 -300F is provided in Table 2-18.
2-17
Figure 2-13: Vapor Pressure Illustrated
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure of Water vs. Temperature

14.7 VAPOR PRESSURE
Water
Vapor
Pressure
Vapor
Liquid
0.3 0 32 60 TEMPERATURE F 212
Section 2
NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head)

NPSHR. For a pump to operate satisfactorily, the pumped liquid must be supplied to the eye of the first stage impeller at a suction pressure (NPSH) sufficient to prevent vaporization as the liquid enters the impeller. Each impeller design has its own unique requirement for NPSH. This varies with the capacity being pumped and the speed of the pump. Curves or data is normally furnished by pump manufacturers showing the Required NPSH (NPSHR) for the pump at various speeds. If adequate NPSH is not available to a pump, the result is a loss of head and efficiency, pitting and erosion of the leading edge of the impeller, noise, and eventual failure. NPSHA. When the pump NPSHR is established, the next step is to determine the amount NPSH which will be available to the pump. This is known as available NPSH (NPSHA). The formula for determining NPSHA is given below: NPSHA = Ha - Hvp - Hf +/- Hs Where;
Ha = Absolute pressure on the liquid surface of the water (in feet of liquid). Hvp = Vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature (in feet of liquid). Hf = Friction losses in the piping from the supply tank to the pump (in feet of liquid) Hs = Distance of liquid level above or below the impeller eye. (If level is above eye, Hs will be positive. If level is below the eye, Hs will be negative) Refer to Figure 2-15 for typical NPSHA submersible application scenarios. Figure 2-14 illustrates several common suction conditions commonly encountered in the water supply industry. Ha will be equal to 33.9 feet for water at sea level (33.9 feet of water is equal to the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia). Remember to allow for the specific gravity of the liquid in calculating Ha if necessary. A liquid with a specific gravity of 2.0 and .9 have an Ha of 17 feet and 68 feet respectively at sea level. It is estimated that 75% of all pump problems are due to improper intake / suction conditions. Issues which commonly contribute to suction problems are; cavitation, insufficient submergence, vortexing and entrained gas. Cavitation is a direct result of insufficient NPSH. Increasing submergence can improve problems related to insufficient NPSH, as well as reduce the potential for vortexing. Problems associated with entrained gas can, in some cases, be improved with increased submergence.
2-18
Figure 2-14: NPSHA and Suction Conditions (Non-Submersible Pump)
A. Flooded Suction NPSH = Ha + Hs - Hvp - Hf
B. Suction Lift NPSHA = Ha -Hs - Hvp - Hf
Discharge head Total head
Static head
Section 2
Total head
Suction head
Suction lift
Example 2-1: Available NPSH (NPSH) calculation
Given: (1) Elevation (ASL) = 1,000 (2) Water Temp. = 80F (3) Capacity (Flow) = 500 gpm (4) Suction Head = 20 (5) Steel Suction pipe length/diameter = 20 / 6 Analysis: Based on flooded intake condition as illustrated in Figure 2-14 (diagram A) above. 1. Ha = 32.8 (from Table 2-15 @ 1000) 2. Hvp = 1.17 (from Table 2-18 @ 80F) 3. Hf = .61 (from Table 7-10 and Table 7-14) Hf = (1.66/100) 20 + (1.66/100) 17 = .33 (pipe loss) + .28 (elbow loss) = .61 4. Hs = 20 5. NPSHA = 32.8 - 1.17 - .61 + 20 = 51 Note: (1) If the NPSH requirements (NPSHR) of the pump is less than the calculated NPSHA value of 51, the pump will operate satisfactory. (2) If the suction head in the above example, were changed to a suction lift as illustrated in Figure 2-14 (diagram B) above, NPSHA = 11 (Ha - Hvp - Hf - Hs)
2-19
Figure 2-15: Typical Submersible Pump NPSHA Senarios
A. Submerged Intake NPSHA = Ha (ft.) - Hvp (ft.) + Hs (ft.)
Atmospheric Pressure (Ha) Water Level (WL - Pumping) Hs (Submergence) Impeller Center Line (Datum)
Section 2
B. Flooded Intake NPSHA = Ha (ft.) - Hvp (ft.) - Hf (ft.) + Hs (ft.)
Atmospheric Pressure (Ha) WL Hs Hf (Friction Loss) Datum
C. Pressurized Intake NPSHA = Ha (ft.) - Hvp (ft.) - Hf (ft.) + Hs (ft.)
Internal Pressure (Pa) Ha = Pa/2.31 for fresh water WL Hs Datum
Hf (Friction Loss)
2-20
Power, Efficiency and Energy

Power. Power is defined as a time-rate of doing work. Horsepower (Hp) is the most common unit used to express power requirements for pumping equipment in the United States. One Hp is equal to the work performed over time when a weight of 33,000 lbs. is lifted on foot in one minute (ie. 1 Hp = 33,000 ft.-lbs./min. or 550 ft.-lbs./sec.). WHp. Horsepower in pumping applications is a function of the fluid density, flow (Q or m) and total head (TH or H) or differential pressure to be developed. Taking water as the basis for calculation at 70F and atmospheric pressure (sg = 1.0 and density = 8.34 lbs./gal.), the following formulas can be used to express hydraulic/theoretical Hp (usually called water Hp (WHp) in water supply applications): WHp = m x H 33,000 WHp = Q x H x sg 3960 where; m = mass flow (lbs./min.) Q = flow (gpm) H = TH = total head (ft.)
or,
Note: (1) sg = 1.0 for most water supply applications and is normally not included (2) 3960 gal.-ft./min. = (33,000 lbs.- ft./min.) / (8.34 lbs/gal.) = 1.0 Hp (3) WHp = (gpm x psi) / 1714 BHp. The actual or brake horsepower (BHp) of a pump will be greater than the WHp by the amount of losses incurred within the pump through friction, leakage and recirculation. Such losses are accounted for by the pump efficiency (PE). The BHp (shaft Hp - power delivered to the pump) can be expressed as: BHp = WHp/PE or BHp = Q x H x sg 3960 x PE where; PE = Pump efficiency
Section 2
Note: (1) PE = WHp / BHP, (2) BHp = gpm x psi / (1714 x PE) EHp. Electrical Hp input (EHp) to the motor is used for calculating the overall efficiency (OE) of a pumping unit and motor under test conditions. Power and friction losses associated with cable, piping and fittings can be neglected as settings are generally less than 10. EHp = WHp OE EHp = BHp Em EHp = or, Q x H x sg 3960 x PE x Em where; Em = motor efficiency
or,
Note: 1 Hp = 0.746 kW IHp. Input horsepower (IHp) and EHp are approximately the same in booster applications, but can very significantly as setting depth increases. IHp is used to determine overall plant efficiency (OPE) and takes into account all installation losses (pump, motor, friction, cable, etc.). IHp can be expressed as follows. IHp = WHp OPE BHp = Q x (H + Hf) + Hp (cable) 3960 x PE x Em where; Hf = friction loss (ft.) Hp (cable) = cable loss (Hp)
or,
Note: If a variable frequency drive (VFD) is used between the pump and motor, the VFD efficiency should be included in the numerator. Typical VFD efficiencies range from 90-98%. Efficiency. The efficiency concepts developed previously in the discussion of Horsepower are summarized as follows: PE = WHp/BHp Pump efficiency (PE). PE is the ratio of energy delivered by the pump to the energy supplied to the pump shaft.
2-21
OE = WHp/EHp
Overall efficiency (OE). OE is the ratio of the energy delivered by the pump to the energy supplied to the motor input terminals, and generally takes into account only motor and pump efficiency (ie. OE = PE x ME). Overall plant efficiency (OPE). OPE is the ratio of the energy delivered by the pump to the energy supplied to the entire pumping plant, and takes into account all installation losses.
OPE = WHp/IHp
The subject of efficiency is discussed in greater detail in Section 2D under the general heading of testing. Energy. Energy is normally expressed in terms of kilowatt - hours (kWh) per unit volume. Typical units of measure and the associate calculations are presented as follows. kWh/1000 gal. = H x 0.00315 OPE kWh/acre-ft. = Q x H x 1.032 OPE
or
Section 2
The subject of energy usage and the associated cost of pumping are discussed more completely in Section 2D, under the general heading of power consumption and cost.
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid (liquid or gas) is that property which offers resistance to flow due to the existence of internal friction within the fluid. Pumping viscous liquids can present difficult problems for centrifugal pumps. Fortunately, the viscosity changes relative to water in the temperature range commonly encountered in water supply applications (50 - 85F) can be neglected. Water is classified as Newtonial fluid, which exhibits decreasing viscosity with temperature. Viscosity changes over the temperature range of interest has no direct impact on pump performance; however, pipe friction losses decrease from a maximum value at 32F by approximately 40% over the temperature range of 32 - 212F. Piping friction loss tables for water are typically based on a reference temperature of 60F and require no correction for viscosity for most water supply applications. Refer to Table 2-1 below, for a listing of viscosity values for water at various temperatures at sea level.
Table 2-1: Viscosity of Water from 32 to 212F @ Sea Level
Temp. F 32 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 212 C 0 4.4 10.0 15.6 21.1 26.7 32.2 37.8 48.9 60.0 71.5 83.0 100
Absolute Viscosity Centipoises 1.79 1.54 1.31 1.12 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.35 0.28
Kimematic Viscosity Centistokes SSU ft./sec. 1.79 1.54 1.31 1.12 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.69 0.57 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.29 33.00 32.3 31.6 31.2 30.9 30.6 30.4 30.2 30.0 29.7 29.6 29.5 29.3 0.00001931 0.00001664 0.00001410 0.00001217 0.00001059 0.00000930 0.00000826 0.00000739 0.00000609 0.00000514 0.00000442 0.00000385 0.00000319
Specific Gravity .9999 1.000 .9997 .9990 .9980 .9960 .9950 .9931 .9888 .9833 .9773 .9702 .9592
2-22
A fluid can be broadly classified as Newtonian, where viscosity remains constant regardless of changes in shear rate or agitation. As pump speed increases, flow increases proportionately. Liquids displaying Newtonian behavior include water, mineral oils, syrup, hydrocarbons and resins. Viscosity is described in terms of absolute (dynamic) or kinematic values. Absolute viscosity is technically described as the shear stress (force) divided by the shear rate (velocity gradient - max fluid velocity divided by the distance from pipe wall). Kinematic viscosity is a product of the absolute viscosity divided by density of the fluid and is the most common viscosity reference in the pump industry. One of the most common units of measure of kinematic viscosity is Saybolt seconds. This refers to the length of time it takes for a measured quantity of fluid at a specific temperature to drain from a container with a measured orifice in the bottom. Water has a viscosity of approximately 31 Saybolts seconds universal (SSU) at 60F. Kinematic viscosity is also commonly expressed in metric units as stokes or centistokes. Pumping Viscous Liquids with Centrifugal Pumps. Centrifugal pumps are generally not suitable for pumping highly viscous liquids. They can be used to pump liquids with viscosities less than 2000 SSU. The volume and pressure capabilities of the pump will be reduced with increasing viscosity. Table 2-2 lists the percent increase in power required along with the percent reduction in flow and head when pumping liquids of increasing viscosities.
Table 2-2: Viscosity Affect on Pump Performance
Section 2
Viscosity (SSU) > > > > Flow reduction (gpm) % Head reduction (feet) % Horsepower increase %
30
100 3 2 10
250 8 5 20
500 14 11 30
750 19 14 50
1000 23 18 65
1500 30 23 85
2000 40 30 100
Note: Fluid should be corrected for specific gravity prior to applying viscosity corrections
2-23
2C HYDRAULIC RELATIONSHIPS
Affinity Laws - Pump Speed
In a standard centrifugal pump the characteristic curve for the pump can be changed by either (1) keeping the speed constant and varying the impeller diameter or by (2) keeping the impeller diameter constant and varying the speed. The relationship between these variables are known as the affinity laws and can be expressed mathematically as shown in Table 2-3 below:
Table 2-3: Affinity Laws - Speed / Diameter Relationships
(1)
Imp. Dia. Constant / Speed Variable Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2 H1 /H2 = (N1) 2 /(N2) 2 BHp1 / BHp2 = (N1) 3 / (N2) 3
(2)
Speed Constant / Imp. Dia. Constant Q1 / Q2 = D1 / D2 H1 / H2 = (D1) 2 / (D2) 2 BHp 1 / BHp2 = (D1) 3 / (D2) 3
Section 2
Q1, H1, BHp1, D1 and N1 = Initial Capacity (gpm), Head (ft.), Brake Horsepower (Hp), Diameter (in.) and Speed (rpm). Q2, H2, BHp2, D2 and N2 = New Capacity (gpm), Head (ft.), Brake Horsepower (Hp), Diameter (in.) and Speed (rpm). In submersible pump applications, where the pump can only be driven by an electric motor, and impeller trimming (diameter changes) are commercially impractical, speed changes are most commonly accomplished through the use of a variable frequency drive (VFD). Frequency (Hz) can be interchanged with the speed (N) in the application of the affinity laws, as they are directly proportional. This relationship makes it possible to calculate pump performance with reasonable accuracy, at any speed, if the performance at the initial speed/ frequency is known. The use of frequency in predicting pump performance is illustrated in Table 2-4 below:
Table 2-4: Affinity Laws - Frequency Performance Relationship
(3)
Imp. Dia. Constant / Frequency Variable Q2 = (Hz2 / Hz1) Q 1 Hz2 = (Hz2 / Hz1) 2 H21 BHp2 = (Hz2 / Hz1) 3 BHp1
Q1, H1 and BHp1 = Initial Capacity (gpm), Head (ft.) and Brake Horsepower (Hp) Q2, H2 and BHp2 = New Capacity (gpm), Head (ft.) and Brake Horsepower (Hp)
The affinity laws are theoretical and do not always give the same results as an actual test, as they do not take into consideration various dynamic factors such as intake losses and motor slip. They do serve as an excellent guide for calculating unknown performance characteristics form known values when test data is not available. These laws (frequency variable) are summarized as follows: 1. The capacity varies directly with the speed. (Q Hz) 2. The head varies with the square of the speed. (H Hz2) 3. The horse power varies with the cube of the speed. (BHp Hz3) 4.. Efficiency remains approximately the same between the original and corresponding H-Q performance point at the new speed. Efficiency is assumed to remain the same for calculation purposes (variations in efficiency is likely to occur outside the published speed rating based on actual test). The affinity law relationships are primarily applicable to centrifugal pumps with specific speeds (Ns) of 3500 or less. Pumps utilizing impellers with Ns greater than 3500 (mixed / axial flow designs), can not be as accurately estimated using the affinity laws.
2-24
Section 2C Hydraulic Relationships
Table 2-5: Converting 60 Hz to 50 Hz Performance
50-Cycle Head = 69.44 % x 60-Cycle Head 50-Cycle Capacity = 83.33 % x 60-Cycle Capacity
50-Cycle Horsepower = 57.80 % x 60-Cycle Horsepower 50-Cycle Efficiency = Same as 60-Cycle Efficiency
Specific Speed
Impeller Specific Speed (Ns). In 1915, a European by the name of R. Cameron introduced a characteristic to describe the hydraulic design type of turbines and pumps. This characteristic is referred to as Specific Speed and is defined as the speed at which a given impeller would operate if reduced proportionally in size, so as to deliver a flow of one gallon per minute at one foot of head. Specific speed (Ns) can be calculated as follows: Ns = N Q / (H) .75 where; N = speed (rpm) @ full load (single stage) Q = flow (gpm) @ BEP (best efficiency point) H = head (ft.) @ BEP (single stage)
The Ns of a given pump is the same at all rotative speeds. A low specific speed indicates a pump designed for a low capacity and a high pumping head. Conversely, a high Ns pump is one designed for a high capacity and a low pumping head. Ns serves to inter-relate pump hydraulic performance characteristics (flow, head, speed, etc.) and impeller physical dimensions in such a manner to make equipment design and application more systematic. It can also be used as a general criterion for predicting pump suitability under unusual operating scenarios, such as entrained gas and minimum NPSH conditions. Figure 2-16 and 2-17 can be used to relate Ns to impeller type and performance expectations.
Figure 2-16: General Specific Speed Relationships
Section 2
Impeller Configuration
Ns Type Head (ft.) Dia. Ratio (D2/D1) Efficiency (%)
500 - 3000 Radial 100 - 150 2+ 82-47
1500 - 4500 Francis 20 - 150 1.5 87 - 52
4500 - 8000 Mixed Flow 35 - 65 1.3 - 1.1 87 - 74
8000 > Propeller 1 - 40 1.0 90 - 77
Suction Specific Speed (S). Suction specific speed, like impeller specific speed, is a parameter for indexing hydraulic design used to describe the suction capabilities and characteristics of a pump impeller. Suction specific speed (S) can be expressed mathematically as follows: S = N Q / (NPSHR)
.75
where; N = speed (rpm) @ full load (single stage) Q = flow (gpm) @ BEP NPSHR = Net Positive Suction Head Required (ft.) @ BEP
S is a number used for labeling impellers relative to their NPSH requirement. It is independent of the pump size and impeller (operating) specific speed (Ns). S is primarily a impeller design parameter and is not a important factor in the application of low capacity (< 3000 gpm) submersible pumps, and is discussed for completeness. Suction specific speeds (S) can range from 3000 - 20,000, depending on the impeller design, speed, capacity and condition of service. Good quality commercial pump designs fall into the S range of 7,000 - 10,000.
2-25
Figure 2-17: Pump Efficiency vs. Specific Speed and Pump Size
100
Over 10,000 gal./min.

90
10,000
EFFICIENCY PERCENT 80
1000 500 200 100
3000
70
60
Section 2
Axial Flow
50
Mixed Flow Radial/Francis Centrifugal

40 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 10,000 15,000 PUMP SPECIFIC SPEED (Ns)
Radial
Francis
Mixed Flow
Axial
Speed Torque Relationships

The typical speed - torque curve for most centrifical pumps is illustrated in Figure 2-18. The relationship is valid for all centrifugal pumps in the low to medium specific speed range (Ns = 3500 or less). A plot of pump speed - torque requirements vs the driving motor speed - torque capabilities is often of interest to insure; (1) Fixed speed applications - The motor has sufficient torque to set the load in motion at start-up. (2) Variable speed / frequency applications - Adequate torque is available to drive the pump at various loads and operating frequencies, when voltage is clamped. The electric submersible motor (pump driver) must be capable of supplying more torque at each successive speed, from zero to full load, than required by the pump to reach full speed. This condition is seldom a problem with the typical submersible induction motor. Improperly applied reduced voltage starting equipment and/or improperly sized cable can create start-up torque problem, as a result of low motor terminal voltage. Voltage is related to starting torque as follows: (T V2). Using a nominal 2-pole motor speed of 3500 rpm (1760 rpm for 4-pole motors) and the calculated BHp. Pump torque can then be calculated, plugging into the formula below. T = (5250) (BHp)/rpm where; T = Torque (ft. - lbs.) BHp = Brake Horsepower (Hp) rpm = Speed (rev. per min.)
It is normally acceptable to estimate a pumps full load torque requirement using the manufactures published H-Q data, where full load speed and BHp at peak efficiency is usually listed. Full load (speed) torque are typically calculated at the best efficiency point (BEP). Torque varies with the square of the speed; therefore, when full load torque is known - torque at other speeds can be calculated using Figure 2-18 or the following relationships.
2-26
1.33 .75 .50 .25
speed speed speed speed
multiply multiply multiply multiply
full full full full
speed speed speed speed
torque torque torque torque
by by by by
1.778 0.563 0.250 0.063
At zero speed the torque is theoretically zero; but the motor must overcome rotating element inertia, bearing friction and a static head load in order to start the pump shaft turning. This requires a torque at zero speed ranging from 2 1/2 percent to 15 percent of the full load torque value. The BHp requirements for most centrifugal pumps used for submersible water supply applications at shut-off (0 gpm) is approximately 60% of the full load value. High specific speed, axial flow pumps have different speed torque characteristics as a result of high horsepower requirements at shut-off. Reciprocating pumps generally require between 125% and 25% of full load running torque to start, depending on the load on the pump at start-up. Starting a pump during backspin should be avoided whenever possible, if backspin can not be prevented, the manufacture should be consulted. Torque & Column/Riser Pipe. Steel pipe should have taper thread (NPT) for torque resistance and ease of installation. Thread make-up torque should be sufficient to prevent unscrewing as a result of motor torque. If straight thread pipe is used, each joint should be secured to resist motor torque. Small submersible units installed using plastic pipe or hose, can sometimes be equipped with a motor torque arrestor to prevent unscrewing or excessive flexing.
Figure 2-18: Typical Pump Speed Torque Curve
Section 2
100
90
80
70
% TORQUE
60
50
40
30
20
Break-Away Torque
10
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % SPEED
TORQUE (FT-LBS) = (5250)(BHP) RPM
2-27
System Head Curve

When a system end point and / or overall system operating pressure range has been established, and flow requirements change appreciable based on demand, the system head vs capacity can be modeled through the development of a system head curve. The head losses within a system will change based on the flow forced into it by pumping. The system head (Hspf) is typically made up of three components and is usually estimated from the pump discharge forward. The three components of Hspf are; (1) Static Head, (2) Pressure Head and (3) Friction Head, as illustrated in Figure 2-19 below.
Figure 2-19: System Head Curve Illustration Pressure Head (Hp)
**
Section 2
HEAD (FT.) OR PSI
Static Head (Hs)
Hf
*
Frictious Head (Hf)
Hp
System Head (Hspf)
* Measurement pt. for Total Head ** System End pt.
Hs
FLOW (GPM)
The use of a system head curve is crucial for proper submersible pump selection in various process and booster applications. The concept is particularly important, where system capacity requirements are highly variable (Q max > 1.30 Q avg and / or Q min < .70 Q avg.). In such cases, multiple pumps are often used in parallel or are controlled through a variable frequency drive (VFD). Pump selection is based on matching the system head curve (plus pumping lift), with the pump(s) H - Q performance. In deep well - fixed speed pumping applications, the system curve is less important as a direct design tool. In such cases, system head requirements are normally specified as a single point at a capacity that can be sustained continuously by the well. The system head design point can be the same as the above ground head (AGH) component of the pump total head (TH) used in the pump selection process. The AGH value is typically slightly greater then the optimum system pressure to over come discharge header losses (check valve, flow meter, etc.), and is generally centered around a cut-in / cut-out system pressure. In developing the system curve, static (Hs) and pressure (Hp) head stay relatively constant, within the allowable systems operating range. Hs and Hp do not change with flow and are independent of friction head (Hf). Hf through a piping system varies approximately with the square of the flow, making it only necessary to perform detailed Hf loss analysis / calculation once, at one flow rate. Friction loss approximations at other flow rates can be made by applying the square law relationship. The typically guide line steps employed in developing a system curve are: 1. Determine minimum, average and maximum (peak) system capacity requirements 2. Establish optimum Hs and Hp head system requirements. Permissible variations in Hs and Hp head (system pressure operating range) should be considered to establish a allowable operating envelope. 3. Determine friction losses at zero, minimum, average, maximum and intermediate flow points as necessary. 4. Tabulate data and plot system curve 2-28 Section 2C Hydraulic Relationships
The system curve development process is illustrated by example as follows:

Example 2-2: System - Head Development Illustration
Given. (1) capacity - system minimum, average and maximum flow was established at 500 (Q min), 750 (Q avg) and 1500 (Q max) gpm respectively. (2) pressure - optimum system static (Hs) and pressure (Hp) are estimated at 20 and 115 (50 psi) respectively. Hs is fixed at 20, while allowable variance in Hp is + 10 psi (23) / - 20 psi (46). (3) friction loss - friction head (Hf) was calculated at 11.25 @ 750 gpm. Analysis. (1) Tabulate performance data using given information and previously developed guide line procedures:
Table 2-6: System - Head Curve Development Table for Example 2-2
Q 0
Hf 0 0 0 5 5 5 11 11 11 20 20 20 45 45 45 61 61 61
Hs 20 20 20 20 20 20
Hs (min) 20 20 20 20 20 20
Hs (max) 20 20 20 20 20 20
Hp 115 115 115 115 115 115
Hp (min) 69 69 69 69 69 69
Hp (max) 138 138 138 138 138 138
Hspf 135 140 146 155 180 196
Hspf (min) 89 94 100 109 134 150
Hspf (max) 158 163 169 178 203 219
Section 2
500
750
1000
1500
1750
Notes: a. Hf @ 500 gpm = 11.5 (500 / 750) = 5 / Hf @ 1000 gpm = 11.5 (1000 / 750) = 20 b. Hspf (min) = Hspf - 46 / Hspf (max) = Hspf + 23 c. Hspf = Hs + Hp + Hf
2-29
(2) Plot System Curve using data tabulated.

Figure 2-20: System - Head Curve Plot for Example 2-2
200
180
System - Head (upper limit)
160 Hspf (TOTAL HEAD - FT.)
Section 2
140
System - Head (optimum)
120
System - Head (lower limit)
100
80 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 Q (CAPACITY - GPM)
Deep set well pumps in well applications, where pumping water levels (PWL) are highly variable as a result of low well yields or parallel operation, the head required to pump water to the surface can be greater and more variable than the surface system head requirements. The variable lift characteristics, combined with changes in system head can create a significant application problem where single or parallel (fixed speed) well pumps are used. Such application lend themselves to the use of variable speed (frequency) control for efficiency optimization and flexibility.
2-30
Parallel and Series Operation

Parallel Operation. When the pumped flow requirements are widely variable, it is often desirable to install several small pumps in parallel rather than use a single large one. When the demand drops, one or more smaller pumps may be shut down, thus allowing the remainder to operate at or near peak efficiency. If a single pump is used at a lower demand, the discharge must be throttled to match the system curve - wasting energy if not controlled by a VFD. Multiple small pumps provide system flexibility and redundancy. The failure of one unit, may cause an inconvenience, but does not shut - down the system. System maintenance and repair is made easier and does not create operational problems if performed during slack periods. The action of centrifugal pumps operating in parallel can be predicted by the addition of their characteristic curves. This relationship is true whether the curves are identical or not, and is illustrated in Figure 2-21.
Figure 2-21: Parallel Pumping General Characteristics
Diagram A - Two Identical Pumps
Diagram B - Two Dissimilar Pumps
Section 2
Two pumps Pump no. 1 Pump no. 2

E
One pump
H C D
Two pump
E
C D
Water systems with more than one pumping plant actually operate in parallel; however, they are typically located at such a distance from one another so that they can be considered individually. The focus of this discussion is on a multiple pump booster situation, feeding a specific quantifiable usage. In planning such installations, the system head curve should be developed and drawn as a part of the pump selection and application process. Pumps utilized in parallel service should have a steep continuously rising Head - Capacity (H-Q) characteristics. The design process using fixed speed pumps on cascade controls are illustrated below.
Example 2-3: Fixed Speed - Parallel Pumping System Illustration (3 Pumps)
Given. The system curve developed in Example 2-2. Three identical pumps are available for booster system incorporation; with individual H-Q ratings of 500 gpm @ 140 at the best efficiency point (BEP). Analysis. (1) Super - impose pump performance on system curve by adding horizontally the individual pump capacities at the same head.
2-31
Figure 2-22: Fixed Speed - // Pump System - Head Curve Illustration for Example 2-3
200
Pump BEP Pump "run out flow"

180
Upper Operating Limit
160 HSPF (TOTAL HEAD - FT.)
Optimum Operating Limit
140
Section 2
H-Q, 1 pump
120
H-Q, 2 pumps in parallel H-Q, 3 pumps in parallel
100
Lower Operating Limit
80 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 Q (CAPACITY - GPM)
Note: Pump lifts associated with submersible or vertical turbine boosters, are considered to be negligible in the above example. The three pump system curve fit will work within the allowable operating limit as illustrated in Example 2-3. Better fits are possible using different pump sizes and combinations; however they often reduce flexibility from a interchangeability stand point. A three pump combination of different H-Q ratings (ie. (A) 500 gpm @ 140, (B) 1000 gpm @ 150, (C) 250 gpm @ 150) may provide a better fit with less variation in pressure. The use of a VFD will serve to provide greater system flexibility and pressure maintenance closer to the optimum requirements. Parallel Pumping Efficiency and Flow Relationships. Eff. = (QA + QB + Qc) H 3960 (BHp @ QA + QB + Qc) QT = QA + QB + QC
where;
Q = Capacity in gpm, H = Total Head (System Head + Pump Lift + Losses) in ft. Parallel Well Pump Applications. The guide lines established for parallel booster systems also apply generally to parallel well pumps. The wells must be located within close proximity to one another or the pumps must be installed in the same well. The variation in water level with flow must be carefully considered, in addition to the system head requirements, in the selection of pumping equipment. Parallel well pump operations are generally confined to shallow large diameter wells with high specific capacities.
2-32
Series Operation. Multiple pumps in series may be used when liquid must be delivered at high pressure. Series operation is most commonly required when: 1) The system head and lift requirements can not be met at the required capacity with a single unit (ie. submersible pumping equipment larger than well diameter). 2) A system with adequate capacity, has expanded beyond the original pressure design constraints, requiring a boost in pressure to deliver water to the most distant points in the system at acceptable pressure levels under peak flow conditions. The focus of this discussion is on pumps that are in such close proximity to each other so that there combined performance can be determined by adding vertically the heads at the same capacities. Siting the individual pump HQ performance used in example 2-3 of 500 gpm @ 140, the combined performance of two of these units in series is 500 gpm @ 240. Series Pumping Efficiency and Head Relationships.
Section 2
Eff. =
Q (HA + HB) 3960 (BHp @ HA + HB)
HT = HA + HB
where;
Q = Capacity in gpm, H = Total Head (System Head + Pump Lift + Losses) in ft. Series operation is not the same as booster service from a application standpoint. Pumping equipment operated in compound series must be closely stop / start coordinated to prevent water hammer, and should have there BEP as close to the same capacity as possible for efficient operation. In -line booster service is distinguished from compound series operation in that there is usually some distance between pumping units and in-take (suction) pressures at each pump in sequence is generally substantially less than the discharge pressure of the preceding pump or system. In-line systems are typically used if two or more pressure zones are to be supplied from the same source. Applications requiring pressure boosting can be handled efficiently by either method, with consideration of application constraints (ie. pressure limits, space, power availability, etc.).
2-33
Minimum Flow - Temperature Rise

Minimum Flow Limitation. All centrifugal pumps have limitations on the minimum flow at which they should be operated. Minimum flow problems typically develop as a result of excessive throttling and / or improper sizing. In general, the head-capacity (H-Q) curve of a submersible pump has an inflection point between the best efficiency point (BEP) and shut-off. Continuous operation of the pump between shut-off and the inflection point will result in erosion of the impeller because of recalculation flow. The minimum flow range is typically identified in some manner on the manufactures published H-Q performance curves. The geometry of an impeller is designed for the flow capacity at BEP. When the flow rate is decreased below the design capacity, there is excess flow area between the impeller vanes and flow separation occurs. When the flow rate is reduced beyond the inflection point toward shut-off, eddy type flow patterns occur near the leading end of the impeller vanes and also near the exit end of the impeller vanes. This eddy type flow pattern of recirculation flow can cause severe erosion in the impeller. The severity of the recirculation problem varies with several factors; (1) The higher the specific speed, the greater the recirculation, (2) The higher the design head for a given impeller diameter, the greater the recirculation and (3) The larger the impeller eye for a given design flow, the stronger the recirculation. Pump damage as a result of continuous minimum flow operation may be noticeable within one to six months. The minimum capacity for operating a pump continuously without noticeable erosion in the impeller is called the minimum continuous flow of the pump. In the presence of liquids containing abrasive particles such as sand, pump life can be reduced to weeks. The recirculation process allows for repeated abrasive attack on the impeller by the same particles, that would otherwise be discharged after one pass. In addition to erosion, other problems associated with operation below the minimum flow limit include; increased axial thrust, noise, vibration and temperature. The minimum flow inflection point for a particular pump is derived from tests. Recirculation consideration are generally used to establish the minimum flow range for a given impeller design, although other issues such as downthrust may dictate the actual minimum flow duty point. As a rule of thumb, a minimum flow limit of 25, 50 and 70% of the flow at BEP should be used for pumps with individual capacities of 100, 1000 and 3000 gpm or less respectively. The rule of thumb only applies in the absence of manufacture data. If prolong operation in the minimum flow region is anticipated, the manufacture should be contacted for specific recommendations. The minimum flow point varies with square of the head and is directly proportional to flow. Many domestic service and special application pumps have no formal minimum flow limitations except for temperature build-up considerations. Shut-off Operation (Closed Discharge Valve). Shut-off operation of centrifugal pumps is often necessary to prevent water hammer at start-up and / or shut down in fixed speed applications. Short duration operation at shut-off (minutes) is normally permissible for pumps with low to medium specific speed impellers (Ns = 3500 or less). Prolong operation at shut-off head will result in rapid failure of pumping equipment. The failure mode is the same as those sited for minimum flow, but accelerated. The lack of flow for heat dissipation will quickly destroy high capacity multi-stage pumps. Minimum Flow Mitigation. Pumps are frequently selected for capacities sufficient to handle maximum or emergency requirements. In some cases, pump selection is based on future predicted flows or extremely conservative friction head losses. When such criteria is used in the selection process and the pump(s) are run at a fraction of the design rating, problems associated with minimum flow as a result of throttling are likely to occur. Methods frequently employed to avoid throttling in single pump installations, where flow demands are highly variable, include by-pass installation or variable speed (frequency) control. Energy efficiency and operational flexibility can be maximized through the use of multiple pumps and variable frequency control. Temperature Rise. Fluid temperature rise with a centrifugal pump can be calculated. Other than a small amount of power lost in pump bearings and seals, the difference between the brake horsepower (BHp) and hydraulic 2-34 Section 2C Hydraulic Relationships
Section 2
horsepower (WHp) developed represents the power losses within the pump itself. These losses are transferred to the liquid passing through the pump in the form of heat, causing a temperature rise (TRp) in the liquid. The TRp can be calculated using one of the formulas listed below: TRp = BHp (1.00 - Ep) 42.4 Q (8.34) sg U or TRp = (BHp - WHp) 5.1 Q or TRp = H (1.0 - Ep) 780 Ep * where; TRp = Pump temperature rise in degrees F H = Total head in ft. Ep = Pump (bowl) efficiency @ duty pt. (expressed as a decimal) Q = Flow @ duty pt. in gpm U = Specific heat of liquid in BTU/lb./F (1.0 for water) sg = Specific gravity (1.0 for water) * sg = 1.0 & U = 1.0 note; 1.0 Hp = 42.4 BTU/min. specific wt water = 8.34 lbs./gal
Discharge water temperatures are higher with submersible pumps, as the heat dissipated by the motor is transferred to the fluid which must pass through the pump for proper operation. The temperature rise (TRm) associated with a submersible motor acting alone can be approximated as follows: TRm = (BHp / Em - BHp) 5.1 Q * where; TRm = Motor temperature rise in degrees F Em = Motor efficiency (expressed as a decimal) * sg = 1.0 & U = 1.0
Section 2
The overall pumped fluid temperature rise (TR) associated with a submersible application can be estimated as follows: TR = TRp + TRm = 5.1 (BHp / Em - WHp) Q * note; TR (max) should be limited to 35F * sg = 1.0 & U = 1.0
The heat transfer mode is primarily convection, actual TR will be some what less as a result of radiant heat transfer. The TR issue is generally not a significant application consideration in water supply applications, except in a few selective circumstances. The heat transferred to the fluid is generally negligible when the submersible pump is operated within its design range, accounting for less than a one degree TR between the ambient and discharge fluid temperature. The minimum continuous flow rating of a centrifugal pump may depend to some extent on the allowable TR permitted. Pumps fitted with rubber (NBR) sealing and bearing components are rated for a continuous duty temperature of 104F (40C). Fluid TR is a factor to be considered in warm water applications and when prolonged operation below minimum flow is anticipated. The thermal rating of pump material must be greater than the ambient fluid temperature plus TR.
2-35
Axial Thrust - Maximum Flow

General. Standard vertical turbine type pumps, including submersibles are subjected to axial force which act in a direction parallel to the pump shaft. This force is the combination of the hydraulic thrust developed by the impellers and the dead weight of the rotating elements of the pump. The rotating element is generally only a small part of the axial load of a submersible pump. Accurate determination of axial thrust is crucial in the selection of a motor, establishing internal impeller clearances and operating limits, and diagnosing pump troubles. The hydraulic thrust developed by a impeller consist of downward or upward components (See Figure 2-23). The downward force is due to the unbalance pressure forces across the eye area of the impeller. Counteracting this load is an upward force (suction side) primarily due to the change in direction of the liquid passing through the impeller. The resultant of these two forces constitutes hydraulic thrust. In the vast majority of applications this thrust is in downward direction. Axial thrust characteristics for a specific pump is generally provided by the manufacture in the form of a curve or application factor (see Figure 2-24). Thrust data is normally based on a fluid specific gravity = 1.0.
Figure 2-23: Thrust Force Illustration Figure 2-24: Typical Thrust Curve
TYPICAL THRUST CURVE THRUST IN LBS / FOOT OF HEAD
Section 2
Downthrust
Head/Capacity Curve
TOTAL HEAD
Peak Efficiency Efficiency

+6 +4 +2 0 -2
Thrust Curve
0 50% 100% 130%
Upthrust
CAPACITY
The downthurst in vertical turbine pumps will always be greater than that for a submersible configuration for the same pump end (bowl assembly), as a result of line shaft weight. In both cases, hydraulic thrust increases as flow is throttled and varies approximately with the square of the speed at a given flow rate. Downthrust. As previously mentioned, most vertical pumping equipment operates in downthrust, which is the preferred operational state. The impeller design is the chief factor in determining the pumps thrust characteristics. High specific speed (Ns) impellers will have higher downthrust characteristics than will lower Ns (radial) impellers. Under some circumstances, it is desirable to increase downthrust so that problems associated with up - thrust can be avoided when operating to the extreme right of a pumps BEP flow. Downthrust loading can be increased through the use of high Ns or open impeller designs. The open / semi - open impeller design varies from standard (enclosed) designs in that there is no lower shroud or impeller skirt. Open impeller designs can increase thrust by as much as 50% over enclosed designs at the same rating. Open impeller are rarely used in submersible pump water supply applications, as running clearances are difficult to adjust for maximum efficiency. Pump downthrust requirements over the anticipated operating range should be checked against a motors capacity to handle the thrust load in high head applications. Excessive Down Thrust Mitigation. In some applications, hydraulic thrust loads are greater than the thrust handling capabilities of the motor. In such cases, mitigation measures often employed to reduce down - thrust are: 1. Hydraulically Balanced Impeller. Hydraulic balance is achieved by reducing the discharge pressure above the impeller eye through the use of balancing holes and rings. Although hydraulic balancing reduces thrust, it also decreases pump efficiency by one to five percentage points due to additional fluid recirculation. Thrust balanced impellers are normally not required for submersible pump - water supply applications. Thrust balanced impellers are most often used in high speed, high pressure and large pump applications. 2-36 Section 2C Hydraulic Relationships
2. Floating Impeller. The floating impeller design is typically employed in the submersible pump industry at the extreme ends of the application spectrum, ranging from low capacity domestic pumps to extremely high head downhole pumps used in the oil industry. Floating impellers are not rigidly connected to the pump shaft reducing the hydraulic thrust loads transferred to the motor thrust bearing. The pump intermediate chambers (stages) are designed to carry the thrust load imbalance. In addition to the reduced thrust associated with floating impellers, they are less expensive to assemble and manufacture. Floating impeller designs are often referred to as a pancake type as they typically have a flat upper and lower shroud. The radial pancake design lends itself to better hydraulic thrust balance and transfer of thrust loading to the intermediate chambers. Pump efficiencies and capacities generally range from 50-60% and 5-30 gpm respectively. Grundfos utilizes the floating impeller design in its domestic (spline shaft) submersible product offerings, primarily for manufacturing economy. Upthrust. Upthrust in connection with submersible pumps does not normally occur in the course of normal water well service, where an in-line check valve is used. The static fluid column (counter pressure) trapped by a check valve will immediately load the pump at start-up, preventing operation to the extreme right of the performance curve. The same can be said for a vertical turbine pump with a setting depth of 100 feet or more, as the line shafting provides counter force to upthrust. In fixed speed applications where there is little or no opposition to flow in the form of a static head load, a abnormally flow condition known as run-out will occur at start-up and will persist until system counter pressure is established. Under run-out conditions, the pump is likely to be in upthrust. The upthrust condition is generally momentary, lasting fractions of a second. The magnitude of the start-up upthrust is typically considered to be approximately 30% of the downthrust value at the pumps BEP. In the case of boosters with suction (intake) pressure, and/or in-line series operation, there can be an additional upward force across the impeller at start-up. Upthrust Mitigation. Momentary upthrust in submersible applications is mitigated through confinement of the impellers and/or pump shaft from excessive upward movement. A low friction upthrust stop ring built into the pump to confine movement is typically used. Continuous upthrust can not be handled with an upthrust stop ring alone, as they are not designed for continuous duty in standard products. Grundfos larger submersible pumps are equipped with upthrust discs for added protection. Typical method employed for reducing upthrust as a result or variable flow requirements and/or minimal counter pressure at start-up include; (1) Destaging for a better system match, (2) Discharge valve throttling, (3) Installation of a flow reduction valve or orifice, (4) Speed reduction through a variable frequency drive (VFD), (5) Use of higher Ns impellers and (6) the use of multiple lower capacity pumps. Unmitigated upthrust damage is typified by upper impeller shroud and stop-ring wear. Maximum Flow. Upthrust consideration are generally used to establish the maximum continuous flow range for a given impeller design, although other issues such as NPSHA may dictate the actual maximum flow duty point. As a rule of thumb, a maximum flow limit of 140 and 130% of the flow at BEP should be used for pumps with individual capacities of 1000 and 3000 gpm or less respectively. The rule of thumb only applies in the absence of manufacturer data. If prolong operation in the maximum flow region is anticipated, the manufacturer should be contacted for specific recommendations. The maximum flow point varies with the square of the head and is directly proportional to flow.
Section 2
2-37
2D PUMPING SYSTEM APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS

Cavitation, Vortexing and Submergence
Cavitation. When the NPSH requirement (NPSHR) of the pump is not met by the NPSH available (NPSHA), the pump is likely to cavitate. Cavitation is a phenomenon which occurs when the pressure of a moving stream of liquid is reduced to a value equal to or below its vapor pressure, boiling off the liquid. The vaporization of the fluid (water for the purposes of this discussion) normally, in the vicinity of the impeller eye, forms small pockets of free water vapor (bubbles) which collapse as the liquid moves to a higher pressure zone within the pump. The collapse of these vapor pockets is so rapid and violent that the Figure 2-25: H-Q Deterioration w/Cavitation forces generated are large enough to cause minute pockets of fatigue failure, pitting metal surfaces that are H adjacent to the collapsing vapor/bubbles.
Performance according to data sheet
Section 2
Performance at full capacity
The affects of cavitation vary from mild to extreme. Under mild conditions, the pump may last for many years with only a slight reduction in efficiency and no noticeable noise. Extreme cavitation will result in rapid destruction of impellers and/or diffusers in the vicinity of attack (vane tips, etc.) and is normally accompanied by autable (rattling) noise. In the extreme, the pump may lose its prime as a result of internal gas lock. Other factors associated with cavitation are reduced flow, erratic power consumption and surging. Cavitation is not confined to pumping equipment alone. It also occurs in piping systems where the liquid velocity is high and the pressure low. Cavitation should be suspected when noise is heard in pipe lines sudden enlargements of the pipe cross-section, sharp bends, throttled vales or like situations. Cavitation is at a rare occurrence for submersibles in a water well setting. In caned booster or vertical wet pit (sump) applications, cavitation can be a problem which is best addressed at the design stage.
Figure 2-26: Cavitation - Vapor Formation
Cavitation Considerations at the Design/Application Stage. Cavitation can be generally avoided by providing the NPSHR of the pump at the maximum flow requirement and water temperature anticipated. The following analysis should be performed during the pump selection process: 1. Determine the maximum flow requirement under all possible operating condition and select the pump which can handle the maximum flow requirement within the published performance curves. 2. Calculate NPSHA for the application and compare with the maximum NPSHR of the selected pump at maximum flow point established in item 1 above. NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR to prevent cavitation. Refer to Section 2B for various NPSHA calculation scenarios. 3. The submersible pump intake must always be submerged for proper operation. In some cases, the minimum submergence requirement is dictated by the NPSHR needs of the pump. The minimum submergence should be no less than 1.5 feet (or as specified by the manufacture) at the lowest possible pumping level at maximum flow. Should the NPSHR needs of the pump require positive submergence pressure to satisfy, addition submergence should be added to 1.5 feet minimum requirement.
2-38
Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations
Factors which may create/contribute to conditions favorable for cavitation, which are often overlooked (or are not reasonable to consider) at the design stage are; entrained (free) gas, sudden drops in discharge head (counter pressure) that significantly increase pump flow (ie. piping failure/discharge to waste), insufficient submergence (dewatering/ improper low level shut-off point), etc. Cavitation Prevention in Existing Installations. Once the pump is in service, cavitation problems as a result of insufficient NPSHR can be difficult to correct. Pump NPSH difficulties can be reduced through one or more of the following corrective measures. 1. 2. 3. 4. Evaluate system head condition, NPSH available and consider reducing pump capacity by throttling. Change pump impellers to obtain low NPSH design and/or utilize priming inducer. Replace pump end assembly with different model capable of operating within the system NPSHA Increase pump size and/or reduce speed for more favorable pump NPSHR characteristics, while still meeting application requirements.
Vortexing. Vortexing is a term frequently used to describe flow patterns which result in formation of vortices, causing loud rumbling noises. A vortex is a whirlpool caused by a combination of factors such as sump design, inlet velocity, direction of flow, submergence and position of intake. Air entering the pump through these vortices are responsible for noise and vibration, but not cavitation. Vortexing is rare in submersible pump application; however, when it does occur, it is generally a result of improper submergence. When it is not possible to increase submergence or decrease flow and vortexing is suspected, the problem can generally be corrected with a motor shroud which tend to break-up vortices. In sump application, it is always advisable to use a motor shroud for cooling. Sump application with no motor shroud are most susceptible to vortexing, as it is often difficult to achieve adequate submergence on account of the motor length. Other methods used to reduce vortexing include; good sump design practices, lowering sump inlet velocity, locating pump near pit walls and away from inlets, and installing intake accessories which tend to break-up vortices such as a splitter plate and/or intake strainer. Submergence. Submergence should not be confused with NPSH, as it is a term used to relate liquid level to the intake setting level. In the case of a conventional submersible pumps some submergence, in addition to the NPSHR, is necessary to maintain prime and prevent vortex formation on the liquid supply surface. Minimum Submergence. The minimum amount of submergence required will depend to some extent on the design configuration of the pumps intake and its ability to break-up/prevent vortices, impeller specific speed and orientation within the wet well. Minimum submergence requirements are commonly provided by the pump manufacture and should be used for design purposes when required. In the absence of this information, submergence requirements can be approximated using one of the following rules of thumb which fits the application. 1. Can/De-Watering applications. 1.5 (18) above the pumps intake plus 1 additional submergence for each 500 gpm of flow (ie. minimum submergence at 1000 gpm should be no less than 3.5). 2. Sump application. 1.5 (18) above the pumps intake plus 1 additional submergence for each 1 fps in approach channel/piping inlet velocity. 3. Submergence vs Intake Velocity. A graphical solution to minimum submergence can be obtained using Figure 227, and knowing the impeller eye diameter (cross sectional area) and maximum flow rate. Figure 2-27 can also be used to calculate submergence requirements over intake and suction piping. Regardless of the submergence requirement, the entire pump length should be submerged up to the discharge outlet at start-up. Otherwise, water lubricated pump bearing are subjected to potentially destructive dry-run until such time as the impellers are able to pick-up sufficient water to provide the required lubrication.
Section 2
2-39
The submergence values approximated using rules of thumb are in addition to any positive NPSH submergence needs of the pump at maximum design flow. Good design practices call for submergence values in the range of 40- 20 for high capacity water wells, with 40 or greater being preferred. The absolute minimum submergence value should be no less than 10 below the maximum well drawdown level, although some installations may require more submergence to satisfy NPSH requirements. Submergence for domestic water well applications (Q < 25 gpm) should be maintained at a minimum of 3 above the pump intake. Maximum Submergence. Excessive submergence is a factor which can potentially affect submersible motor operation. It is rarely a consideration with respect to the pump end of the submersible unit. Typical maximum submergence values range from 200 psi (450) to 500 psi (1100) for hermetically sealed motors, where it is not possible to equalize internal pressure with the surrounding external pressure. Motor submergence issues are discussed in Section 4B.
Figure 2-27: Submergence Requirements vs. Intake Velocity
Section 2
H-SUBMERGENCE IN FEET (MIN.)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 INTAKE VELOCITY (fps)
3D (Min.) H (Min.) 1.5D D D D2 (Min.) D H (Min.)
Velocity = Q (.321)/A or = Q (.4085)/D2 Where: A = Area (sq. in.) D = diameter (in.) Q = Flow (gpm)
H (Min.) D
NOTE: When submergence data is not provided for a particular pump, it can be estimated on impeller eye diameter (cross section area) and maximum design flow rates. The submergence is in addition to the positive NPSH needs of the pump.
Entrained Gas
Most liquids carry small amounts of air or other gases completely dissolved in the liquid. This small amount of entrained free gas has little effect on fluid flow or pumping requirements. In some cases; significant amounts of free gas are introduced intentionally, accidentally or naturally. Common modes of gas introduction in groundwater are. 1. Intentionally - as part of the disinfection process, such as ozination 2. Accidentally - as a result of vortices, air leaks, and cascading water. 3. Naturally - as a result of formation gas. Entrained gas is typically not a problem until it exceeds approximately 1-2% of the total pumped volume of the fluid. The primary effect of entrained gas is to change the specific gravity (sg) of the liquid. When water with a sg of 1.0 is mixed with 5% air by volume, the resulting water/air mixture will have a approximate sg = 0.95. The presence of entrained gas is usually noted by; (1) noise, (2) frequent and speratic pressure surges, and (3) deterioration of H - Q performance and efficiency. In extreme cases, entrained gas can prevent pumping as a result of gas locking. Entrained gas and cavitation are similar in effect, but are not directly related. In the entrained gas case, free gas bubbles are present in the fluid prior to entering the pump intake (suction). Water vapor formation associated with 2-40 Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations
cavitation are formed within the pump as a result of insufficient NPSH. Entrained gas can aggravate cavitation by contributing to a lighter fluid column reducing NPSHA. Vortices associated with the lack of adequate submergence can introduce significant amounts of entrained air. The entrained gas that flows through the pump is compressed, but rarely are the internal pressures within the pump high enough to collapse free bubbles of air of formation gas, creating cavitation. The two most common entrained gas problems encountered in water well applications involving submersible pumps are cascading water (falling water) and formation gas. The issue of vortices are discussed under the general heading of cavitation. Cascading water. Falling water occurs as a result of the pumping water level dropping below the top of the well screen. Cascading water is a difficult problem, in that blocking the offending section of screen, often significantly reduces well capacity. The amount of entrained air can be mitigated by installing the pump near the bottom of the well and utilizing a motor shroud. Effect of entrained air. The buildup of entrained air specifically affects the performance of centrifugal pumps as shown in Figure 2-28. Centrifugal force throws heavier liquid outward from the impeller eye. The lighter air remains behind and will gradually build into a bubble as big as the impeller inlet (eye) area, which chokes off the intake flow. This is called air locking and is functionally the same as gas locking as described above. Most centrifugal pumps can operate (at reduced performance) with a air content up to 6% by volume; however, a air lock condition can result at significantly lower level if the pump is operated near shut-off.
Figure 2-28: Air Entrainment and H-Q Performance
Section 2
100 TOTAL HEAD (FEET) 90 80 70 60 50
0% 2% 4% 6%
250 500 CAPACITY (GPM) 750 1000
Formation gas. The presence of formation gas is detrimental in that surging and/or gas locking contribute to cyclic loading and potential dry run failure. Always use underload and/or no flow protection when large amounts of entrained formation gas is anticipated. The amount of entrained formation gas can often be mitigated through the use of a inverted shroud which forces the pumped fluid to make a 180 degree change of direction prior to entering the pump intake, provided the pump is installed above the screen. The inverted shroud should be extended as high above the intake as possible to force the liberation of as much of the free gas as possible before entering the pump intake.
When sufficient room exists within the well screen, good results can be achieve by using a cooling shroud and placing the pump near the bottom of the well. The shroud forces the fluid to make a 180 degree change in direction and has the added benefit of increased submergence pressure; which may help keep a larger volume of the otherwise free gas in solution by maintaing a pressure greater than the bubble point pressure of the formation gas. The top portion of the shroud should be equipped with a small vent to allow for the escape of free gas that may accumulate in the top over time. The oil industry commonly utilizes specialized submersible pumps which can be equipped with centrifugal gas separators to improve H-Q performance and reduce the occurrence of gas locking. Summary of Entrained Gas Mitigation Measures. Pumps subjected to entrained gas as a result of; formation gas cascading water, and/or vortices can be mitigated through one or more of the following measures where applicable. 1. The use of a gas shrouds, which forces the fluid make a 180 degree change in direction. 2. Increase submergence to reduce potential vortexes and/or to increase submergence pressure on entrained gas in order to keep it in solution (ie. below the gas bubble point pressure).
2-41
3. The use of high specific speed impellers (greater axial flow less opportunity to trap gas) where possible 4. Reduce pump speed through the use of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD). In some applications, a VFD can be used to speed-up the pump to force accumulated gas through the pump when low motor current is sensed. 5. Install air release valve (s) at high and low points in the system, specifically at well head discharge elbow. 6. Drill gas relief holes through impellers and diffusers to eliminate gas locking.
Entrained Solids (Sandy Water)

The characteristics of liquids are influenced by the amount and type of solids entrained in the liquids. A simple example is silty river water. In this case, the solids in the water have a negligible effect on normal pumping characteristics. In many cases the nature and concentration of materials entrained in the fluid can significantly impact pump performance. The most common problem encountered for pumping equipment used in the water supply industry is sand. Sand is often introduced in to the system as a result of pumping ground water from a well that has not been completely developed, was improperly designed/constructed or has failed. Sand pumpage as a result of incompleted development will eventually subside as the well is pumped, assuming the well is pumped within its design limits. When sand pumping is a result of well failure or improper construction/design, the following corrective measures may be applicable. Reduce pumping rate (Q), so as to decrease well screen velocity to 0.5 ft./sec. (fps) per foot or less: Q (max) @ 0.5 fps = .022 (ID) x (% screen open area/100) x Ls where: ID = Screen inside diameter (in.) Ls = Screen length (ft.) Q = flow (gpm) Install down hole sand separator or sand shield. The use of a sand shield should extend below the screen. Both may require periodic pump pulling to facilitate sand removal. Install above ground sand separator, trap and/or filter to eliminate sand entry into distribution system. Install well liner or patch casing break where applicable. A well liner will significantly reduce well yield. Construct new properly designed well and abandon sand pumping well The National Ground Water Association (NGWA) has developed the following application guide lines based on sand content from well water. 1. 1 mg/l in water used for food and beverage processing 2. 5 mg/l in water for private residences, institutions and industries 3. 10 mg/l in water for sprinkler irrigation, industrial evaporative cooling and other applications where a moderate content of solids is not particularly harmful. 4. 15 mg/l in water for flood irrigation When the sand content exceeds 15 mg/l, for a prolong period of time, corrective measures should be taken to reduce the amount of sand being pumped. Premature well failure and reduced pump life will likely occur if nothing is done. A typical sand specification for a new water well is: sand content not to exceed 5 mg/l, 15 minutes after the start of pumping. A properly designed and constructed well should easily maintain the sand content level substantially below 1 mg/l. 2-42 Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations
Section 2
Grundfos stainless steel submersible pumps are designed to operate satisfactory at sand (entrained solids) content levels up to 50 mg/l. At the 50 mg/l level, the minimum design life is 25,000 duty hours. The excellent abrasion/wear resistance of the Grundfos submersible pump makes it an ideal product for water well service and selected special applications where abrasive particles up to 50 mg/l might be present.
Water Hammer
Water Hammer is an excess pressure or reaction due to changes in velocity of water (incompressible fluid) flowing through a pipe line. It occurs most frequently and with greatest intensity in pumping lines where the pulsation or sudden stoppage of the pump or the rapid closing of a valve in the pipe line causes a significant monentary increased pressure shock wave in the pipe. The kinetic energy (momentum) of the flowing water is converted into a dynamic pressure (shock) wave. A complete analysis of water hammer and the calculation of pressure surge magnitude is outside the scope of this discussion. The maximum magnitude of the pressure wave in steel and cast iron pipe can be estimated using Figure 2-29. The pressure surge increase is independent of system working pressure. The pressure increase will be exactly the same whether the normal operating pressure in the pipe line is 100 psi or 1000 psi. Low working pressure (low head) systems, such as gravity concrete irrigation systems are particularly susceptible to damage from water hammer. The piping materials used have relatively low collapse and burst pressure ratings, relative to water hammer shock pressures commonly experienced. Water hammer is often accompanied by a sound comparable to that heard when a pipe is struck by a hammer, hence the name. Intensity of sound is no indicator of the magnitude of the water hammer shock wave pressure, as water hammer is not always accompanied by autable sound. The pressure (shock) wave generated by sudden flow stoppage, travel at approximately the acoustic velocity of sound in water (4865 fps @ 68F). The accustic velocity of water is approximately four times that of sound in air (1160 fps @ 100F).
Figure 2-29: Maximum Shock Pressure caused by Water Hammer (based on instantaneous valve closure or pump stoppage - no mitigation)
5000 VELOCITY OF WATER FT./SEC. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Section 2
Ste
4500 A = VELOCITY OF PRESSURE WAVE FT./SEC.
el P
Ca
ipe
Iro n
st
Pi
4000
pe
3500
3000
2500
d = Inside Diam., Inches e Wall Thickness, Inches

2000 0 10 20 30 d , PIPE SIZE t 40 50 200
p = Shock Pressure, Lbs./Sq. In.

400 600 800 1000
PRESSURE, PSI
2-43
Solving Water Hammer (general). Water hammer is generally not a problem in water system application provided the following issues are addressed: 1. Velocities within pipelines can be maintained within generally accepted design ranges (3 fps - nominal for horizontal piping / 5 fps - nominal for vertical piping). 2. Pressure rating of piping should be no less than the maximum anticipated working pressure of the system. A factor of safety of 2 to 4 times the working pressure rating for pressurized systems is advisable. 3. Valve closure is not instantaneous. The larger the piping and greater the fluid velocity, the slower the valve closure should be. 4. Surge energy can be attenuated through a buffer such as a; surge/expansion tank (diaphragm tank) or stand pipe (elevated gravity storage tank). System storage in public water systems is normally adequate to absorb surge energy.
Section 2
5. Thrust blocking of piping is recommended and often required to maintain line integrity at all significant changes of direction, as a result of fluid momentum and water hammer. 6. Vacuum and pressure reliefs are placed at all high and low points of inflection within the piping system. Vacuum break devices should be placed at all piping locations where the momentum of the fluid is likely to continue, pulling a vacuum, when fluid is stopped abruptly. Pressure relief valves should be used in addition to surge energy devices, where the possibility of exceeding the established pressure failure limit (burst pressure, working pressure, pressure rating, etc.) of the system exists. Solving Water Hammer (pumps). The solutions for general water hammer also apply to pumps. In submersible pumping applications, where the vertical distance to the water is significant, it is recommended that one or more of the following measures be incorporated into the design to reduce the water hammer potential. 1. Install surge/ expansion (diaphragm) tank in the immediate vicinity of discharge elbow, downstream of any surface valving. In general, a 200 gallon (50 l) surge tank is recommended for each 225 gpm (50 m /hr.). The tank precharge pressure should be 70 % of the actual system operating pressure. A hydropneumatic tank can provide a similar degree of surge protection, provided no check valve exists between the tank and pumps. When the submersible pump is supplied without in-line check valve (s) or the check valve has been modified to drain slowly. A air release/vacuum break valve should be installed in lieu of a surge tank, in the same location. The air release/vacuum break valve will prevent significant amounts of air from being forced into the system and break the vacuum that would otherwise form within the column (riser) piping. Refer to Section 1E for air/vacuum release valve sizing. 2. Soft start and stop via exstended ramp times, through the use of a variable frequency drive (VFD) or soft starter. A surge absorption device may be required in conjunction with a soft start if the ramp times can not be adjusted to prevent detrimental water hammer. 3. Hydraulicly or motor operated surface discharge valving can be used to control water hammer within the system. Frequently, valve control at the well discharge head simply transfers the pressure surge to the pump assembly and / or the discharge header assembly. In such cases, the downhole and above ground components must be designed to withstand the surge stresses. Valve sequencing and control must be coordinated to insure effectiveness. Control of water hammer with valving is typically done in two ways; (1) the pump is throttled at start-up and slowly released into the system or (2) the pump is started discharging to waste and slowly closed in on the system.
2-44
Downhole Check Valves

Downhole submersible check valves are typically used to hold system pressure when the pump stops, or to prevent pumping equipment damage and/or prevent system operating problems as a result of; (1) well surging due to rapid column drain, (2) pump start during backspin, (3) upthrust and (4) water hammer. The three most common nocheck or faulty check valve problems are expanded on as follows: 1. Backspin - with no check valve or if the check valve fails, the water in the drop pipe and the water in the system can flow back down the column pipe when the motor stops. This can cause the pump to rotate in a reverse direction. If the motor is started while this is happening, a heavy strain may be placed across the pumpmotor shaft assembly. It can also cause excessive thrust bearing wear because the motor is not turning fast enough to ensure an adequate film of water in the thrust bearing. 2. Upthrust - with no check valve, or with a leaking check valve, the unit starts each time under zero head conditions. With most pumps, this causes an uplifting or upthrust on the impellers-shaft assembly in the pump. This upward movement carries across the pump-motor coupling and creates an upthrust condition in the motor. Repeated upthrust at each start can cause premature wear and failure of either or both the pump and the motor.
Section 2
3. Water Hammer - If the lowest check valve is more than 30 feet above the standing water level or the lower check valve leaks and the check valve above holds, a partial vacuum is created in the discharge/ column piping. On the next pump start, water moving at very high velocity fills the void and strikes the closed check valve and the stationary water in the pipe above it, causing a hydraulic shock. This shock can split pipes, break joints and damage the pump and/or motor. Swing type check valves should never be used with submersible pumps. When the pump stops, there is a sudden reversal of flow before the swing check closes, causing a sudden change in the velocity of the water. Spring loaded check valves should be used as they are designed to close quickly as the water flow stops and before it begins to move in the reverse direction. There is little or no velocity of flow when the spring loaded valve closes and no hydraulic shock or water hammer is produced by the closing of the valve. In general, column check valves are recommended for pump settings in excess of 450 feet. Some submersible motor manufactures recommend check valves for all applications, regardless of setting depth. Most small pumps and some larger units have check valves built into the top of the pump. In pumps which do not have a built-in check valve, a external check valve should be placed between 25 and 75 feet above the discharge, or are required to maintain positive submergence over the check valve under maximum drawdown conditions. Pump settings in excess of 750 feet, should incorporate two check valves. When two check valves are used, the distance between the first/lower check valve and the surface discharge plate should be unequal. Unequal distances are essential to prevent harmonic valve hammer. The upper check valve should be located approximately 3/5 of the distance between the first valve and surface plate. In cases where it is desirable to completely drain the column pipe, a check valve should not be used or it should be modified to slowly allow column drainage. When no check valve is used, at time delay relay (backspin timer) should be incorporated into the control scheme to prevent start-up on backspin, as well as a method for introducing air into the column pipe to prevent vacuum formation. When system pressure is present and must be maintained, a surface check valve is required. A vacuum/ air relief value should be placed on the downstream side of the surface check and on the upstream side of the pump or modified/ drainable downhole check valve. When only partial column pipe drainage is required, for such purposes as air charging hydrophneumatic tank, a surface check valve in conjunction with a air relief/drain valve located on the upper most column joint is adequate. Typical check valve friction loss values are provided in Table 7-14. Drain valves. Brass plug drain valves are available for small diameter column pipe. The brass plug is ruptured from the surface via heavy bar attached to a wireline. Drain valves are sometimes use to prevent the pulling of a wet/heavy pumping string. Drain valves are typically installed one joint above the check valve.
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Corrosion
General. Corrosion is broadly defined as the destructive attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environments. The five (5) principal types of corrosion associated with pumping equipment used for groundwater supply (natural water) applications are; galvanic, uniform, erosion, intergranular (crevice) and pitting. The rate of corrosion is influenced by many external factors. Several of the more critical factors are temperature, velocity, acidity (pH), dissolved gases, and entrained solids (abrasives). Fortunately, in applications involving the pumping of potable natural waters, corrosive conditions are rare. When they are encountered, corrosion can lead to a rapid reduction in service life, if not accounted for in the materials of construction. Refer to Table 2-8 for a specific listing of environmental factors which indicate or tend to aggravate corrosion. Erosion (Corrosion and Abrasion Working Together). A pumps performance can be destroyed by corrosion or abrasion acting alone; however, the greatest difficulties are those where both are present. The destructive attack of material by both corrosion and abrasion acting together is referred to as erosion. All metals gain their protection against corrosive agents through the formation of a thin skin of oxide film (passive corrosive condition). If this skin is wiped clean (active corrosive condition), the metal will recorrode forming a new skin. If abrasives (typically sand) are found in the corrosive fluid, it is possible for these to cause this wiping action. This will occur whenever the pumped fluid abrasive content is harder than the skin corrosion (or protective coating when used). Soft abrasives can be present in large quantities without causing excessive wear. The greater the hard abrasive content, the greater the rate of corrosion. This condition is further aggravated by the velocity within the pump. By slowing the pump speed or oversizing the pump for the design conditions, the internal velocity is lowered. This will reduce the abrasive wear. Large amounts or abrasive particles can destroy elastomer (rubber)/soft metal seals and bearings in a short period of time. Increased bearing tolerances created by abrasive wear can create shaft stability problems within the submersible pump and damage the motor seal. The failure of bearings and seals to work properly, will impede pump performance and reduce service life. In the application of submersible pumping equipment to natural water containing erosive contaminants, it is always necessary to consider the economic aspects first. The questions that need to be addressed are: a) Should equipment of standard materials be used which will have a short operating life expectancy under the prevailing corrosive water condition and, therefore, a high frequency replacement? Or b) Should equipment, using special materials be used in order to obtain a longer life cycle and thus increase the dependability of the equipment? The general rule of thumb is to first select material which will withstand corrosion and from there, select the material that best resist abrasion. If the sand content is greater than 50 ppm (mg/l) and the pump is operated on a regular basis, it is likely that pump failure will occur as a result of abrasion long before corrosion is a factor. In such a case, standard construction would be warranted. Material Loss. The material loss caused by corrosion, abrasion or erosion can be quantified based on the depth of attack as shown in Table 2-7 below:
Table 2-7: Evaluation of Corrosion & Wear Severity
Section 2
Depth of Attack Insignificant Moderate Severe Extreme
Loss of Material inches per year 0 to 0.002 0.002 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.05 0.05 or more
2-46
The material losses associated with an all bronze (BRZ) pump under erosive conditions, will be half that of a entirely cast iron (CI) product. Although a BRZ pump will have approximately double the life of an all CI pump, it may not be suitable for certain applications as the deteriation of common bronze can liberate lead into the pumped fluid. In general, stainless steel SS offers the best alternative as a cost effective corrosion resistant material in an aggressive water environment. It has approximately ten (10) and five (5) times the erosion resistance of CI and BRZ pumps respectively. SS is strong, highly inert and relatively resistant to corrosion. Plastic composites can provide greater chemical resistance than SS, but they generally do not have the strength characteristics required for deep well/high capacity pumping applications. SS is not always the best material for every application. The presence of certain chemicals in natural waters can result in stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. These factors can be mitigated by selecting the proper SS alloy. Forms of Corrosion. Corrosion of pumps and associated equipment is one of the most important factors in deep well pump failures. Several of the most common forms of corrosive attack encountered are described below. Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to another in the same electrolyte. The extent of accelerated corrosion resulting from galvanic coupling is affected by the potential difference between the two metals or alloys, the environmental properties, the polarization behavior of the metal or alloys and the geometric relationship of the two. The corrosion potential (galvanic series) presented in Figure 2-30 and Table 2-9 helps predict the corrosion resistance of various metals commonly used in the pump industry. Oxygen concentration cells develop at the water-to-air interface between oxygenated areas and areas deprived of oxygen with the resultant corrosion occurring on the areas with less oxygen. Typically this form of corrosion will occur on column (riser) pipe between the static and pumping water level. Carbon dioxide (CO2) corrosion takes place at the high pressure points in the pump bowl. Bubbles form in water containing CO2 gas at a high solution potential, upon rapid increase in pressure created by the pump. The water film on the surface of each bubble is excessively acidic due to the formation of carbonic acid and is the cause of the corrosion damage. Cavitation is a mechanical corrosion process caused by collapsing bubbles in a flowing liquid. It is often induced by a change in flow direction or reduction in the cross sectional area of a flow passage causing a decrease in fluid pressure and gas bubble (vapor) formation. An increase in pressure at a nearby location will violently collapse the bubble, causing mechanical damage to the metal surface. Corrosion to which well and pump components may be subject are stray currents due to foreign DC sources, corrosion cells resulting from temperature gradients, differential corrosion cells resulting from variations in soil conditions or cement coatings on the exterior of well casing. Each of the above listed forms of corrosion can occur as a result of one or more of the corrosion modes previously mentioned (galvanic, erosion, etc.). In the absence of abrasives in corrosive water, the second most prominent corrosion accelarant is temperature. For every 25F (15C) increase in temperature, the corrosion rate is approximately double. In addition to the common forms of corrosion specified above for water well duty; there are other aggressive water applications where corrosion should be anticipated. These applications include mines, geothermal, pits and seawater. Sea Water Corrosion. One of the most difficult corrosive fluids to handle and understand is sea water. This is because of several variables which can alter the effects of this fluid upon different metals being employed. The first consideration is temperature. All corrosive fluids are more active as the temperature is elevated. Therefore, where cast iron might be used successfully at 32 degrees F (0C), the story changes at 90 degrees F (32C). Other chemicals in sea water can cause difficulty if their presence is not known. Around oil docks, drilling, etc., hydrogen sulfides (H2S) is often present. Even in small quantities, H S can cause the pumped fluid to be much more corrosive. The other consideration is the quantity of sand present. Off shore installations are subject to tides and wave action. This can cause a difficult system to analyze. The electrolytic action of dissimilar metals in the presence of the sea water must also be taken into account. Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations 2-47
Section 2
Defending Against Corrosion. The best corrosion defense is operational experience for the specific application. For new applications, where historical corrosion performance is not available, the following mitigating/protective techniques should be considered in the initial submersible pump system design when an aggressive water environment is anticipated. These techniques are; materials of construction (metallurgy), cathodic protection (sacrificial anode) and protective coatings. Materials of Construction. There are a variety of materials available for use in aggressive water applications, the most prominent being stainless steel (SS). Grundfos uses three principal alloys of austenitic (chromium nickel) SS in the construction of its entire line of submersible pump products. The various alloy employed and the recommended application are described as follows: AISI 304 Stainless steel (W.nr. 1.4301). 304 SS is used as the standard material of construction for potable water applications. It is generally applicable for applications in the mild to moderate corrosive grading category. It can also be used in the presence of chlorides up to 1000 ppm, provided water temperature is less than 50F (10C).
Section 2
AISI 316 Stainless Steel (W.nr. 1.4401- N-type). 316 SS is more resistant to water with a moderate content of salt (ie. brakish water). It is generally applications in the moderate to severe corrosive grading category. The chloride content and temperature associated with brackish water applications should not exceed 5000 ppm and 50 F (10C) respectively. AISI 904L Stainless Steel (W. nr. 1.4539 - R-type). 904L is generally used for warm seawater applications. It should be used anytime chlorides are in the range of 5000 - 20,000 ppm and fluid temperatures are anticipated to exceed 50F. The relationship between chloride content and temperature is illustrated in Figure 2-30. These diagrams are based on a pH range of 7-8 and pumps which are utilized (run) on a regular basis. Bearings and Seals. Grundfos utilizes elatomers, principally nitril butyl rubber (NBR), for bearing and seals in its standard groundwater products. NBR provides excellent wear and corrosion resistance in a majority of aggressive natural water environments. NBR is acceptable for most applications in the mild to severe category, provided the presence of man-made pollutants/contaminants (solvents, hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc.) are less than 1.0 ppm. The existence of man-made pollutants in groundwater has virtually no impact on stainless steel metallurgy and other elastomers (FPM and TFE) can be provided for special environmental applications.
Figure 2-30: Corrosion Diagram for Stainless Steel (Chlorides vs. Temperature)
Brackish and Sea Water Quality

Corrosion Diagram
212 194 TEMPERATURE (F) 176 158 140 122 104 86 68 50 32 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000 CHLORIDE (PPM) 212
Fresh Water Quality

Corrosion Diagram
194 TEMPERATURE (F) 176 158 140 122 104 86 68 50 32 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 CHLORIDE (PPM)
SPR 904L SPN 316 SP 304
SPR 904L SPN 316 SP 304
2-48
Cathodic Protection. The sacrificial anode technique is the only cathodic protection method that can be employed practically down hole. A zinc anode equal to 20% of the net submerged pipe weight is usually sufficient for long term protection in aggressive water. The amount of zinc required can be reduced by the net weight of the pump and motor if constructed/cladded in stainless steel. The zinc must be attached in a way that will promote good electrical conductivity between the steel to be protected and the anode. Refer to Figure 2-31 for a typical submersible pump configuration utilizing a zinc anodes.
Figure 2-31: Fitting of Zinc Anodes
Section 2
Protective Coatings. Protective coatings commonly employed down hole for metallic materials; include but are not limited to galvanizing, epoxy, coal tar and tape. Coatings are most often applied to column pipe and related accessories such as check valves. Care should be used to insure coatings are applied completely and uniformly, as an imperfection in the coated surface will actually accelerate the corrosive process at the point of imperfection. It is a good practice to coat the exterior of both the most and least noble materials in the pump string when practical. Always remove wrench marks and touch-up coating blemishes before installation. Column (Riser/Drop) Pipe Corrosion. The choice of column pipe for high capacity pump applications depends on several factors, with resistance to corrosion being one of the key issues. All three of the mitigation measures previously discussed are applicable to the protection of column pipe. The most common protective measures are discussed below: In mild to moderate corrosive conditions, standard mill coated (black) steel pipe should be adequate. A commonly followed field practice is to replace or rearrange the most severely corroded sections of pipe in the submerged internal between the static water level and setting depth any time the pump is pulled. Where a stainless steel pump is joined to mild steel column pipe; it is a good practice to generously apply thread joint compound at the coupling point, before and after make-up to insure the exposed threads are coated. Tape (4 wide 10 mil recommended) should be applied to the column pipe immediately above the connection point (1/3 overlap) to a minimum of three (3) feet above the joint. This simple protective measure has proven successful in decoupling the galvanic corrosion cell by providing limited insulation and separation between the two (2) dissimilar metals. A dielectric (plastic) coupling or nipple can be used to eliminate direct galvanic contact, provided strength and space requirements can be met. When severely corrosive conditions are anticipated, the use of stainless steel column pipe should be considered in the submergence interval at a minimum. In the absence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion is generally not an issue when the change over from stainless to mild steel is made above the static water level. Where the application calls for infrequent pump use, it is recommended to allow the column pipe to drain to eliminate unnecessary corrosive contact. Draining can be accomplished by removing the built-in check valve or drilling a small .25 (6 mm) hole through the check valve floating cone. In addition to stainless steel pipe, plastic tubulars and certain corrosive resistant hose type products are available for use as column pipe for low capacity/low temperature applications. As was the case for the use of plastic in the construction of large - high capacity pumps, the strength of plastic products limit there application in the large submersible industry. Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations 2-49
Table 2-8: Corrosivity/Incrustating Indicators for Natural Water
Water Characteristics Corrosive Indicators/Major Factors Chloride (ppm) Free Carbon Dioxide (ppm) Hydrogen sulfide (ppm) Conductivity (umhos-cm) *Temperature (F) Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) pH Total Dissolved Solids (ppm) * Suspended Solids - sand (ppm) Corrosive Indicators/Minor Factors Nitrates (ppm) Nitrites (ppm) Ammonia (ppm) Turbitity (NTU) Color (CU) Odor (TON) **Carbonate Alkalinity (ppm) **Carbonate Hardness (ppm) Incrustation Indicators/Major Factors pH **Carbonate Alkalinity (ppm) **Carbonate Hardness (ppm) Iron (ppm) Manganesse (ppm) Calcium (ppm) Incrustation Indicators/Minor Factors Magnesium (ppm) ***Carbonates (ppm) Suphates (ppm)
Mild 0-250 0-35 Nil 0-500 < 80 <.5 6-7.5 50-200 0-15 0-.5 0-.003 0 -.05 0-1 5 -125 30-100 0-2 0.2 0-10 0-5 0-10 0-100
Corrosivity Grading Moderate Severe 250-500 35-50 <1 500-2000 80 - 90 .5-2 <6 200-1000 15-50 .5-45 > .003 > .05 1-5 > 15 >3 <5 < 30 > 7.5 > 125 > 100 >2 .2-1 10-10,000 >5 > 10 100-350 > > > > > > < > > 500 50 1 2000 90 2 6 1000 50 ppm
Typ. Values for High Quality GW 0-150 2-22 0-0.5 100-1600 40-70 0-0.5 6.5-8.5 0-700 < 15 0-5 0 0 .1-.4 <2 None 70-200 85 .1-.3 < .05 0-100 0-5 <5 0-50
> 45 > .003 >.05 >5 > 15 >3 <5 <5 > > > > > > 8.5 300 300 2 1 10,000
Section 2
>5 > 10 > 350
Notes 1. Combinations of the above conditions classified as severe will enhance the corrosive effect. The presence of chlorides (Cl), carbon dioxide (CO ), hydrogen sulfide (H S) and dissolved oxygen (DO) in the severe category will have an immediate corrosive affect on ferrus material and temperatures above 80F. 2. The above classification/grading table is presented as a guideline for evaluating materials of construction for groundwater pumping equipment and related appurtenances. Many of the factors are interrelated and should be evaluated on the whole before making a selection. The expected/design service life and its initial cost should be carefully considered in the evaluation process. 3. Classification of water by individual constituents and properties for corrosivity has no relationship to acceptability of the water for potable purposes. 4. Steel, cast iron and bronze construction is generally suitable for applications in the mild grading category. The Grundfos standard construction is AISI 304 SS (stainless steel) and is applicable for service in the mild to moderate grading category, provided water temperature is less than 50F (10C) and chlorides are less than 1000 ppm. AISI 316 SS construction should be considered for applications where one or more severe indicator parameters are present, and for brackish water duty where chlorides range from 1000 - 5000 ppm and water temperature is less than 50F. AISI 904L SS construction is recommended for extremely corrosive conditions such as warm seawater (chlorides 5,000 - 20,000 ppm/ > 50F). 5. Applicability of the elastomers components used in standard groundwater products (normally NBR) should be evaluated for use under severe conditions. 6. Incrustation refers to plugging and scaling phenomena commonly associated with GW. * Suspended solids (such as abrasive sand) and elevated temperature do not constitute corrosive condition on there own. Abrasive particles and elevated temperature can significantly accelerate pump failure in the presence of aggressive water. ** Alkalinity & Hardness measured in terms of CaCO content. *** Carbonates measured in terms of CO content.
2-50
Table 2-9: Galvanic Corrosion Resistance of Commonly Used Metals in the Pump Industry (Galvanic Series)
Corroded end (anodic or least noble) Magnesium/Zinc/Aluminum Iron/Steel/Cast Iron Tin solder/ Tin/Lead Nickel - Iron (NI-Resist) Aluminum Bronze Brass/Bronze/Copper Copper-Nickel alloy Nickel-Aluminum Bronze Nickel - Copper alloy (Monel) Silver Solder Stainless Steel 400/304/316 Stainless Steel 904L Nickel - Chrome alloy Silver/Gold/Platinum Protected end (cathodic or most noble)
Notes: 1. This series is built upon actual experience with corrosion and laboratory measurement. Metals grouped together have no strong tendency to produce galvanic corrosion on each other; connecting two metals distant on the list from each other tends to corrode the one higher in the list. Voltage figures are not given because these vary with every new corrosive condition. Relative positions of metals change in many cases but it is unusual for changes to occur across the spaces left blank. The chromium irons and chromium-nickelirons change position as indicated depending on oxidizing conditions, acidity, and chloride in solution. The series as it stands is correct for many common dilute water solutions such as sea water, weak acids and alkalies. 2. Electrical path is from the anode to the cathode Copper is the cathode with respect to iron in the presence of an electrolyte. 3. Corrosion electrochemical phenomina is always a direct current (DC) process.
Section 2
Note: 1. 400 series SS = (Chromium) Stainless Steel 2. AISI 304 SS = 18-8 (Chromium-Nickel) Stainless Steel 3. AISI 316 SS = 18-8-3 (Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum) Stainless Steel * AISI = denotes American Iron and Steel Institute /SS = Stainless Steel pH. The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is expressed by its pH value. A neutral solution such as water has a pH value of 7.0. Decreasing pH values from 7.0 to 0.0 indicate increasing acidity and pH values from 7.0 to 14.0 indicate increasing alkalinity. Each unit in the pH scale represents a multiple of 10 (ie. PH = 3 is 10 more acidic than a pH = 4). Since the pH value denotes the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid it gives some indication of the materials required in constructing a pump to handle the liquid. The pH value alone; however, is not conclusive. Many other factors must be considered. Table 2-10 can be used as a guide for determining pumping system material requirements.
Table 2-10: Material Requirement Minimums based on pH
PH Range 0-4 4-6 6-8 8 - 10 10 - 14
Material of Construction Stainless Steel (SS) All Bronze (BRZ) Cast Iron Bronze Fit (CIBF) All Cast Iron (CI) Stainless Steel (SS)
2-51
Testing
General. Pump tests can be conducted in the factory or the field. Factory testing of standard large submersible pumps (LSP) are normally conducted to insure actual performance meets published design parameters within allowable tolerances or when specific pump performance is required. Field tests are useful to indicate wear and/or changing conditions from test to test and for determination of overall plant efficiency. The test parameters of primary interest are capacity/flow, head and power input. ASME standards define pump efficiency (PE) as the energy difference in the water between the discharge and suction intake (WHp-water Hp) divided by power input at the pump shaft (BHp-brake Hp). Overall efficiency (OE) takes into account losses in both the pump and motor, and is equal to the WHp divided by the power input at the motor terminals (EHp-electrical Hp). Overall plant efficiency (OPE) sometimes referred to as field or wire to water efficiency, takes into account all submersible installation losses ( pump, motor, power cable, friction losses, etc.) and can only be determined in the field. OPE is equal to the WHp divided by the input power measured from the surface to the motor (IHp-input Hp). PE = WHp/BHp Pump Efficiency OE = WHp/EHp Overall Efficiency OPE = WHp/IHp Overall Plant Efficiency
Section 2
Factory Testing. From a pump manufactures standpoint, pump efficiency - sometimes referred to as laboratory or bowl efficiency, is the most important indictor of the degree of perfection of its product. Pump efficiency determines the relative overall efficiency of the whole unit. Factory performance tests are normally conducted in accordance with one of the following standards: 1. Hydraulic Institute. (a.) At rated head: Q + 10% @ published capacity (b.) At rated capacity: H + 5% @ published capacity (<500) H + 3% @ published capacity (>500) 2. ISO 2548 Annex B. (a.) Q +/- 8% (b.) H +/- 6% (c.) BHp +/- 8% (c.) At rated head or capacity: BHp + 10% Note: (1) The minimum hydrostatic test pressure should be no less than 125% of the shut-off head or 150% of the maximum anticipated operating pressure. (2) Industry practices commonly allow for motor loading into the service factor, assuming ambient fluid temperature does not exceed 80F. The ISO standard has become the preferred Head-Capacity (H-Q) standard in the LSP industry as it allows for a tolerance about nominal performance and is more reflective of the average performance to be expected from a standard product. The Hydraulic Institute standard is more conservative, as there is no minus tolerance allowed. Basis of Comparison. In comparing pump performance, care should be used to see that efficiencies published by different manufactures are calculated on the same basis. Typical factors which contribute to variations in the presentation of published/submittal data are; (1) Inlet and discharge losses: Some manufactures incorporate a built in check valve and/or have several different types of inlets (interconnectors) to allow for connection to various motor sizes. These losses are sometimes not included as they have little impact on overall performance except in low head applications. Such losses are sometimes accounted for by an efficiency/performance reduction table based on the number of stages used. (2) Test speed: The motor used in the testing process can have a appreciable affect on pump H-Q performance as a result of the variability in performance between manufactures and sizes. Larger submersible motors will have less slip than smaller motors and will operate at a higher speed for the same Hp. A pump tested with a smaller motor of the proper horsepower rating will produce lower H-Q performance than the same pump tested with a larger motor. Typical 2-pole submersible motor full load speeds, based on standard motor diameters are; 4-6 (3450 rpm), 8 (3525 rpm) and 10 (3540 rpm). Performance at speeds other than the test speed can be recalculated using the affinity laws. 2-52 Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations
Test types. Most manufactures have the capacity to perform the following tests; performance test (non-witnessed), performance test (witnessed) and hydrostatic test. Performance test can be further quantified as certified or noncertified. A certified performance test requires the use of a calibrated motor with specific - known electrical, efficiency and speed characteristics. Each manufacture has specific guide lines and criteria, associated with testing performed within the factory. A factory performance test should be ordered whenever precise H-Q and efficiency data for a specific unit is required. Test data. Factory test data is generally extremely accurate as instrumentation and piping can be configured for high accuracy in a controlled environment. Test data is typically presented in a graphical format with a tabulation of specific individual test points. Records of all relevant pump information such as s/n, type and size are normally provided on the test forms, as well as the driver involved in the test. The information to be recorded at each test point must include; (a.) capacity/flow in gpm - Q, (b.) head in ft.- H, (c.) pump speed in rpm and (e.) electrical data - P (volts, amps and kW input). Minimum recommended measurement precision is Q +/- 2.5%, H +/- 2.5% and P (power) +/- 2%. Test controls. Test data must be collected within the specified operating conditions for the pump being tested. NPSH requirements must be met, which is generally assured with a minimum submergence of 5 feet over the suction intake for LSPs. Motor voltage should be within 5% of the nameplate rating during the test and there should be no greater than 2% imbalance between phases. Current (amp) readings should be balanced within 5% of the average input current valve to the motor. Flow metering should be performed in a straight pipe section at a point 10 pipe diameters downstream and 2 pipe diameters upstream of the nearest obstruction. Water temperature should be maintained within the range of 50 - 80F, with 68 - 70F considered ideal. Field Testing. Cost factors and space limitations rarely allow for ideal test conditions. In order to obtain accurate field performance test data, it is necessary to design the complete pump installation with future field testing in mind. Provision must be built into for the system to allow for the use of suitable calibrated testing instruments. The reliability of a field test is a function of the accuracy of the instruments used, the proper use of instrumentation and the skill of the test personnel. Typical field test instrumentation accuracies are listed in Table 2-13. Many electrical utilities offer no cost pump test for non-residential power consumers. Table 2-11 list a typical OPE rating scale used by electrical utilities. Table 2-12 lists various formulas and useful information used in making calculations associated with field pump tests. Submersible Pump Field Test Guidelines. A field test provides an indication of the pump performance under field conditions. In addition the OPE and wear indicator uses, a field test qualitatively indicates; (1) pump (bowl) operation, (2) column pipe and discharge friction loss, (3) cable losses, (4) air and sand content of water, (5) mechanical vibration and noise, (6) well characteristics and (7) driver and control operation. a. Flow Measurement - The rate of flow may be measured by; (1) thin plate orifice, (2) venturi and flow nozzle, (3) volume or weight for a time duration of not less than one minute and liquid level of not less than 2, (4) pitot tube and (5) propeller meter Note: Flow approximations listed in Tables 7-16 to 7-18 can be used in the absence of more accurate means . b. Head Measurement - The head below the selected datum line, or static and pumping water levels may be measured by; (1) chalked steel tape, (2) air-line and (3) electric line. The head above selected datum line may be measured by; 1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge, calibrated. Reading converted to feet plus or minus distance from datum to centerline of gauge plus velocity head. Velocity head is normally neglected in field measurements as it is only a small component of the total head (TH) in well applications. A velocity head of 10 fps accounts for less than 0.1 of an additional head. 2. Manometer, when head above datum is sufficiently low. The manometer fluid should produce a deflection of at least five inches. c. Power Measurement - Various methods for measuring electrical input power are presented in the next section under the heading of Power Consumption of Electric Motors. Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations 2-53
Section 2
d. Pump Speed Measurement - The speed measurement in a submersible pump application is best accomplished through the use of a reed type tachometer. The reed tachometer senses vibration in piping set-up by motor and pump rotating parts. e. Test Procedure - Test data recorded should include; (1) pump size, make, number of stages, type and serial number, (2) motor size, make, type and serial number, (3) description of instruments, constants and multipliers for data recorded, (4) water temperature at pump discharge and submergence, (5) quality of water, (6) static water level in ft., (7) pumping water level in ft., (8) reference datum in ft., (9) pressure head in ft., (10) capacity in gpm, (11) current each line in amperes, (12) voltage each line in volts, (13) pump speed and (14) meter disc constant, rpm and speed time, seconds. Simultaneous and instantaneous readings of all instruments should be avoided. Continuous observation of instruments for at least one minute prior to recording data is recommended.
Example 2-4: Typical Utility Pump Test Analysis:
Given: (1) Motor nameplate Hp rating: 100 Hp, (2) Em = .85 (from mfg. data)
Section 2
Measured Data: (1) SWL = 200, (2) PWL = 240, (3) AGH = 35 psi (35 x 2.31= 80.9), (4) Q = 700 gpm, (5) Meter readings: Kh = 4.8, M = 10, R (disk revs.) = 20, t (time for 20 revs.) = 50.2 sec. Analysis (using formulas from Table 2-12) 1. Static Water Level (SWL): 200 2. Pumping Water Level (PWL): 240 3. Discharge Pressure (Pdsh): 35 psi 4. Flow Rate (Q): 700 gpm 5. Above Ground Head (AGH): 80.9 AGH = 35 x 2.31 = 80.9 6. Total Head (TH): 320.9 TH = AGH + PWL = 80.9 + 240 = 320.9 * 7. Drawdown (DD): 40 DD = PWL - SWL = 240 - 200 = 40 8. Well Yield (SC): 17.5 gpm/ ft. of DD SC (specific capacity / well yield) = Q/ DD = 700/ 40 = 17.5 9. Volume pumped in 24 hrs.: 3.09 ac. - ft. or 1008 kgal. Af/ 24 hrs. = Q/226.3 = 700/ 226.3 = 3.09 1000 gal./ 24 hrs. = Q/ 1.44 = 700 x 1.44 = 1008 10. Kilowatt Input to Motor (kWI): 68.8 kW kWI = (R x Kh X M x 3.6)/t = 20 x 4.8 x 10 x 3.6/ 50.2 = 68.6 11. Horsepower Input to Motor (IHp): 92.2 Hp IHp = kWI/ .746 = 68.8/.746 = 92.2 12. Motor Load (%): 78.4% Motor Load = (IHp x Em/ Rated Hp) = 92.2 x .85/ 100 = .784 13. Water hydraulic Horsepower (WHp): 56.7 Hp WHp = TH x Q / 3960 = 320.9 x 700/ 3960 = 56.7 14. Kilowatt - hours per Volume pumped: 533.6 kWh - Af or 1.64 kW - kgal. kWh/ Af = (4051.5 x IHp)/ gpm = 4051.5 x 92.2/ 700 = 533.6 kWh/ 1000 gal. = 12.44 x IHp/ gpm = 12.44 x 92.2/ 700 = 1.64 15. Overall Plant Efficiency (OPE): 61.5% OPE = WHp/ IHp = 56.7/ 92.2 = .615 Note: (1) Based on Table 2-11; a OPE of 61.5% is considered fair for the operating point analyzed. (2) Multiple test points will generally be analyzed (typically three points). * Pipe and fitting losses are not included in OPE testing
2-54
Table 2-11: Description of Pump Condition based on Overall Plant Efficiency (OPE) in %
Motor Hp 3 - 7 1/2 10 15 20 - 25 30 - 50 60 - 75 100 150 200 250 300
Low 44.0 46.0 47.0 47.9 52.0 55.9 57.2 58.0 59.0 59.0 59.9 or or or or or or or or or or or less less less less less less less less less less less
Fair 44 - 49.9 46 - 52.9 48 - 53.9 50 - 56.9 52.1 - 58.9 56 - 60.9 57.3 - 62.9 58.1 - 63.4 59.1 - 63.8 59.1 - 63.8 60 - 64.0
Good 50 - 54.9 53 - 57.9 54 - 59.9 57 - 60.9 59 - 61.9 61 - 65.9 63 - 66.9 63.5 - 68.9 63.9 - 69.4 63.9 - 69.4 64.1 - 69.9
Excellent 55 or above 58 or above 60 or above 61 or above 62 or above 66 or above 67 or above 69 or above 69.5 or above 69.5 or above 70 or above
Section 2
Table 2-12: Typical Pump Test Calculation Formulas and Useful Data
(1) Q in gpm - Typically measured by Velocity - Area method (manometer), Direct method (meter) or Time Volume (container and stop watch) (2) kWI = R x Kh x M x 3.6)/ t = (I x E x pf x C)/ 1000 * * See Power Consumption and Cost for explanation of metering terminology (3) Motor Load (%) = (IHp x Em/ Rated Hp) x 100 ** ** Rated Hp, normally taken as motor nameplate Hp value (4) TH = H = PWL + AGH *** *** Pipe and fitting friction losses are not compensated for in OPE testing (5) IHp = kWI/ .746 (7) OPE = WHp/ IHp (9) SC = Q/DD (11) kWh/ Af = (4051.5 x IHp) /Q (13) kWh/ kgal. = (12.44 x IHp)/ Q (6) kWI = IHp x .746 (8) WHp = (TH x gpm)/ 3960 (10) DD = PWl - SWL (12) Af/ 24 hrs. = Q/ 2263 (14) kgal./24 hrs. = Q/ 1.44
Where; Q = flow (typ. in gpm), IHp = Input Horsepower (Hp), kWI = Kilowatt input (kW), Em = full load motor efficiency, TH = total head (ft.), PWL = Pumping (dynamic) Water Level (ft.), AGH = Above Ground Head (typ. measured in psi and converted to ft.), WHp = Water Horsepower (Hp), OPE = Overall Plant Efficiency, SWL = Static Water Level (ft.), DD = Drawdown (ft.), Af = volume in acre - feet (ac. - ft.), kWh = Energy (kilowatt-hrs.), kgal. = 1000 gal., SC = Specific Capacity or well yield (gpm/ ft.) Note: 1. Typ. Motor efficiencies (Em)**** Hp Range Surface Em (%) 1-3 78 - 82 (80) 5 - 15 83 - 87 (85) 20 - 200 88 - 92 (90) Submersible Em (%) 70 - 74 (72) 75 - 81 (78) 82 - 88 (85)
**** Use manufacture published efficiency data in calculations when available 2. Common Pump Test Conversions (water - sg = 1.0) 1 psi (gauge pressure) = 2.31 ft. of head (2.31/ psi) 1 Hp = .746 kW (ie. .746 kW/ Hp) 1 ac. = 43,560 sq. ft. 1 cu. ft. = 7.48 gal. 1 1 1 1 gal. = 8.34 lbs. (ie. 8.34 lbs./ gal.) Af = 32,585 gal. (ie. 32,585 gal./ac-ft.) gal. = 231 cu. in. in. of Hg = 1.134 ft.
2-55
Table 2-13: Limits of Accuracy of Pump - Test Measuring Devices in Field Use
Measured Parameter Capacity (flow)
Measuring Devices Venturi Meter Nozzle Pitot tube Orifice Disc Electric sounding line Air line Liquid manometer (3-5 in. deflections) Liquid manometer (over 5-in. deflections) Watt-hour meter and stopwatch Portable recording watt meter Clamp-on ammeter Revolution counter and stopwatch Hand-held tachometer Reed type tachometer Test meter - 1/4-1/2 scale Test meter - 1/2-3/4 scale
Accuracy Limit (%) 3/4 1 1 1/2 1 1/4 2
Measuring Devices Piston Volume or weight - tank Propeller meter Magnetic meter Bourdon gauge - 5 dial. 1/4 - 1/2 full scale 1/2 -3/4 full scale over 3/4 scale Note: A 5 dial is the minimum recommended size for a test gauge Test type precision watt meter 1/4 - 1/2 scale 1/2 -3/4 scale over 3/4 scale Stroboscope Auto. counter and stopwatch Test meter - 3/4-full scale Rectifier voltmeter
Accuracy Limit (%) 1/4 1 4 2
Head
1/4 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2 4 1 1/4 1 1/4 xxx 1 3/4
1 3/4 1/2
Section 2
Power Input*
3/4 1/2 1/4 1 1/2 1/2 1/2 5
Speed
Voltage*
* True rms metering devices are required for accurate measurement of electrical properties where the pump is controlled through a non-linear device such as a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
Power Consumption and Cost

Power Consumption of Electric Motors. The two most common methods used to check power consumption are direct measurement using electrical instrumentation and the desk constant method using the utility power meter. The first of these requires the use of an ammeter and voltmeter or power meter. The second requires only a stopwatch. Direct Measurement Method. Utilizing electrical instrumentation to obtain current and voltage measurements, the following formulas can be used to calculate motor power consumption. kWI = (I x E x pf x C) /1000 or, IHp = (I x E x pf X C) /746 where;
kWI = Kilowatts (electrical input power) I = amperes (meter reading) E = volts (meter reading) IHp = Horsepower (electrical input power) pf = Power Factor (per mtr. - mfg.) .80 - .85 typ.) C = 1 for single phase current / 2 for two phase, four wire control / 1.73 for three phase current Disk Constant Method. Utilizing the utility watt-hour meter and the exact time for a given number of revolutions of the meter disc measured with a stopwatch, and the following formulas can be used to calculate motor power consumption. kWI = (3.6 x kh x M x R) /t or, IHp = (4.83 x kh x M x R) /t where;
kWI = Kilowatt Input (kW) IHp = Input horsepower (Hp) R = Total revolutions of watt-hour meter disc. t = Time for total revolution of disc in seconds. kh = Disc constant, representing watt-hours per revolution. This factor is found on the meter nameplate or painted on the disc. M = Transformer ratio multiplier, product of the meter current transformer (CT) and potential transformer (PT) ratio. M = 1 when neither a CT or PT is used in power metering.
2-56
Cost of Pumping using an Electric Motor. The term Efficiency as used in pumping would be of no practical value if it could not be reduced to terms of actual pumping costs expressed in dollars. When the efficiency of the pump and motor is known, proportionate cost of power can be predetermined on a basis common to all pumps, regardless of size or capacity. By using units of capacity and head, comparisons can be made in pumps having different capacities. Power cost of pumping varies inversely with overall plant efficiency (OPE). Thus, power cost per gallon for each foot head on a pump of 30% OPE, is double that of a pump of 60% OPE. (Assuming power rate the same in both cases). In order to pump one gallon of water in one minute (1 gpm) against one foot head at 100% OPE, requires .000189 kilowatts. Pumping 1000 gpm per foot head at 100% OPE requires .189 kilowatts (kW). The following formulas can be used for determining power requirements and associated cost when differing pumping parameters are known. 1. Cost per hour ($/hr.) of operation Cost/hr. = kWI x PR Cost/hr. = IHp x .746 x PR Cost/hr. = Q x TH x .746 x PR 3960 x PE x Em
Section 2
Cost/hr. = .000189 x Q x TH x PR OPE 2. Cost per 1000 gal ($/1000 gal.) Cost/kgal. = Cost/hr. 1000 Cost/kgal. = .00315 x PR x TH OPE
where; kWI = kW input, PR = power rate ($/kWh), IHp = Input Hp, PE = Pump efficiency, Em = Motor efficiency, TH = Total head (ft.), Q = flow (gpm), Cost = $ (dollars)
Cost/kgal. = 12.44 x IHp x PR Q Cost/kgal. = (kWh/kgal) x PR
Cost/kgal. = .189 x PR x TH PE x ME where; 1000 gal. = 1 kgal.
Note: Table 2-14 can be used to quickly estimate power consumption and cost of operation based on kW/1000 gal. pumped, when the overall plant efficiencies (OPEs) are known. 3. Cost per Acre - ft. ($/Af) Cost/Af = 1.032 x TH x PR OPE Cost/Af = 4051.5 x IHp x PR Q Cost/Af = (kWh/Af) x PR
where; Af = acre - ft, PR = power rate ($/kWh) Cost of Pumping using a Diesel Engine. The cost of operating a submersible pump powered by a diesel engine generator can be estimated as follows. where; PE = pump efficiency Cost/hr. of operation = gpm x TH x 0.065 x $ fuel/gal. Em = motor efficiency (engine) 3960 x PE x Em x Eg Eg = generator efficiency Note: (1) Formula based on a fuel requirement of 0.065 gal. or diesel per Hp - hr. (2) Em and Eg can be assumed to be approximately the same in the absence of specific generator efficiency information. Cost of Pumping using a Gasoline Engine. The cost of operating a submersible pump powered by a gasoline engine generator can be estimated as follows: Cost/hr. of operation = gpm x TH x 0.110 x $ fuel/gal. 3960 x PE x Em x Eg Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations 2-57
Table 2-14: Comparative Costs of Pumping Water per ft. of Total Head (TH)
OPE 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
kW / 1000 gal. .00980 .00951 .00922 .00896 .00871 .00848 .00826 .00804 .00784 .00765 .00747 .00730 .00713 .00697 .00682 .00667 .00653 .00640 .00627 .00615
OPE 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
kW / 1000 gal. .00603 .00592 .00581 .00570. 00560 .00550 .00541 .00532 .00523 .00514 .00506 .00498 .00490 .00482 .00475 .00468 .00461 .00454 .00448 .00442
OPE 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
kW / 1000 gal. .00435 .00430 .00424 .00418 .00413 .00407 .00402 .00397 .00392 .00387 .00382 .00378 .00373 .00369 .00365 .00360 .00356 .00352 .00348
Section 2
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
* Overall plant efficiency (OPE) as indicated above is the input-output (wire to water) efficiency, including all losses (pump, motor, power cable, friction losses, etc.) pumping 1000 gallons of clear cool water one foot (ft.) of total head (TH). In determining the kilowatts (kW) per 1000 gallons (gal.) pumped, it is only necessary to multiply the factor corresponding to the OPE by the actual TH in feet.
Example 2-5: Assume an overall efficiency of 65% and a TH = 200, PR = $0.07/ kWh
kW/kgal. = .00482 x 200 = .964
Cost/kgal. = .964 x 0.07 = $0.07
Energy - Efficiency and Cost. The costs associated with pumping is often many times higher than the original cost of the pumping plant equipment (pump, motor and appurtenances). The Simple Pay back Analysis is the most common method used to evaluate energy cost benefits associated with high equipment and/or plant efficiencies. The analysis can be applied to individual pumping equipment elements (ie. pump - PE, pump and motor - OE) or the overall plant (pump, motor and losses - OPE). The 3 step simple payback analysis is illustrated in example 2-6 below.
Example 2-6: Simple Payback Analysis - OPE Efficiency Comparison
Required Information (from example 2-5): 1. Operating hrs./yr. = Op.-hrs. = 12 hrs/ day x 365 day/ yr. = 4380 hrs. 2. OPE (low/initial) = OPEl = 61.5% (calculated in example 2-4) 3. OPE (high/target) = OPEh = 67% (from Table 2-11) 4. Cost/kWh = PR = $0.07/kWh 5. Input HP (IHp) @ OPE (low/initial) = IHpl = 92.2 Hp (use design load Hp when comparing equipment efficencies) 6. Load factor = 1.0 (fixed speed pump operation motor is generally assumed to be fully loaded) 7. Plant efficiency improvement cost (repairs) $5,200 2-58 Section 2D Pumping System Application Considerations
Step 1:
1 1 [OPE1 - OPEh]x (Load factor) * 1 1 kW saved = 92.2 x .746 [ .615 - .67 ] x 1.0 = 8.94 kW kW saved = IHp1 x .746
* Load is typically assumed to be 100% (1.0) for pumps operated at fixed speed and when a OPE comparison is being made. An average load correction % for plants operated under variable speed conditions should be used. When evaluating individual components such as motors, and the actual motor load % is known relative to the pumps BHp requirement, the actual motor load % should be used.
Step 2:
$ saved = kW saved x (Op. - hrs.) x PR)
where; $ saved = $ saved/ yr.
$ saved (yearly savings) = 8.94 x 4380 x 0.07 = $2741.48/ yr.
Section 2
Step 3:
Payback in yrs. = Cost of eff. Improvements (Repairs) $ saved
where; eff. = efficiency
or,
Payback in yrs. = Cost of high eff. equip. - cost of lower eff. equip. $ saved Pay back in yrs. = Cost of Efficiency Improvements = $5,200 = 1.90 yrs. $ - Saved $2,741
Note: (1) The simple payback analysis does not take into account such factors as changing power costs, the time vale of money or deprecation (2) All manufactures do not report efficiencies in the same manner. When making equipment comparisons between manufactures, verify efficiencies were calculated on the same basis. OPE comparisons are independent of the basis of calculations. Energy Consumption Considerations. Pumping equipment efficiency, plant layout and system designs are crucial for optimizing energy usage. Other factors, related to the cost of energy, which can significantly reduce the cost of pumping are: 1. Off-peak pumping to storage to take advantage of off-peak power utility rates. 2. Utilization of the most efficient pumping plants in response to demand. 3. Split pumping demand between multiple pumps configured for cascade operation to maximize economy, reliability and efficiency. 4. Utilize variable frequency (speed) control in lieu of throttling valves where demand is highly variable and multiple installations are impractical. 5. Maintain distribution pipeline velocities between 3 and 5 fps under peak flow conditions.
2-59
2E ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF WATER

Table 2-15: Altitude vs. Barometric Pressure and Boiling Point of Water
Altitude Feet (ft.) Meters (m) 1000 500 0 + 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 15000 304.8 152.4 0.0 + 152.4 304.8 457.2 609.6 762.0 914.4 1066.8 1219.2 1371.6 1524.0 1676.4 1828.8 1981.2 2133.6 2286.0 2438.4 2590.8 2743.2 2895.6 3048.0 4572.0
Barometer Reading in.-Hg mm-Hg 31.0 30.5 29.9 29.4 28.9 28.3 27.8 27.3 26.8 26.3 25.8 25.4 24.9 24.4 24.0 23.5 23.1 22.7 22.2 21.8 21.4 21.0 20.6 16.9 788 775 760 747 734 719 706 694 681 668 655 645 633 620 610 597 587 577 564 554 544 533 523 429
Atm. Pressure psia ft. Water 15.2 15.0 14.7 14.4 14.2 13.9 13.7 13.4 13.2 12.9 12.7 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.8 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.7 10.5 10.3 10.1 8.3 35.2 34.6 33.9 33.3 32.8 32.1 31.5 31.0 30.4 29.8 29.2 28.8 28.2 27.6 27.2 26.7 26.2 25.7 25.2 24.7 24.3 23.8 23.4 19.2
Boiling Point F 213.8 212.9 212.0 211.1 210.2 209.3 208.4 207.4 206.5 205.6 204.7 203.8 202.9 201.9 201.0 200.1 199.2 198.3 197.4 196.5 195.5 194.6 193.7 184.0
Section 2
Table 2-16: Elevations for Various Municipalities (U.S. & Canada)
City Albuquerque Amarillo Atlanta Calgary Cheyenne Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Denver Detroit
Approx. Alt. (ft.) 5200 3700 1100 3440 6100 600 550 700 5270 580
City Edmonton Fresno Ft. Worth Idaho Falls Kansas City Minneapolis Montreal Nashville Omaha Ottawa
Approx. Alt. (ft.) 2200 380 700 4700 800 900 100 500 1000 290
City Phoenix Pittsburgh Regina Roswell Reno Salt Lake City Spokane Toronto Tulsa Winnipeg
Approx. Alt. (ft.) 1100 800 1900 3570 4500 4250 1900 350 800 760
2-60
Section 2E Engineering Properties of Water
Table 2-17: Vacuum to Suction Lift Coversion (Inches of Mercury (Hg) to Feet of Water (H20))
Vacuum (in. - Hg)
Suction (ft. - H20)
Vacuum (in. - Hg) 8 8 1/4 8 1/2 8 3/4 9 9 1/4 9 1/2 9 3/4 10 10 1/4 10 1/2 10 3/4 11 11 1/4 11 1/2 11 3/4 12 12 1/4 12 1/2 12 3/4 13 13 1/4 131/2 13 3/4 14 14 1/4 14 1/2 14 3/4 15 15 1/4 15 1/2 15 3/4
Suction (ft. - H20) 9.07 9.35 9.64 9.92 10.21 10.49 10.77 11.06 11.34 11.62 11.90 12.19 12.47 12.75 13.04 13.32 13.61 13.89 14.18 14.46 14.74 15.02 15.31 15.59 15.88 16.16 16.45 16.73 17.01 17.29 17.57 17.86
Vacuum (in. - Hg) 16 16 1/4 16 1/2 16 3/4 17 17 1/4 17 1/2 17 3/4 18 18 1/4 18 1/2 18 3/4 19 19 1/4 19 1/2 19 3/4 20 20 1/4 20 1/2 20 3/4 21 21 1/4 21 1/2 21 3/4 22 22 1/4 22 1/2 22 3/4 23 23 1/4 23 1/2 23 3/4
Suction (ft. - H20) 18.14 18.42 18.71 18.99 19.28 19.56 19.84 20.13 20.41 20.70 20.98 21.27 21.55 21.83 22.11 22.40 22.68 22.96 23.24 23.53 23.81 24.09 24.38 24.66 24.95 25.23 25.51 25.80 26.08 26.36 26.65 26.93
Vacuum (in. - Hg) 24 24 1/4 24 1/2 24 3/4 25 25 1/4 25 1/2 25 3/4 26 26 1/4 26 1/2 26 3/4 27 27 1/4 27 1/2 27 3/4 28 28 1/4 28 1/2 28 3/4 29 29 1/4 29 1/2 29 3/4 30
Suction (ft. - H20) 27.22 27.50 27.78 28.07 28.35 28.63 28.91 29.20 29.48 29.76 30.05 30.33 30.62 30.90 31.19 31.47 31.75 32.03 32.32 32.60 32.89 33.17 33.46 33.74 33.90
1/4 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/4 2 1/2 2 3/4 3 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 4 1/4 4 1/2 4 3/4 5 5 1/4 5 1/2 5 3/4 6 6 1/4 6 1/2 6 3/4 7 7 1/4 7 1/2 7 3/4
0.28 0.56 0.85 1.13 1.41 1.70 1.98 2.27 2.55 2.84 3.12 3.41 3.69 3.98 4.26 4.54 4.82 5.11 5.38 5.67 5.95 6.23 6.52 6.80 7.08 7.37 7.65 7.94 8.22 8.50 8.97
Section 2
2-61
Table 2-18: Properties of Water from 32F to 300F (Vapor Pressure and Specific Gravity vs. Temperature)
Temp. F 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 62
Vapor Pressure psia ft.-Hd .0885 .0922 .0960 .1000 .1040 .1082 .1126 .1171 .1217 .1265 .1315 .1367 .1420 .1475 .1532 .1593 .1653 .1716 .1781 .1849 .1918 .1990 .2064 .2141 .2220 .2302 .2386 .2473 .2563 .2751 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 .25 .26 .27 .28 .29 .30 .32 .33 .34 .35 .37 .38 .40 .41 .43 .44 .46 .48 .50 .51 .53 .55 .57 .59 .64
Specific Gravity .9999 .9999 .9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9998 .9998 .9997 .9997 .9996 .9996 .9995 .9994 .9994 .9993 .9992 .9991 .9990 .9989
Temp. F 64 66 68 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
Vapor Pressure psia ft.-Hd .2951 .3164 .3390 .3631 .4298 .5069 .5959 .6982 .8153 .9490 1.275 1.692 2.223 2.889 3.718 4.741 5.992 7.510 9.339 11.530 14.120 17.190 20.780 24.970 29.830 35.430 41.850 49.200 57.560 67.010 .68 .73 .79 .84 .99 1.17 1.39 1.62 1.89 2.21 2.98 3.96 5.21 6.79 8.75 11.20 14.20 17.90 22.30 27.70 34.00 42.00 50.00 61.00 73.00 87.00 104.00 123.00 144.00 168.00
Specific Gravity .9987 .9985 .9982 .9980 .9974 .9966 .9959 .9950 .9941 .9931 .9906 .9888 .9857 .9833 .9803 .9773 .9738 .9702 .9667 .9632 .9592 .9952 .9512 .9467 .9423 .9373 .9331 .9281 .9232 .9180
Section 2
Note: 1. The specific gravity (sg) is referenced to water at 39.2F (4C) at 1000 , which is the point of maximum density. A sg reference value between 39.2F and 70F makes no practical difference in pumping problems. 2. Calculated from data in ASME steam tables. 3. Kinematic viscosity ranges from 33.0 (1.93 EE-5 ft /sec.) to 29.3 SSUs (3.19 EE-6 ft /sec.) for the temperature range of 32 to 212F respectively. Viscosity variations can decrease or increase friction losses as much as 40% between the two temperature extremes. 4. The specific weight of water at 32F is 62.42 lbs/ft. (8.34 lbs./gal.).
2-62
Figure 2-32: Suction Lift Correction for Elevation
12
From Total Suction Lift at Sea Level Subtract Correction for Elevation
10
CORRECTION IN FEET
Section 2
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL IN FEET
Figure 2-33: Suction Lift Correction for Water Temperature
30
From Total Suction Lift Subtract Correction for Water Temperature

25
CORRECTION IN FEET
20
15
10
0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 TEMPERATURE OF WATER IN DEGREES FAHR.
2-63
Section 2
2-64
Grundfos
SECTION 3: ELECTRICAL POWER & MOTORS

3A ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS Fundamental Properties of Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 AC Circuit Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 Circuit Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 AC Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 Phase Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 High Voltage Surge Arrestor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-6 INDUCTION MOTORS Induction Motor Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 AC Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 Motor Output Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 Three Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 Three Phase Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 Single Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 Insulation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 MOTOR STARTING Full Voltage Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 Reduced Voltage Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 GRUNDFOS CONTROLLERS CU3 Motor Controller & Protector . . . . . . CU3 Technical Specifications . . . . . . . . . CU3 with R100 Remote Control . . . . . . . R100 Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R100 Menu Structure Screen . . . . . . . . . . CU3 with SM100 Sensor Module . . . . . . . G100 Gateway Communications Interface G100 Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G100 Technical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3B
Section 3
3C
3D
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3-33 3-35 3-35 3-35 3-36 3-38 3-38 3-40 3-41
Section 3A Electrical Fundamentals
3-1
3A ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
This section is not an attempt to present a course in electricity, and is intended as a review of the terms and basic formulas associated with submersible pumping applications. In the application of electrical driven submersible pumps, we are principally concerned with alternating current (AC) as it relates to three phase (3ph) power and to a lesser degree on single phase (1p) AC circuits. Direct current (DC) circuits are directly analogous to 1 ph AC circuits when reactance is accounted for.
Fundamental Properties of Electric Circuits

Electricity is basically electrons in motion. Electromotive forces cause free or loosely bound electrons to move along or through a medium. Materials such as aluminum, copper, silver and gold allow electrons to move freely and are called conductors. Materials such as porcelain, glass, rubber, plastics, and oils resist electron movement and are called insulators. Forces that move electrons are magnetic. Moving a conductive wire in a way that cuts across a magnetic field induces a force or voltage in the wire. If there is a path for the electrons to follow, a flow will be established. The strength of the electro-motive forces (emf) is defined in Figure 3-1: Ohms Law Electrical Fundamentals volts and is analogues to pressure in a hydraulic system. The magnitude of electron flow is called current and is measured in amperes, which is analogus to fluid flow. The resistance to current flow is analogous to the friction loss of water flowing through a pipe and is measured in ohms. Voltage, current, resistant and power are related to each other by Ohms law. Ohms law in its most basic mathematical form is expressed as: E = IR and P = EI; where E = voltage (V), I = current (A - amps), R = resistance (ohms) and P = power (W - watts). Figure 3-1 illustrates the various electrical values derived from ohms law.
Section 3
AC Circuit Basics
AC circuits differ form DC circuits in that voltage and current follow an alternating - sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 3-2. They build up from zero to a maximum in one direction then diminish to zero, build up again to a maximum but in the opposite direction and again diminish to zero. One cycle is completed in two alternations and 360 electrical degrees in a 60Hertz system.
Figure 3-2: AC Waveform Fundamental Characteristics
delay, pf = cos (delay in degrees) Voltage Current Erms Irms
0 Time Ep Ip 0 90 180 270 360 1 cycle @ 60 Hz
3-2
The magnitude of the voltage and current is expressed in terms of its root-mean-square (rms) or effective valve. The rms value is equal to the peak voltage or current level multiplied by 0.707 (ie. Erms = Ep x .707), and is equivalent in magnitude to DC voltage or current level of the same numeric value (ie. Erms = Edc). The frequency at which one complete voltage or current cycle is completed, dictates the operating frequency of the circuit or system. In the United States, the standard operating frequency is 60 Hz (60 cycles/second).
Circuit Impedence
Most AC circuits contain coils, transformers and other electrical apparatus that produce magnetic effects. These magnetic effects from such devices react upon the current, by retarding (delaying) its flow, causing it to lead or lag behind the voltage as diagrammatically illustrated in Figure 3-2. The magnetic reaction is called reactance, which has two possible components - inductance and capacitance. Inductance is the most prevalent magnetic influence in AC power circuits and systems. Inductive reactance causes current to lag voltage. The reverse of inductance is capacitance, and its effect on current is to cause it to lead voltage. Capacitance reactance tends to counteract circuit inductance, improving power factor (pf). Circuit capacitance is introduced into a circuit through the use of capacitors. In an AC circuit there is three factors which affect current flow; resistance, inductance and capacitance. The combined affect of any two or all three of these effects is referred to as impedence, as they tend to impede current flow. Capacitance and inductance create the reactive (Xc and XL) component of impedence (Z) and is referred to reactance, while resistance represents the real (non-magnetic) component of Z. Impedence is measured in ohms and is mathematically expressed as: Z = R2 + (XL - Xc)2 ; as is a function of frequency (f - Hz), inductance (L - Henrys) and capacitance (C - farads). In an AC circuit, Ohms law is more applicably stated as: E = IZ.
Section 3
Power Factor
Circuit/system reactance, either capacitive or inductive, is responsible for the delay between current/power in voltage as shown in Figure 3-2. The delay/offset is measured in electrical degrees, and is commonly referred to as the phase angle between the real/active current or power component and the total apparent/actual current or power. The power factor (pf) concept is illustrated in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3: Power Factor (pf) - Vector Analysis Presentation
Real/Active/ Phase Current (Ip) E L Line/ Actual/ Apparent Current (IL) (Im) Reactive/ Magnetic Current
Real/Actual Power P = 1.73 EIL cosL (W of kW)
L S Ap = 1. pa 73 re EI nt L Po (VA we o r r kV A)
Reactive/ Magnetic Power Q = 1.73 EIL sinL (VAR or kVAR)
pf = cos L, by Current Analysis
pf = cos L, by Power Analysis (3 ph shown)
Where; P = Power (watts or kilowatts - W or kW), I = current (amps - A), E = Voltage (volts-V), Q = Reactive power (volt amperes reactive - VAR or kVAR), L = phase angle (degrees), S = Apparent power (volt-amperes - VA or kVA), Note: The pf phase angle L between current and power phasers is the same; therefor, the pf calculated based on current or power data is the same value.
3-3
The greater the phase angle; the lower/poorer the pf, the higher the circuit current and lower the real/usable power. In a purely resistive circuit, or in a reactive circuit where capacitive and inductive reactance cancel each other out, the pf = 1.0. Where there is a reactive component to impedence, the pf will be less than 1.0. A inductive AC circuit has a lagging (inductive) pf, which will be less than one. A capacitive circuit has a leading (capacitive) pf, which will also be less than one. At a unity pf (pf = 1.0), the voltage and current reach their respective maximum values simultaneously. In most AC system a slightly inductive condition exists, where voltage reaches its maximum value in a give direction before the current attains its maximum value, then the current is said to be lagging. Consequently the pf is lagging and is a result of the inductive characteristics of such apparatus as transformers, induction motors, etc. The actual current drawn by inductive apparatus have two components, (1) reactive and (2) real. (1) The reactive current component can be defined as the magnetizing or lagging current. It is the current which must overcome the choking effect produced by the inductive characteristics of the apparatus. The reactive current component is zero when the voltage has reached its maximum level, and is said to be 90 out of phase with the voltage. (2) The real current component, can be defined as useful components and it is in phase with the voltage. The real current and the voltage reach maximum values simultaneously. The actual line current is the vector sum of the reactive and real currents, and is illustrated in Figure 3-3. It is this current that is registered with a ammeter. The subject of pf, as it applies directly to motors and pf improvement, are discussed in Section 3B.
Table 3-1: Fundamental Electrical Conversion Formulas
Section 3
Required kVA = kW = Hp (output) = Joules (J) = pf =
Direct Current (DC) IE 1000 IE 1000 IE (eff) 746 IE sec IE (pf) 1000
Alternating Current (AC) 1-phase kW (pf) kVA (pf) .746 (kW) 1.73 IE 1000 1.73 IE (pf) 1000 1.73 IE (eff) (pf) 746 3-phase* kW (pf) kVA (pf) .746 (kW)
IE (eff) (pf) 746
IE (eff) (pf) sec kW (1000) IE kW kVA
1.73 IE (eff) (pf) sec kW (1000) IE (1.73) kW kVA 746 (Hp) 1.73 E (eff) (pf) 1000 kW 1.73 E (pf) 1000 kVA 1.73 E
I (Hp known) = I (kW known) = I (kVA known) =
746 (Hp) E (eff) 1000 kW E
746 (Hp) E (eff) (pf) 1000 kW E (pf) 1000 kVA E (pf)
* For 3-phase systems E is measured line to line and I is phase current. Where; E = Voltage, I = amperes, kW = kilo-watts, Hp = horsepower, eff = motor efficiency, pf = power factor (expressed as a decimal)
3-4
AC Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Electric power is typically measured in horsepower (Hp) or watts (W), one Hp equals 746 watts. One watt is a rather small unit of power; consequently, when speaking of power required by motors, the term kilowatt (kW) is used, one kW being a thousand watts. To obtain the power delivered to an alternating - current motor, you cannot merely multiply effective (rms) amperes by effective (rms) volts. If the circuit contains inductance, and motor circuits always contain it, the product of the effective current and effective voltage will be greater than the real power. This apparent power is measured in volt amperes (VA) or more often in a unit 1,000 times as large, the kilovolt-ampere (kVA). The fundamental formulas for calculating electrical power and current flow are listed in Table 3-1. Three phase (3ph) power is made-up of three separate single phase (1ph) waveforms as shown in Figure 3-4. Each of the individual waveforms is generated at 120 electrical degrees Figure 3-4: Three Phase AC Waveform apart from each other. The 1.73 factor ( 3) in the 3 ph AC + formulas in Table 3-1, accounts for the additional two input phases. The power factor (pf) term present in both the 1ph and 3 ph AC formulas, take into account the magnetic affects within the circuit system created by reactive components such as; motors, transformers and capacitors.
1 E 2 AS E
VOLTAGE
PH
AS
START
PH
PH
AS
1 CYCLE
1/4 CYCLE
1/2 CYCLE
3/4 CYCLE
1-1/4 CYCLE
1-1/2 CYCLE
1-3/4 CYCLE
2 CYCLE
Section 3
Phase Converters
A phase converters is a devices used to convert single-phase (1 ph) power to three-phase (3 ph) power, allowing 3 ph motors to be used on a 1 ph power line. There are three basic types of phase converters; static (electromechanical), rotary and electronic - solid state. Phase converters are typically used when the cost of 3 ph power line extension is cost prohibited, lack of availability of appropriate 1 ph motors, temporary 3 ph service is required until permanent - utility supplied 3 ph power is available, etc. Phase converters are normally rated in terms of kVA in lieu of horsepower. In general, phase converters which employ electro-mechancial means; such as capacitors, winding taps or adjustable relays. In these arrangements, a manufactured third leg voltage is created via a phase shift of a existing leg, which creates a voltage balance problem. Some phase converters may be well balanced at one point on the system operating curve, but change drastically with changes in load as water level and discharge pressure fluctuate. Other converters may be will balanced at varying loads, but their output may vary widely with fluctuations of input voltage. Electronic Phase Converters. Commercial solid state phase converters can provide excellent performance under changing load and input voltage levels. If a phase converter is necessary, a electronic - solid state model should be employed. A variable frequency drive (VFD) can be used as a phase converter by derating the VFD unit by approximately 65% it also can be used as a frequency converter from 50 to 60 Hz and provides a soft start. The following guidelines should be used where phase converters are used in conjunction with submersible pump installations. 1. Limit pump loading to rated horsepower. Do not load into motor service factor. 2. Maintain at least three feet per second motor cooling. Use a flow sleeve when necessary. 3. Use time delay fuses or circuit breakers in pump panel. Standard fuses or circuit breakers do not provide secondary motor protection. 4. Verify suitability of control, starting and protective equipment for use with a phase converter. 5. Current unbalance must not exceed 10% under varying load conditions. The motor and/or control manufacture should be consulted for specific recommendation whenever a phase converter is used. Section 3A Electrical Fundamentals 3-5
High Voltage Surge Arresters

A high voltage surge arrester should be used to protect the motor against lightning and switching surges. Lightning voltage surges in power lines are caused when lightning strikes somewhere in the area. Switching surges are caused by the opening and closing of switches on the main high-voltage distribution power lines. The correct voltage-rated surge arrester should be installed on the supply (line) side of the control box (Figures 3-5 and 3-6). The arrester must be grounded in accordance with the National Electrical Code and local codes and regulations.
Figure 3-5: Single Phase Hookup Figure 3-6: Three-Phase Power Supply
Section 3
3-6
3B INDUCTION MOTORS
Induction Motor Overview
Electric motors are devices which convert electric energy to kinetic energy, usually in the form of a rotating shaft which can be used to drive a fan, pump, compressor, etc. The most common type motor used in the pump industry, submersible motors included, is the squirrel cage - alternating current (AC) induction motor. A general breakdown of the various electric motor, types are illustrated in Figure 3-7. In a induction motor, the primary winding (stator) is connected to the power source while the secondary winding (rotor) carries induced current.
Figure 3-7: Electric Motor Type Overview
Electric Motors
DC Motors Single Phase
Induction
Squirrel Cage Wound Rotor
AC Motors
Synchronus
Split Phase * Capacitor Start * Perm. Split Cap. Cap Start-Cap Run. Split ph Start-Cap. Run Shaded Pole
Poly phase / Three phase
Synchronus
Wound Rotor Squirrel Cage
Induction
Design Design Design Design Design
A B ** C D F
Section 3
* Single phase submersible motors generally fall into these categories ** Three phase submersible pump motor generally fall into the NEMA Design B category Single-phase (1 ph) motors are commonly used up to 3 horsepower (Hp), occasionally larger. Three-phase (3 ph) motors are preferred in electrical design for 3/4-Hp motors and larger, since they are self-balancing on the 3ph service. Motors come in various styles design types and efficiency ratings. The efficiency is typically related to the amount of iron and copper in the windings; the more iron for magnetic flux and copper for reduced resistance, generally the more efficient the motor. The topic of efficiency is discussed in greater latter in this section. Motors are typically selected to operate at or below the motor nameplate rating, although this is not always the case in the submersible motor industry where motors are often loaded into there service factors under nominal operating conditions. Motors used in the U.S. typically have service factor of 1.15 or more, which represents the maximum continuos overload capability of the motor at rated conditions. Since motors are susceptible to failure when they are operated above the rated temperature, care must be taken in motor selection for hot environments. Principles of Operation. In a induction motor, the stator winding is distributed uniformly around the inner circumference of the stator. The current in the winding (s) are sinusoidally distributed, so as to produce a uniform revolving field that drags the rotor around with it. Polyphase (three phase) motors have three separate stator windings, one for each phase as shown in Figure 3-8. Single phase motors have a single winding, since there is only one input phase, and require special provisions to start. Starting provisions are required to produce the needed phase shift to begin rotation. Current flow in the stator induces a magnetic field in the rotor, through the process of electro-magnetic induction. The rotor has no connections whatever to the line. As mentioned previously, the most common form of the induction motor is the squirrel cage motor which takes its name from the fact that the rotor winding resembles the wheel of a squirrel cage. This type of induction motor consists of a stator and a squirrel cage rotor with bearings to support it. The stator, because it receives the power from the line, is often called the primary; the rotor is often called the secondary.
Section 3B Induction Motors
3-7
Figure 3-8: Simplified Three-Phase AC Motor Schematic Diagram (6 pole illustration)
Section 3
The squirrel-cage rotor winding consists of aluminum or copper bars mounted in core slots, connected together at the ends with heavy end rings. A revolving field is set up by the currents in the stator (armature) of the induction motor. As this field revolves, it cuts the squirrel-cage rotor conductors inducing voltage. These voltages cause currents to flow in the squirrel-cage circuit, through the bars under the north poles, into the end ring, back through the bars under the adjacent south poles, into the other end ring, completing the circuit back to the original bars under the north poles. The current flowing in the squirrel-cage rotor, down one group of bars and back in the adjacent group, makes a loop which establishes magnetic fields in the rotor core with north and south poles. This loop consists of one turn, but there are several conductors in parallel as the currents are heavy. These poles in the rotor are attracted to the alternating polarity poles of the revolving field set up by the currents in the stator winding. The rotor follows the rotating magnetic field in the stator, in a manner similar to that in which the rotor field poles follow the stator/armature poles in a synchronous motor. The primary difference between the synchronous motor and the induction motor is; the rotor of the induction motor does not rotate as fast as the rotating field in the stator. If the squirrel cage rotor were to go as fast as the rotating field, the conductors in it would be standing still with respect to the rotating field rather than cutting across it. There would be no voltage induced in the rotor; therefore no currents would flow and no magnetic poles established in the rotor. This lack of attraction would prevent the motor from rotating. Since the rotor in the induction motor must revolve at a slower speed than the revolving field in the stator to allow the rotor conductors to cut the revolving magnetic field as it slips by, and induces the necessary currents in the rotor windings. The motor can never go as fast as the revolving field but is always slipping back. This difference in speed is called the slip. The greater the load, the greater the slip will be, and the slower the motor will run, The topic of slip is discussed latter in this section. The power factor and efficiency of an induction motor is generally lower at light loads than at full load. In selecting a motor for a definite load, the size should be such as to operate at nearly full load for the most economical operations; however, under adverse operating conditions it is sometimes best to operate below full load due to the operating conditions. The topic of power factor and efficiency is discussed in greater detail latter in this section. A electrical model of a induction motor, by equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure 3-9.
3-8
Figure 3-9: Induction Motor per Phase Equivalent Circuit
per phase model The squirrel cage induction motor is one of the most efficient motors built. The speed of the squirrel cage motor is constant under steady state load and voltage conditions; it is dependent on the number of poles configured within the stator input frequency. Selection Information. The following minimal information is necessary in order to properly select a submersible and/or surface induction motor for pumping applications: Source and Quality of power (utility supply, generator, high voltage variance) Voltage and frequency of current (including probable variations in frequency and voltage). Horsepower requirement of the driven pump. The operating speed or speed range Method of starting and control; soft start, part wind, Y-Delta, VFD, etc. Type of motor enclosure; such as drip-proof, totally enclosed, weather protection, explosion proof, dust-ignition proof or other enclosure - surface motors only. The ambient or surrounding temperature. Altitude of operation - surface motors only. Special conditions of heat, moisture, dust, hazards or corrosive environment, etc. Type of connection to driven machine (direct, belted, geared, etc.) Transmitted bearing load to the motor (overhung load, thrust, etc.) Well diameter - submersible motors only
Section 3
Voltage
Voltage (Definitions & Standards). The motor nameplate voltage is determined by the available power supply which must be known in order to properly select a motor for a given application. The nameplate voltage will normally be less than the nominal distribution system voltage. The distribution voltage is the same as the supply transformer voltage rating; the utilization (motor nameplate) voltage is set at a slightly lower level to allow for a voltage drop in the system between the transformer and the motor. Some specifications still call for 220, 440 or 550 volt motors which were the long accepted standards. Modern distribution systems have transformers located adjacent to secondary unit substations or load centers, plantwide power factor correction, and shorter power line runs. The result is a stiffer distribution system which delivers higher voltage at the motor. The motor nameplate voltages listed in Table 3-2 provide the best match to distribution system voltages and meet current motor design practices. Dual Voltage Rated Motors. Polyphase and single-phase motors may be furnished as dual voltage ratings under the following conditions: 1. Both voltages are standard for the particular rating as listed in Table 3-3. 2. The two voltages are in a ratio of either 1:2 or 1: 3 (e.g. 230/460, 60 Hz; 2300/4000, 60 Hz; or 220/380, 50 Hz). 3. Single-phase voltage ratios are 1:2 only. Section 3B Induction Motors 3-9
Table 3-2: Standard Motor Nameplate Voltages
Nominal Distribution System Voltage Three-phase 60 hertz 208 240 480 600 2400 4160 6900 Single-phase 60 hertz 120 208 240
Motor Nameplate Voltage < 125 Hp > 125 Hp 200 230 460 575 2300 4000 6600 460 575 2300 4000 6600
Nominal Distribution System Voltage Three-phase 50 hertz See Note 2
Motor Nameplate Voltage < 125 Hp > 125 Hp 200 220 380 415 440 550 30000 380 415 440 550 3000
Single-phase 50 hertz 115 200 230 See Note 2 110 200 220 -
Note: 1. The standards listed in the table were established based on the recommendations of the Edison Electrical Institute and NEMA. 2. Distribution system voltages vary from country to country; therefore, motor nameplate voltage should be selected for the country in which it will be operated.
Section 3
Voltage & Frequency Variations. All motors are designed to operate successfully with limited voltage and frequency variations. Voltage variation at rated frequency must be limited to 10% and frequency variations at rated voltage must be limited to 5%. The combined variation of voltage and frequency must be limited to the arithmetic sum of 10%. Variations are expressed as deviation from motor nameplate values, not necessarily system nominal values. The allowable 10% voltage variation is based upon the assumptions that horsepower will not exceed nameplate rating and that motor temperature may increase. A 230 volt motor operating at 207 volts (90% of rated) loses any service factor indicated on the nameplate, and will run hotter than at rated voltage. The effect of voltage and frequency variation are described below.
Figure 3-10: Typical Effect of Voltage & Frequency Variation on Induction Motor Performance
A. Effect of Voltage Variation 3-10 Section 3B Induction Motors
B. Effect of Frequency Variation
Effects of Voltage Variation on Motor Performance A. An increase or decrease in voltage may result in increased heating at rated horsepower load. Under extended operation this may accelerate insulation deterioration and shorten motor insulation life. B. An increase in voltage will usually result in a noticeable decrease in power factor. Conversely, a decrease in voltage will result in an increase in power factor. C. Locked-rotor and breakdown torque will be proportional to the square of the voltage. Therefore, a decrease in voltage will result in a decrease in available torque. D. An increase of 10% in voltage will result in a reduction of slip of approximately 17%. A voltage reduction of 10% would increase slip by about 21%. Effects of Frequency Variation on Motor Performance A. Frequency greater than rated frequency normally improves power factor but decreases locked-rotor and aximum torque. This condition also increases speed, and therefore, friction and windage losses. B. Conversely, a decrease in frequency will usually lower power factor and speed while increasing locked-rotor maximum torque and locked rotor current. Low Starting Voltage. Large motor may experience a considerable voltage drop (dip) at the motor terminals when started due to large inrush current. Large submersible motors are particularly susceptible to low voltage starting problems as a result of long cable runs. High inrush currents create instantaneous cable voltage drops 4-7 time the running value, which can make starting of deep set submersible pumps difficult if not considered in the initial design. Most motors will successfully start with terminal voltage down to 65% of the nameplate rated voltage. In submersible applications, the minimum allowable voltage, measured at the surface, should be no less than 70% of the motor nameplate value. Reduced voltage starting of large Hp motors is a common practice to reduce stating inrush currents, thereby reducing flicker dip within the power distribution system.
Section 3
Frequency
Frequency Definitions. Frequency can be defined as the number of complete alterations-per-second of an alternating current and is illustrated in Figure 3-11 below:
Figure 3-11: Alternating Current Cycle Illustration
Current is said to have been through one complete cycle when it has gone from zero to maximum, to minimum, and back to zero again. Frequency is the number of these complete cycles over the passage of time and is usually expressed as hertz (Hz): one hertz equals one cycle per second (cps). Predominate frequency in North America is 60 Hz.
Frequency Standards. The predominant frequency in the United States is 60 Hz; however, 50 Hz systems are common in other countries. A small percentage of power distribution systems through out the world are 40 or 25 Hz based. The NEMA standard frequencies are 60 and 50 hertz. 50Hz Operation of 60Hz Motors. Many motor rated for 60 Hz may be successfully operated at a 50Hz provided the volts/Hz ratio is maintained. Operation of a 60 Hz motor at 50 Hz requires a reduction in voltage and horsepower as shown in Table 3-3.
3-11
Table 3-3: Derating Factors for 60Hz Motors Operated at 50Hz
Motor 60Hz Voltage Rating 230 460 575 Derate Factor (DF) 190 380 475 .85
Motor 50 Hz Voltage Option Voltage Range (+/- %5) 200 400 500 .90 208 415 1.00
Rated Hp @ 50Hz = Nameplate Hp x DF Motor Speed = 5/6 (.83) nameplate rated speed Allowable voltage variation at derated Hp = +/- 5% Service Factor (SF) = 1.0 Select motor overload protection for a 60Hz Amps and 1.0 SF Dual Frequency Motors. Motors that require 50 and 60 Hz operation of the same motor are non-NEMA defined motors. Such motors are available from some manufactures by special order. Variable Frequency Operation. Almost all three phase motors can be operated in the conjunction with variable frequency drives (VFD). When the motor is not specifically designed for use with a VFD, it is recommended that the motor not be loaded beyond at its nameplate rating @ 60Hz.
AC Power Section 3
A power system is typically either single phase or three phase. Figure 3-11 illustrates the single phase a.c. power waveform, which is most commonly used to serve factional up to about 3 horsepower motors. A three phase power system consists of two or more alternating currents of equal frequency and amplitude but offset from each other by a phase angle. Figure 3-12 illustrates a three phase power systems having phases A, B and C. Each phase is offset by 120 degree, 360 degrees being the span of Figure 3-12: Three phase power waveform (current) one complete cycle. From a motor standpoint, three phase motors are simpler to construct and maintain. They require none of the starting enhancements required by single phase motors. Three phase power allows for a more powerful motor to be built into a more compact housing, with greater efficiency and smoother operation; when compared to a single phase motor of the same rating.
Motor Output Rating

Speed. The speed at which an induction motor operates is dependent upon the input power frequency and the number of electrical magnetic poles (p). The number of poles (magnetic fields set up inside the motor is a function placement and connection of the stator windings. The higher the frequency (f), the faster the motor runs. The more poles the motor has, the slower it runs. The speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called synchronous (sync.) speed. To determine the synchronous speed of an induction motor, the following equation is used: Sync. Speed (rpm) = 60 x 2 x frequency = 120 x f Number of poles p
3-12
Actual full-load (F.L.) speed (the speed at which an induction motor will operate at nameplate rated load) will be less than synchronous speed. This difference between synchronous speed and full-load speed is called slip. Percent slip is defined as follows: % Slip = Sync. Speed - F.L. Speed x 100 Sync. Speed Induction motors are built having rated slip ranging from less than 5% to as much as 20%. A motor with a slip of less than 5% is called a normal slip motor. Submersible motors are of the low slip design as they are used almost exclusively for variable torque centrifugal pump applications. Motors with a slip of 5% or more are used for applications requiring high starting torque (conveyor) and/or higher than normal slip (punch press) where, as the motor slows down, increased torque allows for flywheel energy release. The relationship between motor speed, frequency and number of poles is described in Table 3-4 below.
Table 3-4: Synchronous & Appx. F.L. Speed of Std. NEMA Design B ~ AC Induction Motors
# - poles 2 4 6 8
60 Hz - rpm Sync. F.L 3600 1800 1200 900 3500 1770 1170 870
# - poles 10 12 14 16
60 Hz - rpm Sync. F.L. 720 600 514 450 690 575 490 430
# - poles 2 4 6 8
50 Hz - rpm Sync. F.L. 3000 1500 1000 750 2900 1450 960 720
Section 3
Note: The F.L. speeds listed in the table are for surface motor, submersible motor F.L. speeds are generally slightly less as a result of the compact design. Nameplate Horsepower. The motor nameplate Hp rating is the full load Hp output rating at the motor shaft under rated conditions. The actual Hp output can be calculated by determining the Input Hp and multiplying it by the motor efficiency, at the appropriate load percentage. Torque & Horsepower. Torque and horsepower are two key motor characteristics that determine the size of motor for an application. Torque is merely a turning effort of force acting through a radius. It takes one pound of force applied at a distant of one foot from the center of a shaft to produce one foot pound (ft. - lb.) of torque. Torque (T) is independent of speed. Horsepower (Hp) takes into account speed. Turning the shaft rapidly requires more Hp than turning it slowly (ie. Hp @ 1.0 ft.- lb. and 1800 rpm < Hp @ 1.0 ft. - 1b. and 3600 rpm). Horsepower is a measure of the rate at which work is done. The relationship between T and Hp is: 1.0 Horsepower = 33,000 ft-lbs./min. The torque (T) - horsepower (Hp) relationship can be related to a rotary system as a function of speed as follows: HP = rpm x 2 x T = rpm x T 33,000 5,250 where; T = torque in ft. - lbs. rpm = speed in rev./min.
In order to produce one Hp, the shaft would have to be turned at a rate of 5252 rpm (1 Hp x (33,000 ft. lbs./min./Hp)) / (1 ft. x 2 (ft./rev.). In terms of induction motors, full - load torque (F.L.T.) can be calculated using the above formulas, when the motors full -load speed (F.L. rpm) is known: F.L.T. = Hp x 5250 F.L. rpm Figure 3-13 illustrates a typical speed-torque (S-T) curve for a NEMA design B induction motor. Submersible Motors are typically constructed in accordance to NEMA design B standards and exhibit the same general characteristics.
3-13
Figure 3-13: Motor Speed-Torque - Current Curve (NEMA Design B)
% SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
% SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
Section 3
Speed - Torque Relationship
Speed - Torque - Current Relationship
Locked Rotor Torque. Locked rotor torque (L.R.T.) is the torque which the motor will develop at rest with rated voltage at rated frequency applied. It is also sometimes known as starting torque and is usually expressed as a percentage of full-load torque. The L.R.T. for NEMA design B motors range from 125 to 275% of the F.L.T. value. Pull-up Torque. Pull-up torque (P.U.T.) is the minimum torque developed during the period of acceleration from locked rotor to the speed at which break down torque occurs. Breakdown Torque. Breakdown torque (B.D.T.) is the maximum torque the motor will develop with rated voltage applied at rated frequency without an abrupt drop in speed. Breakdown torque is usually expressed as a percentage of full-load torque. The B.D.T. for NEMA design B motors range from 200 to 300% of the F.L.T. value. Full - Load Torque. Full-load torque (F.L.T.) is the torque necessary to produce rated horsepower at full-load speed. Motor Current. In addition to the relationship between speed and torque, the relationship of motor current to these two values is an important application consideration. The speed/torque curve is repeated with the current curve added to demonstrate a typical relationship in Figure 3-13. Full - Load Current/Amps. The full-load current (F.L.A.) of an induction motor is the steady-state current taken from the power line when the motor is operating at full-load torque with rated voltage and rated frequency applied. Locked-Rotor Current/Amps. Locked-rotor current (L.R.A.) is the steady-state current of a motor with the rotor locked and with rated voltage applied at rated frequency. NEMA has designated a set of code letters to define locked rotor kilovolt-amperes-per-horsepower (kVA/Hp) and are listed in Table 3-5. This code letter appears on the nameplate of all AC squirrel-cage induction motors; and can be used to estimate in -rush/start-up/L.R.A. current. The letter designations for locked motor kVA/Hp are based on full voltage and rated frequency at the motor terminals. Starting current for NEMA design B motors range from 400 to 700% of the F.L.A. for a across-the-line (AOL) start. No - Load Current/Amps. The no-load current N.L.A will range between 30 - 40% of the motors F.L.A. value. The majority of this current is required to establish the magnetic field within the motor.
3-14
Table 3-5: Locked-Rotor kVA/Hp Code Letters Designations
Letter Designation A B C D E F G
KVA/Hp* 0 -3.15 3.15 - 3.55 3.55 - 4.0 4.0 - 4.5 4.5 - 5.0 5.0 - 5.6 5.6 - 6.3
Letter Designation H J K L M N P
KVA/Hp* 6.3 - 7.1 7.1 - 8.0 8.0 - 9.0 9.0 - 10.0 10.0 - 11.2 11.2 - 12.5 12.5 - 14.0
Letter Designation R S T U V -
KVA/Hp * 14.0 - 16.0 16.0 -18.0 18.0 - 20.0 20.0 - 22.4 22.4 and up -
* The locked-rotor kilovolt-ampere-per-horsepower range includes the lower figure up to, but not including the higher figure. For example, 3.14 is letter A and 3.15 is letter B. Note: 1. The maximum motor in-rush current at start-up/Locked Rotor Amps (L.R.A.) can be quickly approximated by multiplying the published full load amps (F.L.A.) value by average numeric value associated with the NEMA code letter printed on the motor nameplated 2. Single-speed motors, starting on Y connection and running on delta connections, are marked with a code letter corresponding to the locked-rotor kVA per horsepower for the delta connection. 3. Dual-voltage motors which have a different locked-rotor kVA per horsepower on the two voltages are marked with the code letter for the voltage giving the highest locked-rotor kVA per horsepower. 4. Motors with 60 and 50 Hertz ratings are marked with a code letter designating the locked rotor kVA per horsepower on 60 hertz. 5. Part-winding-start motors are marked with a code letter designating the locked rotor kVA per horsepower that is based upon the locked rotor current for the full winding of the motor. Estimating Motor L.R.A./In-Rush Current. The relationship between motor kVA/Hp and L.R.A. for a three phase system is illustrated mathematically as follows: kVA/Hp = Amps x Volts 1000 x Hp x 1.73 L.R.A. = 1000 x Hp x L.R. kVA/Hp 1.73 x Volts
Section 3
Note: 1. The same formula can be used for a single phase motors through the elimination of the 1.73, three phase multiplication factor. 2. The L.R. kVA/Hp value is based on the NEMA code letter assignment. Operating a motor in a locked-rotor condition in excess of 20 seconds can result in insulation failure due to the excessive heat generated in the stator.
Efficiency
Efficiency of a motor is the ratio of its power output to input. It represents the effectiveness in which the motor converts electrical energy to mechanical load, and is illustrated by equation as follows: Efficiency (%) = P output (Hp) x 100 F.L. rpm All electrical devices heat up in operation due to the losses in the windings, cores, and other machine parts. Heating represents a loss of energy and reduces efficiency. Enough power must be put into the machine (motor) to overcome these losses, in addition to the power required by the load on the motor. The power input to the motor is always greater than the power output. The ideal motor would be 100% efficient; however this is a impossible situation as a result of motor losses (see Figure 3-15). The efficiency of electrical submersible motors range from 80 to 90%. The efficiency generally increases with the size of the motor. Motors 10 Hp and larger, generally maintain high efficiency over the load range of 50% to 125%; however, power factor will drop rapidly with decrease in motor load. The efficiency power factor relationship is illustrated in Figure 3-14.
3-15
Figure 3-14: Power Factor and Efficiency Variation by Load
Note: The curves indicate a general relationship. Values will vary with individual motor type and manufacturer.
Section 3
Power Factor Variation by Load
Efficiency Variation by Load
The relationship between efficiency and power factor, as well as economics, favor loading a motor at or near full load. A slight increase in motor efficiency may have a significant impact on power consumption in high use installations. Motor Losses. Motor losses are categorized as; (1) those which occur while the motor is energized but operating at no load, and (2) additional losses due to the output load. Specific losses are: 1. No load losses: a. Friction windage b. Core losses 2. Load Losses: a. I2R Losses (stator and rotor) b. Stray Load Losses
The no-load losses and the conductor losses under load can be measured separately; however, the stray load loss requires accurate input-output test equipment for determination. The strayFigure 3-15: Typical Motor Losses - 50 Hp Induction Motor load loss consists of losses due to harmonic currents and flux in the motor and are difficult to measure directly. Losses in a typical 50Hp induction motor is shown in Figure 3-15. Motors operated under VFD/inverter condition will exhibit significantly higher stray load losses under full load conditions.
3-16
Motor Testing. Motor efficiency is not an absolute or constant for all motors of the same design. Rather, the efficiencies of a large number of motors will fit a normal bell curve distribution. The nominal efficiency which appears on the motor nameplate corresponds to the nominal, or average expected efficiency on the curve. If the efficiency of a specific motor is required, that motor must be factory tested. Most motor manufactures can provide such testing at a additional cost. Efficiency requirements established by NEMA for three-phase surface motors are tabulated in Table 3-6.
Table 3-6: Electric Motor Efficiencies - NEMA Standard, Table 12.6
Hp 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25
12-6B (current) ODP TEFC 77.0 82.5 82.5 86.5 86.5 88.5 88.5 90.2 91.0 91.7 72.0 81.5 82.5 84.0 85.5 87.5 87.5 88.5 90.2 91.0
12-6C (1997) ODP TEFC 82.5 84.0 84.0 86.5 87.5 88.5 89.5 91.0 91.0 91.7 82.5 84.0 84.0 87.5 87.5 89.5 89.5 91.0 91.0 92.4
Hp 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 -
12-6B (current) ODP TEFC 91.7 92.4 92.4 93.0 93.6 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.1 91.0 91.7 92.4 93.0 93.0 93.6 93.6 94.1 94.5 -
12-6C (1997) ODP TEFC 92.4 93.0 93.0 93.6 94.1 94.1 94.5 95.0 95.0 92.4 93.0 93.0 93.6 94.1 94.5 94.5 95.0 95.0 -
Note: Submersible motors will be slightly less efficient as a result of the compact design. Basis of Testing. Most motors used in the U.S. are manufactured in accordance NEMA standard MG-1, which incorporates test standard IEEE 112 method B for reporting motor efficiency. Other standards for reporting motor efficiency are IEC 34-2 and JEC37 which are primarily utilized in Europe and Japan respectively. When comparing motors, the efficiency should be calculated on the same basis. A 15 Hp motor tested by IEEE 112 - method B, JEC 37 and IEC 34 - 2 produced efficiency values of 87.4%, 90.1% and 89.2% respectively.
Section 3
Three Phase Motors (1-200 Hp)

NEMA has designated several specific types of motors, each type having unique speed/torque relationships. The rotor design is the principal factor which distinguishes the various NEMA design types. These designs are described in Figure 3-16 along with some typical applications for each. Only the NEMA design B motors have applicability to submersible motors used in water supply industry. The other NEMA designs are described for completeness, as they are used in wide range of water supply application.
3-17
Figure 3-16: NEMA Motor Design Performance Characteristics by Design Code
1) NEMA Design A&B Starting Current: Design A - high to medium (not defined by NEMA)/Design B - low Starting Torque: Normal Breakdown Torque: Normal Full - Load Slip: Low (less than 5%) Applications: Low starting torque/variable torque requirements and essentially constant load, such as pumps and fans. Expense: Minimal 2) NEMA Design C Starting Current: Low Starting Torque: High Breakdown Torque: Normal Full-Load Slip: Low (less than 5%) Applications: Hard-to-start loads such as positive displacement pumps and compressors. Expense: Moderate 3) NEMA Design D Starting Current: Low Starting Torque: Very High Breakdown Torque: Not Applicable Full-Load Slip: High (5-8%; 8-13%) Applications: Where a combination of high starting torque and high slip is required. Ideal for high inertia loads and/or for considerable variations in load; such as; punch presses, shears, cranes, hoists, and elevators. Expense: High Rotor Geometry
Section 3
Speed - Torque Performance
3-18
Three-Phase Unbalance
Voltage Unbalance. Unbalanced line voltages applied to a polyphase motor result in unbalanced currents in the stator windings. Even a small percentage of voltage unbalance will result in a larger percentage of current unbalance, thus increasing temperature rise and possibly result in nuisance tripping. Voltages should be as evenly balanced as can be read on a voltmeter. If voltages are unbalanced, the rated horsepower of the motor should be derated, based upon the percent unbalance as shown in Figure 3-17.
Figure 3-17: Motor Derating for Voltage Unbalance
The percent unbalance is calculated as follows: % Unbalance = 100 x (Max. Volt Deviation from Avg.) Avg. Voltage
Example 3-1: Voltage Unbalance Motor Derating Calculation
Given: 100 Hp/3ph motor operating @ 480V, 460V and 440V measured at the motor starter is running with a 4.3% voltage unbalance (100 x 20/460). Solution. The rated output of 100 Hp should be derated by .80% (from Figure 3-18) to 80 Hp to reduce the possibility of damage.
Section 3
Note: Motor operated above 5% voltage unbalance is not recommended. Effects of Unbalanced Voltage on Motor Performance. Torques: Unbalanced Voltage results in reduced locked-rotor and breakdown torques for the application. Full-Load Speed: Unbalanced voltage results in a slight reduction of full-load speed. Current: Locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same degree that voltages are unbalanced but lockedrotor KVA will increase only slightly. Full load current at unbalanced voltage will be unbalanced in the order of six to ten times the voltage unbalanced. Temperature Rise: A 3.5% voltage unbalance will cause an approximate 25% increase in temperature rise. Current Unbalance. Current unbalance is typically a result of heavy single-phase loads on the electrical transmission lines or as a result of open delta secondary transformer connection serving the motor. Excessive current unbalance in three phase motors may cause low output, overload tripping and motor failure if improperly protected. Two criteria used in determining the acceptable levels of unbalance for submersible pumping applications are; (1) Initial installations should aim for a 5% maximum current unbalance, and unbalance should not exceed 10% for installations that have been in service for 6 months or longer, and (2) Current unbalance should not exceed 5% of service factor load or 10% at rated load for new installations. In order to maintain current unbalance within acceptable levels, voltage unbalance must be maintained within 1-3% line to line. The formula for calculating current unbalance is described as follows: % Unbalance = 100 x (Max. Current Deviation from Avg.) Avg. Voltage
Example 3-2: Current Unbalance Calculation
Given: 20 Hp/3 ph motor operating @ 230V. Current on each leg was measured at 50, 48 and 52A. Solution: From the above formula, the current unbalance is 4% (52 - 50/50). When the current unbalance exceeds 2%, as is the case this example, the motor cable leads should be rolled to minimize unbalance and determine whether it is mainly caused by the line, or as a result of motor/cable problem.
3-19
If the unbalanced currents stay with the same line leads when motor leads are rolled, unbalance is in the line. If the unbalance follows the motor leads, the unbalance is in the cable and motor, and they must be checked for defects. If unbalance stays with the line leads and is in excess of 3% in the best of the three connections, consult the power company for correction. A typical start-up procedure for submersible pumping system is outlined and illustrated below. Checking and Correcting Rotation and Current Unbalance 1. Establish correct motor rotation by running in both directions. Change rotation by exchanging any two of the three motor leads. The rotation that gives the most water flow, or produces the greatest pressure is always the correct rotation. The typical phase designation of motor leads for CCW rotation viewing the shaft end is ph 1 or A - black ph 2 or B - yellow ph 3 or C - red
Note: ph 1, 2 and 3 may not be L 1, L 2 and L 3 2. After correction rotation has been established, check the current in each of the three motor leads and calculate the current unbalance as explained in item 3 below, and described in example 3-1 above.
Section 3
If the current unbalance is 2% or less, leave the leads as connected. If the current unbalance is greater than 2%, current readings should be checked on each leg using each of the three possible hook-ups. Roll the motor leads across the starter in the same direction to prevent motor reversal (ie. move each lead one place to the right and move the furthest right lead to the left). 3. To calculate percent of current unbalance: A. Add the three line amp values together. B. Divide the sum by three, yielding average current. C. Pick the amp value which is furthest from the average current (either high or low). D. Determine the difference between this amp value (furthest from average) and the average. E. Divide the difference by the average and multiply the result by 100 to determine percent of unbalance. The rolled phases/current unbalance calculation process is illustrated in Figure 3-18.
Figure 3-18: Rolled Phases - Current Unbalance Calculation
Calculations R B Y Total 150 / 3 50 - 46 4 / 50 = = = = = = = 51 amps 46 amps 53 amps 150 amps 50 amps 4 amps .08 or 8% Y R B Total 150 / 3 50 - 48 2 / 50 = = = = = = = 50 amps 48 amps 52 amps 150 amps 50 amps 2 amps .04 or 4% B Y R Total 150 / 3 50 - 49 1 / 50 = = = = = = = 50 amps 49 amps 51 amps 150 amps 50 amps 1 amps .02 or 2%
Note: The installation should be left in the hookup 3 configuration 3-20 Section 3B Induction Motors
Single Phase Motors

Single phase (1 ph) motors are most often employed when power requirement range from fractional horsepower (Hp) - 115 to 230V to approximately 3 Hp - 230V. Single phase motor Hp ratings up to 15 Hp are available by special order. In the submersible motor industry, 1 ph motors are categorized as two-wire (2W) or three-wire (3W), and are described as follows: 2W motors require no external capacitor to facilitate a motor start and have low starting torque. 2W motors are available in fractional sizes up about 1.5 Hp. The most common 2W motor design used in the submersible pump industry is the split phase type. This design utilizes a built in capacitor in the starting winding with a centrifugal switch, which opens at about 2/3 of full load speed engaging the running winding. 3W motors require a external capacitor and switching relay to start, and have higher starting torque compared with 2W designs, but less than 3 phase motors. 3W motors are typically available in sizes ranging from 1/3 to 15 Hp. The capacitor start-induction run motor is the most widely used type 3W motor. All single phase motors are wired to run in a specified direction at the factory (typically CCW). Some fractional Hp models incorporate built-in overload protection. Overload protection must be built into the starter for larger units.
Power Factor
A motor can be fundamentally described as a electromagnet, power factor (pf) is a measure of the amount of magnetizing current required for the machine to operate. Power factor (pf) is an important consideration when selecting a motor for a particular application since low pf may result in a pf penalty charges from the utility company. Since the power company must supply kVA, but typical utility metering only kilowatts (kW) used, low motor pf requires additional kVA with low return on kW utilized; hence, pf penalties. The equation for calculating pf in a three-phase system is listed as follows: pf = kW Input = kW 1.73 x V x I kVA Note: The same equation can be used for a single-phase system with the elimination of the 1.73 term.
Section 3
This equation represents a numerical method of expressing the phase difference between voltage and current in a motor circuit. The current in an induction motor lags the applied voltage, and only the component that is in phase with the voltage varies with motor power. The relationship expressed in the above equation is shown graphically in Figure 3-19 A, as a vector relationship in which the numerical expression actually the cosine of the angle L.
Figure 3-19: Power Factor Illustration
A. Phase Angle (General)
B. Phase Angle as a % of Load
pf = cos L
Ip = In-phase current, Im = Magnetizing Current, IL = Total Current
Line current required for a given motor output varies inversely with power factor. Increasing pf will reduce required line current, thus reducing voltage drop in power lines and transformers. The lagging current shown in Figure 3-19 A is actually motor magnetizing current, which is dependent upon motor design. This magnetizing current is independent of motor load (ie. just as much is required at no load as at full load). Thus power factor at partial loads is never as high as at full load). Thus power factor at partial loads is never as high as at full load, and at no load power factor is essentially zero. The relationship of load to pf for various motor sizes is illustrated in Figure 3-14.
3-21
Power Factor Correction

In some instances, power supply limitations make it necessary or desirable to raise the power factor (pf ) of the submersible pump installation. The primary reasons for improving pf are; (1) improve voltage regulation, (2) avoid or reduce utility power factor penalties and (3) reduce current flow (load) through cables, transformers and related appurtenances. Typical kVAR and capacitor addition correction requirements for pf improvement of submersible installations are illustrated in Table 3-7.
Table 3-7: Power Factor (pf) Improvement Capacitor Requirements @ 60Hz - 3 phase (Tabulated range of pf improvement is .82 - .85 (existing) to .92 - .95 (corrected))
Horsepower (Hp) Capacity at 230V (uF) at 460V kVAR Correction Horsepower (Hp) Capacity at 460V (uF) kVAR Correction
5 80 20 1.6 60 100 8.0
7.5 120 30 2.4 75 160 12.8
10 140 35 2.8 100 200 16
15 200 50 4.0 125 450 36
20 300 75 6.0 150 250 20
25 300 75 6.0 175 90 7.2
30 320 80 6.4 200 85 6.8
40 85 6.8 250 115 9.2
50 85 6.8 300 115 9.2
Note: 1. The tabulated capacitor values are for WYE - connection per phase. For DELTA - connection, use 1/3rd tabulated capacity. 2. When pf is improved to 92 - 95%, a condensive (capacitive) pf may occur when load is increased or voltage is low and this may cause a negative effect in this system. To avoid this problem, a capacitor selection for the next motor size smaller is advisable. The power company will generally request a power factor of 85% min. 3. Capacitors must be connected on the line side (upstream) of motor overload protection. 4. The use of power correction capacitors in conjunction with VFD control is not recommended. Power factor correction is achieved when capacitive reactance (capactive reactive power in kVAR) is added in parallel to the power system through the use of capacitors. The capactive reactance created by the capacitors cancel the inductive reactance (inductive reactive power in kVAR) affect created by induction motors. From a system stand point, over-excited synchronous motors are often used as synchronous condensers to improve pf. Generators operated in a under-excited mode are also used to improve system pf in heavy loaded inductive circuits. A detailed discussion of pf correction by rotating apparatus is outside the scope of this manual. Measuring Power Factor. The power factor for a single-phase alternating current (AC). circuit can be calculated using measurements obtained form a voltmeter, ammeter and wattmetter. Plugging the measured values into the formula; pf = W/ (E x I) will yield the single phase pf. Power factor in three-phase A.C. circuits can be calculated in the same manner averaging voltage and current, and recording the value obtained from the power utility watthour meter. The recorded measurement when inserted into the formula; pf = W/ (E x I x 1.73) will yield the three phase pf. There are two basic methods for improving the power factor of a motor for a particular application: 1. Purchase a motor with an inherently high power factor. 2. Install power factor correction capacitors. Capacitors draw leading current as opposed to the lagging current drawn by induction motors. Placing capacitors in parallel with the motor windings will result in leading current offsetting some of the lagging current. In a power distribution system, over excited synchronous motors are often used as a synchronous condenser to improve system pf.
Section 3
3-22
Environmental Considerations
Environmental consideration for submersible pump motors are principally restricted to ambient fluid temperature, corrosivity, pressure and the presence of abrasive. Motor enclosure requirements for surface motor are discussed below, as they have significant use in supporting pumping plant operations. Surface Motor Enclosures. The type of enclosure required is dependent upon the surrounding atmosphere in which the motor is installed and the amount of mechanical protection and corrosion resistance required. The two general classes of motor enclosure are open and totally enclosed. An open machine is one having ventilating openings which permit passage of external air over and around the winding of the motor. A totally enclosed machine is constructed to prevent the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the motor, but not sufficiently enclosed to be termed air-tight. Derivatives of these two basic enclosures are described as follows: (1) Open Enclosures. Open enclosures can be provided in a variety of configurations suitable for indoor or outdoor applications. The primary enclosures configuration for water supply pumping applications are: Open Dripproff (ODP): Open dripproff motors are designed to be internally ventilated by ambient air, having ventilation openings constructed so that successful operation is not affected when drops of liquid or solid particles strike the enclosure at any angle from zero to 15 degree downward from vertical. Drip proof motors are typically used in relatively clean, indoor applications. Weather Protected Type 1 (WPI): A weather protected type I machine is an open machine suitable for outdoor use. Ventilating passages are constructed as to minimize the entrance of rain, snow and air-borne particles to the electric parts and are designed to prevent the passage of a cylindrical rod 3/4-inch in diameter. Weather Protected Type II (WPII): A weather protected type II machine has the same features as a weatherprotected type I machine. In addition, ventilating passages at both intake and discharge are arranged so that high-velocity air and air-borne particles blown into the machine by storms or high winds can be discharged without entering the internal ventilating passages leading directly to the electric parts of the machine. WPII motors have provisions for air filters. (2) Totally Enclosed. Totally enclosed motors are designed so that there is no free exchange of air between the inside and the outside of the enclosure, but not sufficiently enclosed to be airtight. Totally enclosed motors may be of three basic types of construction. TEFC (totally enclosed fan-cooled): This type includes an external fan mounted on the motor shaft. This fan is enclosed in a fan casing which both protects the fan and directs the output air over the motor frame for cooling. TEAO (totally enclosed air-over): This type is similar to TEFC designs except that the cooling air being forced over the motor frame is provided by a fan which is not an integral part of the motor. TENV (totally enclosed non-ventilated): This type of construction does not require forced air flow over the motor frame for cooling. XPRF (Explosion proof): Totally enclosed motor designed to withstand an internal explosion of gas or vapor. Will also prevent internally generated sparks from igniting surrounding vapors. Hazardous (Classified) Locations. Special designed electrical enclosures are required for hazards atmospheres. The hazard classes, are defined by Underwriters Laboratories (U.L.), the National Electric Manufactures Association (NEMA) and the National Electric Code (NEC). The two basic classes are: Class I Explosion Proof. An explosion proof motor/ enclosure is designed to withstand an explosion of a specified gas or vapor which may occur within it and to prevent the ignition of the specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure. Class II Dust - Ignition Proof. A dust-ignition proof motor/enclosure is constructed in a manner which will exclude ignitable amounts of dust or amounts which might affect performance or rating, and which will not permit arcs, sparks, or heat generated inside the enclosure to cause ignition of exterior accumulations or atmospheric suspension of a specific dust and/or in the vicinity of the enclosure.
Section 3
3-23
The various atmospheres defined within the two classes have been divided into groups dependent upon the explosive characteristics of the materials. The class and group of service must appear on the motor/ enclosure nameplate, along with an identification number which identifies a maximum operating temperature. A complete descriptive summary of the various NEC hazardous locations are described in Table 3-8.
Table 3-8: National Electric Code (NEC) Hazardous Location Classifications
CLASS I: Areas in which flammable gases or vapors may be present in the air in sufficient quantities to be explosive (NEC-500-5). Group A: Atmospheres containing acetylene. Group B: Atmospheres containing hydrogen gases or vapors of equivalent hazards such as manufactured gas. Group C: Atmospheres such as cyclopropane, ethyl ether, ethylene, or gas or vapors of equivalent hazard. Group D: Atmospheres such as acetone, alcohol, ammonia, benzene, benzol, butane, gasoline, hexane, lacquer solvent vapors, naphtha, natural gas, propane, or gas vapors of equivalent hazard.
CLASS II: Areas made hazardous by the presence of combustible dust (NEC-500-6). Group E: Atmospheres containing electrically conductive combustible metal dust including aluminum, magnesium and their commercial alloys, regardless of resistivity. Includes any dust of a similar hazard characteristics. Group F: Atmospheres containing combustible carbon black, charcoal, or coke dusts having more than 8% total volatile material. Includes other similar dusts so sensitized that they present an explosion hazard. Group G: Atmospheres containing electrically nonconductive combustible dust. Such as containing flour, starch or grain dust.
Section 3
CLASS III: Areas in which there are easily ignitable fibers or flyings present, due to the type of material being handled, stored or processed (NEC-500-7) Note: Fibers and flying are not likely to be suspended in the air, but can collect around machinery or lighting fixtures, where heat, a spark or hot metal may ignite them. Division I (NEC-800-5, 6, 7): In a normal situation hazard would be expected to be present in everyday production operations or during frequent repair and maintenance activity. Division II (NEC-500-5, 6, 7): In the abnormal situation material is expected to be confined within closed containers or closed systems and will be present through accidental rupture, breakage or unusual faulty operation Note: Hazardous classifications are made by class, group and division (ie. Class 1/Group D/Division 1) Altitude. Altitude has no practical significants with submersible motors as they are submerged in the fluid to be pumped. Pump NPSH performance is affected by a altitude to some degree and can create submersible system performance problem under low submergence conditions. Surface motors generally require no derating for altitude between sea level and 3300 feet (1000 meters). Temperature. Submersible motors are typically performance rated based on a 30C (86F) ambient temperature. Surface motors are rated at a ambient air temperature of 40C (104F). When ambient temperatures exceed the 30C for submersible motors (40C for surface motors). The temperature rise produced in the motor can be offset by; (1) Reducing the load and consequent motor losses. A motor rated for 40C/30C ambient temperature and operating in a 50C/40C ambient, will, if rated 1.15 service factor (SF), carry rated horsepower (Hp) with no overload reserve (SF = 1.0) and, if rated 1.0 carry 90 percent of rated Hp, or by (2) Applying a special motor design. The temperature rating and/or service duty can be improved by using alternate motor designs; which incorporate high temperature insulation systems, special lubrication and/or cooling fluid, and heat transfer improvements. Submersible motors temperaturing rating generally assume a minimum fluid velocity of .5 - 1.0 fps past the motor at rated temperature, for heat dissipation purposes. 3-24 Section 3B Induction Motors
Insulation Systems
Motor insulation material design temperature and the allowable insulation system temperature rise are generally expressed in terms of class. The insulation temperature class rating and allowable temperature rise are not the same value. IEEE standards rate motor insulation material for continuous duty as follows: Class A, rated 105C (220F) Class F, rated 155C (310F) Class B, rated 130C (265F) Class H, rated 180C (355F)
When the rated temperature of the insulation material is exceeded, it is estimated that the insulation life is decreased by 1/2 for every ten degrees above the rating. By using higher temperature rated materials, more heat losses in the motor can be tolerated. The insulation class and ambient temperature rating are identified on the motor nameplate. NEMA standards specify permissible temperature rises above a 40C and 30C ambient temperature, for surface and submersible motors respectively. The standards are based on/take into consideration the type of insulation in the motor and other motor design, and application considerations. Some motors operate at higher temperatures than others, but none should exceed the temperature rating of the insulation. NEMA standards for temperature rise, above the temperature of the cooling medium, shall not exceed the values given in Table 3-9.
Table 3-9: *Allowable Temperature Rise based on Insulation System Class
Motor Enclosure Type A a. Open enclosure designs (ODP, WPI and WPII) b. All open enclosure motors with 1.15 or higher service factor c. Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors, including variations d. Totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV) motors, including variations e. Motors with encapsulated windings and with 1.0 service factor, all enclosures
*Class of Insulation System B F H 80C (60F) 90C (60C) 80C (75C) 85C (60C) 85C 105C 115C 105C 110C 110C 125C (90C) 125C (110C) 135C (115C) -
Section 3
60C (40C) 70C (50C) 60C (55C) 60C (55C) 65C -
* Average temperature rise is determined by a change of resistance. The allowed temperature rise measured by a thermometer will be lower and are identified by brackets ( ) in the table. Note: Tabulated values are based on: 1. Temperature of the surrounding air does not exceed 40C (104F) 2. Voltage does not vary more than 10% above or below the nameplate rating. 3. Frequency does not vary more than 5% above or below the nameplate rating 4. Both voltage and frequency do not vary the maximum amount given in (2) and (3) simultaneously. The combined variation is limited to 10%. 5. Altitude does not exceed 1000 meters (3300ft.)
3-25
Submersible motors used in the water supply industry are typically designed for a class A temperature rise, with a class F insulation system. Surface motors commonly used for water supply applications employ a class H insulation system and a class B temperature rise.
Rules of Thumb
The following rules of thumb may be applied to motors used in water supply applications in the absence of specific motor and load data: The average current draw for a 3 ph motor @ 575V will be approximately 1.0 Amps/Hp The average current draw for a 3 ph motor @ 460V will be approximately 1.25 Amps/Hp The average current draw for a 3 ph motor @ 230V will be approximately 2.5 Amps/Hp The average current draw for a 1 ph motor @ 230V will be approximately 5.0 Amps/Hp The average current draw for a 1 ph motor @ 115V will be approximately 10.0 Amps/Hp Motor torque equals approximately 3ft. - lbs./Hp @ 1800 prm Motor current varies in direct proportion to input voltage (ie. A motor rated 100 A @ 460V will be fully loaded at 95 A @ 483V (460/483 = .95) Motor torque varies with the square of voltage (ie. @ 90% of motor rated voltage - 81% of rated torque will be developed). Motor starting current is typically 5 to 7 times rated full load motor current. For every 1 Hp of motor load, 1 kVA of transformer capacity is required (ie. 100 Hp pump load requires a 100 kVA transformer bank.
Section 3
3-26
3C MOTOR STARTING
Full Voltage Starting
The across-the-line (ATL) starting method is the least expensive way to start a motor from an initial cost standpoint, and is the most commonly used starting method for smaller motors. The ATL starting method results in the highest inrush current values; however, connections and starter operation are greatly simplified. All standard motors are designed for full voltage ATL starting. Many U.S. power utilities limit the maximum motor size to 25 Hp or less when started across-the-line, in order to reduce nuisance flicker dip on transmission lines. Figure 3-20 provides a typical schematic control diagram and the associated current vs. time profile for a ATL motor control scenario.
Figure 3-20: Across-the-Line (ATL) Starting Illustration
Section 3
Typ. ATL Control Schematic
Time vs. Inrust Current
The ATL starting method will always provide the lowest internal heat generation in the motor and the highest starting torque. Many submersible motor/pump manufactures recommended motors larger than 60 Hp (45kW) be started using some form of reduced voltage/inrush starter, even if allowed by the power utility. The mechanical stresses associate with ATL starting of large horsepower motors can significantly reduce motor life.
Reduced Voltage/Inrush Starting

Autotransformer (AF) Starters. Autotransformer starters permit the use of standard motors and provide maximum starting torque per ampere of line current. An autotransformer reduces the voltage at the motor terminals by a fixed ratio. Taps provided on the autotransformer are usually rated at 50%, 65% and 80% of the line voltage. The reduction in inrush current and starting torque (assuming a nominal voltage of 480VAC) are as follows: Inrush Current (% of F.L.) 480% 390% 300% Start Torque (% of F.L.) 64% 42% 25%
Voltage tap 80 65 50
Starting Volts 384 312 240
The essential elements of an autotransformer starter are the transformer and a switching arrangement. The switching contactors must connect the motor to a reduced-voltage tap for starting, and then transfer the motor connection directly to the line for normal operation.
Section 3C Motor Starting
3-27
There are two main methods for switching from the autotransformer connection to the line connection. The two methods are commonly referred to as open transition and closed transition. The open transition method results in the motor being momentarily disconnected from the power source during switching. Consequently, there can be a extremely high current and torque surge when the motor is connected across the full-voltage line for low inertia loads. This high inrush transfer can be avoided by using a closed-transition method. The Korndorfer method of closed transition maintains a connection to the power source during the switching from start to run, by a transfer sequence which keeps a portion of the transformer winding in series with the motor until the motor is connected directly to the line. The closed-transition method is the preferred method for autotransformer starting in the submersible motor industry; however, under high inertia pump loads (> 60Hp), the open-transition method may provide acceptable inrush and motor stress reduction. Figure 3-21 provides a typical schematic diagram of a closed transition autotransformer starter and the associated current vs. time profile. Autotransformer starters are relatively expensive, but very reliable.
Figure 3-21: Autotransformer (AF) Starting Illustration
Section 3
Typ. Closed-Transition AF Schematic
Time vs. Inrush Current
In submersible applications, the tap settings on the AF depends on the percentage of the maximum allowable cable length used in the system. If the cable length is less than 50% of the maximum allowable (see Table 4-18), either the 65% or 80% taps may be used. When the cable length is more than 50% of the allowable, the 80% tap should be used. Wye - Delta (YD) Starters. A wye-delta connectable motor has six leads brought out, which allow the motor to be connected in either a wye or delta configuration. When connected in a wye configuration, nominal line voltage is only 57% of the windings rating (about 275 volts for 480VAC nominal voltage). This reduces the inrush current and the starting torque to approximately 33% of the full voltage value. The YD starting method is comparable in performance to the autotransformer (AF) method, and like the AF method, it can be provided configured for a open or closed transition. The closed transition is recommended for submersible applications of 60Hp or less. Above 60Hp, the closed or open transition configuration is generally acceptable as the rotational inertia of larger equipment will reduce the magnitude of the current switching spike associated with open transition starting. The open transition YD starter is always less expensive. Both methods are described as follows: Open transition. The motor is started by connecting it in a wye configuration as described above via electrical contractors. After a time delay relay times out, the motor is automatically reconnected in a delta configuration with
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a separate contactor. The delta contactor is essentially the run contractor, which applies full line voltage to the motor after it has already started, but before it is up to full running speed. A YD closed circuit transition starter works basically the same as an open transition YD starter, except a third contractor will connect a set of three resistors across the line during the transition from the wye to the delta connection. This allows the motor to remain connected to the power source without disconnection from the line, avoiding the high inrush switching current transition. Figure 3-22 provides a typical schematic diagram of a closed transition wye-delta starter and the associated current vs. time profile.
Figure 3-22: Wye-Delta (YD) Starting Illustration
Section 3
Typ. Closed-Transition YD Control Scheme
Time vs. Inrush Current
The YD starting is the most common method for reducing start-up torque and inrush current in Europe. The use of YD starters in the U.S is very limited with submersible motors, as the motor must be specifically configured for the application. Submersible system employing the YD starting scheme are generally more expensive, as separate power cables and motor leads are required in each installation. Submersible motors configured for YD starting (two motor lead sockets in lieu of one) are generally 5% more expensive than standard motors. Soft Start (SS) Starters. A soft starter is an electronic solid state device which is used to reduce motor input voltage at start-up, and consequently starting current. Soft starters provide smooth, stepless acceleration and deceleration of AC induction motors from zero to full speed over an adjustable time period. Inrush current can be reduced to 2-3 times the full load operating current. Figure 3-23 illustrates the relationship between input voltage, starting current and time. In submersible pumping applications, acceleration and deceleration ramp rates should be limited to 3 seconds, longer ramp rates contribute to motor heating. The 55% starting voltage shown in Figure 3-23, is the minimum voltage recommended in order to achieve a submersible motor start. The start-up output voltage for SS are adjustable, which can be raised to compensate for cable voltage drop or unusual torque requirements. The electronic nature of SS produce harmonic waveform distortion (noise) on power supply distribution system. The magnitude of the harmonic distortion is generally less than with a comparable variable frequency drive (VFD) and rarely requires special attention. In general, it is recommended to install a bypass contactor in conjunction with the soft starter so that the motor runs ATL during operation. Switching to ATL operation after start-up will reduce power loss and SS wear.
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Figure 3-23: Soft Start - Voltage/Current/Time Relationships
Current vs. Time
Voltage vs. Time
Part Winding (PW) Starting. A part winding motor has two identical windings and six motor leads. Energizing one winding at full line voltage, will allow approximately 60% of the normal starting current (400% of full load current) to flow producing approximately 50% of the full load torque. After a time delay relay times out, the second winding bringing both current and torque to their full rated values. PW starters have two sets of running contactors with two sets of overloads for half the motor current. Starting time is typically 1 to 3 seconds before energizing the second contactor. PW starters will reduce inrush current, but the motor heating rate will increase considerably. There are no standard performances requirements for PW starting; therefore, a motor started in this manner may fail to accelerate a highinertia variable torque (pump) or constant torque load. PW starters require special winding connections which must be specified at the time the motor is ordered. Most submersible motor manufactures do not wind motors for PW start applications. Figure 3-24 provides a typical schematic diagram of a part winding starter and the associated torque vs. speed curve.
Figure 3-24: Part Winding (PW) Starting Illustration
Section 3
Typ. Half Winding, Part Wind Control Scheme 3-30 Section 3C Motor Starting
Torque vs. Speed
Table 3-10: NEMA Three Phase Starters
Maximum Horsepower NEMA Size Full Voltage Starting (ATL) 200V 1 1/2 3 7 1/2 10 25 40 75 150 230V 1 1/2 3 7 1/2 15 30 50 100 200 300 450 800 460V 575V 2 5 10 25 50 100 200 400 600 900 1600 Autotransformer Starting (AF) 200V 7 1/2 10 25 40 75 150 230V 7 1/2 15 30 50 100 200 300 450 800 460V 575V 10 25 50 100 200 400 600 900 1600 * Part Winding Starting (PW) 200V 10 20 40 75 150 230V 10 25 50 75 150 300 450 700 1300 460V 575V 15 40 75 150 350 600 900 1400 2600 Wye-Delta Starting (YD) 200V 10 20 40 60 150 300 500 750 1500 230V 10 25 50 75 150 350 500 800 1500 460V 575V 15 40 75 150 300 700 1000 1500 3000
00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
* Part winding starting in not applicable to submersible operations

Table 3-11: NEMA Single Phase Starters
Section 3
NEMA Size 00 0 1 1 1/2 2 3
Maximum Horsepower Full Voltage (ATL) Starting 115V 1/3 1 2 3 230V 1 2 3 5 7 1/2 15
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Table 3-12: NEMA/IEC Enclosure Ratings (Conversion of NEMA classifications to IEC designations)
NEMA type no. 1
Applications General Purpose - Indoor; Protects against dust and light, indirect splashing but is not dust-tight. Primarily prevents contact with live parts. Used indoors and under normal atmospheric conditions. Dripproof - Indoor; Similar to Type 1 but with addition of drip shields; used where condensation may be severe, such as cooling rooms or laundries. Weather Resistant - Outdoor; Protects against weather hazards such as rain, dust and sleet; used outdoors on ship docks, construction work, tunnels and subways. Both 3 and 3S enclosures are dust tight and raintight. The 3S enclosure is sleet proof, while the type 3 enclosure is sleet tight General Purpose (Rain proof and Sleet Resistance) - Outdoor; Provides a degree of protection against falling rain and ice formation. Meets rod entry, rain, external icing, and rust-resistance design tests. Watertight (wash down duty) - Indoor or Outdoor; Must exclude at least 65 gpm of water from 1-in. nozzle delivered from a distance not less than 10 ft for 5 min. Used outdoors on ship docks, in dairies and in breweries. Both 4 and 4X enclosures are watertight and dusttight. The 4X enclosure is corrosion resistance and sleet resistant, while the type 4 enclosure is sleet resistant. Dusttight-Indoor; Provided with gaskets or equivalent to exclude dust; used in steel mills and cement plants. Submersible-Indoor & Outdoor; Design for occasional submersion in water and is dependant on specified conditions of pressure and time. In addition to being submersible, both enclosures are watertight, dusttight and sleet resistant. Used in quarries, mines, and manholes subject to occasional flooding Hazardous (Air-Break) - Indoor; For use in Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D environments as defined in the NEC. Hazardous (Oil Immersed) - Indoor or Outdoor; For use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D as defined in the NEC. Hazardous (Air-Break) - Indoor or Outdoor; For in locations classified as Class II, Groups E, F, or G as defined in the NEC. Mine Duty (Bureau of Mines); Meets the requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) per 30 CFR Part 18 (1978). General Purpose (Oil Immersed) - Indoor; Protects against the corrosive effects of liquids and gases. Meets drip and corrosion resistance tests. Corrosion - Resistant and Dripproof
IEC class IP10
2 3 and 3S
IP11 IP30 IP54 IP64
3R
IP14
4 and 4X
IP56 IP66
Section 3
5 6 and 6P
IP52 IP67
7 8 9 10 11
12 and 12K Industrial Use (Dusttight and Driptight) - Indoor; Provides some protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids. Meets drip, dust, and rust resistance tests. 13 General Purpose (Oiltight and Dusttight) - Indoor; Primarily used to provide protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolants. Meets oil exclusion and rust resistance design tests.
IP52 ID64 IP54 IP65
Note: 1. The NEMA to IEC cross - reference classification are for reference only. 2. The NEMA higherarchy for resistance to a particular environmental factor, are: tight, proof, and resistant. 3. The above descriptions are a summary of the NEMA standards for enclosures.
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3D GRUNDFOS CONTROLLERS
CU 3 Motor Controller and Protector
The CU 3 is an electronic control unit designed for monitoring and protection of motors, machines, cables and cable joints with rated currents up to 400 A. The CU 3 is designed for rated voltages of 200-575 V, 50-60 Hz. It can communicate with the GRUNDFOS R100 remote control and be fitted with a module for RS-485 BUS communication. (See Product Information CU 3 with R100 and CU 3 with Communication Module RS-485.) The CU 3 monitors the following parameters: System insulation resistance to earth before start. Motor temperature. Current consumption and asymmetry. Supply voltage. Phase sequence. The CU 3 protects the installation against: Dry running in pumping systems. Incipient motor defect. Too high motor temperature. Supply failure As standard, the CU 3 incorporates: Time relay for Star-delta starting and autotransformer starting. Relay output for external alarm. The CU 3 can be expanded to offer the following functions: Remote Control R100: Wireless infra-red remote control by means of the R100 enables change of factory settings and monitoring of the installation by calling up actual operating data, e.g. current consumption, supply voltage, operating hours and power consumption. External Sensors: Reception of data from external sensors by means of an SM 100 sensor module and control according to the data received, e.g. flow rate, pressure, water level and conductivity. Communication Module RS-485: Monitoring and communication via a BUS (GRUNDFOS BUS protocol = GENIbus), a modem or radio, e.g. PC-based control/monitoring. Note: If communication with equipment not supplied by GRUNDFOS is desired, a gateway is required. Each expansion possibility will be described in separate product information documents.
Figure 3-25: CU 3 Motor Controller
Section 3
Section 3D Grundfos Controllers
3-33
Table 3-13: CU 3 Motor Controller Indicator Lights
Operating and Fault Signal Functions Description Power on Motor on Ground failure Motor temperature Dry running (flashes) Overload (on) Undervoltage (flashes) Overvoltage (on) Current unbalance Phase sequence The CU 3 is live. Permanent light indicates that the starting input is activated. Flashing light indicates that a starting delay has been set. The insulation resistance to earth is lower than the set value. The motor temperature is higher than the set value. Flashing light indicates that the motor current consumption is lower than 60% of the set current value. this is an indication of dry running. Constant light indicates that the measured current value is higher than the set value. Flashing light indicates undervoltage. Constant light indicates overvoltage. The measured current asymmetry is higher than the set value. The phase sequence is changed.
Section 3
Factory Settings
Table 3-14: CU 3 Motor Controller Factory Settings
Parameter Insulation resistance Motor temperature Dry running Overload Undervoltage Overvoltage Current unbalance
Stop Limit 20 k 75C 60% of set current value 0A 10% +10% 10%
Measuring Accuracy* 10% 3C 2% 2% 2% 2% 2%
*The measuring accuracy is stated as a guide in relation to the maximum values.
Other Factory Settings

Phase Sequence: L1 - L2 - L3 Resetting of Fault Indications: Automatic Release Time for Fault Indications: 4.5 sec. Star Connection Time for Star-Delta and Autotransformer Starting: 0.5 sec.
Table 3-15: CU 3 Motor Controller Signal Converter Specifications
Measuring Range Frequency range Maximum continuous voltage Test voltage (1 minute) Maximum intrinsic consumption Accuracy *Single-turn transformer 3-34 Section 3D Grundfos Controllers
1-12 A 50-60 Hz 800 VAC 3 kVAC 0.02 VA CI 3
10-120 A 50-60 Hz 800 VAC 3 kVAC 0.02 VA CI 1
100-400 A* 50-60 Hz 800 VAC 3 kVAC 0.02 VA CI 1
CU 3 Technical Specifications
Voltage Variants Nominal Voltages: 3 x 200 V 3 x 220 V 3 x 230 V 3 x 240 V 3 x 360 V 3 x 380 V 3 x 400 V 3 x 415 V 3 x 440 V 3 x 460 V 3 x 500 V 3 x 575 V Voltage Tolerance +15 / 25% of nominal voltage Mains Frequency 45-65 Hz Power Consumption 20 W Back-Up Fuse Maximum 10 A Output Relays Maximum 415 VAC/3 A, AC 1 Enclosure Class IP 20 Distance Between CU 3 and Motor Maximum 100 meters Ambient Temperature Minimum 20C Maximum +60C Storage Temperature Minimum 20C Maximum +60C Approvals The CU 3 complies with VDE, DEMKO, EN, UL and CSA. CE-marked
Section 3
Weights CU 3: 1.5 kg. Signal converters 1-12A and 10-120 A: 0.9 kg. 3 single-turn transformers 100-400 A: 0.9 kg.
CU 3 with R100 Remote Control

The remote control R100 is used for wireless communication with the CU 3. The R100 communicates via infra-red light. During communication, there must be visual contact between the CU 3 and the R100. The R100 offers possibilities of setting and status displays for the CU 3. When the communication between the R100 and CU 3 has been established, Motor temperature will flash. For general use of the R100, see the Product Information for this unit.
Figure 3-26: CU 3 with R100
3-35
R100 Menus
The following menus are shown in the R100 display. A. Operation Display of warning and stop indications. Display of fault indications reset automatically. Possibility of stop/start. B. Status Display of: Motor temperature. Current and voltage values. Average of supply voltage. Average current of the three phases. Actual current unbalance. Actual insulation resistance to earth. Phase sequence and frequency. Actual and total power consumption. Total number of operating hours. Value measured by an external sensor. Power consumption per m3 pumped liquid. C. Limits Display and setting of: Motor temperature. Current consumption. Voltage variations. Insulation resistance. Current unbalance. External sensor.
Figure 3-27: R100 Remote Control
Section 3
Dimension: H x W x D = 7" x 3" x 1"
D. Installation Setting of: Automatic or manual resetting of fault indications. Release time for fault indications. Star connection time for star-delta or autotransformer starting. Starting delay when first started, e.g. after supply failure. Minimum start cycle time. On/off of groundwater lowering function. Run/stop times for groundwater lowering. Electronic numbering of CU 3 units. On/off of power and temperature measuring function. External sensor type. Maximum value of external sensor. Groundwater lowering by means of level sensors. On/off of external sensor with zero offset.
R100 Menu Structure Screen

The menu structure for the R100 and CU 3 is divided into five parallel menus, each including a number of displays. See Figure 3-28.
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Figure 3-28: R100 Menu Structure Screen
Section 3
3-37
CU 3 with SM 100 Sensor Module

The SM 100 is a sensor module designed as an accessory for the CU 3, see Figure 3-29. The module can be connected to eight analog sensors and have eight digital inputs for connection to contacts. The SM 100 can communicate via BUS (GRUNDFOS BUS protocol = GENIbus). The SM 100 can be used as a stand-alone module in connection with equipment not supplied by GRUNDFOS. This requires a gateway, however. The gateway is not available from GRUNDFOS. BUS communication between several SM 100 modules and CU 3 units enables central control and monitoring of complex systems.
Figure 3-29: SM 100 Sensor Module
Section 3
G100 Gateway Communications Interface

G100 is a Gateway enabling communication of operating data e.g. measured values, setpoints, etc., between Grundfos products equipped with a Grundfos GENIbus interface and a main network for control, adjustment and monitoring of operation. Furthermore, G100 has 4 digital inputs for optional use. As an example, a digital input could be used for the monitoring of an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). Data Logging. Besides the possibility of data communication, G100 also offers data logging of up to 350,000 time-stamped data. Subsequently, the logged data can be transmitted to the main system or PC for further analysis in e.g. a spreadsheet or the like.
Figure 3-30: Grundfos G100 Gateway
For the data logging the software tool PC Tool G100 Data Log is used. This tool must be ordered separately. Applications. As show in the illustration in the front page, G100 can be used within various areas, e.g. water supply, water treatment, wastewater and industry. Such applications are characterized by the fact that downtime causes high costs and that extra investments are often made to achieve maximum reliability. G100 is made for customers requiring continuous, optimum operation and who need to know specific operating data from each individual pump unit and who are not satisfied by calculated operating data or total measurings which are often based on many units. Installation. G100 is installed by the system integrator. G100 is connected to Grundfos GENIbus and to the main network. From a management system on the main network all units on the Grundfos GENIbus can then be controlled.
3-38
The floppy disk G100 Support Files comprises examples of programs to be used when G100 is connected to the various main network systems, and a description of the data points available in Grundfos products with GENIbus interface. When G100 is installed the software tool PC Tool G100 can be used. This tool must be ordered separately.
Technical Data
Overview of Protocols Main System Interbus-S Profibus-DP Radio Modem PLC Future Systems Other Connection Features GENIbus RS-485: Service port RS-232: Digital Inputs: Software Protocol PCP DP Satt Control COMLI Satt Control COMLI Satt Control COMLI
Up to 32 units can be connected For direct connection to PC or via modem 4
Logging Capacity 2 Mb approx. 350,000 time-stamped data Voltage Supply: 1 x 110 - 240 V, 50/60 Hz Ambient Temperature: In operation: 20C - +60C Enclosure Class: IP 20 Weight: 1.8 kg
Section 3
Accessories
Software PC Tool G100 (ordered separately) PC Tool G100 Data Log (ordered separately) PC Tool G100 Support Files (supplied with product)
3-39
G100 Network
G100 can be connected to a GRUNDFOS GENIbus system enabling data communication between a main network and any unit connected to the GENIbus. It is possible to connect 32 units to GENIbus. A unit may be a UPE pump with GENIbus connection, a CU 3 control unit, etc. The main network may be another fieldbus or a radio, modem, PLC or a direct RS-232 connection. Information retrieval: Information such as a measured values, operating status, alarm status, configuration parameters and more can be retrieved from each individual unit via G100. Remote configuration: Setpoints, commands and configuration parameters can be sent to the GENIbus units via G100. Reference: The floppy disk, G100 Support Files, contains an overview of the data which can be communicated between the main network and the different types of Grundfos products having a GENIbus connection.
Figure 3-31: Grundfos G100 Gateway Network Diagram
Section 3
3-40
G100 Technical Data

Table 3-16: G100 Basic Version
Mains supply Rated voltage Voltage tolerance Mains frequency Power consumption Construction Number of slots Dimensions (W x H x D) in mm Weight (incl. expansion board) Operating range Ambient temperature during operation Transportation and storage temperature Relative air humidity Materials, housing Enclosure class Approvals CPU Processor Instruction size Processor speed Flash Memory size GENIbus connection Bus Connection Galvanically separated Cable Connection for service/analysis Serial Connection Galvanically separated Real time clock Accuracy Battery Battery durability Digital inputs Number of inputs Input Logic 0 Logic 1 Connection Visual indication Operating status
100 - 240 V AC +15/25% of rated voltage 45 - 65 Hz 6W 2 (1 for the mother board and 1 for one expansion board) 73 x 227 x 165 1800 g 20C to +60C 20C to +60C Maximum 95% (without condensation) Steel IP 20 G100 has been CE marked Intel 80251 16-bit 20 MHz 2MB minimum 350,000 time-stamped samples RS-485 up to 32 units 9-pin D-sub male connector Yes 18-22 gauge screened 2-core cable Maximum cable length: 1200 m
Section 3
RS-232 9-pin D-sub male connector No +/ 5 min/year DC 3 V, Lithium battery for preservation of real time clock during power off. When in use > 5 years; when stored > 10 years 4 External potential-free NO-contact Open (U > 3.2 V) Closed (U < 0.9 V) 9-pin D-sub male connector, screened cable
6 light-emitting diodes
3-41
Table 3-17: Interbus-S Expansion Board
Interbus-S connection Communication chip Connection in Connection out Interface Protocol Interface converter Visual indication Operating status
Table 3-18: Profibus-DP Expansion Board
SUPI III RS-485, 9-pin D-sub male connector RS-485, 9-pin D-sub female connector Remote bus (local bus not supported) PCP (Peripheral Communication Protocol) Converter from RS-485 to optical fibre available from Phoenix Contact
Profibus-DP connection Communication chip Communication speed Connection Visual indication Operating status
SPC3 9.6 kbaud to 1.5 Mbaud RS-485, 9-pin D-sub male connector 1 light-emitting diodes
Section 3
Table 3-19: Radio/Modem/PLC Expansion Board
Radio/Modem/PLC connection Port 1 Connection Communication speed Modem type Radio type Visual indication Operating status
RS-232 9-pin D-sub male connector 1.2 to 19.2 kbaud Zyxel or others Niros 2001 (only the Niros 2001 protocol is supported)
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Grundfos
SECTION 4: SUBMERSIBLE MOTORS

4A SUBMERSIBLE MOTORS Submersible Motor Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 Submersible Motor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 Submersible Motor Mechanical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 Submersible Thrust Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 Generator Use in Submersible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 SUBMERSIBLE MOTOR COOLING Required Cooling Flow and Velocity . . . . Water Temperature and Motor Derating . . Motor Jacket/Shroud/Flow Inducer Sleeve Special Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4-20 4-20 4-22 4-24
4C
MOTOR INSULATION RESISTANCE Insulation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26 Dielectric Absorption Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Section 4
4D
SUBMERSIBLE POWER CABLE Submersible Power Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28 Cable Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Section 4A Submersible Motors
4-1
4A SUBMERSIBLE MOTORS
Submersible Motors Overview
Submersible motors are designed specifically for operation in and under water. The motor and power cable are designed and sealed to prevent water from contacting any part of the electrical circuit. In most cases, the motors is equipped with a high-capacity thrust bearing to support the total thrust of the pumping unit. The submersible motor depends on surrounding water to carry away heat; most require a specified flow of water for adequate cooling. Submersible motor construction can be categorized into three basic types. Canned - Stator windings and connections in these motors are sealed in a metal enclosure. The rotating parts run in water. Wet Windings - These motors are entirely water-filled, with windings and connections individually sealed from water by their insulation. Again, the rotating parts run in water. Oil-Filled - These motors are entirely filled with oil. An enclosure protects them from water entry by joint seals and a shaft seal. Rotating parts run in oil. Water-filled motors are normally sealed to prevent the entry of abrasives from well water; they may be factory-filled or require filling before installation. All three types of submersible motors use a flexible diaphragm to allow for thermal expansion and contraction of the internal liquid, and to equalize pressure inside and outside of the motor at any submergence. Ratings. Motors are typically identified by the nominal size of the smallest well into which they may be installed. Thus a 6-inch motor has a diameter which provides necessary minimum clearance for installation in 6-inch and larger wells, the same is true for other motor sizes. Electrical ratings, speeds, and types vary with motor manufacturers and their designs. Table 4-1 shows the approximate range of ratings available in various motor sizes and types. The table shows only two-pole motors which are most common in lower ratings, 3450 rpm nominal at 60 hertz. Larger pumps may require slower speed, four-pole motors. Motor Selection. Selecting the best submersible motor for a particular pump application requires careful consideration of several factors. The motor must match the pump in mounting dimensions, and must also have adequate Hp load rating and thrust rating to support the pump over its entire operating range. Most 4, 6, and 8 submersible motor sizes are built to NEMA standards, which define their physical dimensions, electrical ratings, and thrust ratings. The motor must be capable of operation at the water temperature and velocity presented by the installation. Most motor nameplates and/or the manufacturers literature specify the maximum water temperature and minimum required velocity past the motor. Motor operation in water that exceeds the rated temperature may be allowable at reduced loading, depending on the particular motor. NEMA standards are based on 25C (77F) maximum ambient water temperature. Some motors; however, may be rated for full output at 30C (86F) or higher. If the installation does not assure the specified velocity past the motor- because of well diameter, well inflow above the pump or other reasons - a sleeve over the motor should be used to induce the required velocity. Types of Cable. Several cable manufacturers produce cable designed for use with submersible motors. The exact type of cable to be used is usually specified by the pump manufacturer or selected by the installer. Cable may be three individual conductors twisted, three conductors molded side by side in one flat cable, or three individual conductors sealed within a round overall jacket. The insulation around the conductor is typically type RW, RUW, TW or equivalent, and specifically suited for use under water. Stranded copper cable is universally preferred; however, aluminum conductors can be used. The selection charts shown in Table 4-18 are based on copper cable. Motor Controls. Motor starters are relatively simple devices. They usually consist of a three-pole magnetically operated contactor, a current sensing device, and a control circuit. The current sensing device is used to trip the contactor when the load amperes exceed a specified amount for to long a period. The contactor should be rated based on horsepower load. The control circuit can be operated either manually or automatically by using various sensing devices such as; pressure switches, timers, liquid level controls, computers, and PLCs, etc. The National Electrical Code (NEC) requires that motor starters always be connected in combination with fuses and a disconnect switch, or with a circuit breaker on the source side. Such isolating device should be located within easy reach of 4-2 Section 4A Submersible Motors
Section 4
anyone who wants to service the equipment. A positive power disconnect/ lock out device must be located no more that 50 (horizontal) from the well head. All starters are provided with an overload relay to protect the motor from excessive heat. If the heat exceeds the amount the insulation can withstand, the motors normal life expectancy will be shortened. The characteristics of submersible motors are different from standard air-cooled motors. Submersible motors are very heat-sensitive and require special overload protection. If the motor is stalled, the overload protector must trip within approximately 10 seconds to protect the motor windings. Accepted protective components for submersible motors are three-leg, ambient-compensated thermal overload relays and quick-trip bimetal type heaters. Solid state overload protective devices such as the Grundfos CU3 device, can provide excellent protection and flexibility. Ambient temperature compensation for submersible motor protection is essential, since the motor is in a constant ambient (water) and the overload is in a varying ambient. The overload protection should be based on the manufacturers specification, or on the full load current rating stated on the motor nameplate. Control manufacturers supply selection charts for overload protection for this purpose. Electronic (solid state) overload relays which provide faster trip characteristics than bimetal overload relays. In making a choice between the thermal or electronic overload relays, the features of each type should be considered. See Section 3D for various electronic controls offered by Grundfos. Lightning and Surge Protection. Submersible motors are more vulnerable to damage by lightning and voltage surges, as they operate in a highly electrically conductive environment compared to surface motors. Lightning arrestors when properly selected and installed, can provide excellent surge protection. The need for a arrestors is greater in pump installations that are distant from the primary power circuit, and in areas where electrical storms are known to occur frequently. Power lines are subject to extremely high voltage surges caused by switching loads, harmonics and electrical storms. Surges also may be induced by charged clouds passing over the lines or by generator fluctuations. A properly selected and installed surge arrestor can provide protection against motor damage. Power Supply. Adequacy of power lines, transformers and/or generators must be sized to ensure reliable operation. Transformer and generator requirements are often provided by motor manufacturers or can be calculated based on load requirements. In some instances, the utility company may require power factor correction, to reduce losses and voltage drop in power lines by the addition of capacitor banks. Selected power supply issues are discussed in Section 3A. Motor Operation. All deep well submersible type pumps are powered by electric motors. The optimum power unit used is dependent on several physical and environmental factors, which include the horsepower required for pumping, the annual hours of operation and the availability and cost of energy. How does a motor know what horsepower to deliver? Electric motors draw power in proportion to the applied load. Although a motor is rated for a certain output power (this is the number stamped on the nameplate), that motor can deliver a wide range of power depending on the voltage and frequency provided and the torque demanded by the shaft load. Power is the rate of energy use. Input power to a electrical motor is measured in kW, the motor converts that electric power into mechanical power. Output power is the product of speed (rpm) and torque (ft.-lb.). See Section 3B for additional information regarding the speed torque relationship. For a given voltage and frequency combination, the motor will always operate at a point on a specific torque vs. speed curve. The units of both output power and torque are generally specified as a percentage of the motors full load rated value on the manufactures performance curve. A small change in speed produce large changes in available torque near the normal (close to rated) operating speed. Thus as load torque increases, the rotational speed will drop slightly (increased slip) as the motor load increases. As soon as voltage is supplied to the motor, the motor knows the power to deliver by speeding up until it puts out exactly the same torque as the load requires at that speed. At start-up, the motor produces torque higher than the torque required by the driven load, accelerating the pump shaft to full load speed. A submersible pump is a
Section 4
4-3
centrifugal device which exhibits variable torque load characteristics, it takes very little torque to accelerate the load at low speed. A centrifugal pump requires torque approximately proportional to the square of its speed; this relationship between torque and speed is illustrated in Figure 3-14. The maximum speed of a induction motor is a function of the number of poles and line frequency. Typical speeds associated with submersible motors, based on the number of poles and a line frequency of 60 Hz are; 2p - 3600 rpm (sync.)/ 3450 rpm (@ full load) and 4p - 1800 rpm (sync.)/ 1760 (@ full load). The synchronous speed on any motor can be calculated when the number of poles and operating frequency is known, using the formula below: N = f x 120/P where; N = sync. speed (rpm), P = poles, f = frequency (Hz)
Note: Actual induction motor speed at full load will be 2-5% less than the synchronous speed calculated using the formula above. A pump driven by two different motors of the same nominal speed (rpm), but different Hp ratings, will draw approximately the same power. Under steady-state conditions the speed of operation does not change significantly, unless the motor is too small and stalls. Motor Loading, Failure and Lifetime. Motor load is commonly expressed as the percentage of output power to rated output. Because output power (load) is difficult to measure in the field, motor load is usually estimated by measuring input power (kWI) and assuming an efficiency. It can also be estimated by measuring kVA and assuming both power factor and efficiency. Failure of a motor occurs when insulation breaks down from heat and mechanical stresses. The temperature of the windings are primarily dependent on the current (amps) draw through them and the ability of motor to dissipate the heat generated to the ambient environment. The higher the temperature, the shorter the life. A 10C rise can halve motor life. Motor current draw increases with load; as a result, motors that operate outside established load and temperature ratings, will operate fewer hours before failure. The voltage supplied to the motor terminals have a significant impact on motor life. Motors are designed to operate at a utilization voltage level or range, which is generally lower than the electrical system distribution voltage provided to the utility meter. Motors can operate within a range of voltages; but above a certain voltage, destructive arcing and insulation deterioration can occur. Conversely, as voltage drops, more current is needed to maintain torque and power; so the motor runs hotter and its life is shortened. In addition to the overall voltage provided to the motor, voltage unbalance must be considered. If the voltages on the three phases to the motor are not well balanced, one winding will carry more current and may over heat and fail. Refer to Section 3A for additional discussions regarding power supply issues. Most electrical utilities guarantees voltages to a +/-5 percent standard; for 480 service voltage will be between 456 V and 504 V at the meter; for 240 service, the voltages must be between 228 V and 252 V. If a motor is damaged as a result of over or under voltage outside the service limits, the utility may be liable for damages. Because motors will operate cooler with higher voltages, reasonable over voltage levels rarely causes problems. There are only small variations in power factor and efficiency near rated conditions, volt- amps for a particular load can be assumed constant over the range of voltage guarantee by the utility. The maximum continuous load sustained by a motor is indicated by the service factor. A motor with a service factor of 1.15 can maintain a 115% overload; provided voltages are at the rated level and well balanced and the insulation system can be maintained at or below rated temperature. The actual motor load percentage can be calculated using the formula listed below: % Motor Load = EM x IHp x 100 Rated Hp where; Em = motor efficiency IHp = Input Horsepower
Section 4
Motor design and economic criteria have forced motor manufactures to build less service factor (SF) into motors. The SF allows the motor to provide power under optimal conditions at the nameplate rated power times the SF. At rated conditions, (ie. 100 Hp motor with a SF of 1.15 is designed to provide 115 HP under continuos load). A 1982
4-4
survey of motor manufacturers showed six of seven respondents recommending loading at 100 percent of rated power or less while only one still suggests loading up to SF rating. For this reason, it is recommended that motor loading not exceed 100% of the nameplate horsepower rating. It is best to consider the SF as a contingency agenst over loading as a result of low voltage, current imbalance and/or adverse ambient conditions. Motor Efficiency. An electric motor operates at a relatively constant efficiency and speed over a wide range of loadings. Efficiency does not change significantly with age of the motor or the load applied to it. Motor efficiency is practically constant at motor loads between 50 and 100%. Reducing motor size for the sake of energy conservation, as a result of efficiency increases associated with loading the motor closer to full magnetic saturation (100% load) is not recommended. As a general rule, a bigger motor that is underloaded (down to 50 percent) is more efficiency than a fully loaded smaller motor driving the same load. Submersible pump motors will have slightly lower efficiencies than surface motor as a result of the compact design requirements and the need for internal cooling/lubricating fluid. Most submersible motors have an efficiency stamped on the nameplate. The average or nominal efficiency values associated with canned/ hermetically sealed type submersible motors are listed in Table 4-6.
Submersible Motor Types

The three (3) basic submersible motor types used in the water supply industry are: (1) Wet Winding, (2) Hermetically Sealed, and (3) Oil Filled. The focus of this manual will be on the Hermetically Sealed type; however, a brief description of each motor type is presented as follows: Wet Winding type. A Wet Winding Type motor is one in which the motor windings are directly in contact with the water. This is accomplished by the use of a waterproof insulation, which individually seals each wire with a coating several times as thick as the coating on standard copper wire. Water inside the motor air gap and coils act as a heat transfer device by circulating through the windings and transferring heat to the external casing. Dissipation of this heat occurs as well water flows over the external case. As is the case in all submersible types, the internal cooling medium (water based) is also used for bearing lubrication. Wet winding motors are available in 6 through 12 sizes and are generally rewindable. These motors are available in 3600 and 1800 rpm speeds Hermetically Sealed type. A hermetically sealed type motor utilizes windings of standard construction and insulation thickness. The windings are encased and hermetically sealed within the external shell casing on the outside and an internal tube or liner inside the bore. The hermetically sealed enclosure eliminates the possibility of water leakage into the winding. Bearings are also lubricated by water and heat dissipation is accomplished in the same manner as the wet winding motor, however, the internal motor fluid does not directly contact insulation. Hermetically sealing is generally accomplished by epoxy resin impregnation process. Motor sizes range from 4 to 10 sizes and are not rewindable. These motors are most often supplied in the 2 pole-3600 rpm configuration. Oil Filled type. The Oil Filled Type motor also utilizes windings of standard construction and insulation thickness suitable for the operating voltage.. The windings are treated with an oil resistant varnish to withstand constant circulation of dielectric oil. A rotating shaft seal is necessary to keep the oil in and external water out. As in the Wet Winding type, the oil serves as a cooling medium with circulating oil transferring winding and bearing heat to the external case. Water flowing over the external surface dissipates this heat. The oil in this type motor serves as the bearing lubricant. Oil filled motors are available in sizes ranging from 4 to 18 and are rewindable. These motors are available in 3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm speed. These motors can operate at higher temperatures than motors employing a water based motor fluid. Horsepowers range from 7.5 to 700 Hp. The Petroleum Industry utilizes a special adaptation of the oil filled motor to produce high water cut oil well. These motors normally utilize a bolt-on seal section to prevent well fluid from entering the motor, operate at 3600 rpm and can be wound for voltages up to 5kV.
Section 4
4-5
Submersible motors are relatively long and slender because they must fit into well casings. The Hermetically Sealed motor is the most common type used in the water supply industry. They are most frequently supplied configured for 3 phase-3600 rpm service; in 4, 6 and 8 sizes with horsepower ranges from 5 Hp to 200 Hp. Single phase 4 motors in horsepower ranges from 1/3 to2 Hp are normally confined to residential/individual water supply needs and are not presented.
Submersible Motor Mechanical Components

The mechanical construction of a submersible motor consists of four basic components: 1) 2) 3) 4) Frame & Stator Upper Bracket Lower Bracket Rotor
Figure 4-1: Major Submersible Motor Components

Pos. no.
Component
Material Stainless steel Stainless steel
MS 4000 W.-Nr. 1.4301 1.4057 AISI 304 431
MS 4000 R W.-Nr. 1.4539 1.4462 AISI 904L
MS 4000 RE W.-Nr. 1.4539 1.4462 AISI 904L
16 15 14 17 5 2 1
1 Stator 2 Rotor 3 Thrust bearing, lower 4 Radial bearing complete 5 Bearing pipe complete
Cast iron GG20
Section 4
6 Thrust bearing, upper 7 Clamping ring 8 Bearing retainer 9 Adjusting screw 10 Diaphragm 11 Motor End Shield 12 Nut (special) 13 Lock washer 14 Nut 15 Staybolt 16 Staybolt complete 17 O-ring Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel 1.4401 1.4401 1.4401 316 316 316 1.4539 1.4539 1.4539 1.4401 904L 904L 904L 316 1.4539 1.4539 1.4539 1.4401 904L 904L 904L 316 NBR-rubber Viton Stainless steel 1.4301 X 304 1.4539 X X 904L 1.4539 904L 3 9 8 7 12 10 11 13 14 4 6
4-6
The frame and stator serves as a housing for the stator iron stack and winding assembly. Internal stainless steel construction is always required where water based motor fluids are used. External stainless steel cladding is recommended (normally provided as a standard) for water supply applications. Stainless Steel provides excellent resistance to corrosive water and provides excellent life. The upper bracket assembly houses the lead wire and plug connector (if applicable). Guide bearings, water slinger, seals, and a filling water plug are required. The upper bracket also utilizes a NEMA flanged fit to couple easily to a vertical turbine style pump. The lower bracket assembly houses the thrust bearing assembly (Mitchell or Kingsbury type), diaphragm (pressure equalization), guide bearing, and drain plug. The rotor assembly typically includes laminations pressed and held together by end rings; splined stainless steel shaft, and balancing disks. The ability to keep water from permeating the stator wire helps determine the reliability of a submersible motor. The ability to keep abrasive sand from the moving parts also greatly affects its life. Refer to Figure 4-1 for a pictorial presentation of the major submersible motor mechanical components. The actual motor configuration will very from manufacture to manufacture. Application and Selection Issues. The term application not only refers to the end use of the product but also the parameters which affect the selection of the correct submersible motor and pump products. The primary considerations involved with the selection of submersible motors are discussed as follows: The Insulation system. The insulation system is the key to long motor life. The life of the insulation system is affected by three major factors: Load, Duty Cycle, and Temperature Rise. The load of a motor is described in horsepower or kilowatts and is defined as the work required to perform a function. The load created by pumps is a result of the rotation of impeller(s) to create a pressure forcing fluid through a system. The duty cycle is the time period, which the motor is operating. It is continuous or intermittent. Temperature rise is the difference between the operating temperature of the windings and the temperature of the medium to cool the motor. The rise of the motor is directly affected by the load and duty cycle. Extra load in the form of a service factor increases the temperature rise of the winding. The total temperature must never exceed the maximum capacity of the insulation system. Submersible motors used for water well service normally employ class F insulation (150F rise), but are designed for a class A temperature rise (60F). Cooling. Submersible motors are no different than conventional motors, in that the heat generated within the motor must be dissipated. The temperature rise within the motor is limited to a value which when added to the temperature of the external cooling medium does not exceed the maximum temperature capacity of the insulation system. The ability to dissipate the heat depends on two factors: (1) The temperature of the cooling medium (ambient) and (2) the rate of cooling medium flow past the motor external surfaces. Excess ambient temperature and reduced flow rate both require derating of the load capability of the unit. The derating of the load reduces the temperature rise of the winding within the limits set by the heat dissipation capacity of the cooling medium. Materials of Construction. Submersible pumps and motors are also selected based on the chemical and physical make-up of the water in which they will be submerged. Sea water applications require specialized construction due to the corrosive water encountered. A standard motor will not survive highly corrosive water submergence, while a specially designed motor will. Design Factors. Other factors, which affect submersible motor selection, are voltage, depth of installation, thrust and controls. It is necessary that the voltage and frequency variations be within the limits set in NEMA MGI-18 (submersible motors for deep well pumps). The maximum recommended depth for most submersible motor relates to 290 psi on the unit (approx. 2000 feet). The thrust delivered by the pump must be less than the capacity of the thrust bearing of the submersible motor. Controls must be quick trip, ambient compensated type to quickly pull an improperly applied or defective motor off the line so that no damage occurs. Section 4A Submersible Motors 4-7
Section 4
Submersible construction and design for 4, 6 and 8 sizes are covered by NEMA standards. There are presently no NEMA standard governing 10 and 12 motors. Pump/motor attachment (connection) issues such as shaft stick-up, shaft diameter, bolting pattern adapters and fastener requirements for 10 and 12 motors must be considered to insure the pump-motor compatibility. Submersible Motor Mounting Position. The published motor manufacture guidelines should be followed with regard to motor orientation form the vertical. Some manufacturers allow only minimal variance from the vertical, while others will allow a mounting position ranging from vertical shaft up to horizontal, with minimal stipulations. The submersible pump end is relatively unaffected by orientation.
Submersible Thrust Bearings.

All submersible pumps require a thrust bearing to support the unbalanced hydraulic thrust load (typically down thrust) and the rotating element weight (impellers and pump shaft). The bearing is typically mounted within the motor and is located in the lower portion of the motor housing. The thrust bearing size/rating is a function of pump speed, thrust load and required bearing life. Thrust bearings fall into one of two general classes, anti-friction (ball or roller) and plate (tilting or fixed). Only the plate type bearings have applicability in the submersible industry, as they are compact and have thrust load carrying capability. Plate type bearings are often referred to as Kingsbury or Michell bearings. Other common names, which describe the operation of the bearings include tilting shoe, pivot shoe, tilting pad or solid shoe. The canned/ hermetically sealed motor is the most common submersible motor type used in the water supply industry. Motor fluid is typically water, which has low viscosity and excellent lubrication properties. The plate type/tilting shoe thrust bearing design is most commonly used in the canned/ hermetically sealed motor consists of a group of thrust pads mounted in a stationary retainer and a rotating thrust disc (plate). The thrust pads pivot (tilt) individually, allowing for the entire bearing assembly to be self leveling and aligning. The construction allows each thrust pad to be loaded equally. Submersible motor bearing problems are rare and are not a significant application consideration under normal circumstances. High head and/or temperature duty should warrant a check of thrust bearing capacity and limits.
Section 4
The viscous drag created by the rotation of the thrust disc, draws water under the pads making them tilt. The load is supported by the formation a lubricating water wedge which develops between the tilted bearing pads and disc. The low viscosity (drag) of water results in minimal friction and negligible wear. Plate type bearings have a theoretically infinite life, as long as the lubricating film is maintained between the plate and the pads. However, this type bearing should not be overloaded as failure will result if the lubricating film is lost. The size of the bearing must be adequate to carry the maximum thrust which could be imposed on it by the pump. This normally occurs when the pump is operated with a closed valve. The lubricating film may be lost during the long idle periods or during prolong operation at low speed. Radial Bearings. Submersible pumps employ sleeve type bearings to maintain rotor alignment. A electro-graphitic material is used in there construction. They run with extremely low (negligible) friction as they are submerged in the motor cooling/lubrication fluid at all times. Table 4-1: Typical Submersible Motor Thrust Data (2 pole-60Hz) Motor Size (nominal in.) 4 Horsepower Range (Hp) 1/3 - 3/4 1-2 3 - 10 5 - 7.5 10 - 40 50 - 60 40 - 1000 125 - 200 150 - 250 Thrust Ratings (lbs.) Typical NEMA Min. 300 - 500 500 - 750 1000 - 1500 1000 - 1500 3300 - 3500 6000 10,000 10,000 13,400 500 - 750 1000 - 3000 3000 - 6000 4,000 - 10,000 10,000 No. Std. Thrust Bearing Ratings. Minimum motor thrust requirement for 4, 6 and 8 inch motors are specified by NEMA standards, for Submersible Motors for Deep Well Pumps. The NEMA standard ratings are adequate for a vast majority of submersible applications; however, most motor manufactures offer a variety of rating which exceed the NEMA minimums. Table 4-1 list typical thrust data offering by motor size and nominal horsepower.
8 10 4-8
Bearing Life. The life of an anti-friction thrust bearing is shortened if the thrust load is increased beyond its rating. Standard life expectancies for each size bearing have been established by the bearing manufacturers so that the proper size bearing can be selected. The average life of a bearing is equal to the number of hours or years of continuos operation when 50% of all the bearings operating under identical conditions and rated load have failed. For example, if 100 identical bearings were placed in service under identical operating conditions and after 5 years, 50 failures had occurred, the average life of that bearing would be 5 years. The minimum life of a bearing is equal to the number of hours or years of continuous operation when 10% of all the bearings operating under identical conditions and rated load have failed. The minimum, or as it is more commonly called, the L-10 life, is the life expectancy which is normally used in specifications. The pump motor industries have standardized on thrust bearings having a minimum life of one year (8760 hours) which is also equal to an average life of 5 years (43,800 hours). Thus the purchaser of a pump who anticipated operating the unit for 8 hours a day during 4 moths of the year could expect a minimum bearing life of 9 years (8760/4 mo. x 8 hr/day x 30 day/mo. = 9.12 yr) or an average bearing life of 45 years (43,800/960 hr/yr), based on this amount of usage. AWWA standards specify the submersible motor thrust bearing have ample capacity to carry the maximum thrust load (static & dynamic) of the pump. The thrust bearing must have a L-10 life of 8800 hours (8760 hours rounded) at the specified thrust rating in accordance with AFBMA (Anti-Friction Bearing Manufactures Association) requirements. In addition, AWWA specification require the submersible system provide provisions for handling momentary up-thrust either in the pump and/or the motor. Thrust Bearing Special Considerations. The enemies of the plate type (tilting shoe) thrust bearings are; (1) heat reduced viscosity, (2) misalignment - rarely a problem, (3) foreign particles and (4) vibration. Vibration, misalignment (from defective shoes) and/or long period of no use can cause a disruption of bearing lubricating film, which allows destructive metal to metal contact. The operation of submersible pumps controlled through a variable frequency drive (VFD) can create thrust bearing problems. At low speeds frequency below 30 Hz, thrust bearing lubrication can be lost or impaired. Long duration operation at low frequency (low speed) is likely to damage the thrust bearing leading to premature motor failure. In order to mitigate the affect of slow speed/low frequency operation, the motor should not be operated below 30 Hz except as required for start-up and shut down ramp. Submersible Pump/ Motor Thrust Losses. Thrust bearing power losses associated with 2 pole - 60 Hz (3450 rpm) submersible motors are typically in the range of 10 watts per 100 lbs. of thrust. Figure 4-2 below can be used to estimate power losses in 6 through 12 inch, 2 pole submersible motors.
Figure 4-2: Submersible Motor Thrust Loss (2 pole - 60 Hz motors)
Section 4
Thrust Load in pounds - Horizontal axis / Loss in Watts - Vertical axis
4-9
Table 4-2: Typical Submersible Motor Shaft Deflection
Motor Type, Bearing Rating 4, 300 lb. 4, 400 lb. 4, 900 lb. 6, 150 lb. 6, 3500 lb. thur 30 HP 6, 3500 lb. 40 & 50 HP 8, 10,000 lb.
Rate of Deflection .002 per 100 lb .002 per 100 lb. .0005 per 100 lb. .0005 per 100 lb. .004 per 1000 lb. .006 per 1000 lb. .002 at 10, 000 lb.
designed to allow for compressive (downward) elastic and thrust bearing rating are listed in Table 4-2.
Shaft Deflection. The motor shaft will Total Deflection @ Rated Thrust deflect within the elastic limits of the .006 at 300 lb. motor shaft material .008 at 400 lb. under load. The .0045 at 900 lb. deflection reduces .0075 at 1500 lb. motor stick-up height .014 at 3500 lb. as load is applied. .021 at 3500 lb. Submersible pump .020 at 10,000 lb. axial clearances are compression. Typical deflection values based on motor size
Generator Use in Submersible Applications

Where utility power is not available or has failed, or the submersible pumping system is to be portable; a engine driven generator is used to provide the pumping power requirements. In the generator selection process several factors must be considered, selection factors include but are not limited to; load type (motor, linear, non-linear) humidity, temperature, altitude, starting method, etc. Table 4-3 lists conservative generator sizes; for three and single phase submersible motor applications. The generator manufacture should be consulted for selection of all large three phase generators.
Table 4-3: General Engine Driven Generator Set Sizing
Motor Hp
Minimum Rating of Generator Externally Regulated Internally Regulated kW kVA kW kVA 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 15.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 60.0 75.0 100.0 100.0 150.0 175.0 250.0 300.0 375.0 525.0 600.0 1.9 2.5 3.8 5.0 6.25 9.4 12.5 18.75 25.0 37.5 50.0 75.0 94.0 125.0 125.0 188.0 220.0 313.0 375.0 469.0 656.0 750.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 75.0 100.0 150.0 175.0 250.0 275.0 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.125 3.8 5.0 6.25 9.4 12.5 18.8 25.0 31.0 37.5 50.0 62.5 75.0 94.0 125.0 188.0 219.0 313.0 344.0
Section 4
1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 175 200
Note: 1. To insure starting of two-wire single phase motor, the minimum generator rating should be 50% higher than the tabulated values. 2. Tabulated values are based on a typical 80C temperature rise for a generator operating at continuous duty with 35% maximum voltage dip when the motor is started Across-the-line (ATL). Ratings based on a 30C (86F) ambient temp. @ sea level. 4-10 Section 4A Submersible Motors
A minimum motor terminal voltage of 65% during start-up is generally adequate to start three phase and single phase - 3 wire motors. The lower the start-up voltage dip, the easier it is to start the motor. The 35% maximum allowable voltage dip (100% - 65% = 35%) takes into account instantaneous cable voltage drop at start-up. Cable voltage drop can be 4-7 times the nominal running value at start-up; which is particularly important for deep settings. Motor undervoltage and overcurrent protection should be designed to accommodate the short duration induction motor/genset - low voltage/high current start-up phenomena. Generator frequency is important to maintain at the level required/dictated by the motor design, and is a function of generator speed. Motor speed varies with the output frequency of the generator. When the output frequency does not match the motor rating. Pump performance will vary from the published data as predicted by the affinity laws. A pump running at 1 to 2 Hz below motor nameplate frequency will not meet its performance curve. Conversely, a pump running at 1 - 2 Hz above may trip overloads. Generator Derating. The generator manufacturers recommendations for derating should be followed when available. In the absences of such Table 4-4: Typical Generator Power Derating Factors data, the derating Fuel Type Altitude Temperature factors specified in Table 4-4 may be Diesel 3.5% per 1000 ASL 2% per 10F above 86F applied with Diesel (Turbo) 2.5% per 1000 ASL 3% per 10F above 86F reasonable accuracy. Gasoline 2.5% per 1000 ASL 5% per 10F above 104F Types of Generators. Generator are normally classified on the basis of the type of voltage regulation and excitation. The two principal types are internally and externally regulated. The externally regulated type is most commonly encountered in low power application and voltages less than 300V, as they are generally less expensive. Notes: 1. Reduce power output for diesel generators 6% for 100% RH 2. 30C = 86F, 40C = 104F, (5C) = (10F), ASL = Above Sea Level, RH = rel. humidity
Section 4
Voltage Regulation & Excitation. The function of the voltage regulator is to monitor and correct generator output voltage by controlling excitation current to the rotor; in response to changes in output current (load), power factor and speed. The term excitation, as applied to a.c. generators, refers to the source of power used to provide the rotor current required to establish the rotating magnetic field within the generator. Changes in the rotor/ excitation current is required to maintain the correct generator out put voltage. The amount of excitation current provided to the rotor is controlled through the voltage regulator. Self excited generators derive there excitation power from generator output terminals. Separately excited generator derive field power from a external or isolated source, such as a permanent magnet generator (PMG). 1. Internally regulated (IR) generators have an additional winding in the generator stator that is used to immediately sense changes in output current and automatically decrease/increase output voltage in response to load changes. IR generators are self excited and generally provide better regulation than externally regulated units in smaller power plants. 2. Externally regulated (ER) generators use a externally mounted voltage regulator that senses generator output voltage. As the voltage dips at motor start-up, the regulator increases the output voltage of the generator. ER generators can be self or separately excited. ER generators which employ self excitation are generally 25-50% larger with respect to kW/kVA rating in order to deliver the same starting torque as an IR generator. Separately excited ER generator can provide equivalent performance to IR generator but are generally available in larger sizes. Special Generator Control and Starting Considerations. The values listed in Table 4-3 under the heading of externally regulated, can sometimes be reduced if a Reduced In-Rush starter is used. Reducing the inrush current will reduce start-up voltage dip, which in turn may allow for the use of a generator as much as 20% smaller than
4-11
specified in Table 4-3. Regardless of the starting method, the generator minimum size should be sufficient to provide the entire submersible pump load and required auxiliary equipment. Derating should be applied as applicable. The use of a reduced voltage/in-rush starters is recommended any time motor horsepower exceeds 25 Hp, as it will reduce generator stress, size and improve starting of deep set units. Common submersible motor reduced in-rush starting methods employed in the U.S. are; auto transformer (AF), soft start (SS) and variable frequency drive (VFD). Each starting method is discussed in greater detail in Section 3C. VFD /generator performance is discussed below, as it is not always possible to reduce generator size under non-linear load conditions, which a VFD presents. Generator Performance with Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs). Submersibles controlled through VFDs can create problems for generators. VFDs create waveform distortion (spikes, notching, ringing, etc.) which can make generator voltage regulation and performance erratic. In general, generators which are internally regulated - self excited or externally regulated separately excited provide the best performance under non-linear load/VFD service conditions. Specific generator features and application considerations which have proven affective are: 1. Solid state voltage regulator in lieu of electro - mechanical voltage build-up relay types. 2. Three phase generators which employ voltage sensing on all three output terminals perform better than single leg monitoring, as the affects of wareform distortion are minimized by providing an average of all 3 legs at any instant. 3. Employ manufacture recommended EMI/RF voltage regulator filters. 4. Oversize the generator by 25% to 50% based on peak load. Under no circumstances should the VFD/submersible system maximum power requirement exceed the genset prime power output capability. 5. Attenuate VFD feedback harmonic through the use of a isolation transformer or line reactors when practical. Diesel Generator Sets. Generator sets are often rated in terms of prime and standby (peak) continuos output power. The prime power rating reference the maximum efficiency of the generating plant, which occurs when the diesel engine is loaded to approximately 70 -80% of its maximum load. The prime power rating provides the lowest fuel consumption per kW output. The standby power rating represents the maximum power output capability of the generating plant when the engine is loaded to 100%. When the generator is the primary power source for a permanent installation, the generator should be sized to meet the total system requirements based on its prime power rating. When the generator is a secondary (back-up/ emergency) or portable power supply, it may be acceptable to select the generator based on a standby power basis. Other selection factors such as; load type, allowable voltage dip and regulation method, ambient conditions, etc. must be applied first to obtain the target power Figure 4-3: Typical Emergency Power System requirement. A single line diagram of a typical Utility or Normal emergency power system Power Source G Genset installation is shown in Figure 4-3.
Overcurrent Protection Main Disconnect
Section 4
Submersible Pump Starter/Controller
Emergency Load Pumping Plant Aux. Transfer Switch Non-emergency Load
Overcurrent Protection
Generator Operation. Always start the generator before the motor is started, and always stop the motor before the generator is stopped. The motor thrust bearing may be damaged if the generator is allowed to coast down with the motor connected. Nondisconnected stops typically occur when generators are allowed to run out of fuel.
4-12
Table 4-5: Typical 4 Submersible Motor Physical Data (Grundfos MS402)
4 Single Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp

1.484 1.508 1.498
L (in.)
Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 17.4 19.4 19.8 22.9 26.4 27.6
Thrust (lbs.)
Shaft Ht. (in.)
1/3 1/2
.90
10.2 11.0 11.6 12.2 13.7 13.7
3/4 1
900
1.5
.146
1-1/2 2
"L" SEE TABLE
4 Three Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 9.0 9.6 11.0 12.2 13.7 13.7 14.3 16.1 19.4 22.9 26.4 29.5 900 1.5
3.74
2 3
Section 4
4 Three Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp

1.508 1.498
L (in.)
Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 37.5 48.5 59.5 130.0
Thrust (lbs.)
Shaft Ht. (in.)
3 5 7-1/2
.157 .866
18.0 22.7 26.6 30.6
1500
1.5
10
Industrial Motors 2
"L" SEE TABLE
18.0 19.5 26.6 30.6
37.5 48.5 59.5 130.0 1500 1.5
3 5 7-1/2
3.74
4-13
4 Three Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp

2.875 2.869
L (in.)
Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 80.4 88.2 109.1 124.5 136.6 149.9 162.0 179.6
Thrust (lbs.)
Shaft Ht. (in.)
7-1/2 10 15
.236 1.181
21.4 22.6 25.0 27.5 29.7 32.0 34.4 37.2
20 25 30
4400
2.875
"L" SEE TABLE
35 40
Industrial Motors 7-1/2 10 15

5.44
23.8 25.0 27.5 32.0 34.4 37.2
100.3 109.1 124.5 149.9 162.0 179.6 4400 2.875
20 25 30
Section 4
4-14
Table 4-5: Typical 4 - 10 Submersible Motor Physical Data (Franklin Motor)
4 Single Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp L (in.) 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 8.78 9.53 10.66 11.75 13.62 15.12 23.62 29.62 Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 16 18 21 24 29 32 55 70 1500 650 300 1.5 Thrust (lbs.) Shaft Ht. (in.)
4 Three Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz 3 5 7-1/2 10 20.62 23.62 29.62 43.89 44 55 70 120 1500 1.5
6 Single Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp L (in.) 5 7-1/2 10 15 25.4 28.00 30.56 33.13 Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 112 124 140 154 3500 Thrust (lbs.) 1500 Shaft Ht. (in.) 2.875
Section 4
6 Three Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz 5 7-1/2 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 22.88 24.19 25.44 28.00 30.56 33.13 35.69 40.81 55.31 61.31 98 106 114 128 142 154 168 202 300 330 6000 3500 1500 2.875
4-15
Table 4-5: Typical 4 - 10 Submersible Motor Physical Data (Franklin Motor)
(continued)
8 Single Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp L (in.) 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 35.8 38.8 41.8 54.9 58.9 68.8 77.8 85.8 94.8 Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 310 350 385 424 469 700 850 960 1050 10,000 4 Thrust (lbs.) Shaft Ht. (in.)
10 Single Phase ~ 3W ~ 2P - 60Hz Hp L (in.) 150 175 200 250 59 63 68 76 Shipping Wt. (lbs.) 860 950 1010 1150 13,400 4 Thrust (lbs.) Shaft Ht. (in.)
Section 4
Notes: 1. 4, 6 and 8 motor general mechanical, physical and electrical characteristics are governed by NEMA standards for Submersible Motors for Deep Well Pumps. 2. Motors configured for WYE - DELTA (Y-D) starting have the same overall dimensional characteristic as the Across-the-Line (ATL) units listed above. 3. 2W ~ 1 ph motor have the same dimension and 3W - 1 ph motors.
4-16
Table 4-6: Typical Submersible Motor Performance Characteristics (Hermetically Sealed /Canned Type ~ 2 pole ~ 60 Hz)
Motor Size/Type
Hp 1/3 61.5 63.5 65.0 67.9 70.0 70.9 71.1 69.5 63.7 58.2 59.0 62.2 66.0 71.0 71.8 71.9 53.2 57.4 62.0 68.8 69.6 70.0 M L J G G F N 55.0 48.8 M
Efficiency % S.F. F.L. 3/4 60.0 51.0 44.8
L.R.A./ kVA code N
4 - 3W 1 ph 3450 rpm
73.2
69.2
64.6
72.5
70.0
66.0
77.0
76.4
74.1
4 - 3W 3 ph 3450 rpm 69.5 69.5 75.5 75.2
67.4
73.2
74.0
74.0
72.2
Section 4
Section 4A Submersible Motors 76.2 75.2
76.0
74.0
Volts 115 230 1/2 115 230 3/4 230 1 230 1 1/2 230 2 230 3 230 5 230 200 1/2 230 460 200 3/4 230 460 200 1 230 460 200 1 1/2 230 460 200 2 230 460 200 3 230 460 200 5 230 460 575 200 7 1/2 230 460 575 10 460 575 74.5 72.0 K
4-17
F.L. Rating S.F. Rating S.F. Amps Kw Amps kW 1.75 8.0 0.48 9.2 0.72 4.0 4.6 1.60 10.0 0.68 12.0 0.97 5.0 6.0 1.50 6.8 0.95 8.0 1.33 1.40 8.2 1.20 9.8 1.60 1.30 10.0 1.70 11.5 2.15 1.25 10.0 2.10 13.2 2.65 1.15 14.0 3.15 17.0 3.65 1.15 23.0 5.10 27.5 5.90 02.8 3.4 1.6 2.4 0.8 2.9 0.86 1.2 1.5 3.6 4.4 1.5 3.1 0.81 3.8 1.15 1.6 1.9 4.5 5.4 1.4 3.9 1.07 4.7 1.44 2.0 2.4 5.8 6.8 1.3 5.0 1.46 5.9 1.89 2.5 3.0 7.7 9.3 1.25 6.7 2.15 8.1 2.70 3.4 4.1 10.9 12.5 1.15 9.5 2.98 10.9 3.42 4.8 5.5 18.3 20.5 1.15 15.9 5.05 17.8 5.81 8.0 8.9 6.4 7.1 26.5 30.5 23.0 26.4 8.45 11.5 13.2 9.2 10.6 1.15 17.0 10.0 18.8 11.1 13.6 15.0
Power Factor % S.F. F.L. 3/4 L.R.A. 71.0 53.5 46.5 34.8 17.2 72.5 57.5 49.7 50.5 23.0 74.0 61.5 53.2 34.2 74.0 62.5 53.5 41.8 81.4 74.4 66.1 52.0 93.1 90.5 86.7 51.0 98.0 97.5 96.0 82.0 97.5 96.4 94.0 121.0 17.3 75.8 61.0 52.5 15.0 7.5 24.6 78.2 66.0 57.2 21.4 10.7 31.0 79.4 69.0 60.0 27.0 13.5 38.1 81.6 73.4 63.7 33.1 16.6 53.6 84.4 79.0 71.2 46.6 23.3 71 81.5 77.8 69.5 62 31 122 84.0 81.0 73.0 106 53 43 188 83.2 80.0 72.2 164 82 65 79.2 75.5 67.1 116 93
Ckt. Brk./Fuse NEMA Std. Delay Starter 25 10 0 15 5 00 30 15 0 15 7 00 20 9 25 12 0 30 15 30 15 45 20 1 70 30 2 10 5 8 4 4 2 12 6 11 5 5 3 15 6 12 6 6 3 20 8 15 7 8 4 25 10 0 20 10 15 5 00 35 15 0 30 12 15 6 50 25 1 45 20 25 10 0 20 8 80 35 2 70 30 35 15 30 12 1 50 25 40 20
Section 4
(continued)
4-18 S.F. 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.25 1.15 1.15 1.6 69.5 63.7 58.2 63.5 65.0 67.9 70.0 70.9 71.1 59.0 62.2 66.0 71.0 71.8 71.9 53.2 57.4 62.0 68.8 69.6 70.0 M L J G G F N 61.5 55.0 48.8 M Efficiency % S.F. F.L. 3/4 60.0 51.0 44.8 L.R.A./ kVA code N 1.5 73.2 69.2 64.6 N 1.4 72.5 70.0 66.0 M 1.3 77.0 76.4 74.1 K 1.25 69.5 69.5 67.4 L 1.15 75.5 75.2 73.2 K 1.15 74.0 74.0 72.2 K 76.2 76.0 74.0 K 1.15 F.L. Rating S.F. Rating Amps Kw Amps kW 8.0 0.48 9.2 0.72 4.0 4.6 10.0 0.68 12.0 0.97 5.0 6.0 6.8 0.95 8.0 1.33 8.2 1.20 9.8 1.60 10.0 1.70 11.5 2.15 10.0 2.10 13.2 2.65 14.0 3.15 17.0 3.65 23.0 5.10 27.5 5.90 02.8 3.4 2.4 0.8 2.9 0.86 1.2 1.5 3.6 4.4 3.1 0.81 3.8 1.15 1.6 1.9 4.5 5.4 3.9 1.07 4.7 1.44 2.0 2.4 5.8 6.8 5.0 1.46 5.9 1.89 2.5 3.0 7.7 9.3 6.7 2.15 8.1 2.70 3.4 4.1 10.9 12.5 9.5 2.98 10.9 3.42 4.8 5.5 18.3 20.5 15.9 5.05 17.8 5.81 8.0 8.9 6.4 7.1 26.5 30.5 23.0 26.4 8.45 11.5 13.2 9.2 10.6 17.0 10.0 18.8 11.1 13.6 15.0 75.2 74.5 72.0 K Power Factor % S.F. F.L. 3/4 L.R.A. 71.0 53.5 46.5 34.8 17.2 72.5 57.5 49.7 50.5 23.0 74.0 61.5 53.2 34.2 74.0 62.5 53.5 41.8 81.4 74.4 66.1 52.0 93.1 90.5 86.7 51.0 98.0 97.5 96.0 82.0 97.5 96.4 94.0 121.0 17.3 75.8 61.0 52.5 15.0 7.5 24.6 78.2 66.0 57.2 21.4 10.7 31.0 79.4 69.0 60.0 27.0 13.5 38.1 81.6 73.4 63.7 33.1 16.6 53.6 84.4 79.0 71.2 46.6 23.3 71 81.5 77.8 69.5 62 31 122 84.0 81.0 73.0 106 53 43 188 83.2 80.0 72.2 164 82 65 79.2 75.5 67.1 116 93 Ckt. Brk./Fuse NEMA Std. Delay Starter 25 10 0 15 5 00 30 15 0 15 7 00 20 9 25 12 0 30 15 30 15 45 20 1 70 30 2 10 5 8 4 4 2 12 6 11 5 5 3 15 6 12 6 6 3 20 8 15 7 8 4 25 10 0 20 10 15 5 00 35 15 0 30 12 15 6 50 25 1 45 20 25 10 0 20 8 80 35 2 70 30 35 15 30 12 1 50 25 40 20
Motor Size/Type
Hp 1/3
4 - 3W 1 ph 3450 rpm
4 - 3W 3 ph 3450 rpm
Volts 115 230 1/2 115 230 3/4 230 1 230 1 1/2 230 2 230 3 230 5 230 200 1/2 230 460 200 3/4 230 460 200 1 230 460 200 1 1/2 230 460 200 2 230 460 200 3 230 460 200 5 230 460 575 200 7 1/2 230 460 575 10 460 575
(continued)
Motor Size/Type S.F. 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 310 18.50 215.0 86.5 250 150.0 175.0 87.2 86.0 89.0 230 130.0 150.0 89.0 88.0 L K K J J G 80.0 87.0 85.0 74.0 83.0 82.0 1260 1500 G F E 900 450 K K K
Hp 40
L.R.A./ kVA code K
50
60
75
100
8 - 3W 3 ph 3525 rpm
125
150
175
200
150
F.L. Rating S.F. Rating Amps Kw Amps kW 53 35.0 60 40.0 42 48 65 43.0 73 49.0 53 60 79 52.0 89 60.0 61 69 97 64.0 107 73.5 78 85 125 85.0 144 97.5 104 116 165 109.0 189 125.0 136 150 193 128.0 221 146.0 154 177 218 150.0 250 173.0 174 200 245 169.0 286 194.0 196 229 195 110.0 130.0
Efficiency % S.F. F.L. 3/4 86.2 86.1 84.8 86.0 85.9 84.6 87.3 87.2 86.2 86.6 86.5 85.2 87.6 87.5 87.2 87.3 87.2 86.1 88.1 88.0 86.8 87.5 87.4 86.2 88.3 88.1 87.5 88.0 87.8 86.4 87.3 86.9 85.3 87.2 86.9 85.3 87.7 87.4 86.0 87.9 87.4 85.7 87.3 87.0 86.7 88.5 88.0 86.1 88.0 87.9 86.8 88.0 88.0 87.0 88.0 83.0
Power Factor % S.F. F.L. 3/4 L.R.A. 86.1 84.2 78.5 407 86.0 85.0 81.0 326 86.6 85.5 80.5 528 87.0 86.0 86.0 422 87.6 85.9 81.3 658 86.0 85.0 80.0 526 88.0 86.8 82.0 833 86.0 85.0 81.0 666 88.1 86.6 81.7 1212 85.8 84.0 79.0 970 87.2 86.9 77.9 1318 84.3 82.6 77.5 1054 86.0 84.4 79.7 1620 82.9 80.8 75.0 1296 88.8 87.6 84.8 1645 86.2 85.0 80.0 1316 88.7 88.4 84.5 1875 89.5 88.6 85.3 1500 88.0 88.0 1060
175
Ckt. Brk./Fuse NEMA Std. Delay Starter 175 70 125 60 3 200 80 150 70 225 100 175 80 4 300 125 225 100 400 175 5 300 150 4 500 225 400 175 600 250 5 450 200 700 300 700 300 800 350 6 600 300 600 250 5 800 350
10 - 3W 3 ph 3525 rpm
200
250
Volts 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575 460 575
6 5 6
Section 4
Motor Size/Type
12 - 3W 3p 4P 1770 rpm
Hp 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
F.L.A. L.R.A. Efficiency Power Factor % Volts AMPS. AMPS. 3/4 F.L. 3/4 F.L. 39.0 205 90.0 90.5 76.5 80.5 52.0 255 90.0 90.5 76.5 80.5 64.0 325 90.0 91.0 76.5 80.5 2300 77.0 400 90.0 91.0 76.5 80.5 89.0 400 90.0 91.0 78.0 80.5 102 490 90.5 91.5 76.5 80.0 113 490 90.5 91.5 78.0 81.5 125 540 90.5 91.5 78.0 81.5
NOTES: 1. Motor size/type refers to the smallest pipe I.D. in which the motor will fit 2. All motors are single voltage, three leads only. Six lead Y-Delta start motor have the same running performance. 3 Motor ratings are based on a ambient temperature of 86F (30C) or less. 4. All performance data is based on average motor data from several submersible motor manufacturers.
4-19
4B SUBMERSIBLE MOTOR COOLING

The key to long submersible motor life is good cooling. Most submersible pumps rely on moving heat away from the motor by forced convection. The ambient/produced fluid is typically drawn by the motor in the course of pumping to accomplish this task. Submersible motors used in the water supply industry are typically designed to operate at full load in water up to 30C (86F), provided the flow velocity can be maintained at a minimum of 0.5 feet per second (fps).
Required Cooling Flow and Velocity

AWWA specifications state the maximum motor diameter and the minimum inside diameter of the well shall be in such relationship that under any operating condition the water velocity past the motor shall not exceed 12 fps (3.7 m/s) nor be less than 0.5 fps (0.15 m/s). The AWWA specification are principally applicable to motors 6-inch and larger, as most 4-inch motor designs are based on a minimum cooling flow velocity of 0.25 fps (0.08 m/s) at rated ambient temperature. Table 4-7 relates flow, casing and motor size requirements to accomplish minimum cooling velocity.
Table 4-7: Minimum Submersible Cooling Flow Requirements
Casing/Sleeve I.D. (inches)
4 Motor (0.25 fps)
6 Motor (0.5 fps)
8 Motor (0.5 fps) (gpm)
10 Motor (0.5 fps)
12 Motor (0.5 fps)
Section 4
4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18
1.2 7.0 13 20 30 50 80 110 150
9 25 45 90 140 200 280 380
10 55 110 170 245 335
78 140 213 300
110 185 260
Notes: 1. Minor irregularities associated with motor shape and diameter variations between manufactures are not accounted for in the table. 2. At the velocity specified in the table the temperature differential between the motor surface and ambient water will range from 5 - 15C (10-30F). Some submersible motor manufactures require no cooling fluid flow past the motor, when the produced fluid temperature is 20C (68F) or less. Cooling by free convection in such cases, is only permitted in the vertical position and is contingent on no adverse operating conditions present such as; poor power, high stop/start frequency, presence of incrustating deposits on the motor surface, etc. Detramental operating conditions are difficult to identify or predict, and for this reason, the minimum cooling flow should be provided whenever possible regardless of the ambient fluid temperature.
Water Temperature and Motor Derating

As previously stated, the full motor capacity is a function of ambient fluid temperature and flow past the motor. When the ambient temperature exceeds the temperature at which the motor performance is based, the motor must be derated and/or cooling velocity increased. Table 4-8 provides typical derating criteria for hermetically sealed/canned type submersible motors, which use de-ionized water as the primary internal motor fluid. Such motors should not be used in applications which exceed 60C (140F) regardless of any special provisions incorporated into the system. AWWA specifications state that the motor temperature shall not exceed the allowable operating temperature of the motor thrust and radial bearings, and in no case shall it exceed the temperature rating of the motor insulation system. When the service duty exceeds 40C (104F) pumps and motors fitted with NBR rubber components are subject to reduced life if not replaced on a regular basis. A minimum replacement interval of three years is recommended. 4-20 Section 4B Submersible Motor Cooling
High temperature elastomers (rubber compounds) are recommended any time the normal ambient fluid temperature exceeds 104F. In application which exceed 60C (140F), the use of submersible motors which use dielectric oil for internal cooling and lubrication should be used. Hot water applications for standard water well submersible motors is discussed latter in this section.
Table 4-8: Allowable % of Max. Nameplate Amps Derated for Ambient Water Temp. @ .5 fps
Water Temp. 30C (86F) 35C (95F) 40C ( 104F) 45C (113F) 50C (122F) 55C (130F) 60C (140F)
0 - 3 Hp 100% 100% 100% 90% 80% 70% 50%
5 - 15 Hp 100% 100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
20 - 250 Hp 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 45%
Note: Derating % is based on a ambient fluid temperature of 30C (86F) @ 0.5 fps, consult motor manufacture for specific maximum full-load cooling water temperature without derating. Typical base ambient fluid temperature rating for various manufactures of submersible motors used in the water supply industry range from 25C to 40C, with 30C being the most prominent. Motor Over-Temperature Protection. Many motor manufactures can provide motor modification which allow winding temperatures to be monitored directly from the surface through auxiliary controls such as the Grundfos CU3 or MTP75. Built in monitoring devices can be damaged during insulation resistance (megger) checks. Small motors are often equipped with built in temperature protection in the form of a thermal switch. In the absence of a direct winding temperature monitoring device or built in protection, over-temperature protection is provided indirectly via overload protection. Motor Submergence. Allowable motor temperature is based upon having at least atmospheric pressure on the water surrounding the motor. Where fluid temperatures exceed 30F (104), addition submergence is recommended, as increase pressure will protect the internal motor fluid from boiling, when the pump stops. The higher the submergence pressure, the higher the boiling point temperature and the greater the temperature safety margin. Table 4-9 lists the recommended water submergence over the motor in hot/warm water applications. Typically pump NPSH requirements corrected for temperature will be greater than the values listed in the table. The greater of the two values should be used in the design process.
Table 4-9: Motor Submergence in Warm/Hot Water Applications
Section 4
Water Temp. Feet of water (ft.) 30C (86F) 35C (95F) 40C (104F) 45C (113F) 50C (122F) 55C (130F) 60C (140F) 1.5 3.0 4.5 9.0 18.0 27.0 36.0
Submergence Depth/Pressure psi Meters of water (m) 0.7 1.3 1.9 3.9 7.8 11.7 15.6 0.5 1.0 1.5 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0
Note: Motor rating based on 30C ambient water temperature at 0.5 fps or greater cooling flow velocity. Applications where submergence pressure/suction conditions are changed as a result of the use of packers and well seals above the pump, or vacuum systems should be carefully scrutinized. Reduced intake/suction pressures can create both motor and pump problems; pumps can be damaged as a result of insufficient NPSH, motors are susceptible to temperature related failures associated with inadequate submergence pressure. Derating of the motor to the next larger motor size should be considered when prolong application under reduced intake pressure is likely.
Section 4B Submersible Motor Cooling
4-21
Motor Jacket/Shroud/Flow Inducer Sleeve

On some installations it is necessary to use a motor jacket or shroud to insure that all, or some portion of the produced fluid pass by the motor in order to carry away the heat generated. In some cases, the motor jacket is used to increase velocity (create turbulent flow) in order to prevent the formation of deposit and inhibit corrosion. A motor jacket should be used/ considered under the following operating scenarios: 1. Top-feeding (cascading) wells can feed the water directly into the pump without its flowing past the motor if the well is not cased to below the motor, or casing is perforated above the motor. 2. Flow may be inadequate when the motor is in a large body of water or a casing much larger than the motor, or if delivery is very low, or in sump/wet pit tank applications. 3. If the groundwater is aggressive or contains chloride, the corrosion rate will double for every 15C increase in temperature between the motor metallic housing and water. The motor housing is generally 5-15C warmer than the produced water. A cooling sleeve will therefore reduce the risk of motor corrosion by keeping the exterior motor surface temperature lower during operation. 4. If the well water contains a significant amount of iron (iron bacteria), manganese and calcium. These substances will be oxidized and deposited on the motor surface. In case of low flow past the motor, incrustation build-up forms a heat insulating layer of oxidized minerals, which may result in hot spots in the motor winding insulation. This temperature increase may reach values, that impare the insulating system, and consequently the motor life. A cooling sleeve will insure turbulent flow past the motor prohibiting incrustation build-up and optimize cooling. A cooling shroud/motor jacket should be selected so as to keep the maximum fluid velocity past the motor to 15 fps (12 fps by AWWA specs.). At the higher velocities, erosion can be significantly accelerated in the presence of abrasives and increase intake losses can impare pump performance. Head loss for various motor O.D. and casing/shroud I.D. combinations are listed in Table 4-10, and should be considered under marginal submergence and suction conditions. A fluid velocity of 3 fps is generally considered optimum and 0.5 fps is the minimum cooling velocity value. The actual fluid velocity past the motor can be calculated using the formula: Velocity (past motor) = gpm/2.45 (ID casing)2 (OD motor)2
Section 4
where; Casing or shroud ID and motor OD values are in inches, and velocity (past the motor) is in fps
Table 4-10: Annular Space Head Loss (Hf) from Flow Past Motor (ft. of Water)
Motor (Nominal) Casing I.D. 25 50 100 150 200 250 gpm 300 400 500 600 800 1000
4 4.25 0.3 1.2 4.7 10.2
4 5
4 6
6 6
6 7
6 8
8 8.1
8 10
0.3 0.6 1.1 1.8 2.5
0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0
1.7 3.7 6.3 9.6 13.6 23.7
0.5 0.8 1.2 2.0 3.1 4.4
0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0
6.8 10.4 14.6 24.6 37.3 52.2
0.6 0.8 1.5 2.4
Note: The tabulated friction loss values assume maximum motor length for the specified nominal motor size and a smooth casing/sleeve ID, and include entry and exit losses. Typical Motor Jacket/Shroud Configurations. The motor shroud is generally of the next nominal diameter of standard pipe larger than the motor or the pump, depending on the shroud configuration used. The tubular/pipe material can be plastic or thin walled steel (corrosion resistant materials preferred). The cap/top must accommodate power cable without damage and provide a snug fit, so that only a very small amount of fluid can be pulled through the top of the shroud. The fit should not be completely water tight as ventilation is often required to allow escape of the air or gas that might accumulate. The shroud body should be stabilized to prevent rotation and
4-22
maintain the motor centered within the shroud. The shroud length should extend to a length of 1-2 times the shroud diameter beyond the bottom of the motor when possible. Shrouds are typically attached immediately above the pump intake or at the pump/column correction. A typical motor sleeve/shroud selection example is sited below and illustrated in Figure 4-4:
Example 4-1:
A six-inch motor and pump that delivers 60 gpm will be installed in a 10 well, 90 gpm past the motor is required assuming 10 ID well (from Table 4-7). An 8 or smaller sleeve must be added to the pump to provide a cooling flow velocity of 0.5 fps or greater. If a well feeds water from above the pump, has a casing/chamber too small to allow a motor jacket/sleeve on the pump, and does not have adequate level and flow to allow raising the pump above the inflow, it is difficult to properly cool the motor. When possible, the casing depth should be increased to allow flow to come from below the motor. If this is not practical, adequate flow past the motor can usually be attained by employing a motor jacket with a stringer pipe or by using a jet tube as shown in Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-4: Typical Motor Jacket Installation Scenarios
Typical Flow Inducer Sleeve Cutaway View

Pump Top of Sleeve Closed and Clamped or Bolted to Pump Above Intake Flow Inducer Sleeve Casing Pump Intake Fluid Entry Pump Motor Jacket
Section 4
Spacers at 3 or 4 Points Around All Water Flows the Inside of Past Motor the Sleeve are Recommended to Hold Motor Centered and Avoid Loosening Top During Installation
Motor
Figure 4-5: Unusual Motor Jacket/Cooling Installation Scenarios
Flow Inducer Jet Tube to Promote Flow Past Motor Only When Other Methods Are Impractical
Casing 1/4" ID Tube Tapped Into Pump Outlet Pump Straps with Spacers Alongside Tubing to Prevent Crushing by Straps or Installation Pump Jacket Motor FL
Motor Jet of Water from Tube Creates Some Flow Past Motor
Approx.1 Foot
Fluid Entry
4-23
Table 4-11: Intermittent Operation
The table shows the recommended number of starts of intermittent operation:
Motor type *MS 402 4 *MS 4000 4 *MS 6000 6 Franklin 6 Franklin 8 Mercury 6 Mercury 8
Recommended number of starts Min. 1 pr. year Max. 30 pr. hour Max. 300 pr. day Min. 1 pr. year Max. 100 pr. day Min. 1 pr. year Max. 20 pr. hour Min. 1 pr. year Max. 10 pr. hour
Special (Non Water Well) Applications

A cooling shroud should be used in all static horizontal and vertical installations where water can directly enter the pump intake, without crossing the motor surface. In addition to focusing the pumped fluid to dissipate motor heat, a motor shroud can be used to improve suction conditions by reducing vortices. Such applications include fountains and pump-out tanks, where the ambient fluid temperature is often higher than groundwater temperatures. In such installations; motor submergence-temperature considerations, as well as pump intake requirement must be carefully considered.
*MS - Grundfos Motor
A typical horizontal pump out tank application is illustrated in Figure 4-6. Vertical application should be handled as illustrated in Figure 4-7, which is analogues to top feeding water well application.
Figure 4-6: Cooling Sleeve on Horizontally Installed Motor in a Tank Figure 4-7: Cooling Sleeve Vertically Insulated Motor in a Tank
Section 4
W/O Cooling Shroud
W Cooling Shroud Hot Water Applications (Hermetically Sealed/Canned Type-Submersible Motors). When the pump-motor operates in water hotter than 86F (30C), 104F (40C) for some manufactures, the best motor cooling and most economical motor size result when the cooling flow rate velocity past the motor is minimum of 3 feet per second (fps). 4-24 Section 4B Submersible Motor Cooling
When selecting the correct motor to drive a pump at elevated water temperatures, and 3 fps cooling flow velocity can be maintained, a heat factor multiplier can be applied to the load in order to properly select a motor. The heat factor sizing multiplier motor selection process is outlined and illustrated by example as follows: Step 1: Determine pump flow (gpm) delivery require for various well/sleeve diameters and motor combinations using Table 4-12. The flow velocity past the motor must be a minimum 3 fps. Add a motor jacket/sleeve to obtain a cooling velocity of 3 fps. Step 2: Determine pump horsepower (Hp) required . Step 3: Multiply the pump Hp requirement by the heat factor multiplier from Table 4-13. Step 4: Select a rated Hp motor from Table 4-14, whose Service Factor Horsepower (SFHp) is at least the value calculated in step 3.
Example 4-2: A 6 pump end requiring 39 Hp input will pump 124F water in an 8 well at a delivery rate of
140 gpm. From Table 4-12, a 6 flow sleeve will be required to increase the flow rate to at least 3 fps. Using Table 4-13, the 1.62 heat factor multiplier is selected because the Hp required is over 30 Hp and water temperature above 122F. Multiply 39 x 1.62 which equals 63.2. This is the minimum service factor horsepower motor which is usable at 39 Hp in 124F water. Using Table 4-14, select a motor with a service factor horsepower above 63.2. A 60 Hp motor has a SFHp of 69, so a 60 Hp motor may safely be used.
Table 4-12: Minimum Flow (gpm) Requirement to Obtain 3 fps Flow Velocity
Inches Casting or Sleeve I.D. 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16
4 Motor 15 80 160
6 Motor 52 150 260 520
8 Motor 60 330 650 1020 1460
Section 4
Table 4-13: Heat Factor Multiplier @ 3 fps Flow Velocity
Maximum Water Temp 140F (60C) 131F (55C) 122F (50C) 113F (40C) 104F (45C) 95F (35C)
1/3 - 5 Hp 1.25 1.11 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
7 1/2 - 30 Hp 1.62 1.32 1.14 1.00 1.00 1.00
Over 30 Hp 2.00 1.62 1.32 1.14 1.00 1.00
Table 4-14: Service Factor Horsepower (SFHp) @ S.F. = 1.15)
Hp 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2
SFHp .58 .80 1.12 1.40 1.95 2.50
Hp 3 5 7 1/2 10 15 20
SFHp 3.45 5.75 8.65 11.50 17.25 23.00
Hp 25 30 40 50 60 75
SFHp 27.50 34.50 46.00 57.50 69.00 86.25
Hp 100 125 150 175 200 250
SFHp 115.00 143.75 172.50 201.25 230.00 287.50
4-25
4C MOTOR INSULATION RESISTANCE

Insulation Resistance
Insulation resistance in a submersible pumping system is a measure of the motors and/or cables ability to withstand normal voltage and surge voltages, without breakdown and failure. An adequate level of insulation resistance is not a constant value, but depends on the installation voltage and conditions, and whether the measured resistance is lowered by a specific weak point or by widely distributed conductance such as in cable insulation material itself. For this reason, values for acceptable resistance cannot be specific. Insulation Resistance Measurements. Insulation resistance measurements should be taken at the time of initial motor installation and periodically thereafter. In deep set submersible installations, measurements should be taken throughout the installation process, to detect potential cable insulation/connection damage before the unit is completely installed. Table 4-15 describes the condition of the insulation system for a submersible motor system of 600V or less based on megohmmeter (megger) readings.
Table 4-15: Insulation Resistance (Megger Readings) & Motor Condition
Condition of Motor and Leads A newmotor (without drop cable). A used motor which can be reinstalled in the well MOTOR IN WELL. Ohm readings are for drop cable plus motor. A new motor in the well. A motor in the well in reasonable good condition. A motor which may have been damaged by lightning or with damaged leads. Do not pull the pump for this reason.
OHM Value 20,000,000 (or more) 10,000,000 (or more)
MEGOHM Value 20.0 (or more) 10.0 (or more)
2,000,000 (or more) 500,000 - 20,000,000 20,000 - 500,000 10,000 - 20,000
2.0 (or more) 0.5 - 2.0 0.02 - 0.5 0.01 - 0.02
Section 4
A motor which definitely has been damaged or with damaged cable. The pump should be pulled and repairs made to the cable or the motor replaced. The motor will not fail for this reason alone, but it will probably not operate for long. A motor which has failed or with completely destroyed cable insulation. The pump must be pulled and the cable repaired or the motor replaced.
less than 10,000
0 - 0.01
Note: Table is applicable to motor nameplate voltage ratings of 600V or less. The formula, Rm = kV + 1 can be used to calculate the minimum insulation resistance (Rm in megohms) for any motor, based on rated/ nameplate voltage (kV in kilovolts). Using the formula, a 2300V motor should have a minimum Rm value of 3.3 megohms. The recommended megohmmeter DC test voltages based on motor nameplate voltage are specified in Table 4-16 below:
Table 4-16: Insulation Resistance DC Test Voltages
Rated Motor AC Voltage 600V and less 601V to 1000V 1001V and up
Recommended DC Test Voltage 500 VDC 500 to1000 VDC *500 to 2500 VDC
Cable Splice. Insulation resistance for cable splices should be no less than 10 megohms under submerged conditions. See Section 4D for additional information regarding cable and cable splice insulation resistance levels.
Insulation History. The only accurate way to predict insulation failure is to maintain a * 2500 VDC optimum history of the insulation resistance readings. Over a period of months or years these readings will tend to indicate a trend. Sudden or gradual drop insulation resistance after a pump is installed usually predicts failure, indicating a progressive weakening of insulation at some point in the cable or motor such as a damaged lead, leaky connector or splice, or surge damaged motor winding.
4-26
Section 4C Motor Insulation Resistance
Dielectric Absorption Ratio

When a single point megohometer test indicates a potential problem within the insulation system, a dielectric absorption ratio (DAR) test should be conducted. The DAR test will further quantify the suitability of the motor and/or cable system for operation. The DAR is obtained by taking megohmmeter readings at thirty seconds and sixty second intervals. Readings at one and ten minutes is recommended, but is often impractical under field conditions. The DAR is obtained by dividing the second (60 sec. or 10 min.) reading by the first (30 sec. or 1 min.) reading and is based on a good insulation system increasing its resistance when subjected to a test voltage for a period of time. The condition of the insulation system based on DAR test results are described in Table 4-17 below.
Table 4-17: Dielectric Absorption Ratio & Motor Condition
10 minute: 1 minute Dangerous Poor Questionable Fair Good Excellent = = = = = = less than 1.0 1.0 to 1.4 1.5 to 1.9 2.0 to 2.9 3.0 to 4.0 over 4.0
60 second: 30 second Poor Questionable Fair Good Excellent = = = = = less than 1.1 1.1 to 1.24 1.25 to 1.3 1.4 to 1.6 over 1.6
If a low insulation resistance reading is obtained in both the individual megger and dielectric absorption ratio test, the motor should be replaced and or repaired as applicable. The same test voltage specified for individual megger readings should be used when conducting the DAR test.
Section 4
Section 4C Motor Insulation Resistance
4-27
4D SUBMERSIBLE POWER CABLE

Submersible Power Cable
Power is transmitted from the starter/controller to the submersible motor through a marine duty power cable, typically consisting of three flexible stranded conductors of the proper size to carry the motor full load amperes (FLA) at its rated voltage. AWWA standards require a separate ground wire to be provided (ie. 3-wire cable systems are equipped with three power conductors and a ground wire of the same size). Proper cable selection is a function of motor load, voltage, available space, length (setting depth) and environment. Typical conductor insulation materials are synthetic rubber (RW, RUW, TW, etc.), plastic (PVC, XPLE, etc.) or special polymer (FPE, hypalin, EPR - EPDM, etc.). Special cable insulations are often recommended or required for sever duty or special applications such as; gas, hydro - carbon, heat, variable frequency, etc. Cable can be provided as three or more separate individual or, twisted conductors, molded side by side in a flat cable configuration or three conductors with a round common jacket. Refer to Table 4-18 for general submersible power cable physical data (weight and diameter). Armored cable is also available for special applications, but is typically not employed in the water supply industry. Cable is supported and attached to column/drop pipe by means of cable clamps, tape or bands. One extra foot of cable for each fifty feet of length should be allowed plus an additional ten to fifty feet for surface connections.
Table 4-18: Typical Submersible Power Cable Physical Data
Cable Size
600 Volt (115, 208, 230, 460 and 575 Volt Motors) Type I Type II 3 Conductors and ground 3 Conductors and ground in a Common Jacket in Separate Jackets (4 wire total) (4 wire total)
5000 Volt (2300 Volt Motors) Type III Type IV 3 Conductors in a 3 Conductors in Common Jacket Separate Jackets (3 wire total) (3 wire total)
Section 4
AWG MCM 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 00 000 0000 250 300 350 400 500
O.D. (in.) .39 .43 .64 .76 91 1.02 1.15 1.34 1.43 1.53 1.64 1.80 1.97 2.09 2.20 2.34 2.25
Weight (lbs./ft.) .16 .20 .32 .44 .65 .90 1.26 1.68 2.0 2.41 2.89 3.58 5.88 6.60 7.34 8.18 9.30
O.D. (in.) Wt. (lbs./ft.) per cable for 4 cables .19 .10 .21 .13 .27 .18 .31 .29 .36 .43 .42 .64 .48 .97 .58 1.26 .62 1.54 .67 1.91 .72 2.36 .78 2.93 .90 4.82 .95 5.62 1.00 6.50 1.05 7.25 1.13 8.87
O.D. (in.)
Weight (lbs./ft.)
O.D. (in.) Wt. (lbs./ft.) per cable for 3 cables
1.02 1.10 1.21 1.33 1.51 1.61 1.82 2.51
.69 .85 1.12 1.46 2.09 2.56 3.40 4.8
.39 .43 .47 .53 .62 .66
.43 .52 .71 .99 1.49 1.87
Notes: 1. Types I and II cables are typically insulated and jacketed with synthetic rubber, PVC or XLPE. 2 Types II and IV are often supplied paralleled in a flat cable configuration, or in a twisted configuration for smaller sizes. Type I and II cable include 3 power conductors and a ground conductor. 3. AWWA minimum stranding and insulation requirements; No. 10 and smaller - 7 strand/ Class B, No. 9 through No. 2 - 19 strand/ Class C, No. 1 through 4/0 - 19 strand / Class B. Minimum conductor area to meet minimum ICEA (Insulated Cable Engineers Association) code for operation in free air. 4. Verify actual cable weight per foot with manufacture for greater accuracy, as weight and diameter will very with insulation system and manufacture.
4-28
Section 4D Submersible Power Cable
Cable Selection
Maximum cable lengths are generally calculated to maintain 95% of service entrance voltage at the motor running at maximum nameplate amps, and to maintain adequate starting torque. Calculations take into account basic cable resistance, reactance, power factor and temperature rise cable larger than specified may always be used, and will reduce power consumption. Table 4-19 tabulates copper cable sizes for various cable lengths vs motor size. Figure 4-9 can be used to graphically select power cable when motor amperes are known. Electrical losses in the cable are charged to the overall plant efficiency (OPE). Table 4-21 and Figure 4-10 can be used to estimate power cable losses for the purposes of estimating operating cost and OPE. The use of power cables smaller than the minimum sizes as permitted by code or recommended by the motor manufacture will generally void the motor warranty. Understized cable sizes will cause reduced starting torque and poor motor operation. Mixed Cable. In a submersible pump installation any combination of cables sizes may be used provided they do not exceed the individual maximum conductor ampacity limit and the aggregate voltage drop does not exceed 5% of the motor nameplate voltage while operating at full load. Mixed cable sizes are most often encountered when a pump is being replaced with a larger horsepower unit. Table 4-20 can be used to determine maximum conductor ampacity. Figure 4-12 can be used to determine conductor voltage drop to insure adequate voltage delivery to the motor. Cable Splice. When the downhole power cable (drop cable) must be spliced or connected to the motor leads, it is necessary that the splice be water tight. Under normal service conditions, the splice can be made using commercially available potting compounds, heat shrink or tape. Each type of splicing methods is affective when made by competent personnel, potted or head shrink splices are recommended when submergence pressures exceeds 25 psi (60). A cable splice should exhibit a minimum insulation resistance of 10 megohms, measured in a submerged state after 24 hours in water. A typical low voltage (< 600V) tape splice is illustrated below in Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8: Tape Splice
When three conductors are encased in a single outer shealth, tape individual conductors as described, staggering joints. Total thickness of tape should be no less than the thickness of the conductor insulation. Motor Lead. Most manufactures will provide a factory motor lead assembly, pre-potted and designed to provide a water tight connection between it and the motor terminals. Typical motor lead length range from 48 to 150 and are generally spliced to the drop cable immediately above the pump. Minimum wire sizes (AWG) for factory provided motor lead assemblies, by nominal motor size are; 4 - #14 to #12, 6 - #10 to #8, 8 - #4 and 10 - #2.
Section 4
In general, a motor lead assembly should not be reused as rubber compounds typically used in there construction will set with time, making a water tight connection difficult. The manufactures installation instructions, which includes pot head connecting torque vales and lubrication requirements, should be strictly observed.
4-29
Section 4
Table 4-19: Maximum Submersible Power Cable Length (Max. Cable Length in feet - Starter to Motor) AWG Copper Wine Size 4 3 2 1 0 00 000 0000 250 500 5140 3780 2940 2250 1350 960 720 490 380 300* 250* 3610 2760 1660 1180 880 600 460 370* 310* 4430 3390 2040 1450 1090 740 570 460 380* 5420 4130 2490 1770 1330 910 700 570 470 3050 2170 1640 1110 860 700 580 3670 2600 1970 1340 1050 840 700 4440 3150 2390 1630 1270 1030 850 5030 3560 2720 1850 1440 1170 970 3100 2100 1650 1330 1110 3480 2350 1850 1500 1250 9860 8290 6160 4770 3660 2190 1560 1170 800 610 500 410* 7530 5860 4480 2690 1920 1440 980 760 610 510 9170 7170 5470 3290 2340 1760 1200 930 750 620 8780 6690 4030 2870 2160 1470 1140 920 760 8020 4850 3440 2610 1780 1380 1120 930 9680 5870 4160 3160 2150 1680 1360 1130 3800 2570 2020 1640 1360 8060 6780 5030 3890 2980 1790 1270 950 650 500 400 330* MCM Copper Wire Size 300 350 400
4-30
10 1800 1280 1080 790 610 470 280 200 0 0 0 0 0 2350 1700 1430 1060 810 620 370 260 190* 0 0 0 0 9460 6850 5770 4270 3270 2520 1500 1070 790 540 410 330* 270* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4140 3050 2360 1810 1080 770 570 390 300* 240* 0 8910 6490 5460 4050 3130 2400 1430 1020 760 520 400 320* 260* 6650 4710 3590 2440 1910 1540 1280 7560 5340 4100 2780 2180 1760 1470 8460 5970 4600 3110 2450 1980 1650 9220 6500 5020 3400 2680 2160 1800 4420 2980 2360 1900 1590 7510 5840 3940 3120 2520 2110 9070 6730 5150 3970 2360 1690 1250 850 650 530 430 320* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8050 6200 3700 2640 1960 1340 1030 830 680 500* 410* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5750 4100 3050 2090 1610 1300 1070 790 640 540* 440* 0 0 0 0 0 0 5100 3800 2600 2000 1620 1330 980 800 670* 550* 0 0 0 0 0 0 6260 4680 3200 2470 1990 1640 1210 980 830 680* 500* 0 0 0 0 0 7680 5750 3930 3040 2450 2030 1490 1210 1020 840 620* 0 0 0 0 0 7050 4810 3730 3010 2490 1830 1480 1250 1030 760* 600* 0 0 0 0 5900 4580 3700 3060 2250 1810 1540 1260 940 740* 630* 0 0 0 7110 5530 4470 3700 2710 2190 1850 1520 1130 890* 760* 670* 590* 0 5430 4500 3290 2650 2240 1850 1380 1000 920* 810* 710* 0 5130 3730 3010 2540 2100 1560 1220 1050 930* 810* 0 5860 4250 3420 2890 2400 1790 1390 1190 1060 920* 0 3830 3240 2700 2010 1560 1340 1190 1030 0 4180 3540 2950 2190 1700 1460 1300 1130 760 4850 4100 3440 2550 1960 1690 1510 1310 865 8 2840 2030 1710 1260 970 740 440 310 230* 160 0 0 0 3700 2580 2260 1670 1280 990 590 420 310 210* 0 0 0 6 4420 3160 2670 1960 1520 1160 690 490 370 250* 190* 0 0 5760 4190 3520 2610 2010 1540 920 650 490 330 250* 0 0
Motor Rating Volts HP 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 200V-208V 3 60 Hz 5 Three Phase Three Wire 7 1/2 10 15 20 25 30 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 230V 3 60Hz 5 Three Phase Three Wire 7 1/2 10 15 20 25 30 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 3 5 7 1/2 10 460V 15 60Hz 20 Three Phase 25 Three Wire 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 250
14 710 510 430 310 240 180 110* 0 0 0 0 0 0 930 670 560 420 320 240 140* 0 0 0 0 0 0 3770 2730 2300 1700 1300 1000 590 420 310 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 1140 810 690 500 390 290 170 0 0 0 0 0 0 1490 1080 910 670 510 390 230 160* 0 0 0 0 0 6020 4350 3670 2710 2070 1600 950 680 500 340* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 4-19: Maximum Submersible Power Cable Length (Max. Cable Length in feet - Starter to Motor) 10 340 250 1390 1020 760 630 480 390 300 180 120* 0 0 9120 6580 5110 3980 2330 1680 1240 850 650 520 430* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8060 6270 3680 2650 1950 1340 1030 830 680 500* 410* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5750 4150 3060 2090 1610 1300 1070 790 640* 540* 0 0 0 0 0 0 4770 3260 2520 2030 1670 1240 1000 850 690* 0 0 0 0 0 5940 4060 3140 2530 2080 1540 1250 1060 860 640* 0 0 0 0 3860 3110 2560 1900 1540 1300 1060 790* 630* 0 0 0 4760 3840 3160 2330 1890 1600 1310 970 770* 660* 0 0 5830 4710 3880 2860 2310 1960 1600 1190 950 800 700* 0 4770 3510 2840 2400 1970 1460 1160 990* 870* 760* 2190 1610 1200 990 770 620 470 280 200 160* 0 3400 2510 1870 1540 1200 970 750 450 310 250 170* 5250 3880 2890 2380 1870 1530 1190 710 490 390 270 6520 4810 3580 2960 2320 1910 1490 890 610 490 340 7960 5880 4370 3610 2850 2360 1850 1110 750 600 430 9690 7170 5330 4410 3500 2930 2320 1390 930 750 530 11770 8720 6470 5360 4280 3620 2890 1740 1140 930 660 14320 10620 7870 6520 5240 4480 3610 2170 1410 1160 820 17050 12660 9380 7780 6300 5470 4470 2680 1720 1430 1020 20460 15210 11250 9350 7620 6700 5550 3330 2100 1760 1260 22980 17100 12640 10510 8630 770 6450 3870 2400 2030 1460 25850 19260 14220 11840 9810 8890 7580 4550 2760 2370 1700 28750 21440 15810 13180 10980 10080 8690 5210 3120 2700 1940 8 540 390 6 840 620 AWG Copper Wine Size 4 3 2 1 1300 1610 1960 2390 960 1190 1460 1780 0 2910 2160 00 3540 2630 000 4210 3140 0000 5060 3770 31070 23200 17090 14260 11960 11130 9740 5840 3430 3000 2170
(continued) MCM Copper Wire Size 250 300 350 400 500 5680 6390 7110 7680 8790 4240 4770 5320 5750 6590 35580 26600 19570 16350 13860 13170 11770 7060 4040 3590 2610
Motor Rating Volts HP 115V 1/3 60Hz 1/2 Single Phase 1/3 1/2 3/4 1.00 230V 1.50 60 Hz 2.00 Single Phase 3.00 5.00 7.50 10.00 15.00 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 3 5 7 1/2 10 575V 15 60Hz 20 Three Phase 25 Three Wire 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 5780 4230 3420 2890 2380 1770 1400 1190 1050* 920* 7030 5140 4140 3500 2890 2150 1690 1440 1270 1110* 8000 5830 4700 3970 3290 2440 1920 1630 1450 1260 5340 4520 3750 2790 2180 1860 1650 1440 5990 5070 4220 3140 2440 2080 1860 1620 6530 5530 4610 3430 2650 2270 2030 1760
14 130 100
12 210 160
550 400 300 250 190 150 120 0 0 0 0 5900 4270 3630 2620 2030 1580 920 660 490 330* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
880 650 480 400 310 250 190 110* 0 0 0 9410 6810 5800 4180 3250 2530 1480 1060 780 530 410* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7580 6410 5370 3990 3070 2640 2360 2050
Section 4
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
4-31
* Lengths without asterisk meet U.S. NEC ampacity for either individual or jacketed conductors at 75C (167F) and 30C (86F) ambient. * Lengths marked with asterisk * meet U.S. NEC ampacity only for individual conductors at 75C in free air or water, not in conduit. The NEC ampacity requirement for motor branch circuits is based on a 25% continuous motor overload. Flat molded cable is considered to be jacketed. Table based on a maintaining motor terminal voltage at 95% of service entrance voltage, running at maximum nameplate amperes. If a maximum allowable voltage drop 3% (ie 97% of service entrance voltage, multiply tabulated values be .6 for maximum cable limits. In general voltage drop should be maintained at 3V/100 ft. or less. Table based on copper wire. If aluminum wire is used, it should be at least two sizes larger (ie. # 12 Copper = # 10 Aluminum) or multiply tabulated cable length values by .5 Cable length corrections factor for ambient temperature are listed as follows: Ambient Temp 10C/ 50F 20C/ 68F 30C/ 86F 40C/ 104F 50C/ 122F 1 foot = .305 meter The cable length between the service entrance (metering) to a three phase Cable Length motor starter/controller should not exceed 25% of the tabulated lengths above, Correction Factor 1.18 1.10 1.00 .82 .58 to assure reliable starting.
Figure 4-9: Graphical Submersible Cable Selection Chart - 3 phase/60 Hz (Motor Amperes vs Cable Length)
Section 4
Note:
1. To use selection chart, find intersection of motor amperes and cable length - use any cable to Right of this point. Example: 150 HP, 440 volt motor operating at full load will draw 203.2 amperes; checking selection chart we find that 0000 is the minimum recommended cable size for any setting up to 800 feet. For deeper settings, larger cable must be used. A 900 foot setting on the above motor would require a minimum cable size of 300 MCM. 2. Table based on 5% voltage drop - 75C copper conductor temp. and 30C ambient temp. Maximum ampere value for each cable size must be reduced if ambient temperature exceeds 30C (see note 7 in Table 4-19).
Table 4-20: Maximum Copper Conductor Ampacity & Motor Amps
Wire Size (AWG) 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
Max. Conductor Ampacity (NEC 310 16) 15 20 30 50 65 85 115 150 175 200 230
Max Motor Amps (NEC 430 22) 12 16 24 40 52 68 92 120 140 160 184
Wire Size (MCM) 250 300 350 490 500 600 700 750 1000
Max. Conductor Ampacity (NEC 310 16) 255 285 310 335 380 420 400 475 545
Max. Motor Amps (NEC 43022) 204 228 248 268 204 336 368 380 436
Notes: 1. Maximum ampacity for wires was taken from the National Electrical Code Table 310-16, Column 2 for wire type RHW having a temperature rating of 75C wet and 90C dry. Not more than three conductors in raceway, conduit or direct burial (based on ambient temperature to 30C). 2. Maximum motor amps is the ampacity divided by 1.25 as specified in N.E.C. article 430-22 for motor branch circuits.
4-32
Figure 4-10: Graphical Submersible Cable Power Loss Chart (Motor Amperes vs Hp loss per 100 ft.)
Note: The above chart indicates the power loss (in horsepower) for each 100 feet of submersible cable. This loss must be considered in overall plant efficiency (OPE), calculations. Long range cost evaluation may dictate the use of a larger than normal size cable.
Section 4
Table 4-21: Submersible Power Cable Loss (Hp/100 ft. of Cable @ full load) Motor Rating Volts Hp 5 7 1/2 10 15 230V 20 60 Hz 30 Three Phase 40 50 60 75 5 7 1/2 10 15 20 25 30 460V 40 60 Hz 50 Three Phase 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 8 .082 .139 .291 .460 6 AWG Copper Wire Size 4 2 .026 .016 .056 .056 .117 .037 .184 .115 .564 .353 .774 .484 .778 1/0 4/0 MCM Copper Wire Size 300 500
.046 .072 .221 .315 .489 .762
.113 .154 .248 .388 .619 .901
.110 .117 .277 .440 .641
.065 .105 .164 .261 .380
.018 .035 .074 .139 .225 .350 .482
.051 .088 .121 .195 .310 .532
.121 .195 .332 .484 .705
.122 .209 .304 .442 .855
.155 .225 .451 .589 .856
.160 .322 .420 .610 1.079
.256 .359 .637 .990
Note: Cable Loss in BHp = (Loss from Table) x Actual Cable Length 100
4-33
Table 4-22: Copper Wire Resistance (DC Resistance in Ohm/100 ft. @ .75C Cond. Temp.)
Figure 4-11: Drop Cable Resistance vs. Length
Wire Size AWG 14 12 10 8 6 4 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 MCM 2 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 750 1000 Ohms .324093 .203820 .128178 .080628 .050712 .031862 .02006 .012648 .010001 .007931 .006290 .005324 .004436 .003803 .003327 .001774 .002218 .001901 .001774 .001330
Note: Graphed values are based on copper conductors. Aluminum conductor resistance can be calculated by: multiply the ohm values from the chart by 1.64.
Figure 4-12: Voltage Drop per 100 ft. of Cable
Section 4
VOLTAGE DROP OVER 100 FEET OF CABLE
SHADED AREA OF EACH CABLE SIZE SHOWS AMBIENT TEMPERATURE RANGE FROM 30C / 86F TO 60C / 140F CU = COPPER / AL - ALUMINUM
4-34
Grundfos
SECTION 5: GRUNDFOS SUBMERSIBLE PRODUCTS

5A LARGE SUBMERSIBLE PRODUCTS Product Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Features and Benefits of Grundfos Pumps Pump Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single Stage Pump Performance Data . . . Grundfos Submersible Pump Data . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-2 5-2 5-2 5-2
5B
EXPLODED VIEW DRAWINGS AND MATERIALS Exploded Pump Drawing, Figures 5-1 to 5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 Materials Used in Construction, Table 5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Section 5
Section 5A Large Submersible Products
5-1
5A LARGE SUBMERSIBLE PRODUCTS

Product Overview
This section covers Grundfos line of large submersible pumps available for sale. Included in the following sections are tables listing specific pump data and single stage performance values at best efficiency point. Exploded drawings (Figures 5-1 to 5-3 and Table 5-4) for 6, 8 and 10 pumps show the major components and materials used in construction. Dimensions and weights for each model can be found in the Grundfos Groundwater Catalog.
Table 5-1: Grundfos Pump Models (Jan. 1999)
Features and Benefits

m3/hr 17 30 46 60 77 95 125 160 215 Grundfos 6, 8 and 10 diameter pumps range in flow from 50 to 1400 GPM and head pressures up to 2100 ft. Check valves are built in all discharge chambers and upthrust washers are designed in all models to prevent excessive wear during periods of high demand or start-up.
Pump Model 85S 150S 230S 300S 385S 475S 625S 800S 1100S
GPM 85 150 230 300 385 475 625 800 1100
Pump Model SP17 SP30 SP46 SP60 SP77 SP95 SP125 SP160 SP215
Pump Models
Table 5-1 shows the pump model designation and the flow rate for each pump model.
Note: One m3/hr equals 4.4 gpm. The values above have been rounded off to 5 gpm per m3/hr.
Table 5-2: Single Stage Performance Data at Best Efficiency Point (Jan. 1999)
Pump Size (gpm) 85S 150S 230S 300S 385S 475S 625S 800S 1100S
H (ft) 43 41 44 41 62 63 114 104 120
*H (Trim) (ft) 37A,27B,24C 28A,24B 40A,35B 50A,36B 77A 76A 90A
NPSH (ft) 17 14.5 12 12 16 20 28 32 37
**H, loss (ft) 5 5 7 7 3 3 17 5 10
Power (hp) 1.1 1.9 3.3 2.9 5.6 9.2 19 24 40
*Power (hp) 14 17.5 31
Efficiency (%) 73 75 77 78 78 78 80 82 84
Thrust (lbf) 45 106 103 99 225 157 337 393 450
Section 5
~ Data measurements taken at ambient temp., 60 Hz, 3450 rpm ~ Conformance with ISO 2548, Annex B * Trimmed impeller (A, B, C) types **H, loss in pump inlet and check valve
Single Stage Performance Data

Table 5-2 shows Grundfos Pumps single stage data at BEP. This data is used to estimate pump and motor size based on required flow and head. See Section 6B.
Grundfos Submersible Pump Data

Table 5-3 shows pump data, hp range, and efficiency data for Grundfos submersible pumps. Also shown are available materials and discharge sizes for all large Grundfos submersible pumps.
5-2
Table 5-3: Grundfos Submersible Pump Data (Jan. 1999)
Pump Size (gpm) 85S 150S 230S 300S 385S 475S 625S 800S 1100S
Pump Nom. Flow Range Dia. (inch) (gpm) 6 6 6 6 8 8 10 10 10 50-110 75-200 160-320 200-400 260-550 280-680 440-850 580-1080 600-1400
Max. Head (ft.) 2000 2100 1400 1200 1200 1300 900 700 1100
HP Range 1.5-50 2-75 5-75 7.5-75 10-100 10-125 15-150 20-125 30-250
Discharge (npt) 3 3 3 3,4 *5 *5 6 6 6
Available **Material A,B,C A,B,C A,B,C A,B,C A,B A,B A,B A,B A,B
Efficiency (%) 73 75 77 78 78 78 80 82 84
* Adapters available to adapt 5 npt to 4 npt or 6 npt. ** Material: A = 304SS, B = 316SS, C = 904L stainless steel. Note: Minimum well casing diameter is the same as nominal pump diameter.
Section 5
5-3
5B EXPLODED VIEW DRAWINGS & MATERIALS

Figure 5-1: Exploded View, 150S (Jan. 1999)
Section 5
5-4
Section 5B Exploded View Drawings & Materials
Figure 5-2: Exploded View, 385S and 475S (Jan. 1999)
Section 5
5-5
Figure 5-3: Exploded View, 625S and 800S (Jan. 1999)
Section 5
5-6
Table 5-4: Grundfos Submersible Pump Parts & Material List (Jan. 1999) Pos. Description Material Standard N-Version DIN AISI DIN AISI W.-Nr. W.-Nr. 1,4301 304 1,4401 316 Pos. Description Material Standard N-Version DIN AISI DIN AISI W.-Nr. W.-Nr. 1,4301 1,4057 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4401 304 431 304 304 304 304 316 1,4401 1,4460 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 316 329 316 316 316 316 316
1 1d 2 3 3a 3b 4
Valve casing O-ring Valve cup Valve seat Lower valve seat retainer Upper valve seat retainer Top intermediate chamber Stop disc
Stainless steel NBR Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Carbon/ Graphite HY22 in Teflon mass Stainless steel/NBR Stainless steel/NBR NBR/PPS NBR Carbon/ Graphite HY22 in Teflon mass Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel
15 16
Strainer Shaft Strap Cable guard Screw for cable guard Nut for strap Nut Motor cable Bolts
Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel
1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301
304 304 304 304 304
1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401
316 17 316 18 316 18a 316 19 316 19a 20 22
Stainless steel
1,4401
316
1,4401
316
6 6b 7 8 8a
Top bearing Lower bearing Neck ring Intermediate bearing Spacing washer for stop ring Stop ring Intermediate chamber Bottom intermediate chamber with stop ring Split cone nut Nut for stop ring Split cone Impeller
1,4301 1,4301
304 304
1,4401 1,4401
316 316
23 Rubber guard 24 25 Coupling Neck ring Stainless steel PP Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4401 1,4301 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 304 304 304 304 316 304 316 316 316 316 316 316 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 316 316 316 316 1,4460 329 1,4460 329
26 Neck ring for strainer 28 39 70 71 72 74 1,4301 304 1,4401 316 74a 77 77a 78 79 Lock for strainer Spring for valve cup Valve guide Washer Wear ring Staybolt Nut Cover plate Screw for cover plate Nameplate Rivet
8b 9 10
1,4301 1,4301 1,4301
304 304 304
1,4401 1,4401 1,4401
316 316 316
Section 5
316 316 316 316 316 316 316 316
11 11c 12 13
Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel
1,4401 316L 1,4401 316L 1,4301 1,4301 1,4301 1,4401 304 304 304 316 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 1,4401 316 316 316 316
14 Suction interconnector Intermediate piece for 6 motor over 30 kW
5-7
Section 5
5-8
Grundfos
SECTION 6: SUBMERSIBLE APPLICATIONS AND SIZING

6A SUBMERSIBLE APPLICATIONS Submersible Sump Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 Submersible Can Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9 SIZING AND SELECTION EXAMPLES Calculation of Submersible Pump and Motor Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 Installation and Start-Up Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6B
Section 6
Section 6A Submersible Applications
6-1
6A SUBMERSIBLE APPLICATIONS
Typical Uses. Submersible pumps are generally less expensive to purchase, install, operate, and maintain than the lineshaft turbines. There are several applications where the submersible pump has many advantages such as: (1) extremely deep wells (deep settings) which may present problems with shafting, (2) crooked wells, (3) installation subjected to surface flooding which may be damaging to electric motors, (4) applications such as booster pumps in locations that require quiet operation, (5) installations where there is little or no floor space to install the unit, such as valts and (6) horizontal pipeline booster pumps placed directly in the pipeline where conditions require a minimum amount of excavation or use of land surface. At the same time, there are some uses which do not lend themselves well to submersible pumps such as: (1) high fluid temperatures, and (2) unusually corrosive or abrasive fluid applications. Most submersible motors can be operated vertically, horizontally, or at any angle provided motor drive shaft is pointed-up. Typical Submersible pump applications are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Agricultural (Irrigation) Industrial (Factories) Municipal (Water Supply) Dewatering Inline Boosters Offshore Platforms Oil Industry
The following discussion of typical applications and market segments are intended to familiarize the reader with the basics regarding the use of submersible pumps. There are many other uses and application which are not discussed. Agricultural. Agricultural pump installations consist of those applications where water must be pumped from available water sources form domestic, livestock, drainage and irrigation needs. Of these various requirements, the pumping of water for irrigation of crops is the most prominent. It is estimated that there is over 50,000,000 irrigated acres in the U.S. Industry. Submersible pumps and motors are used in industry for water supply pumping and for industrial process needs, as well as waste disposal. Water is used as an ingredient in final products, conveyance, process cooling, dilution of wastes, etc. Industrial wastes are normally classified as a physical, chemical, or bacterial pollutant. Each type of pollutant is treated or disposed of in different ways and the remaining clean water recirculated. Municipal. In order to attain sanitary living conditions it is necessary to supply potable water and transport waste (sewage) away from cities to be treated. The water supply required comes from rivers, lakes, groundwater and reclamation. Pumping systems of all types are often located close to residential areas for water supply or booster purposes. Noise from above ground motors sometimes presents an annoyance. Vandalism often occurs to above ground motors due to there proximity to residential areas. The submersible motor represents an alternative method, which is virtually free from the above-mentioned hazards. Dewatering. Dewatering wells are drilled into a water bearing strata to facilitate construction and/or prevent hyrostatic forces from displacing structures in high water table areas. Submersible pumps are convient to use for dewatering purposes as they can be easily installed, set up and controlled. Similarly mine shafts drilled into water bearing strata also require pumping to remove water so that mining is possible. Flooding in a mine is always a constant danger and water levels rising beyond certain levels will cause surface motor failure. Submersible installations arent affected by flooding and also require no routine maintenance. It is however, necessary to select the proper corrosion resistant construction material necessary to pump mine water. In-Line Boosters. The situation often arises in waterworks and industrial practices where the pressure in a delivery main is insufficient to maintain the required rate of flow of water. Installing booster pumping equipment at a suitable point along the main is often the least expensive method to maintain pressure. The submersible type of in-line booster is housed in a casing or chamber which is, in effect, an enlarged section of 6-2 Section 6A Submersible Applications
Section 6
the main. The pump is normally suspended horizontally within the pipe to boost the liquid being carried by the line. A can booster system has also been used to boost pressure. In a can type system, the pump is suspended vertically, with the can typically being constructed below ground. Offshore Platfroms. Offshore drilling and production platforms require the use of submersible pumps capable of handling highly corrosive sea water. The pumping of sea water requires special materials of construction for both the pump and motor. Stainless steel construction in generally adequate for these applications. The grade of stainless steel is highly dependant on water temperature. Oil Industry Pumping. The secondary recovery of oil from fields which have reached a point of depletion can be accomplished by injecting water into the oil formation in such a pattern as to create a water drive. The water drive forces the remaining oil that is held in the reservoir, to the production wells. Water obtained from a well supply may, in certain cases, can be injected directly to the oil bearing formation. The water obtained is usually obtained from great depths. Adverse Service Conditions. The condition of the service into which a submersible unit is placed is of major importance with respect to performance, service life and reliability. The comments below outline the most common detrimental service and application issues that require special attention or must be addressed to insure proper operation. It is probable that suitable installation adaptions, alternate selections and/or equipment modifications can be made to insure satisfactory operation in the unusual applications described. Adaptations and modifications are most effectively implemented when potential problems are identified and considered early in the design/selection process. 1. Well Development. A new submersible unit should not be used for well development purposes, as rapid performance deteriation is likely to occur. Complete well development is best accomplished using a test pump prior to installation of the production unit. See Section 1B for a more detailed discussion of the well development process. 2. Effects of Pumping Sand. Submersible pumps are not generally recommended in applications where abrasives are suspended in the water. The erosive action of sand, silt or other abrasive materials can significantly reduce pumping capacity and efficiency. Abrasives wear will directly reduce pump life via bearing wear and indirectly shorten motor life as a result of transmitted vibration from the worn pump end. See Section 2D for a more detailed discussion of entrained solids. Submersible Pumps offering all stainless steel construction and rubber bearings/seals can perform well in pumping applications at sand concentration levels up to 50 ppm. 3. Effects of Air or Gas. Guarantees of hydraulic performance are contingent on pumping clean cool water, free of air or gas with the pump properly submerged. The presence of gas in the water will affect the hydraulic performance by reduction in capacity and head, which cannot be predicted with accuracy. The presence of air or gas in the well will cause the deterioration of materials sooner than under normal conditions. See Section 2D for a more detailed discussion of entrained gas. 4. Suction (Intake) and Submergence Requirements. Pumping at a rate that will cause the unit to break suction or cause cavitation will cause pump deterioration. When possible, minimum submergence should be maintained between 5 and 10 for sump booster and water well applications respectively, although some installations may require more submergence to satisfy pump NPSH requirements. See Section 2D for a more detailed discussion of suction/intake uses based on the specific application (ie. cavitation, vortexing, submergence, etc.). 5. Water Quality, Chemicals and Impurities. Submersible units have proven their ability to satisfactorily handle water having unusual chemical analysis; however, standard construction for most high capacity submersibles are generally designed to pump cool potable quality natural waters containing little or no pollutants, gas or solids. See Section 1A for a more detailed discussion of water quality and chemical impurity issues under the general heading of corrosion. Grundfos utilizes all stainless steel construction, which is immune to many of the detrimental water quality issues at the concentration levels normally encountered in natural waters.
Section 6
6-3
6. Well Survey. The installation (well, sump, etc.) should be surveyed with respect to depth, diameter and alignment to insure/permit installation. In new installations, such a survey may only require a verification of construction records and logs. In installations where historic records are not available and new equipment is required, a cage survey should be conducted to determine well depth, diameter and straightness - as necessary. Many wells have more than one string of casing installed, and frequently the lower sections are smaller in diameter than the surface casing. The submersible unit must pass freely into the well. The alignment survey process is discussed in detail in Section 1B. 7. Crooked Wells. A submersible pumping unit will perform better in a crooked well than a line shaft turbine type pump, because the length of those parts containing rotating members is much shorter. When a well is known to be crooked and has not previously accommodated a unit of comparable size, or has been determined to be crooked based on an alignment survey result (see Section 1B), a gage survey should be conducted using a special dummy. A crooked well gage survey to determine the suitability of a crooked well for submersible applications, is similar to the AWWA alignment test which utilizes a close tolerance dummy. The submersible gage survey is conducted using a dummy of the same length and largest diameter as the combined pump and motor unit, the dummy is typically connected to 40-50 feet of pipe of the size as the column pipe to be used. If the assembly can be lowered and removed from the well to the desired setting depth without binding, the well is suitable for installation of the submersible unit. 8. Starting Equipment (Existing/Customer Supplied). The submersible motor is always located below the water level where it is impossible to hear or observe the motor after starting. To avoid troubles encountered with old, used or inadequate starting equipment; the following items should be addressed: (1) adequate fuzing, (2) overload sizing and (3) three leg phase protection - voltage/current balance. See Section 3C for a move detailed discussion of starting and control equipment issues. 9. Water Temperature. Submersible motors are cooled by water passing along the exterior of the motor as it enters the pump intake. Heat internally generated in the motor is transferred to the moving ambient fluid via connective heat transfer. When water temperature exceeds 80F, some consideration should be given to the issue of motor cooling. Most manufactures of canned-hermetically sealed type submersibles are rated for ambient service up to 86F (30C). Water temperatures up to 100F can be handled provided fluid velocities can be increased to dissipate heat and/or motor loading can be reduced. A shroud is frequently used to direct flow and increase velocity in warm water applications. In general, if water is continually flowing into the pump and past the motor, the motor will operate satisfactory. See Section 4B for a more detailed discussion of motor cooling issues. 10. Voltage. Voltage at the motor terminals should be maintained within plus or minus 10% of the motor nameplate voltage. If there is a 5% voltage drop in the cable, voltage at the surface must not be less than 95% of rated voltage. 11. Load. There are many variables which effect submersible motor operation. It is recommended that the motor size be selected so that the name plate horsepower will not be exceeded at the design condition. The motor service factor horsepower should not be exceeded anywhere on the performance curve. 12. Thrust. Motor thrust ratings should not be exceeded under any condition operation including shut-off. 13. Electrical Characteristics. The system electrical characteristics (voltage, frequency, generator) should be clearly identified as these factors have a definite impact on the motor and pump selection. Close attention must be paid to distribution voltage stability and quality, as well as cable voltage drop to insure the minimum required motor terminal voltage is delivered.
Section 6
6-4
Submersible Sump Pumps (Vertical - Clearwater)

Pump Considerations. The versatility of the submersible pump in water well service is equally advantages when adapted for sump/wet pit applications. The greatest advantages associated with submersible pumping equipment for such applications are; (1) vertical mounting of pump and motor, submerged in the fluid, affording minimal floor space, and (2) minimal foundation/support requirements. The primary disadvantage is the greater pit depth required to accommodate the submersible motor. The use of submersible pumps in sump/wet pit applications will generally require the use of a cooling shroud to insure proper motor cooling. Some submersible motor manufactures do not require a cooling shroud for cold water applications (below 50F); however, the use of a cooling shroud is recommended as it improves cooling and hydraulic performance in wet pit applications. Motor cooling shrouds can be purchased commercially or constructed in expensively as described in Section 4B. While adapting a submersible pump to open sump service is relatively easy, consideration must be given to the design of the sump to ensure proper pump performance. General Sump Requirements. A key factor in good sump design is the ability of the sump intake channel/piping to supply an evenly distributed flow of water to the pump suction intake. An uneven flow is characterized by strong local currents and favors the formation of vortices, under certain submergence conditions vortices can introduce air into the pump with a resulting loss of pump performance, noise and vibration. The ideal intake design is a direct channel going directly to the pump. Any turn or obstruction cause eddy currents and tend to initiate deep-cored vortices. General design rules and guideline standards for clear water (wet pit) sumps are published by the Hydraulic Institute and should be consulted for complex design projects. The standards are particularly applicable to vertical turbine pumps with a suction bell intake. The same rules apply to submersible applications; however, the diameter of the motor shroud should be substituted for the suction bell diameter where specified in other references. The focus of this discussion will center on sump design to accommodate pumps with individual discharge capacities of 3,000 gpm or less. The suggestions presented below are offered as general guidelines and may not represent a optimized system. Sump Design for Small Pumps. The ideal pump sump is rectangular, although circular sumps can be utilized successfully when properly designed. Stream lining should be used to reduce the trail of alternating vortices in the wake of the pump or other obstuctions in the flow stream. Proper submergence is one of the most important factors in the sump design process. Many deficiencies associated with poor design can be improved with increased submergence. Unfortunately, the trade-off associated with increasing submergence is a more expensive sump/wet pit construction. Minimum submergence requirements are normally provided by the pump manufacture; however, Section 2D can be used to estimate submergence when the impeller eye diameter (cross sectional area) and maximum flow is known. In the absence of any information, use a minimum submergence of 1.5 above intake and add one additional foot of submergence for each foot per second (fps) in approach channel/piping velocity. The submergence is in addition to any positive NPSH submergence needs of the pump at maximum design flow. Other factors pertinent to the design of small sump/wet wells are listed as follows:
Section 6
1. Inlet Opening (pit type sumps). The inlet to the sump should be below the minimum water level and as far away from the pump as the sump design will allow. The inflow should not jet directly into the pump inlet or enter the pit in such a way as to cause rotation of the liquid in the pit. Distribution nozzles can be added to prevent jetting and baffles added to prevent rotation. The introduction of water to the sump, through free fall should be avoided whenever possible. 2. Sump Volume (pit type sumps). The usable pit volume should equal or exceed the maximum capacity to be pumped in two minutes. If the pumps are to be controlled by float switch, the pit should be large enough to allow no more than 3 or 4 starts per hour per pump. In this way the size of the pit should be large enough to prevent inflow turbulence and to assure a reasonable operating life for the stating equipment. 3. Minimum Liquid Level. The minimum liquid level should be sufficient to satisfy submergence requirement for the particular pump design. Section 6A Submersible Applications 6-5
Correction of Existing Sumps. Commonly employed corrective measures to prevent vortexing in existing sumps, include but are not limited to; (1) increasing submergence, (2) reducing inlet and /or approach channel velocity, (3) adding baffling to change flow direction and speed, and (4) relocating pump(s) position within the sump. Summary Requirements - Single Pump. The following guideline should be used in the design of a single pump sump system.: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Back wall distance to centerline of pump: .75 - 1.5D Side wall distance to centerline of pump: 1.0 - 2.0D Bottom clearance: .33 - .67D Distance from sump inlet to pump: 3 - 4D (min.)/7-80 (optimum) Intake approach velocity: 2 - 3 fps Submergence: Per manufacture recommendations (approximated in the absence of manufacture data) Note: Increasing submergence and/or lowering intake velocity are good insurance against vortexing. Increase minimum submergence by 25-50% for circular sumps.
Figure 6-1: Typical Single Pump (< 3000 gpm) - Sump Application Suggestions
2D (minimum) D D 2 - 4D Range
Intake Velocity 2-6 fps
.75 - 1.5 D 1D - 2D
.75D 1.5D
Avg. Sump Velocity
Channel Velocity 1-3 fps
3 - 4D* (minimum) H
1 - 2D
.33 - .67D
Section 6
* 3 - 4D if sump bottom is level with feeding pipe or channel.
Summary Requirements - Multiple Pumps. Ideally, each pump should be provided with its own approach channel (cell) within the sump. Often it is not feasible to provide separate approach cells, under these circumstances, each pump should be separated as shown in Figure 6-2. Water should not flow past one pump to reach another. If pumps must be placed in the line of flow, it may be necessary to construct open front approach cells as discussed under the ideal case.
6-6
The design guidelines for multiple pump in a single large sump are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Locate pumps in line running perpendicular to the approach flow Spacing between pump centerlines: 2 - 4D (when individual pump bays/cells are impractical) Back wall and bottom clearance, as well as submergence same as that of a single pump Each pump should have a capacity of less than 3000 gpm
Refer to Figure 6-2 for design suggestions for various configurations of multiple pumps in a common sump, often encountered in submersible applications.
Figure 6-2: Typical Multiple Pump (< 3000 gpm) - Sump Application Suggestions
Two or More Pumps in One Sump with Individual Approach Cells
Two or More Pumps in One Sump without Individual Approach Cells

1 - 2D 2 - 4D
Velocity = 1-3 fps H = Submergence 1 - 2.5D .75 - 1.5 D 2D - 4D 1 - 2D D .5 - 2D Center Line Next Unit
Plan View
Elevation
Figure 6-3: Typical Submersible Wet Well Illustration
Section 6
6-7
Figure 6-4: Multiple Pumps in a Common Sump - Frequently Encountered Application B S Vc = 1 - 3 fps S = 2 - 4D B = .75 - 1.5D
D
Alt. Vc = 1 - 3 fps Ve = 2-6 fps A = 8D or greater
Vc A
Ve
Y
D
P W Vp
W/P 1.0 1.5 2.5 4.0 10.0
Y 3D 5D 8D 10D 15D
Vp 1 2 4 6 8
Always Avoid In-Line Flow When Possible
V1 W
D
Baffles, grating or strainer should be introduced across inlet channel at beginning of maximum width section.
Not Recommended Unless...
S Y W = 5D or more, or V1 = 0.2 fps or less and Y = Same as chart to left S = Is greater than 4D
No Motor Shroud Normally Required Turning Valve Y = 3 - 4D MAX = 15 (10 pref.) Min. 2F Ve = 2 - 6 fps F
V up to 8 fps
Beam Selection for Pumps Spanning Sumps. The following table gives the permissible load on I beams when used as pump foundations spanning sumps:
Table 6-1: Permissible I - Beam Loads in pounds (#)
Span (ft.) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4- 7.7 # 6625 4560 3360 2540 2150 1680 1320
5- 10.0 # 10570 7960 5840 4590 3450 3020 2400 1920
6- 12.5 # 15960 11950 8900 7390 5820 4620 3720 3260 2640
Beam Size 7- 15.3 # 22960 17450 13940 10500 8350 7290 5850 4870 4260 3520
8- 18.4 # 27950 23440 18910 14600 12400 10150 8800 7150 5790 5300
10- 25.4 # 39900 32375 26850 21400 18700 15100 13800 11350 10200
12- 31.8 # 54880 47850 39820 31550 27350 24100 23680 18450 15100
Section 6
Notes: 1. Permissible loads in the above table are based on laterally unsupported beams with concentrated loads. If beams are supported laterally these loads may be increased. 2. Concrete foundations and footings for I-beam foundations will vary with soil conditions, but in no case should be bearing pressure on the soil exceed 2000 pounds per square foot. 3. To calculate total load on foundation, add the weights of all component parts, including discharge elbow, column pipe and cable, plus the weight of water in column. The load on each beam will be one-half of the total load found in this manner. Permissible loads shown in table are based on load on each beam or half the total load on foundation. 6-8 Section 6A Submersible Applications
Submersible Can Pumps (Vertical)

General. Providing the required net positive suction head (NPSH) for horizontal pumps often necessitates locating the unit in a pit below floor level, which can be very costly. Maintenance is more difficult and the possibility of motor damage is introduced should the pit be subject to flooding. The vertical submersible can pump is often used to overcome these disadvantages and when it is not desirable to have a surface motor as result of noise or vandalism, or horizontal space limitations exist. The can pump can be operated under positive pressure or under submergence pressure, in the same manner as a sump applications. In a submersible can booster system, the pump and is in a fabricated steel can which forms a suction well (wet well). The can is furnished in a length suitable for providing the depth to insure the dimensional requirements of the submersible unit are met. The column assembly is supplied in the length necessary to place the intake of the pump assembly at the required elevation in the can for meeting the pumps NPSH requirement. The pump suction (intake) is flooded; therefore, there is no need for equipment. The T-Head type of construction shown in Figure 6-5 is most popular due to the inline arrangement of suction and discharge connections for surface systems. Can is normally fitted with a standard ANSI flange and sealed by bolting directly to the discharge elbow can mating flange, thereby forming a unitized sealed suction chamber. The can is installed below the floor level, supporting the pump and motor suspended from the discharge elbow can mating flange. The suction and discharge piping should be supported and aligned with the pump /can inlets and outlets to avoid unnecessary stress concentrations at connection points. In order to insure correct alignment of all pump components within the can, the can must be properly supported and leveled to prevent distortion. The can flange must be attached and supported in such a manner to adequately carry the entire weight of the pumping unit, without appreciable deflection. The principal use of the canned booster system is for high pressure boosting of water for various process applications such as filtration and injection. In such applications, most manufactures allow for a vertical and horizontal configuration. Horizontal applications are discussed separately latter in this section. Can pumps are also commonly used in fluid distribution networks for booster service, since suction inlets and pump discharge connections can be economically tied to existing pipe lines. The can suction inlet can be configured to fit the elevation of the existing underground pipeline. Design Considerations. When designing a can pump system, the net differential pressure between the can intake and the pump discharge flange is the issue. All of the head losses at the suction inlet, barrel, cooling shroud (where head losses within the can; however, the following guidelines are offered. Suction Velocity Barrel Velocity 8 ft./sec. 6 ft./sec. Cooling Shroud Discharge Velocity 6 ft./sec. 12 ft./sec.
Overall efficiency and poor/insufficient NPSH problems can be improved by reducing the above listed velocities by enlarging the suction, discharge and barrel sizes. The fluid velocity past the motor should be no less than 0.5 ft./sec. When the flow rates are 3000 gpm or less, the can diameters should be 2 - 10 larger than the largest submersible component (pump, motor or cooling shroud). A value of 2, 4 and 6 is recommended for flow rates up to 100, 500 and 1000 gpm respectively. See Table 6-2 for typical can pump capacities. Relative velocity between two different diameters can be calculated using the following formula: V = Q / 2.4 (ID2 - OD2) V = Velocity in fps Q = flow in gpm where;
Section 6
ID = Inside diameter of largest circular section in inches OD = Outside diameter of smallest circular section in inches
6-9
Table: 6-2: Pump Barrel vs Pump Size - Typical Allowable Capacity in gpm
* Nom. Sub Equipment Diameter 6 8 9 10 11 12 14 16
Nominal Barrel Size (in.) 8 250 10 450 240 160 12 725 628 423 205 14 1040 925 730 470 410 16 1350 1120 900 840 660 325 18 20 24 30
1550 1380 1320 1150 810 370
1850 1780 1690 1350 900
2950 2620 2180
4515
* Motor, pump or cooling shroud diameter, whichever is greater Physical data for can pump suction barrels are listed in Table 6-3. Submergence. The manufactures submergence requirements should be followed where the can is not under positive pressure. The can should be vented as entrained free gas can be trapped at the highest point in the can. Accumulated gas or vapor can significantly reduce the liquid head available to meet the pumps NPSH requirements. Inlet Location & Cooling. When the suction inlet of the can pump is in the barrel, special attention must be given to the inlet location relative to the pump suction intake, as hydraulic performance and motor cooling problems can result. If the suction inlet is too close to the intake of the pump, the pump may develop noise and vibration due to the vortex generated by the turbulent flow at the inlet. Figure 6-5 illustrates the general guidelines for inlet location, provided flow conditions are uniform and stable upstream form the suction. Motor cooling is essential for proper submersible operation, and for this reason close attention must be paid to this issue. In general, the use of a motor cooling shroud is recommended anytime fluid enters the can from any location other than from below the motor. Under certain circumstances, where the pumped fluid temperature is less than 68F (20C), it may be possible to operate the motor without a cooling shroud regardless of can intake position. Specific submersible motor cooling issues are discussed in Section 4B. In-Line Submersible Can Pumps. The in-line submersible can configurations offers many of the same advantages as the vertical can system. It is ideal for locations where a horizontal space can be utilized efficiently to house a pump. The horizontal can system is extremely flexible, as no wet well is required. Typical applications include industrial high pressure packaged filtration systems, where space is at a premium. In addition, the inline can pump can be easily retrofitted into existing horizontal or vertical piping sections of sufficient length. Most vertical multi-stage submersible pump ends can be operated in the horizontal position however, not all submersible motors have the same functionality. A slight reduction in pump and motor service life is generally associated with horizontal installations compared to vertical configurations, as a result of a bearing load placed on radial guide bearings, see Figure 6-6. The selection and design criteria for a horizontal can application, is principally the same as that for a vertical application. The pump intake should be under positive pressure at start-up; however, it may be possible to pull a suction pressure downstream of the installation, provided NPSH requirements can be met. Motor cooling is less of an issue in such applications as the pumped flow (cooling flow) must pass over the motor before being discharge upstream. The motor and pump must be supported in accordance with the manufactures recommendations and centered within the can barrel to insure proper operation.
Section 6
6-10
Table 6-3: Typical Standard Steel Barrel Data
Barrel Diameter O.D. 8 5/8 10 3/4 12 3/4 14 16 18 20 24 30
Wall Thk. (in.) .277 .279 .330 .250 .250 .250 .250 .250 .250
Low Pressure Barrels (1) Weights (lbs.) Pressure First Addl Rating (ft.) (ft.) psi (2) 107 25 275 146 31 275 186 44 275 262 37 275 330 42 275 381 47 275 500 53 275 637 63 234 987 79 154
Wall Thk. (in.) .500 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500 .500
High Pressure Barrels (1) Weights (lbs.) Pressure First Addl Rating (ft.) (ft.) psi (2) 171 44 720 282 55 720 374 65 720 440 72 720 639 83 713 733 94 632 831 104 567 1150 126 471 1293 158 275
(1) Barrel flanges are 150 lb. For all low pressure barrels and for high pressure barrels 30 and larger. High pressure barrels 8 through 24 have 300 lb. Flanges. A hydrotest at 150% of pressure rating is standard. (2) Rating is bases on zero corrosion allowance and normal stresses.
Figure 6-5: Typical In-Line Submersible Applications Motor Pump Inlet
Section 6
6-11
6B SIZING AND SELECTION EXAMPLES

Calculation of Submersible and Motor Size
The following procedure shows the calculation of pump and motor sizes. This is how to calculate the approximate pump performance and motor power output.
Table 6-4: Pump & Motor Sizing Example
Step 1
Action Refer to Table 5.2 for all values per stage. Choose nearest pump size (gpm) for required flow rate required head (ft) local frequency (Hz) Find head per stage (H) at the required flow on the single-stage performance Table 5-2. Subsequently find the number of stages by dividing the required head by head per stage (H). Choose the nearest number of stages above this figure. Calculate the head: HT = H x number of stages. Find the pressure loss (Hloss) at the required flow rate on the single-stage performance curve. Find the preliminary power requirement at the required flow rate on Table 5-2. Calculate the total power requirement: power requirement per stage x number of stages. Choose the nearest motor size above this figure. Read the corrected speed (n1) on the motor performance characteristics curves based on the motor load. Corrected speed is found in the Grundfos or Franklin motor specification sheets for the calculated hp. NOTE: The motor performance characteristics curves are specific for the various motors. Calculate the corrected pump performance (Q1 and H1) and the power requirement (P21) according to the equations shown. Read again the motor speed on the motor performance characteristics curves based on the corrected power requirement (P21). NOTE: If the deviation from the corrected motor speed (step 5) exceeds 10 rpm, recalculate (step 3). 10 rpm corresponds to approx. 1% change of the load. The equations used for the calculation of corrected pump performance efficiency and overall efficiency.
3 4
6 7
The equations used for the calculation of corrected pump performance (Q1 and H1) and power requirement (P21).
Table 6-5: Pump Performance Equations
Table 6-6: Pump Performance Equations
Section 6
H1 = (H H1) x n1 n
( nn )
1 3
p =
Q1 x H1 P21 x 367
Q1 = Q x
p = p x m
1
P21 = P2 x
( nn )
total =
Q1 x H1 P1 x 367
6-12
Section 6B Sizing and Selection Examples
Installation Rules
In order to ensure the cooling and lubrication of bearings and neck rings the Large SP pump should be started only when it is completely submerged in the liquid. The Large SP pump is suitable for vertical horizontal installation. The pump should never be installed below the horizontal plane (shaded area in drawing). The pump should be installed in such a way that the water level is never below the suction interconnector of the pump during operation. It is recommended to use the Grundfos control unit type CU 3 or another type of dry-running protection. Also, a flow sleeve is recommended for proper motor cooling in all horizontal installations. All Grundfos submersible pumps and motors are designed for continuous operation.
Figure 6-6: Pumping Orientation
Start-Up Rules
The Large SP pump should be started only when the suction interconnector is completely submerged in the liquid. When the pump has been connected correctly and it is submerged in the liquid to be pumped, it should be started with the discharge valve closed off to approximately 1/3 of its maximum volume of water. If there are impurities in the water, the valve should be opened gradually as the water becomes clearer. The pump should not be stopped until the water is completely clean, as otherwise the valve may choke up. As the valve is being opened, the drawdown of the water level should be checked to ensure that the pump always remains submerged. The dynamic water level should always be above the suction interconnector of the pump. See Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7: Pump Installation Depth
Code L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
Description
Section 6
Min. installation depth below dynamic water level. Min. 1 metre is recommended. Depth to dynamic water level. Depth to static water level. Drawdown. This is the difference between the dynamic and the static water levels. Installation depth.
6-13
To ensure long and safe pump life it is important that the following rules be followed. Minimum inlet pressure is indicated in the NPSH-curves in the single-stage curves in Performance. The minimum safety margin of the NPSH-curves should always be 1.0 mWC. To ensure sufficient cooling of the motor, the pump must not be run continuously at a flow rate lower than 0.1 x nominal flow rate. The pump should not be operated against a closed valve for more than 30 seconds as this may heat the pumped liquid and damage both pump and motor. Due to the risk of upthrust and cavitation the pump must not run continuously at a flow rate higher than 1.3 x nominal flow rate. To ensure cooling and lubrication of bearings and seal rings, the pump must not be started until it is fully submerged in the liquid. The pump must be installed in such a way that it does not lower the water level below the pump inlet. It is recommended to use the Grundfos type CU 3 control unit or some other type of dry-running protection. The maximum installation depth below water level is stated in the table below.
Table 6-7: Max. Motor Depth
Motor type *MS 402 *MS 4000 *MS 6000 Franklin Mercury
Depth below water level (m) (bar) (MPa) 150 600 600 350 350 15 60 60 35 35 1.5 6 6 3.5 3.5
*MS - Grundfos Motor
Section 6
6-14
Grundfos
SECTION 7: TECHNICAL APPENDICES AND REFERENCE LIST

7A TABLES Pipe Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 ANSI Flange Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 Friction Loss in Pipe/Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 Equivalent Pipe Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23 Pipe Flow Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24 Unit Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27 REFERENCE LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31
7B
Section 7
Section 7A Technical Appendices
7-1
Section 7
Table 7-1: Standard T & C Steel Pipe Data Commonly Used for Pumping Applications (Column/Riser, Suction and Discharge Pipe)
7-2 Wall Thk. (in.) .068 .088 .091 .109 .113 .134 .140 .145 .154 .204 .217 .226 .237 .259 .280 .277 .322 .279 .307 .366 .330 .375 .375 .375 Sch. No. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 30 40 30 40 30 STD 30 30 Threads per inch 27 18 18 14 14 11 1/2 11 1/2 11 1/2 11 1/2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Pipe Wt. T&C/PE (lbs./ft.) 0.25/* 0.42/* 0.57/* 0.90/0.89 1.30/1.13 1.80/1.68 2.30/2.27 2.75/2.72 3.75/3.65 5.83/5.79 7.70/7.58 9.21/9.11 11.0/10.8 15.0/14.6 19.5/19.0 25.6/24.7 29.4/28.6 32.8/30.1 34.2/32.2 41.9/40.5 45.5/43.8 51.1/49.6 */54.6 */62.6 Couplings OD Length (in.) (in.) .562 7/8 .685 1 .848 1 1/8 1.02 1 3/8 1.28 1 5/8 1.58 1 7/8 1.95 2 1/8 2.22 2 3/8 2.71 2 5/8 3.28 2 7/8 3.95 3 1/8 4.59 3 5/8 5.04 3 5/8 6.30 4 1/8 7.36 4 5/8 9.42 6 1/8 9.42 6 1/8 11.8 6 1/8 11.8 6 1/8 11.8 6 1/8 14.0 6 1/8 14.0 6 1/8 Int. Pressure Ratings (psi) Cplg. Wt. Vol. Work Burst (lbs.) (gal./ft.) Pres. Pres. .03 .003 1680 10,000 .04 .005 1630 9,800 .07 .010 1350 8,080 .12 .016 1290 7,780 .21 .028 1080 6,460 .35 .045 1010 6,070 .55 .078 840 5,060 .76 .106 760 4,580 1.23 .174 650 3,890 1.76 .249 700 4,240 2.55 .384 620 3,700 4.33 .514 560 3,390 5.41 .661 520 3,160 10.8 1.04 460 2,780 15.8 1.50 420 2,530 26.6 2.65 320 1,920 26.6 2.60 370 2,240 33.9 4.24 255 1,550 33.9 4.19 280 1,710 33.9 4.10 340 2,040 43.8 5.96 250 1,550 43.8 5.87 290 1,760 7.16 270 1,610 9.49 230 1,410 Max. Setting (ft.) 1250 1250 1250 1100 1100 1000 900 800 700 700 -
Nom. Size (in.) 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4* 5* 6 8* 8 10* 10 10 12* 12 14* 16*
Diameter OD ID (in.) (in.) .405 .270 .540 .364 .675 .494 .840 .623 1.05 .824 1.32 1.05 1.66 1.38 1.90 1.61 2.38 2.07 2.88 2.47 3.50 3.07 4.00 3.55 4.50 4.03 5.56 5.05 6.63 6.07 8.63 8.07 8.63 7.98 10.75 10.19 10.75 10.14 10.75 10.02 12.75 12.09 12.75 12.00 14.00 13.25 16.00 15.25
Notes: 1. Pipe and Coupling (2 1/2 - 12) can be furnished with 8 pitch straight threads or NPT taper threads. Tapered thread being the most popular for submersible column/riser applications as they are more resistant against unscrewing. 2. Piping greater than 12 diameter is normally flanged. 3. Conversion Formula: 1 = 25.4 mm, 1.0 lb. = 0.454 kg 4. Working pressure based on a SF = 6, and a tensile yield strength of 30,000 psi (A-53, grade A) 5. Select column (drop/riser) pipe size to provide an upward flow velocity in the range of 4.0 - 15.0 fps. A value of 5 fps is recommended and can be calculated using the following formula: Velocity = gpm (.410) / (ID)
* Conforms to ANSI B58.1 (AWWA E - 101)
Table 7-2: Pipe Data for commonly used Mild Steel & Stainless Steel - Standard and Line Pipe
Nom. Size OD (in.) 1/8 (.405) 1/4 (.540) 3/8 (.675) 1/2 (.840) 3/4 (1.050) 1 (1.315) 1 1/4 (1.660) 1 1/2 (1.900) 2 (2.375) 2 1/2 (2.875) 3 (3.500) 3 1/2 (4.000) 4 (4.500) 5 (5.563)
IDENTIFICATION Standard API (STD) Std. X-Strong Sch. (XS) Num. 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80 5L 5LX 5S 10S 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5L 5LX 5S 10S 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5L 5LX 5S 10s 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5L 5LX 5S 10S 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5L 5LX 5S 10S 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5S 10S 5L STD 40 5L XS 80
Sy = 30 Kpsi Tensile Yield Wall Thk. (in.) 0.049 0.068 0.095 0.065 0.088 0.119 0.065 0.091 0.126 0.065 0.083 0.109 0.147 0.065 0.083 0.113 0.154 0.065 0.109 0.133 0.179 0.065 0.109 0.140 0.191 0.065 0.109 0.145 0.200 0.065 0.109 0.154 0.218 0.083 0.120 0.203 0.276 0.083 0.120 0.216 0.300 0.083 0.120 0.226 0.318 0.083 0.120 0.237 0.337 0.109 0.134 0.258 0.375 Avg. ID (in.) 0.307 0.269 0.215 0.410 0.364 0.302 0.545 0.493 0.423 0.710 0.674 0.622 0.546 0.920 0.884 0.824 0.742 1.185 1.097 1.049 0.957 1.530 1.442 1.380 1.278 1.770 1.682 1.610 1.500 2.245 2.157 2.067 1.939 2.709 2.635 2.469 2.323 3.334 3.260 3.068 2.900 3.834 3.760 3.548 3.364 4.334 4.260 4.026 3.826 5.345 5.295 5.047 4.813 Int. Area (sq. in.) 0.074 0.056 0.036 0.132 0.104 0.071 0.233 0.190 0.140 0.395 0.356 0.303 0.234 0.664 0.613 0.533 0.432 1.102 0.945 0.864 0.719 1.838 1.633 1.495 1.282 2.460 2.222 2.035 1.767 3.958 3.654 3.355 2.952 5.763 5.453 4.787 4.238 8.730 8.346 7.392 6.605 11.54 11.10 9.887 8.888 14.75 14.25 12.73 11.50 22.43 22.02 20.00 18.19 Pipe Wt. (lbs./ft.) .1863 .2447 .3145 .3297 .4248 .5351 .4235 .5676 .7388 .5383 .6710 .8510 1.088 .6838 .8572 1.131 1.474 .8678 1.404 1.679 2.172 1.107 1.806 2.273 2.997 1.274 2.085 2.718 3.631 1.604 2.638 3.653 5.022 2.475 3.531 5.793 7.661 3.029 4.332 7.576 10.25 3.467 4.960 9.110 12.51 3.915 5.613 10.79 14.98 6.349 7.770 14.62 20.78 Int. Vol. (gal./ft.) .0038 .003 .0019 .0069 .0054 .0037 .0121 .0099 .0073 .0206 .0185 .0158 .0122 .0345 .0319 .0277 .0225 .0573 .0491 .0449 .0374 .0955 .0848 .0777 .0666 .1284 .1154 .1058 .0918 .2056 .1898 .1743 .1534 .2994 .2833 .2487 .2202 .4562 .4336 .3840 .3431 .5997 .5768 .5136 .4617 .7664 .7404 .6613 .5972 1.166 1.144 1.039 .9449 Work Pres. (Kpsi) 1.20 1.68 2.33 1.21 1.63 2.20 1.00 1.35 1.86 0.77 1.00 1.29 1.75 0.62 0.94 1.08 1.46 0.49 0.83 1.01 1.36 0.39 0.65 0.84 1.15 0.34 0.57 0.76 1.05 0.27 0.46 0.65 0.92 0.28 0.42 0.70 0.96 0.23 0.34 0.62 0.85 0.20 0.30 0.56 0.79 0.18 0.26 0.52 0.75 0.19 0.24 0.46 0.67 Burst Collapse Pres. Pres. (Kpsi) (Kpsi) 7.30 10.8 10.1 15.8 14.1 22.6 7.22 10.8 9.80 15.3 13.2 21.2 5.80 8.33 8.08 12.4 11.2 17.7 4.64 6.36 5.93 10.2 7.78 11.7 10.5 16.5 3.71 4.80 5.63 6.56 6.46 9.48 8.80 13.5 2.96 3.44 4.97 6.98 6.07 8.85 8.17 12.5 2.35 2.41 3.94 5.21 5.06 7.09 6.90 10.3 2.05 1.89 3.44 4.28 4.58 6.25 6.31 9.27 1.64 1.16 2.75 5.00 3.89 7.81 5.51 1.23 1.73 1.26 2.50 2.61 4.24 5.63 5.76 8.33 1.42 0.74 2.06 1.89 3.70 4.80 5.14 7.19 1.24 0.55 1.80 0.16 3.39 4.17 4.77 6.56 1.10 0.35 1.60 1.05 3.16 3.75 4.49 6.15 1.17 0.48 1.44 0.85 2.78 3.13 4.04 5.32
Section 7
7-3
Table 7-2: Pipe Data for commonly used Mild Steel & Stainless Steel - Standard and Line Pipe (cont.)
Nom. Size OD (in.) 6 (6.625) 8 (8.625)
10 (10.750)
12 (12.750)
14 (14.000)
16 (16.000)
Section 7
18 (18.000)
IDENTIFICATION Standard API (STD) Std. X-Strong Sch. (XS) Num. 5L 5LX 5S 10S 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 80 5S 10S 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX 60 5L 5LX XS 80 5S 10S 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX STD 40 5L 5LX XS 60 80S* 80 5S 10S 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX STD 40S* 5LX 40 5L 5LX XS 80S* 5L 5LX 60 5L 5lX 80 5S 5L 5LX 10S* 5LX 10 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX STD 30 5L 5LX XS 60 5L 5LX 80 5S 5L 5LX 10S* 5L 5LX 10 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX STD 30 5L 5LX XS 40 60 80 5S 5L 5LX 10S* 5L 5LX 10 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX STD 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX XS 5L 5LX 40 5L 5LX 60 80
Sy = 30 Kpsi Tensile Yield Wall Thk. (in.) 0.109 0.134 0.280 0.432 0.109 0.148 0.250 0.277 0.322 0.406 0.500 0.134 0.165 0.250 0.307 0.365 0.500 0.500 0.594 0.156 0.180 0.250 0.330 0.375 0.375 0.406 0.500 0.500 0.562 0.688 0.156 0.188 0.210 0.312 0.375 0.500 0.594 0.750 0.165 0.188 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.500 0.656 0.844 0.165 0.188 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.438 0.500 0.562 0.750 0.938 Avg. ID (in.) 6.407 6.357 6.065 5.761 8.407 8.329 8.125 8.071 7.981 7.813 7.625 10.482 10.420 10.250 10.136 10.020 9.750 9.750 9.562 12.438 12.390 12.250 12.090 12.000 12.000 11.938 11.750 11.750 11.626 11.374 13.688 13.624 13.580 13.376 13.250 13.000 12.812 12.500 15.670 15.624 15.500 15.376 15.250 15.000 14.688 14.312 17.670 17.624 17.500 17.376 17.250 17.124 17.000 16.876 16.500 16.124 Int. Area (sq. in.) 32.24 31.74 28.89 26.07 55.51 54.48 51.85 51.16 50.03 47.94 45.66 86.29 85.27 82.51 80.69 78.85 74.66 74.66 71.81 121.50 120.56 117.86 114.80 113.09 113.09 111.93 108.43 108.43 106.16 101.60 147.15 145.78 144.84 140.52 137.88 132.73 128.92 122.72 192.85 191.72 188.69 185.68 182.65 176.71 169.44 160.88 245.22 243.95 240.53 237.13 233.71 230.30 226.98 223.68 213.82 204.19 Pipe Wt. (lbs./ft.) 7.585 9.289 18.97 28.57 9.914 13.40 22.36 24.70 28.55 35.64 43.39 15.19 18.70 28.04 32.24 40.48 54.74 54.74 64.33 22.18 24.20 33.38 43.77 49.56 49.56 53.53 56.71 56.71 73.16 88.51 27.73 36.71 45.68 54.57 72.09 84.91 106.1 35.76 42.05 52.36 62.58 82.77 107.5 136.5 35.76 47.39 59.03 70.59 82.06 93.45 104.8 138.2 170.8 Int. Vol. (gal./ft.) 1.6748 1.6488 1.5008 1.3541 2.8836 2.8304 2.6934 2.6577 2.5988 2.4902 2.3721 4.4811 4.4299 4.2865 4.1917 4.0963 3.8785 3.8785 3.7304 6.3434 6.2000 6.1225 5.9636 5.8752 5.8752 5.8146 5.6329 5.6329 5.5147 5.2782 7.5730 7.5242 7.2987 7.1629 6.895 6.6972 6.3750 9.596 9.8022 9.6447 9.4885 9.1800 8.8021 8.4321 12.672 12.495 12.317 12.141 11.965 11.791 11.618 11.275 10.607 Work Pres. (Kpsi) 0.16 0.20 0.42 0.65 0.12 0.17 0.29 0.32 0.37 0.47 0.58 0.12 0.15 0.23 0.28 0.34 0.46 0.46 0.55 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.29 0.29 0.32 0.39 0.39 0.44 0.54 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.22 0.27 0.36 0.42 0.53 0.10 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.31 0.47 0.52 0.09 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.20 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.41 0.52 Burst Collapse Pres. Pres. (Kpsi) (Kpsi) 1.00 0.25 1.21 0.48 2.53 2.71 3.91 5.11 0.73 0.10 1.01 0.30 1.74 1.36 1.92 1.67 2.24 2.19 2.82 3.24 3.48 4.38 0.75 0.10 0.92 0.20 1.39 0.74 1.71 1.26 2.04 1.89 2.79 3.13 2.79 3.13 3.31 4.07 0.73 0.10 0.85 0.16 1.17 0.41 1.55 0.95 1.76 1.36 1.76 1.36 1.91 1.68 2.35 2.40 2.35 2.40 2.64 2.92 3.24 3.96 6.68 0.80 0.81 0.13 0.90 0.20 1.34 0.64 1.61 1.16 2.14 2.09 2.54 2.72 3.21 3.86 0.62 0.60 0.71 0.10 0.94 0.25 1.17 0.48 1.41 0.74 1.87 1.57 2.46 3.24 3.16 3.76 0.55 0.54 0.63 0.60 0.83 0.17 1.04 0.30 1.25 0.56 1.46 0.85 1.66 1.16 1.87 1.57 2.50 2.61 3.13 3.76
7-4
Table 7-2: Pipe Data for commonly used Mild Steel & Stainless Steel - Standard and Line Pipe (cont.)
Nom. Size OD (in.) 20 (20.000)
24 (24.000)
30 (30.000)
36 (36.000)
IDENTIFICATION Standard API (STD) Std. X-Strong Sch. (XS) Num. 5S 5L 5LX 10S* 5L 5LX STD 10 5L 5LX XS 20 30 5L 5LX 40 60 80 5S 5L 5LX 10S* 5L 5LX 20 5L 5LX STD 5L 5LX XS 30 5L 5LX 40 60 80 5L 5LX 5S 5L 5LX 10 5L 5LX STD 5L 5LX XS 20 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX 10 5L 5LX STD 5L 5LX XS 20 5L 5LX 30 5L 5LX 40
Sy = 30 Kpsi Tensile Yield Wall Thk. (in.) 0.188 0.218 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.594 0.812 1.031 0.218 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.562 0.688 0.969 1.219 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 Avg. ID (in.) 19.624 19.564 19.500 19.250 19.000 18.812 18.375 17.938 23.564 23.500 23.250 23.000 22.876 22.624 22.062 21.562 29.500 29.376 29.250 29.000 28.750 35.376 35.250 35.000 34.750 34.500 Int. Area (sq. in.) 302.46 300.61 293.65 291.04 283.53 277.95 265.21 252.72 436.10 433.74 424.56 415.48 411.01 402.00 382.28 365.15 683.49 677.76 671.96 660.52 649.18 982.90 975.91 962.11 948.42 934.82 Pipe Wt. (lbs./ft.) 39.78 46.27 52.73 78.60 104.1 122.9 166.4 208.9 63.41 94.62 125.5 140.8 171.2 238.1 296.4 79.43 98.93 118.7 157.5 196.1 118.9 142.7 189.6 236.1 282.4 Int. Vol. (gal./ft.) 15.712 15.613 15.514 15.119 14.729 14.439 13.777 13.128 22.532 22.055 21.583 21.351 20.883 19.859 18.969 35.506 35.208 34.907 34.313 33.724 51.059 50.700 49.870 49.268 48.562 Work Pres. (Kpsi) 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.19 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.51 0.09 0.10 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.28 0.40 0.50 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.14 0.17 0.20 Burst Collapse Pres. Pres. (Kpsi) (Kpsi) 0.56 0.44 0.65 0.80 0.75 0.13 1.12 0.41 1.50 0.95 1.78 1.47 2.43 2.51 3.09 3.65 0.55 0.44 0.63 0.60 0.94 0.25 1.25 0.56 1.40 0.74 1.72 1.26 2.42 2.51 3.05 3.55 0.50 0.31 0.62 0.60 0.75 0.10 1.00 0.30 1.25 0.56 0.52 0.44 0.63 0.60 0.83 0.17 1.04 0.30 1.25 0.56
NOTES: 1. The data listed covers pipe manufactured to specifications noted in Table 7-6. 2. Data based on information compiled by American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 3. S Suffix to schedule number denotes wall thickness which pertains only to stainless steel pipe. Stainless steel pipe schedule numbers with dimensions and schedule numbers the same as steel pipe are not suffixed. 4. Dimensions and weights shown in the tables are theoretical and are subject to standard mill tolerances. 5. Pipe weights are figured on the basis of one cubic inch of steel weighing 0.2833 lb. (489.5 lb./cu. ft.). 6. The outside diameter of a given size of pipe is the same regardless of the weight per foot. Variations in weight or wall thickness affect the inside diameter only. 7. Standard pipe sizes 1/8 in. to 12 in. are known by nominal inside diameter (ID). Pipe sizes 14 in. and over are known by the outside diameter (OD). 8. Sch. 40 is the same as standard wall up to 10-inch size. Sch. 80 is the same as Extra Strong up to 8-inch size. 9. Data for piping with a greater wall thickness than schedule 80 has been intentionally omitted based on its limited application and use in the Water Supply Industry. None scheduled, or otherwise identified wall thickness are not shown. 10. Burst pressure calculations are based on Barlows formula; Pb = 2t (Sy)/OD 11. Collapse pressure calculations are based on Stewarts formula; Pc = 2008 (Sy) (t/OD), for t/OD < .023 Pc = 3.467 (Sy) (t/OD) - Sy (.055), for t/OD > .023 12. Working pressure (WP) calculations are based on a safety factor (SF) of 6 and does not take into account mill tolerances, temperature or threading. To find WP at another SF, divide burst pressure rating by desired SF. Both Burst pressure (Pb) and Collapse pressure (Pc) are theoretical and contain no service factor. *Does not conform to USA B36.10-1959
Section 7
7-5
Table 7-3: Light Wall Welded Steel Pipe (Gauge Pipe)
Pipe Size (in.) 3 OD
Wall Thk. (GA) 14 12 10 14 12 10 14 12 10 14 12 10 14 12 10 3/16 14 12 10 3/16 14 12 10 14 12 10 3/16 14 12 10 3/16 12 10 12 10 3/16 1/4
Wall Thk. (lbs./ft.) .083 .109 .134 .083 .109 .134 .083 .109 .134 .083 .109 .134 .083 .109 .134 .188 .083 .109 .134 .188 .083 .109 .134 .083 .109 .134 .188 .083 .109 .134 .188 .109 .134 .109 .134 .188 .250
Wt./ft. (lbs./ft.) 2.4 3.3 4.2 2.8 3.9 5.0 3.2 4.5 5.7 3.6 5.0 6.4 4.0 5.6 7.2 9.6 4.8 6.8 8.6 11.6 5.4 7.5 9.6 5.7 7.9 10.1 13.6 6.5 9.0 11.6 15.6 9.8 12.5 11.3 14.5 19.7 26.0
Pipe Size (in.) 10 3/4 OD 12 OD
Wall Thk. (GA) 12 10 12 10 3/16 1/4 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 12 10 3/16 12 10 3/16 12 10 3/16 12 10 3/16 -
Wall Thk. (lbs./ft.) .109 .134 .109 .134 .188 .250 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .109 .134 .188 .109 .134 .188 .109 .134 .188 .109 .134 .188 -
Wt./ft. (lbs./ft.) 12.2 15.6 13.6 17.5 23.7 31.4 14.5 18.6 15.9 20.4 18.2 23.4 20.5 26.3 22.8 29.3 25.1 32.2 27.4 35.1 29.7 38.1 32.0 41.0 34.2 44.0 59.7 36.5 47.0 63.7 38.8 49.9 67.7 41.1 52.9 71.7 -
3 1/2 OD
4 OD
12 3/4 OD 14 OD 16 OD 18 OD 20 OD 22 OD 24 OD 26 OD 28 OD 30 OD
4 1/2 OD
5 OD
6 OD
6 5/8 OD
7 OD
8 OD
32 OD
8 5/8 OD 10 OD
34 OD
36 OD
Section 7
7-6
Table 7-4: Designation of U.S. Pipe Sizes to the Metric System
Customary Inches 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3
Proposed Millimeters 8 10 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80
Customary Inches 3 1/2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Proposed Millimeters 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Customary Inches 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 78 84
Proposed Millimeters 600 750 900 1,050 1,200 1,350 1,500 1,800 1,950 2,100
Note: It is the intention of most authorities for the United States to eventually convert all IPS measurements to the metric system. The following metric equivalents to conventional U.S.- IPS pipe sizes have been proposed. These are in agreement with British and German standards.
Section 7
7-7
Section 7
Table 7-5: Common Pipe Specification for Steel Tubulars used in the Water Supply and Oil Industry
7-8
Type CW - Type F ERW & SMLS Grades A&B Grades A, B, C GRADE A B C CW ERW SMLS ERW Only GRADE A B Type I A or B Type II A or CW Type III A or CW Type IV A or CW CW - Grade 25 ERW & SMLS Grades A & B ERW & SMLS X-42 X-46 X-52 X-60 2 7/8 & smaller + 20% - 12.5% 3 1/2 OD +18% - 12.5% 4 - 18 +15% -12.5% 20 & larger + 17.5% - 10% GRADE A-25 A B 19.00 & under + .016 - .031 2 3/8 to 4 OD = +/- 1% 4 1/2 & over +/- .75% GRADE CW A B TENSILE 48,000 60,000 Grades A&B MIN. P. S. I. YIELD 30,000 35,000 NONE Specified Min. wall shall not be more than 12.5% under nominal wall Min. wall shall not be more than 12.5% under Nom. wall Min. wall shall not be more than 12.5% under Nom. wall TENSILE 45,000 48,000 60,000 TENSILE 48,000 60,000 70,000 MIN. P. S. I. YIELD 30,000 35,000 40,000 NONE SPECIFIED Min. wall shall not be more than 12.5% under nom. wall GRADE F GR-A GR-B TENSILE 45,000 48,000 60,000 MIN. P. S. I. YIELD 25,000 30,000 35,000 2 to 4 +/5 to 8 + 1/16 10 to 18 + 3/32 18 & Over + 1/8 Min. wall shall not be more than 12.5% under nom. walls Grades Tensiles Wall Tolerance OD Tolerance 1/2 to 1 1/2 + 1/64 - 1-32 2 & over+/- 1% of OD 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/32 SMLS Only 1/2 to 1 1/2 + 1/64 - 1-32 2 & over+/- 1% of OD For all sizes: +/- 1% of OD 1 1/2 & under + 1/64 - 1/32 2 & over +/- 1% of OD MIN. P. S. I. YIELD 25,000 30,000 35,000 + 15% - 12.5% + .75% MIN. P. S. I. YIELD TENSILE 25,000 45,000 30,000 48,000 35,000 60,000 MIN. P. S. I. GRADE YIELD TENSILE X-42 42,000 60,000 X-46 46,000 63,000 X-52 52,000 66,000 X-60 60,000 75,000 Comparable to A-120 Comparable to A-120
Specification and Size Range where indicated
Scope
A-53 1/8 - 26
Blk & Galv Welded & SMLS Suitable for CW - Type F welding and forming operations CW. Not intended for close coiling or severe ERW - Type E cold formaing. Pipe required for close coiling should be specified in order. SMLS - Type S
A-106 1/8 - 26
SMLS for high temperature service. Suitable for bending, flanging and simular forming operations
A-120 1/8 - 16
A-135 2 - 30
Blk & Galv Welded & SMLS pipe for ordinary use not intended for close coiling, bending or high temperature service Electric resistance Welded for conveying liquid, gas or vapor
A-589 Type I 6 - 16 Type II 1 - 12 Type III 1 - 2 Type IV 3.500 - 8.625 API 5L
SMLS & Welded Water pipe Type I Drive Pipe
Type I SMLS or WELDED Type II Water Well Reamed and Drifted Type II SMLS, ERW or CW Type III Driven Well Pipe Type III SMLS, ERW or CW Type IV Water Well Casing Type IV SMLS, ERW or CW Welded and SMLS Line Pipe CW ERW SMLS
API 5LX
Welded and SMLS High Test Line Pipe
Comparable to A-120
Federal WWP-406 Federal WWP-406
Comparable to A-120
Table 7-6: Specification for Wrought Steel and Stainless Steel Pipe
ANSI Designation B36.1 B36.2 B36.3 B36.20 B36.4 B36.5 B36.9 B36.11 B36.16 B36.26 B36.40 B36.42 B36.47 B36.48 B36.43 B36.49
ASTM or API Designation ASTM A53 ASTM A72 ASTM A106 ASTM A120 ASTM A134 ASTM A135 ASTM A139 ASTM A155 ASTM A211 ASTM A312 ASTM A333 ASTM A335 ASTM A358 ASTM A369 ASTM A376 ASTM A381 API 5L API 5LX
Title Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe Welded Wrought Iron Pipe Seamless Carbon-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service Black and Hot-Dipped Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe for Ordinary Uses Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Plate Pipe, Sized 16 in. and over Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe, Sized 4 in. and over Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Services Spiral-Welded Steel or Iron Pipe Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature Service Seamless Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service Ferritic Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-Temperature Service Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-Station Service Metal-Arc Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Transmission Service Line Pipe High-Test Line Pipe
Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, (ANSI B36.10-59)
Table 7-7: Typical Composition of Stainless and Mild Steel Piping Material
CHEMICAL COMPONENT CARBON (C) MANGANESE (Mn) PHOSPHOROUS (P) SULFUR (S) SILICON (Si) CROMIUM (Cr) NICKEL (Ni) MOLYBDENUM (Mo) IRON (Fe)
* SS 304 0.08 2.00 0.04 0.03 0.75 18.0 - 20.0 8.0 - 11.0 REMAINDER
Piping Material Ladle Analysis * SS 316 * SS 904L 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.03 1.00 16.0 - 18.0 10.0 - 14.0 2.0 - 3.0 REMAINDER .02 2 1 21 26 4.5 REMAINDER
A53 (Mild Stl.) 0.25 - 0.30 0.05 - 1.20 0.05 0.06 REMAINDER
Section 7
Note: 300 Series Stainless Steel pipe are typically manufactured to ASTM A312 or A358 specifications * Austenitic Stainless Steel
7-9
Table 7-8: ANSI 150 and 300 lb. Steel Flange Dimensions
Nom. dia. (in.) 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 OD 16 18 20 24 OD OD OD OD
Dia. of Flange (OD) inches. 150 lb. 300 lb. 3 3 4 4 1/2 7/8 1/4 5/8 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 8 3/4 5/8 7/8 1/4 1/8 1/2 1/2 1/4
Flange thk. (t) inches. 150 lb. 300 lb. 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 7/8 15/16 15/16 15/16 15/16 1 1 1/8 1 3/16 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 7/16 1 9/16 1 11/16 1 7/8 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 3/16 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 7/16 1 5/8 1 7/8 2 2 1/8 2 2 2 2 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4
Bolt Circle Dia. (BC) inches. 150 lb. 300 lb. 2 2 3 3 3/8 3/4 1/8 1/2 2 3 3 3 5/8 1/4 1/2 7/8
No. of Bolts 150 lb. 300 lb. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 12 16 16 20 20 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 16 20 20 24 24 24
Bolt Size 150 lb. 300 lb. 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 5/8 5/8 5/8 5/8 5/8 3/4 3/4 3/4 7/8 7/8 1 1 1 1/8 1 1/8 1 1/4 1/2 5/8 5/8 5/8 3/4 5/8 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/8 1 1 1 1 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/2
5 6 7 7 1/2 8 1/2 9 10 11 13 1/2 16 19 21 23 1/2 25 27 1/2 32
3 7/8 4 3/4 5 1/2 6 7 7 1/2 8 1/2 9 1/2 11 3/4 14 1/4 17 18 3/4 21 1/4 22 3/4 25 29 1/2
4 1/2 5 5 7/8 6 5/8 7 1/4 7 7/8 9 1/4 10 5/8 13 15 1/4 17 3/4 20 1/4 22 1/2 14 3/4 27 32
9 10 11 12 1/2 15 17 1/2 20 1/2 23 25 1/2 28 30 1/2 36
Notes: 1. SAE Grade 5 or better fasteners are recommended for 150 - 300 lb. flange service. 2. Steel flange configurations for attachment are slip-on, welding neck, socket weld or threaded. Flanges are manufactured in a variety of mating faces, with the flat or raised face being the most common for water supply service. 3. Ductile Iron flange dimensions for 250 psi service are the same as steel for 150 psi service. 4. ANSI flanges are available rated for 150,300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 and 2500 psi service. 5. Pressure ratings: a. 250 psi DI flanges are continuously rated at 400 psi for cool water service (<100F) in 12 and smaller sizes. b. 150 and 300 psi steel flanges have a continuously rating of 275 and 720 psi respectively for cool water service. 6. Flanged column pipe for suspended pump applications do not generally match ANSI standard in consideration of space and strength requirements. 7-10 Section 7A Technical Appendices
Section 7
Table 7-9: ANSI 150 lb. Flange Guide - Gasket and Machine Bolt Dimensions
PIPE SIZE 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 5 6 8 10 12
No. Bolts 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 12 12
Mach. Bolt Dimension 5/8 X 2 3/4 5/8 X 3 5/8 X 3 5/8 X 3 5/8 X 3 3/4 X 3 1/4 3/4 X 3 1/4 3/4 X 3 1/2 7/8 X 3 3/4 7/8 X 4
Gasket Dimensions Ring Full Face 2 3/8 X 4 1/8 2 7/8 X 4 7/8 3 1/2 X 5 3/8 4 X 6 3/8 4 1/2 X 6 7/8 5 9/16 X 7 3/4 6 5/8 X 8 3/4 8 5/8 X 11 10 3/4 X 13 3/8 12 3/4 X 16 1/8 2 3/8 X 6 2 7/8 X 7 3 1/2 X 7 1/2 4 X 8 1/2 4 1/2 X 6 7/8 5 9/16 X 10 6 5/8 X 110 8 5/8 X 13 1/2 10 3/4 x 16 12 3/4 X 19
Note: All dimension are in inches where applicable.
Section 7
7-11
Table 7-10: Friction Loss for Water in New Sch. 40 Steel Pipe @ 60F (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
gpm 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 12 14 15 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
1/8 (0.26 ID) 1/4 (0.36 ID) 3/8 (0.49 ID) 1/2 (0.62 ID) 3/4 (0.82 ID) Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. 0.57 1.13 1.69 2.26 2.82 3.39 3.95 4.52 5.08 5.65 6.77 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 1.36 2.72 9.70 16.2 24.2 33.8 44.8 57.4 71.6 87.0 122 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.31 0.62 *** 1.23 *** 1.85 *** 2.47 *** 3.08 3.70 4.32 *** 4.93 5.55 6.17 7.71 9.25 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.4 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.41 0.81 *** 3.70 *** 7.60 *** 12.7 *** 19.1 26.7 35.3 *** 45.2 56.4 69.0 105 148 200 259 326 396 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1 (1.04 ID) Vel. Frict.
gpm 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 12 14 15 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
Section 7
0.84 1.01 *** 1.34 *** 1.68 *** *** 2.52 *** *** 3.36 4.20 5.04 5.88 6.72 7.56 8.40 9.24 10.1 *** 11.8 *** 13.4 *** 15.1 *** 16.8 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1.26 1.74 *** 2.89 *** 4.30 *** *** 8.93 *** *** 15.0 22.6 31.8 42.6 54.9 68.4 83.5 100 118 *** 158 *** 205 *** 258 *** 316 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1.06 *** *** 1.58 *** *** 2.11 2.64 3.17 3.70 4.22 4.75 5.28 5.81 6.34 6.86 7.39 7.92 8.45 8.98 9.50 10.0 10.6 12.7 14.8 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1.86 *** *** 2.85 *** *** 4.78 7.16 10.0 13.3 17.1 21.3 29.8 30.9 36.5 42.4 48.7 55.5 62.7 70.3 78.3 86.9 95.9 136 183 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
0.60 *** *** 0.90 *** *** 1.20 *** 1.81 *** 2.41 *** 3.01 *** 3.61 *** 4.21 *** 4.81 *** 5.42 *** 6.02 7.22 8.42 9.02 9.63 10.8 12.0 15.1 18.1 *** *** *** *** ***
0.26 *** *** 0.73 *** *** 1.21 *** 2.50 *** 4.21 *** 6.32 *** 8.87 *** 11.8 *** 15.0 *** 18.8 *** 27.0 32.6 43.5 50.0 56.3 70.3 86.1 134 187 *** *** *** *** ***
0.37 *** *** *** *** *** 0.74 *** 1.11 *** 1.48 *** 1.86 *** 2.23 *** 2.60 *** 2.97 *** 3.34 *** 3.71 4.45 5.20 *** 5.94 6.68 7.42 9.27 11.1 13.0 14.8 16.7 18.6 22.3
0.11 *** *** *** *** *** 0.38 *** 0.78 *** 1.30 *** 1.93 *** 2.68 *** 3.56 *** 4.54 *** 5.65 *** 6.86 9.62 12.8 *** 16.5 20.6 25.1 38.7 54.6 73.3 95.0 119 146 209
7-12
Table 7-10: Friction Loss for Water in New Sch. 40 to Steel Pipe @ 60F (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
(continued)
1 1/4 (1.38 ID) 1 1/2 (1.61 ID) gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. 5 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1100 1200 1400 1.07 2.15 2.57 3.00 3.43 3.86 4.29 5.37 6.44 7.52 8.58 9.66 10.7 12.9 15.0 17.2 19.3 21.5 25.7 30.0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.52 1.77 2.48 3.28 4.20 5.25 6.34 9.66 13.6 18.5 23.5 29.5 36.0 51.0 68.8 89.2 112 138 197 267 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.79 1.58 1.89 2.21 2.52 2.84 3.15 3.94 4.73 5.52 6.30 7.10 7.88 9.46 11.0 12.6 14.2 15.8 18.9 22.1 25.2 28.4 31.5 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.25 0.83 1.16 1.53 1.96 2.42 2.94 4.50 6.26 8.38 10.8 13.5 16.4 23.2 31.3 40.5 51.0 62.2 88.3 119 158 199 241 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
2 (2.07 ID) 2 1/2 (2.47 ID) Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. 0.48 0.96 1.15 1.34 1.53 1.72 1.91 *** 2.87 3.35 3.82 4.30 4.78 5.74 6.69 7.65 8.60 9.56 11.5 13.4 15.3 17.2 19.1 21.0 22.9 24.9 26.8 28.7 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.07 0.25 0.35 0.46 0.59 0.73 0.87 *** 1.82 2.42 3.10 3.82 4.67 6.59 8.86 11.4 14.2 17.4 24.7 33.2 43.0 54.1 66.3 80.0 95.0 111 128 146 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.67 0.80 0.94 1.07 1.21 1.34 *** 2.01 2.35 2.68 3.02 3.35 4.02 4.69 5.36 6.03 6.70 8.04 9.38 10.7 12.1 13.4 14.7 16.1 17.4 18.8 20.1 23.5 26.8 30.2 33.5 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.36 *** 0.75 1.00 1.28 1.57 1.94 2.72 3.63 4.66 5.82 7.11 10.0 13.5 17.4 21.9 26.7 32.2 38.1 44.5 51.3 58.5 79.2 103 132 160 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
3 (3.07 ID) Vel. Frict. 0.43 *** *** *** *** 0.87 *** 1.30 *** 1.82 *** 2.17 2.60 *** 3.47 *** 4.34 5.21 6.08 6.94 7.81 8.68 9.55 10.4 11.3 12.2 13.0 15.2 17.4 19.6 21.7 23.9 26.0 28.2 30.4 *** 34.7 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.04 *** *** *** *** 0.13 *** 0.27 *** 0.55 *** 0.66 0.92 *** 1.57 *** 2.39 3.37 4.51 5.81 7.28 8.90 10.7 12.6 14.7 16.9 19.2 26.3 33.9 43.0 52.5 63.8 75.7 88.6 101 *** 131 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
4 (4.07) Vel. Frict.
gpm 5 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1100 1200 1400
0.50 *** 0.76 *** 1.01 *** 1.26 1.51 1.76 2.02 2.27 2.52 3.02 3.53 4.03 4.54 5.04 5.54 6.05 6.55 7.06 7.56 8.82 10.1 11.3 12.6 13.9 15.1 16.4 17.6 18.9 20.2 21.4 22.7 23.9 25.2 27.7 30.2 35.3
0.04 *** 0.07 *** 0.12 *** 0.18 0.25 0.33 0.42 0.52 0.61 0.86 1.16 1.49 1.89 2.27 2.70 3.19 3.72 4.28 4.89 6.55 8.47 10.5 13.0 15.7 18.6 21.7 25.3 28.9 32.8 37.0 41.4 46.0 50.9 61.4 72.0 97.6
Section 7
7-13
Table 7-10: Friction Loss for Water in New Sch. 40 to Steel Pipe @ 60F (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
(continued)
gpm 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
5 (5.05 ID) Vel. Frict. 0.64 0.96 1.28 1.60 1.92 2.25 2.57 2.89 3.21 3.53 3.85 4.17 4.49 4.81 5.61 6.41 7.22 8.02 8.81 9.62 11.2 12.8 14.4 16.0 *** 19.2 *** 22.5 *** 25.7 *** 28.8 *** 32.1 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.04 0.08 0.14 0.21 0.29 0.39 0.48 0.60 0.73 0.87 1.03 1.19 1.37 1.58 2.11 2.72 3.41 4.16 4.94 5.88 7.93 10.2 12.9 15.8 *** 22.5 *** 30.4 *** 39.5 *** 49.7 *** 61.0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
10 (10.02ID) 12 (11.94 ID) 14 (13.12 (ID) Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Section 7
1.11 1.33 1.55 1.78 2.00 2.22 2.44 2.66 2.89 3.11 3.33 3.89 4.44 5.00 5.55 6.11 6.66 7.77 8.88 9.99 11.1 12.2 13.3 14.4 15.5 16.7 17.8 18.9 20.0 21.1 22.2 27.7 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
0.09 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.36 0.41 0.48 0.54 0.62 0.85 1.09 1.36 1.66 1.97 2.33 3.13 4.04 5.08 6.23 7.49 8.87 10.4 12.0 13.7 15.6 17.5 19.6 21.8 24.1 37.2 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1.15 1.28 1.41 1.54 1.67 1.80 1.92 2.24 2.57 2.89 3.21 3.53 3.85 4.49 5.13 5.77 6.41 7.05 7.70 8.34 8.98 9.62 10.3 10.9 11.5 12.2 12.8 16.0 19.2 22.4 25.7 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
0.07 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.42 0.50 0.59 0.79 1.01 1.27 1.55 1.86 2.20 2.56 2.96 3.38 3.83 4.29 4.81 5.31 5.91 8.90 12.8 17.5 22.0 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
1.22 1.42 1.63 1.83 2.03 2.24 2.44 2.85 3.25 3.66 4.07 4.48 4.88 5.29 5.70 6.10 6.51 6.92 7.32 7.73 8.14 10.2 12.2 14.2 16.3 18.3 20.3 24.4 *** *** *** ***
0.06 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.41 0.49 0.59 0.70 0.81 0.94 1.07 1.21 1.38 1.52 1.68 1.86 2.86 4.06 5.46 7.07 8.91 11.0 15.9 *** *** *** ***
1.43 1.58 1.72 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.87 3.15 3.44 3.73 4.01 4.30 4.59 4.87 5.16 5.45 5.73 7.17 8.60 10.0 11.5 12.9 14.3 17.2 20.1 22.9 *** ***
0.06 0.07 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.29 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.50 0.57 0.64 0.70 0.78 1.19 1.68 2.25 2.92 3.65 4.47 6.39 8.63 11.2 *** ***
1.90 2.14 2.37 2.61 2.85 3.08 3.32 3.56 3.80 4.03 4.27 4.51 4.74 5.93 7.12 8.30 9.49 10.7 11.9 14.2 16.6 19.0 21.4 23.7
0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.73 1.04 1.40 1.81 2.27 2.79 4.00 5.37 6.98 8.79 10.8
7-14
Table 7-10: Friction Loss for Water in New Sch. 40 Steel Pipe @ 60F (Frict. loss in ft. per. 100 ft. - Vel in ft. per sec.)
(continued)
gpm 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 50,000 Note:
16 (15.00 ID) 18 (16.88 ID) Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. 1.82 2.72 3.63 4.54 5.45 6.35 7.26 8.17 9.08 10.9 12.7 14.5 16.3 18.2 21.8 25.4 29.0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.07 0.14 0.25 0.38 0.54 0.72 0.92 1.15 1.41 2.01 2.69 3.49 4.38 5.38 7.69 10.4 13.5 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
20 (18.81) Vel. Frict.
24 (22.62ID) 30 (29.00 ID)* 36 (35.00 ID)* Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 50,000
2.87 3.59 4.30 5.02 5.74 6.45 7.17 8.61 10.0 11.5 12.9 14.3 17.2 20.1 22.9 25.8 28.7 *** *** *** *** ***
0.14 0.21 0.30 0.40 0.51 0.64 0.78 1.11 1.49 1.93 2.42 2.97 4.21 5.69 7.41 9.33 11.5 *** *** *** *** ***
2.31 2.89 3.46 4.04 4.62 5.19 5.77 6.92 8.08 9.23 10.4 11.5 13.8 16.2 18.5 20.8 23.1 28.9 34.6 *** *** ***
0.08 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.30 0.37 0.46 0.65 0.86 1.11 1.39 1.70 2.44 3.29 4.26 5.35 6.56 10.2 14.6 *** *** ***
2.39 2.79 3.19 3.59 3.99 4.79 5.59 6.38 7.18 7.98 9.58 11.2 12.8 14.4 16.0 20.0 23.9 27.9 *** ***
0.07 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.96 1.29 1.67 2.10 2.58 4.04 5.68 7.73 *** ***
1.94 *** 2.43 2.91 3.40 3.89 4.37 4.86 5.83 6.80 7.77 8.74 9.71 12.1 14.6 17.0 19.4 ***
0.03 *** 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.20 0.28 0.37 0.48 0.60 0.73 1.13 1.61 2.17 2.83 ***
1.58 1.89 2.21 2.52 2.84 3.15 3.78 4.41 5.04 5.67 6.30 7.88 9.46 11.0 12.6 15.8
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.38 0.54 0.72 0.94 1.45
1. Table based on Darcy-Weisback formula; with no allowance for age, differences in diameter, or any other abnormal condition of interior surface. Any Factor of Safety must be estimated from the local conditions and the requirements of each particular installation. For general purposes, 15% is a reasonable Factor of Safety. 2. The friction loss data is based on seamless Sch. 40 steel pipe. Cast iron (CI) pipe has a slightly larger ID than steel pipe in the 3 to 12 dia. range, which generally makes no practical difference with respect to water supply pumping problems. 3. Ductile Iron (DI) has a larger ID than both Sch. 40 steel and CI pipes for the same nominal diameter. Friction Losses in DI pipe can be approximated by multiplying the tabulated value by .75 in the 4 to 12 size range and .60 for 14 and larger sizes. 4. Velocity head values are not included in the table, as they are normally not considered as a component of Total Head (TH) calculations to solve water supply pumping problem. Velocity and Velocity head can be calculated using the following formulas: Vel. (fps) = gpm (.410)/(ID)2 = gpm (.321)/Area (in.2); where: Area (in2) = (ID)2/4 Vel. Head (ft.) = (Vel.)2 /2g = (Vel.)2/64.4 5. Velocity within column (vertical drop/riser pipe) should be kept within the range of 4 - 15 fps (5.0 fps is optimum). Velocity within horizontal distribution piping should be kept within the range of 1 - 6 fps (3.0 fps is optimum). 6. Tabulated friction loss values are calculated based on water at 60F and a kinematic viscosity = 0.00001217 ft /sec. (31.2 SSU). Correct tabulated values for fluid temperatures other than 60F as following: Temp (F) Correction factor 32 1.20 40 1.10 50 1.00 60 1.00 80 1.00 100 .95 150 .90 200 .85 212 .80
Section 7
* The ID value specified for 30 and 36 sizes are for Sch. 20 pipe. Sch. 40 pipe is not available in diameters greater than 24
7-15
Table 7-11: Friction Loss for Water in New Type L Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
1/2 gpm 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 1 gpm 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25
Tubing .545 ID Vel. Frict. 0.69 1.38 2.06 2.75 3.44 4.12 4.81 5.50 6.19 6.87 8.25 9.62 11.0 12.4 13.8 0.75 2.45 4.93 8.11 11.98 16.48 21.61 27.33 33.65 40.52 56.02 73.69 93.50 115.4 139.4
Pipe .622 ID Vel. Frict. 0.52 1.04 1.57 2.09 2.61 3.13 3.66 4.18 4.70 5.22 6.26 7.31 8.35 9.40 10.4 12.6 14.7 0.40 1.28 2.58 4.24 6.25 8.59 11.25 14.22 17.50 21.07 29.09 38.23 48.47 59.79 72.16 115.6 157.4
3/4 gpm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 1/4 gpm 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80
Tubing .785 ID Vel. Frict. 0.66 1.33 1.99 2.65 3.31 3.98 4.64 5.30 5.96 6.92 7.29 7.95 8.61 9.27 9.94 10.60 11.25 11.92 0.44 1.44 2.91 4.81 7.11 9.80 12.86 16.28 20.06 24.19 28.66 33.47 38.61 44.07 49.86 55.97 62.39 69.13
Pipe .824 ID Vel. Frict. 0.60 1.21 1.81 2.42 3.02 3.62 4.23 4.83 5.44 6.04 6.64 7.25 7.85 8.45 9.05 9.65 10.25 10.85 0.35 1.16 2.34 3.86 5.71 7.86 10.32 13.07 16.10 19.41 22.99 26.84 30.96 35.33 39.97 44.86 50.00 55.40
Tubing 1.03 ID Vel. Frict. 0.78 1.17 1.56 1.95 2.34 2.72 3.11 3.50 3.89 4.67 5.45 6.22 7.00 7.78 9.74 11.68 13.61 15.55 0.41 0.82 1.35 2.00 2.75 3.60 4.56 5.61 6.76 9.33 12.27 15.56 19.20 23.18 34.56 47.96 63.31 80.58
Pipe 1.05 ID Vel. Frict. 0.72 1.08 1.45 1.81 2.17 2.53 2.89 3.25 3.61 4.34 5.05 5.78 6.50 7.22 9.03 10.84 12.65 14.45 0.35 0.70 1.14 1.69 2.32 3.04 3.85 4.74 5.71 7.88 10.36 13.13 16.20 19.55 29.15 40.43 53.37 67.90
Pipe 1.38 ID Vel. Frict. 1.09 1.31 1.53 1.75 1.96 2.18 2.62 3.27 4.36 5.46 6.55 7.65 8.74 9.83 10.9 13.1 15.3 17.5 0.51 0.70 0.91 1.15 1.42 1.71 2.35 3.49 5.81 8.65 11.98 15.79 20.06 24.80 29.98 41.66 55.07 70.16
Section 7
30 35 40
7-16

Table 7-11: Friction Loss for Water in New Type L Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.) (continued)
1 1/2 gpm 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 2 1/2 gpm 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240
Pipe 1.61 ID Vel. Frict. 1.27 1.43 1.59 1.91 2.39 3.19 3.98 4.78 5.58 6.37 7.16 7.96 9.56 11.2 12.8 14.4 15.9 17.5 0.55 0.67 0.81 1.12 1.65 2.75 4.09 5.65 7.45 9.45 11.68 14.11 19.59 25.87 32.93 40.76 79.34 58.67
2 gpm 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 3 gpm 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300
Pipe 2.07 ID Vel. Frict. 1.53 1.72 1.92 2.39 2.87 3.35 3.83 4.30 4.80 5.75 6.70 7.65 8.61 9.57 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.4 0.55 0.68 0.82 1.22 1.68 2.21 2.80 3.46 4.17 5.79 7.63 9.70 12.00 14.51 17.24 20.18 23.33 26.69
Tubing 2.46 ID Vel. Frict. 1.34 1.68 2.02 2.35 2.69 3.02 3.36 4.03 4.70 5.37 6.04 6.71 7.38 8.05 8.73 9.40 10.1 10.8 11.4 12.1 12.8 13.4 14.8 16.1 0.35 0.52 0.72 0.94 1.19 1.47 1.77 2.46 3.24 4.12 5.08 6.15 7.30 8.54 9.87 11.28 12.78 14.36 16.03 17.79 19.62 21.54 25.61 30.01
Pipe 2.47 ID Vel. Frict. 1.31 1.63 1.96 2.29 2.61 2.94 3.26 3.92 4.57 5.22 5.88 6.53 7.19 7.84 8.49 9.14 9.79 10.45 11.1 11.8 12.4 13.1 14.4 15.7 0.33 0.49 0.67 0.88 1.12 1.38 1.66 2.30 3.03 3.85 4.75 5.74 6.82 7.92 9.22 10.54 11.94 13.42 14.98 16.61 18.33 20.12 23.93 28.03
Pipe 3.07 ID Vel. Frict. 0.87 1.30 1.74 2.17 2.61 3.04 3.48 3.91 4.35 4.79 5.21 5.65 6.09 6.52 6.95 7.39 7.82 8.25 8.70 9.56 10.40 11.3 12.2 13.0 0.13 0.25 0.42 0.63 0.87 1.15 1.45 1.80 2.17 2.57 3.01 3.47 3.97 4.50 5.05 5.64 6.25 6.89 7.56 8.99 10.52 12.17 13.93 15.79 7-17
Section 7
Table 7-11: Friction Loss for Water in New Type L Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.) (continued)
3 1/2 gpm 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500
Pipe 3.55 ID Vel. Frict. 2.00 2.33 2.66 3.00 3.33 3.67 4.00 4.33 4.66 5.00 5.33 5.66 6.00 6.33 6.66 7.33 8.00 8.66 9.33 10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 16.7 0.46 0.60 0.77 0.95 1.14 1.35 1.58 1.83 2.09 2.36 2.66 2.96 3.28 3.62 3.97 4.72 5.52 6.39 7.30 8.28 10.95 13.97 17.32 20.99
4 gpm 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Pipe 4.63 ID Vel. Frict. 2.55 2.81 3.06 3.31 3.57 3.83 4.08 4.33 4.58 4.84 5.10 5.61 6.12 6.63 7.14 7.65 8.92 10.2 11.5 12.8 14.1 15.3 16.6 17.9 0.60 0.71 0.83 0.96 1.10 1.25 1.39 1.56 1.73 1.91 2.09 2.48 2.90 3.36 3.84 4.35 5.75 7.33 9.08 11.00 13.09 15.35 17.77 20.35
Note: 1. The friction losses listed under the pipe heading is approximately valid for Regular Weight Copper and Brass Pipe, in addition to Sch. 40 PVC Pipe 2. Table based on Darcy - Weisback formula 3. No allowance has been made for age, difference in diameter, or any abnormal condition of interior surface. Any factor of safety must be estimated from the local conditions and the requirements of each particular installation. It is recommended that for most commercial design purposes a safety factor of 15 to 20% be added to the values in the tables.
Section 7
7-18
Table 7-12: Friction Loss for Water in New Class 200 ~ SDR 21 ~ IPS PVC Pressure Pipe (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft.)
gpm 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
4 (4.07 ID) 1.35 1.36 1.41 1.57 1.73 1.90 2.28 2.67 3.10 3.56 4.04 4.56 5.10 5.67 6.26 6.98
5 (5.03 ID)
6 (5.99 ID)
8 (7.81 ID)
10 (9.73 ID) 12 (11.58 ID)
gpm 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
.81 .95 1.10 1.26 1.43 1.62 1.82 2.02 2.22 2.45 2.69 2.92 3.18 3.44 3.70
Conversion Factors To find friction head loss in IPS PVC pipe having a standard dimension ratio other than 21, the values in the table should be multiplied by the appropriate conversion factor shown below: Conversion Factor 1.00 .91 .84 .785 .75 .71
.34 .40 .46 .54 .61 .69 .77 .86 .95 1.04 1.14 1.86 1.35 1.46 1.58 1.89 2.22 2.58 2.96 3.36 3.78 4.24 4.71 5.21 6.55
.09 .10 .12 .14 .17 .19 .21 .24 .26 .28 .31 .34 .37 .41 .48 .52 .61 .71 .81 .93 1.04 1.17 1.30 1.44 1.58 1.73 1.88 2.05 2.21 2.39 2.57 2.76 3.2 3.16 3.35
.10 .10 .11 .12 .14 .15 .18 .21 .24 .28 .32 .36 .40 .44 .49 .54 .59 .65 .70 .76 .82 .88 .95 1.01 1.08 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.62 1.79 1.97
.077 .083 .096 .110 .125 .141 .158 .175 .194 .213 .233 .254 .276 .298 .322 .346 .371 .397 .423 .451 .508 .568 .632 .698 .767 .840
SDR No 21 26 32.5 41 51 64
Class 200 160 125 100 80 63
Section 7
Notes: 1. Table based on Hazen-Williams equation - C = 150 2. Losses below bold line indicates velocities in excess of 5 fps, Velocities which exceed 5 fps are not recommended. 3. Friction losses listed above can be used for approximating friction loss in C900 PVC pipe of the same nominal diameter and similar pressure rating by multiplying the tabulated figures by 1.10. Use friction loss tables specific to C900 pipe for greater accuracy.
7-19
Table 7-13: Friction Loss for Water in Concrete Irrigation Pipe (Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft.)
Flow cfs 0.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 gpm 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 449 539 628 718 808 898 987 1,077 1,167 1,257 1,346 1,436 1,526 1,616 1,706 1,795 2,020 2,244 2,469 2,693 2,917 3,142 3,366 3,591 3,815 4,039 4,264 4,488 4,937 5,386 5,835 6,284 6,732 7,181 7,630 8,079 8,977 9,874 10,772 11,669 12,567 13,465 14,363 15,260 16,158 17,056 6 .03 .11 .26 .46 .72 1.04 1.40 1.84 2.34 2.88 4.20 5.60 7.40 9.30 11.50 14.00 16.50 8 .01 .02 .06 .10 .16 .23 .32 .41 .52 .64 .92 1.25 1.63 2.07 2.54 3.08 3.65 4.30 5.00 5.73 6.53 7.35 8.25 9.22 10 12
Nominal Pipe Diameter (in.) 14 16 18 20 24 30 36
Flow gpm 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 449 539 628 718 808 898 987 1,077 1,167 1,257 1,346 1,436 1,526 1,616 1,706 1,795 2,020 2,244 2,469 2,693 2,917 3,142 3,366 3,591 3,815 4,039 4,264 4,488 4,937 5,386 5,835 6,284 6,732 7,181 7,630 8,079 8,977 9,874 10,772 11,669 12,567 13,465 14,363 15,260 16,158 17,056
.07 .10 .13 .16 .20 .28 .38 .51 .65 .80 .95 1.14 1.33 1.55 1.78 2.02 2.28 2.56 2.85 3.15 3.97 4.91 5.96 7.07 8.27
.03 .04 .05 .06 .08 .11 .15 .20 .24 .30 .37 .44 .51 .59 .68 .77 .88 .98 1.08 1.22 1.53 1.88 2.28 2.71 3.18 3.69 4.24 4.82 5.44 6.10 6.80 7.53
.02 .03 .04 .05 .07 .08 .11 .14 .16 .19 .23 .26 .30 .34 .39 .44 .49 .54 .68 .84 1.02 1.21 1.42 1.65 1.89 2.15 2.43 2.72 3.03 3.36 4.07 4.84 5.68 6.59
.02 .03 .04 .05 .07 .08 .10 .11 .13 .15 .17 .19 .22 .24 .27 .34 .42 .50 .60 .71 .82 .94 1.07 1.21 1.35 1.51 1.67 2.02 2.40 2.82 3.27 3.75 4.27 4.82 5.40 6.67 8.07
Section 7
.03 .04 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .12 .13 .15 .19 .23 .27 .32 .38 .44 .51 .58 .65 .73 .82 .90 1.08 1.29 1.52 1.77 2.03 2.30 2.60 2.93 3.59 4.33 5.19 6.08 7.01
.02 .03 .03 .04 .04 .05 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .11 .13 .16 .19 .22 .25 .29 .33 .37 .42 .47 .52 .63 .74 .88 1.02 1.17 1.32 1.49 1.68 2.07 2.51 2.88 3.49 4.04 4.62 5.33 5.99 6.71
.02 .02 .02 .03 .03 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .10 .11 .13 .14 .15 .18 .20 .24 .29 .34 .39 .45 .51 .58 .65 .79 .96 1.14 1.34 1.56 1.79 2.04 2.29 2.57 2.86
.03 .04 .04 .05 .05 .06 .06 .07 .09 .10 .12 .14 .16 .18 .20 .25 .30 .36 .41 .48 .56 .63 .71 .80 .89
.02 .02 .03 .03 .04 .05 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .11 .14 .16 .19 .21 .24 .27 .31 .34
Notes: 1. cfs = cu. ft. per sec., gpm = gal. per min. / gpm = gal. per min. 2. Friction loss based on full pipe. 3. Flow in Miners Inch miners inch = 9 gpm. 4. Table based on Hazen - Williams equation - C = 100
7-20
Table 7-14: Friction Losses Through Pipe Valves and Fittings (Straight Pipe in Feet - Equivalent Length)
SIZE OF PIPE (inches) 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
WIDE OPEN .14 .21 .27 .33 .46 .61 .79 .93 1.21 1.39 1.69 2.40 3.40 4.40 5.70 6.80 8.20 9.10
GATE VALVE 1/4 1/2 CLOSED CLOSED 5.0 .85 7.0 1.25 9.0 1.80 12.0 2.10 14.0 2.9 18.0 3.4 24.0 4.8 28.0 5.6 36.0 7.0 41.0 8.4 52.0 10.0 70.0 14.0 105 20.0 136 26.5 172 33.5 196 40.6 233 48.5 274 53.0
3/4 CLOSED 19 26 36 44 59 70 96 116 146 172 213 285 425 555 703 815 978 1110
GLOBE VALVEWIDE OPEN 9 12 16 18 23 29 38 46 58 69 86 116 175 225 285 336 395 435
ANGLE VALVEWIDE OPEN 5 6 8 9 12 15 20 23 29 35 43 57 86 115 141 166 195 220
CHECK ORDINARY VALVE- ENTRANCE STD. 90 TO PIPE WIDE ELBOW LINES OPEN .74 .46 2.0 1.0 .60 3.0 1.4 .75 4.0 1.6 .90 5.0 2.3 1.4 6.0 2.7 1.6 7.0 3.6 2.5 9.0 4.5 3.0 11.0 5.4 3.5 15.0 6.5 4.0 17.0 8.5 5.0 21.0 12.0 6.5 27.0 17. 9.5 39. 22. 14. 53. 27. 16. 65. 33. 18. 78. 37. 21. 92. 43. 26. 106.
MEDIUM SWEEP 90 ELBOW .65 .86 1.15 1.50 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.5 15. 19. 23. 27. 31. 36.
LONG SWEEP 90 ELBOW .50 .70 .90 1.10 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.6 4.4 5.5 7.2 11.2 15.3 18.2 20.2 23.3 27.5
Use the smaller diameter in the column for pipe size. d Smaller diameter = D Larger diameter SIZE OF PIPE (inches) 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 SQUARE 90 ELBOW 1.6 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 13.0 15.0 18.0 23.0 34.0 44.0 57.0 66.0 79.0 88.0 CLOSED RETURN BENDS 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 25.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 72.0 84.0 99.0 ABRUPT CONTRACTION d d d D D D 1/4 1/2 3/4 .16 .30 .40 .22 .40 .50 .29 .50 .65 .36 .60 .80 .48 .80 1.0 .62 1.0 1.5 .83 1.4 1.7 .97 1.6 2.0 1.30 2.0 2.5 1.50 2.5 3.0 1.80 2.9 4.0 2.40 4.0 5.0 3.60 5.9 8.0 4.50 7.6 11.0 5.70 10.2 14.0 6.70 12.3 16.0 8.20 14.3 18.0 9.30 15.4 20.0 ABRUPT ENLARGEMENT d d d D D D 1/4 1/2 3/4 .16 .46 .74 .22 .62 1.0 .29 .83 1.4 .36 1.2 1.6 .48 1.4 2.3 .62 1.6 2.7 .83 2.3 3.6 .97 2.7 4.5 1.30 3.5 5.4 1.50 4.0 6.5 1.80 4.8 8.0 2.40 6.4 12.0 3.60 10.5 17.0 4.50 14.2 22.0 6.80 16.5 27.0 7.50 18.4 33.0 9.00 22.3 37.0 10.20 25.5 43.0
45 ELBOW .40 .50 .65 .80 1.0 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
STD. TEE .50 .70 .90 1.10 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.6 4.4 5.5 7.2 11.2 15.3 18.2 20.2 23.3 27.5
STD. TEE 1.6 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.5 13.0 15.0 18.0 23.0 34.0 44.0 57.0 66.0 79.0 88.0
Section 7
Note: 1. 1/8 to 12 nominal sizes are based on standard steel pipe, 14 to 24 sizes are ID pipe. 2. Friction losses are based on screwed connection from 1/8 to 4 sizes and flanged connections from 6 to 24
7-21
Figure 7-1: Typical Check Valve Friction Loss Chart
Figure 7-2: Typical Surface Plate / 90 Discharge Elbow Friction Loss Chart
SURFACE PLATE / 90 DISCHARGE FRICTION LOSS CHART
Section 7
7-22
Figure 7-3: Steel Pipe Friction Loss & Velocity Chart
Note: Above chart indicates average values for standard weight steel pipe. Hazen - Williams roughness constant (C) = 140.
Table 7-15: Equivalent Pipe Capacity Comparison
Main Size 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Smaller Pipe Size (Number of smaller pipes required to provide carrying capacity equal to a larger pipe) 3/4 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 39 84 247 530 957 6 18 39 115 247 447 724 1,090 1 2 6 18 39 71 115 174 247 338 447 1 2 6 13 24 39 59 84 115 153
1 2 6 11 18 27 39 53 71
1 2 3 6 9 13 18 24
1 1 2 4 6 8 11
1 1 2 3 4 6
Section 7
NOTE: Comparing the ratio of the square of diameters will provide the capacity equivalent relationship (ie. how many 12 lines will be required to equal the capacity of a 16 line? - (16 ) / (12 ) = 1.77 or 2 - 12 lines
7-23
Table 7-16: Estimating Flow from Horizontal or Inclined Pipes
Flow: gpm = 0.818 X D D Pipe Size (in.) Nom. Act. (ID) 2 2 1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 2.007 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 12.00 Distance X, When Y= 12 20 22 24 26 70 100 154 266 417 602 1047 1635 2360 77 110 169 292 459 662 1150 1800 2595 84 120 185 318 501 722 1255 1965 2830 91 130 200 345 543 782 1360 2130 3065
12 42 60 93 159 250 362 327 980 1415 4 5.7 9.8 13.3 22.0 31.0 48.0 83.0 *** *** ***
14 49 70 108 186 292 422 732 1145 1650 6 8.5 14.7 20.0 33.0 47.0 73.0 125 195 285 ***
16 56 80 123 212 334 482 837 1310 189 8 11.3 19.6 26.5 44.0 62.0 97.0 166 260 380 665
18 63 90 139 239 376 542 942 1475 2125 10 14.2 24.5 33.2 55.5 78.0 122 208 326 476 830
28 98 140 216 372 585 842 1465 2290 3300 20
30 105 150 231 398 627 902 1570 2455 3540
32 112 160 246 425 668 962 1675 2620 3775
D Pipe Size (in.) Nom. Act. (ID) 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 5 6 8 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.005 7.984
Distance X, When Y= 4 12 14 16 18 17.0 29.0 40.0 66.0 94.0 146 250 390 570 1000 20.0 34.0 46.5 77.0 109 170 292 456 670 1160 22.7 39.0 53.0 88.0 125 196 334 520 760 1330
Section 7
60.0 99.0 144 220 375 590 860 1500
156 244 415 650 950 1660
Notes: 1. X = Distance; in inches, the stream travels parallel to the pipe for a 12-inch vertical drop 2. D = Pipe inside diameter (in.) 3. Pipe sizes based on standard weight (sch.40) steel
7-24
Table 7-17: Estimating Flow from Partially Filled Pipes
Flow: gpm = X x K x P
Nom. Dia. (D) 2 2 2 2 1/4 1/4 1/2 3/4
K 3.3 4.1 5.1 6.2 7.3 8.6 10.0 11.5 13.1 14.7 16.5 18.4 20.4 22.5 24.7 27.0 P .981 .948 .905 .858 .805 .747 .688
Nom. Dia. (D) 6 6 1/4 6 1/2 6 3/4 7 7 1/4 7 1/2 7 3/4 8 8 1/4 8 1/2 8 3/4 9 9 1/4 9 1/2 9 3/4 F/D % 40 45 50 55 60 56 70
K 29.4 31.9 34.5 37.2 40.0 42.9 45.9 49.0 52.3 55.6 59.0 62.5 66.2 69.9 73.7 77.7 P .627 .564 .500 .436 .375 .312 .253
Nom. Dia. (D) 10 10 1/4 10 1/2 10 3/4 11 11 1/4 11 1/2 11 3/4 12 12 1/2 13 13 1/2 14 14 1/2 15 16 F/D % 75 80 85 90 95 100
K 81.7 85.9 90.1 94.4 98.9 103 108 113 118 128 138 149 160 172 184 209 P .195 .142 .095 .052 .019 .000
3 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 4 1/4 4 1/2 43/4 5 5 1/4 5 1/2 5 3/4 F/D % 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Section 7
Note: Calculate ratio F/D in %. Measure distance X in (inches) parallel to pipe for 12-inch vertical drop. (D) Nominal pipe dia. in inches, (F) Distance to water exiting end of pipe in inches.
7-25
Table 7-18: Estimating Flow from Vertical Pipe or Casing
Flow: gpm = 5.68 x C x D2 x
H Nominal Diameter (D) - Standard Pipe - Inches 4 5 6 7 Flow Rate (gpm) 135 149 161 172 182 192 202 211 219 236 251 265 294 319 342 364 386 433 476 516 551 217 328 252 270 286 301 316 331 345 370 396 418 463 502 540 575 607 680 746 810 865 311 341 369 396 420 444 469 490 509 548 585 321 685 740 796 845 890 998 1095 1175 1270 425 465 503 540 575 606 638 667 700 751 802 850 933 1020 1090 1160 1225 1375 1505 1630 1745
H (in.) 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5 5 1/2 6 6 1/2 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40
2 35 38 41 44 47 49 52 54 57 61 65 69 76 83 89 95 101 113 124 135 145
3 77 85 92 98 104 109 115 121 126 135 144 153 169 184 197 209 221 249 273 298 318
8 569 626 687 733 779 825 872 913 949 1025 1095 1155 1275 1380 1480 1560 1645 1840 2010 2160 2320
10 950 1055 1115 1200 1280 1350 1415 1475 1530 1640 1740 1840 2010 2170 2320 2460 2600 2900 3180 3420 3680
Section 7
Note: 1. Pipe used for basis of calculation is standard weight (sch. 40) steel 2. C = Constant Varying 0.87 to 0.97 for 2 to 6 inch diameter pipe and values of H to 24 inches
7-26
Table 7-19: Unit Conversion Tables UNIT x Acceleration gravity Acceleration gravity Acceleration gravity Acceleration gravity acre acre acre acre acre acre acre acre feet acre feet acre feet acre feet acre-feet acre-feet acre-feet ampere ampere ampere ampere ampere/meter angstrom angstrom atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere bars bars bars bars bars bars bars bars barrels of oil(US) barrels of oil(US) barrels of oil(US) board feet board feet board feet british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) british thermal unit (BTU) FACTOR = 9.80665 32.2 9.80665 32.2 4,046.856 0.40469 43,560.0 4,840.0 0.00156 0.00404686 160 1,233.489 325,851.0 1,233.489 325,851.0 43560 102.7901531 134.44 1 0.0000103638 2997930000.0 1000 3600 0.0001 0.1 101.325 1.0332 0.10133 14.7 101325.0 760 1.01325 33.8995 1033.29 76 29.530 760 .98692 .1 14.50377 1019.72 75.0062 29.530 76 14.5038 42.0 5.61458 163.6592 144 0.08333 2359.74 777.649 1,055.056 25020.1 251.996 0.2520 0.000292875 0.00001 0.000393 1054.35 10.544 x 103 0.999331 UNIT meter/second2 feet/second2 meter/second2 feet/second2 meter2 hectare foot2 yard2 mile2 (statute) kilometer2 rods2 meter2 gallon (US) meter3 gallon feet3 meter3 yards3 coulombs/second faradays/second statamperes milliamperes coulombs microns millimicrons kilopascal kg/cm2 megapascal pound force/inch2 newtons/meter2 torrs bars feet of H2O @ 40F cm of H2O @ 4C cm of Hg @ 0C inches of Hg @ 32F mm of Hg @ 0C atmosphere kilopascal pound force/inch2 grams force/cm2 cm of Hg @ 0C feet of H2O @ 40F inches of Hg @ 0C psi gallons (US) feet3 liters inch3 foot3 cm3 foot pound-force joule foot poundals calorie,g kg-calorie kw-hours therms hp-hours watt-seconds ergs BTU (IST) UNIT x BTU/min BTU/min byte calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g calorie, g/hr calorie, g/hr candle/cm2 candle/cm2 candle/inch2 candle power carats carats celsius celsius centimeter centimeter centimeter centimeter cm grams -force cm of Hg cm/sec cm/sec cm/sec cm/sec cm/sec cm/sec/sec cm/sec/sec chains chains circles circles circles circles circular inches centimeter2 centimeter2 centimeter2 centimeter2 centimeter2 centimeter2 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centimeter3 centipose centistokes coulombs coulombs coulombs days FACTOR = 0.01758 0.02358 8.000001 0.00397 0.00116 4184.00 x 103 3.08596 4.184 0.000001162 42664.9 0.00397 0.0697 12.566 10000.0 144.0 12.566 3.0865 200.0 1.8 C+ 32 273.16 + C 0.39370 0.03281 0.01 10 0.0000723 0.1934 0.0328 1.9685 0.0006 0.0194 0.000373 0.0328 0.01 66.0 20.117 360 400 6.2832 12.0 0.7854 0.15500 0.00108 127.324 100.0 0.0001 155000.0 0.06102 0.00042 0.000035315 0.000001 0.27051 0.06102 0.001 0.03381 0.00211 0.00106 0.001 0.000001 1.0 0.000010364 2997900000 24.0 UNIT kilowatts horsepower bits british thermal unit watt-hour ergs foot pound-force joules kilowatt-hour gram-force cm btu/hr watts candle/inch2 candle/meter2 candle/foot2 lumens grains milligrams fahrenheit kelvin inch foot meter millimeter foot pound-force pound/inch2 feet/sec feet/min km/min knots miles/hour feet/sec/sec meters/sec/sec feet meter degrees grades radians signs inch2 inch2 foot2 circular mm mm2 meter2 mils3 inch3 board feet feet3 meters3 drams gallons (US) liter ounces pints quarts pascal-second meter2/second amp-hours faradays statcoulombs hours
Section 7
7-27
Table 7-19: Unit Conversion Tables UNIT x days days days decimeter decimeter decimeter decimeter3 degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees dynes dynes/cm2 electron volts ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs/sec fahrenheit fahrenheit fahrenheit farads farads farads fathoms fathoms fathoms feet of H2O feet of H2O feet/second feet/second feet2/second foot foot foot foot foot foot foot - poundals foot - poundals foot - poundals foot - poundals foot - pound force foot - pound force foot/hour (linear) foot/min foot/sec foot pound force foot2 foot2 foot2 foot2 foot2 foot2 foot3 foot3 foot3 foot3 FACTOR = 1440. 0.00273 86400 10. 3.937 0.32808 61.02 60.0 3600.0 0.01111 0.01745 1.111 0.00001 0.000001 1.6021 x 10-12 9.4845 x 10-11 1.0 x 10-7 7.376 x 10-8 2.3885 x 10-8 0.278 x 10-10 1.0 1.341 x 10-10 (F-32)/1.8 0.55556 459.72 + F 100000 1.00049 100000 6.0 1.828 2 2.98898 0.4336 0.508 0.00508 0.000001 304.80 30.480 0.30480 0.015151 0.000189 0..166667 3.9968 x 10-5 0.010072 0.03108 0.042133 1.35582 0.00128 0.508 .00508 .3048 1.35582 92,903.04 929.0304 0.09290 0.11111 0.00002 3.5873 x 10-8 0.00781 12.0 1728.0 28316.8 UNIT minutes years seconds centimeters inch feet inch3 minutes seconds quadrants radians grades newtons bars ergs british thermal unit joules foot pound-force grams-calorie watt-hours dynes-cm horsepower celsius celsius rankin statamperes statfarads microfarads feet meters yards kilopascal pound force/inch2 cm/second meter/second meter2/second millimeters centimeter meter chains miles fathoms british thermal unit cal, gram foot pound-force joule joule british thermal unit Cm/minute meter/sec meter/sec newton meter millimeter2 centimeter2 meter2 yard2 acre mile2 cords of wood board feet inches3 centimeter3 UNIT x foot3 foot3 foot3 foot3 foot3 foot3 foot3/hour foot3/hour foot3/hour foot3/minute foot3/minute foot3/second foot3/second foot3/second foot3/second foot3/pound foot3 H2O foot3 H2O foot3 H2O foot3 H2O furlongs furlongs furlongs furlongs furlongs gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon (US liq.) gallon H2O gallon H2O gallon H2O gallon/minute gallon/minute gallon/minute gallon/minute (gpm) gallons/inch/mile/day gallons/inch/mile/day gausses gausses gausses gram/centimeter3 grades grades grades grades grades grades grains grains grains grains grains grains grams grams grams grams grams FACTOR = 0.02832 28.32 59.842 29.922 7.48052 0.03704 .0283168 0.0167 7.4805 0.283168 471.95 448.8306 0.02832 28.31658 120.0 120.0 28.31413 62.42197 28.31413 62.42197 660.0 20116.8 201.17 7920 220.0 8.0 4.0 3.0689 x 10-6 0.00379 3.785 0.13368 8.33 3.78625 3.78625 8.34725 0.00006 0.06309 0.00144 0.00223 0.03259 0.03259 10000.0 6.4516 6.452 x 10-8 1,00.00 0.0025 0.0025 0.9 54 0.0025 3240 0.32399 0.01667 0.03657 64.7989 0.00017 0.00014 5.0 0.2572 0.5644 15.432 0.001
(continued) UNIT meter3 liter (liq.) pint (liq.) quart (liq.) gallon (liq.) yard meter3/hour feet3/minute gallons/hour meter3/minute centimeter3/second gallon/minute meter3/second liter/second foot3/hour centimeter3/gram Kilogram pound Kilogram pound feet centimeters meters inches yards pint quart acre feet meter3 liter foot3 pounds kilogram kilogram pound meter3/second liter/second million gallons/day foot3/second (cfm) liter/mm/km/day liter/mm/km/day gamma lines/inch2 webers/inch2 kilogram/meter3 circles circumfrencees degrees minutes revolutions seconds carats drams (troy) drams (avdp) milligrams pounds (troy) pounds (avdp) carats drams (troy) drams (avdp) grains kilograms
Section 7
7-28
Table 7-19: Unit Conversion Tables UNIT x grams grams grams grams grams force/cm2 grams force/cm2 hectare hectare henries henries horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (mech) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (electric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (water) horsepower (water) horsepower (water) horsepower (water) horsepower (water) inch inch inch inch inch inch of Hg inch of Hg inch of Hg inch of Hg FACTOR = 1000.0 0.03215 0.03527 0.00220 98.0665 0.00034 10,000.00 2.47105 1000.0 1.113 x 10-12 2542.47 0.746 64160.0 7.457 x 109 1980000.0 0.076 0.9996 1.0139 745.7 0.212 745.7 33445.7 140671.6 9.8097 x 1010 13.155 13.1497 13.337 13.149 9809.5 9.8095 2547.16 178.298 7.46 x 109 1.0004 0.0745 1.01428 0.99994 746 0.746 2511.3 632800 7.355 x 109 0.9863 0.07498 0.9859 0.98587 735.499 0.7355 0.076 1.00006 1.00046 1.0143 0.746043 25.4 2.54 0.08333 0.0278 1000 3.37416 0.49116 0.03342 0.03386 UNIT milligrams ounce (troy) ounce (avdp) pound pascal pound force/inch2 meter2 acre millihenries stathenhenries btu/hr kilowatts calories, gram/hr ergs/second foot pound-force/hour horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) horsepower (metric) joules/sec tons of refrig. watts btu/hr calories, gram/min ergs/second horsepower (mech) horsepower (electric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) joules/sec kilowatts btu/hr calories, gram/sec ergs/second horsepower (mech) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (metric) horsepower (metric) joules/sec kilowatts btu/hr calories, gram/hr ergs/second horsepower (mech) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) horsepower (water) watts kilowatts horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) horsepower (mech) horsepower (metric) kilowatts millimeters centimeter feet yards mils kilopascal pound force/inch2 Atmosphere bars UNIT x inch of Hg inch pound force inch2 inch2 inch3 inch3 inch3 joule joule kilogram kilogram kilogram kilogram kilogram force kilogram force/cm2 kilogram force/cm2 kilogram force/meter2 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/metre kilometer kilometer kilonewton kilopascal kilopascal kilopascal kilopascal kilopascal kilopascal kilopascal kilowatts kilowatts kilowatts kilowatts kilowatts knots knots knots leagues liter liter liter liter liter liter liter liter/minute liter/minute liter/second liter/second liter/mm/km/day liter/mm/km/day liter/second lumens lumens/foot2 lux megapascal megapascal megapascal FACTOR = 34.532 0.11299 645.10 6.4516 16.387 16.39 0.01639 0.73756 0.00095 35.274 2.20462 0.001 1000.0 9.80681 98.0665 14.22335 9.80665 0.06243 1.68554 0.00835 0.00084 0.001 0.67197 0.62137 0.00000000000010 100000000.0 1,000. 0.01 0.14504 0.33456 0.29637 0.001 0.00987 3414.4 2655000 1.34 0.1019 1.3596 0.868976 1.688 1.1508 18240.0 0.03531 0.001 1,000. 2.113 1.057 0.2642 1. 0.0353 .26417 0.035315 15.851 10.800 10.800 0.001 0.0015 10.7639 0.0929 1,000. 145.0377 9.86923
(continued) UNIT grams force/cm2 newton meter millimeter2 centimeter2 millimeter3 centimeter3 decimeter3 foot* pound force british thermal unit ounce pound metric ton (tonne) grams newton kilopascal pound force/inch2 pascal pound/foot3 pound/yard3 pound/gallon ton/yard3 metric ton/meter3 pound/foot mile light years dynes pascal bar pound force/inch2 feet of H2O inches of Hg megapascal atmosphere btu/hr foot-pound force/hr horsepower (elec&mech) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (metric) kilometers/hour feet/second miles/hour feet foot3 meter3 milliliter3 pint quart gallon decimeter3 foot3/minute gallon/minute foot3/second gallon/minute gallons/in/mile/day gallons/in/mile/day meter3/second watts lumens/meter2 foot-candles kilopascal pound force/inch2 atmosphere
Section 7
7-29
Table 7-19: Unit Conversion Tables UNIT x megapascal meter meter meter meter meter2 meter2 meter2 meter2 Meter3 meter3 meter3 meter3 meter3 Meter3 meter3/second meter3/second meter3/second meter3/second meters/second2 metric ton (tonne) metric ton (tonne) metric ton (tonne) metric ton/meter3 micrometers mile (statute) mile (statute) mile (statute) mile (statute) mile2 miles/hour miles/hour miles/hour miles/hour miles/hour miles/hour miles/hour millimeter2 millimeter2 millimeter3 milliliters milliliters milliliters milliliters milliliters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters million gallons/day million gallons/day newton newton newton meter newton meter newton/meter2 newton/meter2 ohms ounce FACTOR 10. 3.28084 1.09361 0.00062 0.1988 10.76391 1.19599 0.00025 0.0001 0.00081 35.315 264.17 1.308 1,000. 0.00081 35.315 15,850.3 1,00. 22.82447 3.280840 2,204.6 1.1023 1,000. 0.84277 10000.0 1,609.344 1.60934 5,280. 1,760. 640.0 .447 88.0 1.609344 1.6093 1.852 1.6093 1.852 0.00155 0.00155 0.00006 1.00 0.06102 0.001 0.0338 0.00211 0.03937 0.00328 0.01 0.001 39.37 1000.0 1000.0 694.44 0.04381 0.22481 0.10197 0.73756 8.85073 0.00015 1.0 100000.0 28.3495 = UNIT bar foot yard mile rods foot2 yard2 acre hectare acre feet foot3 gallon yard3 liter acre feet foot3/second gallon/minute liter/second million gallons/day feet/second2 pound ton (US) kilogram ton/yard3 angstroms meter kilometer foot Yard acre meter/sec feet/minute meter/sec kilometers/hour knots kilometers/hour knots inch2 foot2 inch3 cm3 inch3 liters ounces (fld) pints (fld) inches foot centimeters meters mils microns micrometers gallon/minute meter3/second pound force kilogram force foot pound force inch pound force pound force/inch2 pascal micro ohms gram UNIT x ounce ounce ounce ounce-force/inch2 ounce-force/inch2 parts/million parts/million parts/million pascal pascal pint pint pint poise pound pound pound pound pound pound pound pound (apoth or troy) pound force pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound force/inch2 pound of H2O pound/foot pound/foot3 pound/foot3 pound/gallon pound/yard3 quart quart radians rods tablespoon teaspoon ton ton ton/yard3 ton/yard3 ton/yard3 torr (Torricellis) watts watts watts yard yard yard yard2 yard2 yard2 yard3 yard3 FACTOR 437.5 0.02835 0.2835 4.3942 0.0625 0.05842 1.0 0.0001 1. 0.00750062 0.4732 0.01671 28.875 0.100 7000 453.5924 0.45359 0.00045 0.0005 16. 0.0005 0.82286 4.44822 6,894.757 6.89476 0.00689 0.07031 6,894.757 0.06895 0.06805 2.307 2.036 0.01602 1.48816 16.01846 0.0135 119.82640 0.59328 0.9463 2.0 57.2957 502.92 180 60 0.90719 907.18 1,186.553 1.18655 74.07407 1.0 0.000948 680 0.00134 0.91440 91.44 0.0005682 0.83613 9.0 0.00021 0.7646 27.0 =
(continued) UNIT grain pound kilogram gram-force/cm2 pound force/inch2 grains/gallon (US) grams/ton (metric) percent newton/meter2 torr liter feet3 inch3 pascal-second grains gram kilogram metric ton (tonne) ton ounce ton pound (avdp) newton pascal kilopascal megapascal kilogram force/cm2 newton/meter2 bar atmosphere feet of H2O inch of Hg feet3 kilogram/metre kilogram/meter3 ton/yard3 kilogram/meter3 kilogram/meter3 liter pint degrees centimeter drops of liquid drops of liquid metric ton (tonne) kilogram kilogram/meter3 metric ton/meter3 pound/foot3 mm of Hg btu/sec lumens horsepower meter centimeter miles meter2 foot2 acre meter foot3
Section 7
7-30
7B REFERENCE LIST
Hydraulic Handbook Colt Industries Kansas City, Kansas 11th Edition / 1979 Cameron Hydraulic Data Ingersol-Dresser Pumps Liberty Corner, NJ 18th Edition / 1995 Pure Water Handbook Osmonics Minnetonka, MN 1991 Edition Handbook of PVC Pipe Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Corporation Dallas, TX 3rd Edition /1993 Peabody Floway Turbine Data Handbook Fresno, CA 3rd Edition / 1990 Layne Field Manual Layne Associates Memphis, TN 2nd Edition / 1962 Byron Jackson Pump Division Borg Warner Corp. Los Angeles, CA 1984 Std. Products Catalog Hydraulic Institute Standards Hydraulic Institute Cleveland, OH 14th Edition / 1983 Engineering Data Book Hydraulic Institute Cleveland, OH 1st Edition / 1979 Water Supply & Sewage Steel / McGhee McGraw - Hill 5th Edition / 1979 Ground Water and Wells Johnson Division, UOP Inc. Saint Paul, MN 1st Edition, 1975 Water on Tap: A Consumers Guide to the Nations Drinking Water U.S. EPA, Office of Water Washington, DC 1997 Publication (EPA 815-K-97-002) Water Well Handbook Anderson - Missouri Water Well & Pump Contractors Assn., Inc. Belle, MO 5th Edition / 1984 Johnston Engineering Data Johnston Pump Company Glendora, CA Publication 801 / 1980 Design and Construction of Small Water Systems - A Guide for Managers American Water Works Asociation 1984 Edition A Guide to Water Well Casing and Screen Selection Roscoe Moss Company Los Angeles, CA 1993 Edition Submersible Motors & Controls Franklin Electric Bluffton, ID 1997 Edition Submersible Pump Handbook Centrilift - Hughes Claremore, OK 3rd Edition / 1981 Agricultural Electrification Surbrook / Mullin South - Western Publishing Co. 1985 Edition Sprinkler Irrigation The Irrigation Association Silver Springs, Maryland 4th Edition / 1975
Section 7
Water Systems Handbook Water Systems Council Chicago, IL 9th Edition / 1987
Section 7B Reference List
7-31
Engineering Manual - Submersible Pumping Systems Grundfos A/S Bjerringbro, Denmark 1996 Publication Hydrology and Geology Primer Layne - Western Company, Inc. Mission, KS 1980 Publication AC Motor Selection and Application Guide General Electric Company Fort Wayne, ID 1993 Publication Large Submersible Water Pump Manual Water Systems Council Chicago, IL 1st Edition / 1986 Pumping Industry Technical Information - Product Data (Bulletin C-876) Square D Company Columbia, SC 1998 Publication Control Maintenance & Troubleshooting General Electric Co. 1978 Training Publication Introduction to Power Systems for Water and Wastewater Facilities California Water Pollution Control Association 1991 Training Manual Vertical Turbine Pumps - Line Shaft and Submersible Types Standard: ANSI/AWWA E101-88 American Water Works Association Denver, CO 1988 Revision AWWA Standards for Water Wells Standard: AWWA A100-84 American Water Works Association Denver, CO 1984 Revision AWWA Standards for Disinfection of Water Wells Standard: ANSI/AWWA C654-87 American Water Works Association Denver, CO 1st Edition / 1987
Planning for An Individual Water System American Association for Vocational Instructional Materials Athens, Georgia 1993 Publication PSI - Pump Selector for Industry Worthington Pump Mountainside, NJ 1980 Edition Irrigation System Design Handbook Rain Bird Sprinkler Mfg. Corp. Glendora, CA 1978 Publication
Section 7
7-32
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GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Water Systems Engineering Manual

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Grundfos North America

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

PRODUCT LINES Groundwater

Plumbing and Heating

Sewage, Effluent and Sump Pumps

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

SECTION 1: WATER SUPPLY PLANNING

1-37 1-44 1-45 1-50

1-59 1-65 1-69 1-74

1-81 1-87 1-89 1-92

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

1A WATER SUPPLY PLANNING FUNDAMENTALS

Water Sources Section 1

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Figure 1-1: Schematic Diagram of the Hydrologic Cycle

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Fresh Water Availability in the U.S

Groundwater vs. Surface Water in the U.S.

Lakes 21% Surface Water 47%

Major Groundwater Regions of the Continental U.S.

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Rights to the Use of Water

Section 1A Water Supply Planning Fundamentals

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

1B GROUNDWATER & WELLS

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Formation Favorable (unconsolidated) Unknown Poor (consolidated)

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Groundwater Hydrology and Well Hydraulics

Figure 1-6: Permeability and Transmissibility Illustration

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Flow Static Water Level

Formation Loss Pumping Water Level Well Loss

10 Acceptable Well Load Overpumping

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Well Water Supply

Well Sand & Gravel

Section 1B Groundwater & Wells

GRUNDFOS ENGINEERING MANUAL

Nominal Pump Diameter (in.) 2 3 4* 6*