7

Review of
Continuum
Mechanics
71
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
7.1. Introduction 73
7.2. Notational Systems 73
7.3. The Continuum Model 74
7.3.1. Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3.2. Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3.3. Distinguished Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3.4. Kinematic Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3.5. Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3.6. Congurations and Staged Analysis . . . . . . . . . 710
7.4. Nonlinear Kinematics 711
7.4.1. Deformation and Displacement Gradients . . . . . . . . 711
7.4.2. Stretch and Rotation Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
7.4.3. Green-Lagrange Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . 713
7.4.4. Strain-Gradient Matrix Expressions . . . . . . . . . 714
7.4.5. Pull Forward and Pull Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
7.5. Stress Measure 715
7.6. Constitutive Equations 716
7.7. Strain Energy Density 717
7. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
72
7.2 NOTATIONAL SYSTEMS
7.1. Introduction
Chapters 36 covered general properties of the governing force residual equations of geometrically
nonlinear structural systems with nite number of degrees of freedom (DOF). The DOFs are col-
lected in the state vector, and driven by control parameters. The residual equations, being algebraic,
are well suited for numerical computations.
Continuum models of actual structures, however, are expressed as ordinary or partial differential
equations in space or space-time. As such, those models possess an innite number of DOFs. Except
for simple (typically linear) models, they cannot be directly solved analytically. The reduction to
a nite number is accomplished by discretization methods. It was observed in Chapter 1 that for
nonlinear problems in solid and structural mechanics the nite element method (FEM) is the most
widely used discretization method.
This Chapter provides background material for the derivation of geometrically nonlinear nite ele-
ments from continuum models. It is essentially an overview of kinematic, kinetic and constitutive
relations of 3D continuum mechanics of an elastic deformable body, as needed in following Chap-
ters. Readers already familiar with continuum mechanics should just peruse it to absorb notation.
7.2. Notational Systems
Continuummechanics deals with vector and tensor elds such as displacements, strains and stresses.
Four notational systems are in common use.
Indicial Notation. Also called component notation. The key concept is that of an index. Indices
identify components of vectors and tensors. It has convenient abbreviation rules, such as commas
for partial derivatives and Einsteins summation convention. The notation is general and powerful,
and as such is preferred in analytic developments as well as publication in theoretical journals and
monographs. It readily handles arbitrary tensors of any order, curvilinear coordinate systems and
nonlinear expressions. When used in non-Cartesian coordinates, it sharply distinguishes between
covariant and contravariant quantities. The main disadvantages are: (i) physics is concealed behind
the index jungle, and (ii) highly inefcient for expressing numeric computations. Because of (i), it
is not suitable for elementary instruction.
Direct Notation. Sometimes called algebraic notation. Vectors and tensors are represented by
single symbols, usually bold letters. These are linked by the well known operators of mathematical
physics, such as . for dot product, for cross products, and for gradient (or divergence). Has
the advantage of compactness and quick visualization of intrinsic properties. Some operations,
however, become undened beyond a certain range. Some overlap with matrix algebra while others
do not. This fuzzyness can lead to confusion in computational work.
Matrix Notation. This is similar to the previous one, but entities are appropriately recast so that
only matrix operations are used. The form can be directly mapped to discrete equations as well as
matrix-oriented programming languages such as Matlab. It has the disadvantage of losing contact
with the original physical entities along the way. For example, stress is a symmetric second-order
tensor, but is recast as a 6-vector for FEMdevelopments. This change, however, may forgo essential
properties. For instance, it makes sense to say that principal stresses are eigenvalues of the stress
tensor. But those get lost (or moved to the background) when recast as a vector.
73
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Full Notation. In the full-form notation every term is spelled out. No ambiguities of interpretation
can arise, Consequently this works well as a notation of last resort, and also as a comparison
template against which one can check out the meaning of more compact expressions. It is also
useful for programming in low-order languages.
In this and following Chapters the direct, matrix and full notation are preferred, whereas the indicial
notation is used if either complicated tensor forms are needed, or nonlinear expressions not amenable
to other notations appear. Often the expression is rst given in direct formand conrmed by full form
if feasible. Then it is transformed to matrix notation for use in FEM developments. The decision
leads to possible ambiguities against reuse of vector symbols in two contexts: continuummechanics
and FEMdiscretizations. Such ambiguities are resolved in favor of keeping FEMnotation simple.
Example 7.1. Consider the well known dot product between two physical vectors in 3Dspace, a = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)
and b = (b
1
, b
2
, b
3
) written in the four different notations:
a
i
b
i
.,,.
indicial
= a.b
.,,.
direct
= a
T
b
.,,.
matrix
= a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
+a
3
b
3
. ,, .
full
. (7.1)
Example 7.2. Take the internal static equilibriumequations of a continuumbody, expressed in terms of Cauchy
stresses and body forces per unit volume:

i j, j
+b
i
= 0
. ,, .
indicial
, +b = 0
. ,, .
direct
, D
T

v
+b = 0
. ,, .
matrix
,

11
x
1
+

12
x
2
+

13
x
3
+b
1
= 0, plus 2 more
. ,, .
full
. (7.2)
In the third (matrix notation) form,
v
denotes the stress tensor reformatted as a 6-vector.
Example 7.3. If a discrete mechanical systemis conservative, it was shown in previous Chapters that the total
force residual is the gradient of a total potential energy function with respect to the state:
r
i
=

u
i
def
=
,i
. ,, .
indicial
, r =
. ,, .
direct
, r =

u
. ,, .
matrix
, r
1
=

u
1
, r
2
=

u
2
, . . .
. ,, .
full
. (7.3)
The indicial formrequires dening
,i
as abbreviation of partial derivative with respect to u
j
. The direct form
depends on the gradient operator symbol chosen. Some authors may write r = grad.
7.3. The Continuum Model
In the present section a structure is mathematically treated as a continuum body B. In this model,
the body is considered as being formed by a set of points P called particles, which are endowed
with certain mechanical properties. For FEM analysis the body is divided into elements, which
inherit the properties of the continuum model.
7.3.1. Particle Motion
Particles displace or move in response to external actions characterized by the control parameters

i
introduced in Chapter 3. Following the reduction process discussed in that Chapter, in each
stage the body responds to the single stage parameter .
74
7.3 THE CONTINUUM MODEL
A one-parameter series of positions occupied by the particles as they move in space is called a
motion. The motion may be described by the displacement u(P) u(x) of the particles
1
with
respect to a base or reference state in which particle P is labelled P
0
. The displacements of all
particles u(x) such that x {x, y, z} B, constitutes the displacement eld.
The motion is said to be kinematically admissible if:
1. Continuity of particle positions is preserved so that no gaps or interpenetration occurs.
2
2. Kinematic constraints on the motion (for example, support conditions) are preserved.
Akinematically admissible motion along a stage will be called a stage motion. For one such motion
the displacements u(x) characterize the state and the stage control parameter characterizes the
control. Both will be generally parametrized by the pseudo-time t introduced in Chapter 3, and so
a stage motion can be generally represented by
= (t ), u = u(x, t ), x B. (7.4)
7.3.2. Congurations
If in (7.4) we freeze t , we have a conguration of the structure. Thus a conguration is formally the
union of state and control. It may be informally viewed as a snapshot taken of the structure and its
environment when the pseudotime is frozen. If the conguration satises the equilibriumequations,
it is called an equilibrium conguration. In general, however, a randomly given conguration is
not in equilibrium unless articial body and surface forces are applied to it.
Astaged response, or simply response, can be nowmathematically dened as a series of equilibrium
congurations obtained as is continuously varied, starting from 0.
7.3.3. Distinguished Congurations
A particular feature of geometrically nonlinear analysis is the need to carefully distinguish among
different congurations of the structure. As dened above, set of kinematically admissible dis-
placements u(x) plus a staged control parameter at a frozen t denes a conguration. This is
not necessarily an equilibrium conguration. In fact it will not usually be one. It is also important
to realize that an equilibrium conguration is not necessarily a physical conguration assumed by
the actual structure.
3
Congurations that are important in geometrically nonlinear analysis receive
special qualiers:
admissible, perturbed, deformed, base, reference, iterated, target, corotated, aligned
This terminology is collected in Figure 7.1 in a tabular format. Of the nine listed there, the rst four
are used extensively in theoretical and applied mechanics, the last four exclusively in computational
mechanics, and one (reference) used in both, although usually with different meanings.
1
The underlining in u is used to distinguish the physical displacement vector from the nite element node displacement
array, which is a computational vector.
2
The mathematical statement of this compatibility condition is quite complicated for nite displacements, and will not be
given here. The nite element formulations worked out later will automatically satisfy the requirement.
3
Recall the suspension bridge under zero gravity of Chapter 3.
75
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Name Alias Definition Equilibrium Identification
Required?
Admissible A kinematically admissible configuration No
Perturbed Kinematically admissible variation of No
of an admissible configuration
Current Deformed Any admissible configuration taken during the No or
Spatial analysis process. Contains all others as special cases
Base Initial The configuration defined as the origin of Yes , or
Undeformed displacements. Strain free but not necessarily
Material stress free
Reference Configuration to which stepping computations TL,UL: yes TL: UL:
in an incremental solution process are referred CR: no, yes CR: and
Iterated Configuration taken at the kth iteration No
of the nth increment step
Target Equilibrium configuration accepted Yes
after completing the nth increment step
Corotated Shadow Body- or element-attached configuration obtained No
Ghost from through a RBM (CR description only)
Aligned Preferred A fictitious body ot element configuration aligned No
Directed with a particular set of axes (usually global axes)
Definitions with blue background are used only in theoretical and applied mechanics for analytical formulations.
Definitions with yellow background are only used in computational mechanics.
Definitions with green background are used in both, hence the color choice. The meaning of reference configuration,
however, may differ. The one stated above is for computational mechanics.
The base configuration is often the same as the natural state in which body (or element) is undeformed and stress free.
In dynamic analysis using the CR kinematic description, and are called the inertial and dynamic reference
configurations, respectively, when applied to an entire structure such as an airplane (e.g., autopilot simulations)
Figure 7.1. Distinguished congurations in geometrically nonlinear analysis.
The three most important congurations insofar as a FEMimplementation is concerned, are: base,
reference and current. These are pictured in Figure 7.2. An examination of this gure indicates that
the choice of the reference conguration depends primarily on the kinematic description chosen.
Such a choice is examined in the next subsection.
Remark 7.1. Many names can be found for the congurations listed in Figure 7.1 in the literature dealign with
nite elements and continuum mechanics. Here are some of those alternative names.
Perturbed conguration: adjacent, deviated, disturbed, incremented, neighboring, varied, virtual.
Current conguration: arbitrary, deformed, distorted, pull-forward, moving, present, spatial, varying.
Base conguration: baseline, initial, global, material, natural, original, overall, undeformed, undistorted.
Reference conguration: xed, frozen, known, pull-back.
Iterated conguration: corrected, intermediate, stepped, transient, transitory.
Target conguration: converged, equilibrated spatial, unknown.
Corotated conguration: attached, convected, ghost, phantom, shadow.
Aligned conguration: directed, body-matched, preferred.
76
7.3 THE CONTINUUM MODEL
Current Configuration
Reference Configuration
(identifier depends on
kinematic description chosen)
Base Configuration
, or
or
Figure 7.2. The three most important congurations for geometrically nonlinear analysis. Specializa-
tion to the kinematic descriptions tabulated in Figure 7.3 are pictured in Figures 7.4, 7.5, and 7.6.
7.3.4. Kinematic Descriptions
Three kinematic descriptions of geometrically nonlinear nite element analysis are in current use in
programs that solve nonlinear structural problems: Total Lagrangian or TL, Updated Lagrangian
or UL, and Corotational or CR. They are described in Figure 7.3 They can be distinguished by the
choice of reference conguration. The important congurations for these three descriptions are
pictured in Figures 7.4, 7.5, and 7.6, respectively.
The TL formulation remains the most widely used in continuum-based FEM codes.
4
The CR
formulation is gaining in popularity for structural elements such as beams, plates and shells, espe-
cially in Aerospace.
5
The UL formulation is useful in treatments of vary large strains and ow-like
behavior, as well as in processes involving topology and/or phase changes; e.g., metal forming.
7.3.5. Coordinate Systems
Congurations taken by a body or element during the response analysis are linked by a Cartesian
global frame, to which all computations are ultimately referred.
6
There are actually two such
frames:
(i) The material global frame with axes {X
i
} or {X, Y, Z}.
(ii) The spatial global frame with axes {x
i
} or {x, y, z}.
7
The material frame tracks the base conguration whereas the spatial frame tracks all others. This
distinction agrees with the usual conventions of classical continuum mechanics. In this book both
4
A key reason is historic: three of the original nonlinear FEMcodes: MARC, ABAQUS and ANSYS, originally imple-
mented elements based on that description.
5
Geometrically nonlinear problems in Aerospace Engineering tend to involve large motions, in particular large rotations,
but small strains. Reason: structures are comparatively thin to save weight.
6
In dynamic analysis the global frame may be moving in time as a Galilean or inertial frame. This is convenient to track
the trajectory motion of objects such as aircraft or satellites.
7
The choice between {X
1
, X
2
, X
3
} versus {X, Y, Z} and likewise {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
} versus {x, y, z} is a matter of notational
convenience. For example, when developing specic nite elements it is preferable to use {X, Y, Z} or {x, y, z} so as
to reserve coordinate subscripts for node numbers. On the other hand, in derivations that make heavy use of indicial
notation, the X
i
and x
i
notation is more appropriate.
77
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Name Acronym Definition Primary applications
Total Lagrangian TL Base and reference configurations Solid and structural mechanics with finite
coalesce and remain fixed throughout but moderate displacements and strains.
the solution process Primarily used for elastic material. Unreliable
for flow-like behavior or topology changes

Updated Lagrangian UL Base configuration remains fixed but Solid and structural mechanics with finite
reference configuration is periodically. displacements and possibly large strains.
updated. Most common update strategy Handles material flow-like behavior well,
is to set reference configuration to last (e.g., forming processes) as well as topology
converged solution changes (fracture)

Corotational CR Reference configuration is split into base Solid and structural mechanics with arbitrarily
and corotated. Strains and stresses are large finite motions, but small strains and
measured from corotated to current, while elastic material behavior. Extendible to nonlinear
base configuration is maintained as materials if inelasticity is localized so most of
reference to measure rigid body motions structure stays elastic.
All three descriptions are Lagrangian: computations are always referred to a previous configuration (base and/or reference).
Eulerian formulations, which are common in fluid mechanics, are not popular in solid and structural mechanics
Figure 7.3. Kinematic descriptions used in FEM programs that handle geometrically
nonlinear problems in solid and structural mechanics.
frames are taken to be identical, as nothing is gained by separating them. Thus only one set of
global axes, with dual labels, is drawn in Figure 7.7
In stark contrast to global frame uniqueness, the presence of elements means there are many local
frames to keep track of. More precisely, each element is endowed with two local Cartesian frames:
(iii) The element base frame with axes {

X
i
} or {

X,

Y,

Z}.
(iv) The element reference frame with axes { x
i
} or { x, y, z}.
The base frame is attached to the base conguration. It remains xed if the base is xed. It is
chosen according to usual FEM practices. For example, in a 2-node spatial beam element,

X
1
is
dened by the two end nodes whereas

X
2
and

X
3
lie along principal inertia directions. The origin
is typically placed at the element centroid.
The meaning of the reference frame depends on the description chosen:
Total Lagrangian (TL). The reference and base frames coalesce.
Updated Lagrangian (UL). The reference frame is attached to the reference conguration, and
recomputed when the reference conguration (often taken as the previous converged solution) is
updated. It remains xed during an iterative (corrective) process.
Corotational description (CR). The reference frame is renamed corotated frame or CR frame. It
remains attached to the element and continuously moves with it.
78
7.3 THE CONTINUUM MODEL
Current Configuration
Base and Reference
Configuration
=
TOTAL LAGRANGIAN (TL)
Kinematic Description
0
Figure 7.4. Important congurations in Total Lagrangian (TL) kinematic description.
Current Configuration
Base Configuration
UPDATED LAGRANGIAN (UL)
Kinematic Description
B
n
Reference Configuration
usually updated after each incremental step
Figure 7.5. Important congurations in Updated Lagrangian (UL) kinematic description.
Current Configuration
Base Configuration
COROTATIONAL (CR)
Kinematic Description
0
R
Corotated Configuration
a rigid motion of the
base configuration
Figure 7.6. Important congurations in Corotational (CR) kinematic description. The Note:
the corotated and current conguration are shown highly offset for visualization convenience.
In practical use they highly overlap; for example, the centroids coincide.
79
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
V
P
0
(X)
P(x)
u = x X
X, x
Y, y
Z, z
X x
0
x = x(t )
Base configuration (for
drawing simplicity, assumed to
coalesce with reference, as in TL)
Current configuration
Figure 7.7. The geometrically nonlinear problemin a Lagrangian kinematics: coordinate systems, reference
and current congurations, and displacements. To keep the gure simple it has been assumed that base and
reference congurations coalesce, as happens in the Total Lagrangian (TL) description.
The transformation
x = X +u, (7.5)
maps the position of base particle P(X, Y, Z) to P(x, y, z). See Figure 7.7. Consequently the
particle displacement vector is dened as
u =
_
u
X
u
Y
u
Z
_
=
_
x X
y Y
z Z
_
= x X. (7.6)
in which (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) pertain to the same particle.
Remark 7.2. Variations of this notation scheme are employed as appropriate to the subject under consideration.
For example, the coordinates of P in a target conguration C
n
may be called (x
n
, y
n
, z
n
).
Remark 7.3. In continuum mechanics, (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) are called material and spatial coordinates,
respectively. In general treatments both systems are curvilinear and need not coalesce. The foregoing relations
are restrictive in two ways: the base coordinate systems for the reference and current congurations coincide,
and that system is Cartesian. This assumption is sufcient, however, for the problems addressed here.
Remark 7.4. The dual notation (X, Y, Z) (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is introduced on two accounts: (1) the use of
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) sometimes introduces a profusion of additional subscripts, and (2) the notation agrees with that
traditionally adopted in continuum mechanics for the material coordinates, as noted in the previous remark.
The identication X x
0
, Y y
0
, Z z
0
will be employed when it is convenient to consider the reference
conguration as the initial target conguration; cf. Remark 7.1.
7.3.6. Congurations and Staged Analysis
The meaning of some special congurations can be made more precise if the nonlinear analysis
process is viewed as a sequence of analysis stages, as discussed in Chapter 3. We restrict attention
to the Total Lagrangian (TL) and Corotational (CR) kinematic descriptions, which are the only
ones covered in this book. In a staged TL nonlinear analysis, two common choices for the reference
conguration are:
710
7.4 NONLINEAR KINEMATICS
(1) Reference base. The base conguration is maintained as reference conguration for all
stages.
(2) Reference stage start. The conguration at the start of an analysis stage, i.e. at = 0, is
chosen as reference conguration.
A combination of these two strategies can be of course adopted. In a staged CR analysis the
reference is split between base and corotated. The same update choices are available for the base.
This may be necessary when rotations exceed 2; for example in aircraft maneuvers.
The admissible congurationis a catchall concept that embodies all others as particular cases. The
perturbed conguration is an admissible variation from a admissible conguration. An ensemble
of perturbed congurations is used to establish incremental or rate equations.
The iterated and target congurations are introduced in the context of incremental-iterative solution
procedures for numericallytracingequilibriumpaths. The target congurationis the next solution.
More precisely, an equilibriumsolution (assumed to exist) which satises the total residual equations
for a given value of the stage control parameter . While working to reach the target, a typical
solution process goes through a sequence of iterated congurations that are not in equilibrium.
The corotated conguration is a rigid-body rotation of the reference conguration that follows
the current conguration like a shadow. It is used in the corotational (CR) kinematic description
of nonlinear nite elements. Strains measured with respect to the corotated conguration may
be considered small in many applications, a circumstance that allows linearization of several
relations and efcient treatment of stability conditions.
7.4. Nonlinear Kinematics
This section presents the essential kinematics necessary for geometrically nonlinear analysis.
7.4.1. Deformation and Displacement Gradients
The derivatives of (x, y, z) with respect to (X, Y, Z), arranged in Jacobian format, constitute the
so-called deformation gradient matrix:
F =
(x, y, z)
(X, Y, Z)
=
_
_
_
_
x
X
x
Y
x
Z
y
X
y
Y
y
Z
z
X
z
Y
z
Z
_

_
. (7.7)
The inverse relation gives the derivatives of (X, Y, Z) with respect to (x, y, z) as
F
1
=
(X, Y, Z)
(x, y, z)
=
_
_
_
_
_
X
x
X
y
X
z
Y
x
Y
y
Y
z
Z
x
Z
y
Z
z
_

_
. (7.8)
These matrices can be used to relate the coordinate differentials
dx =
_
dx
dy
dz
_
= F
_
d X
dY
dZ
_
= FdX, dX = F
1
dx. (7.9)
711
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
The indicial version of the foregoing denitions is compact: F
i, j
= x
i
/ X
j
, F
1
i, j
= X
i
/x
j
.
The displacement gradients with respect to the reference conguration can be presented as the 33
matrix
G = F I =
_
_
_
_
x
X
1
x
Y
x
Z
y
X
y
Y
1
y
Z
z
X
z
Y
z
Z
1
_

_
=
_
_
_
_
u
X
X
u
X
Y
u
X
Z
u
Y
X
u
Y
Y
u
Y
Z
u
Z
X
u
Z
Y
u
Z
Z
_

_
= u. (7.10)
Displacement gradients with respect to the current conguration are given by
J = I F
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
1
X
x
X
y
Z
x
Y
x
1
Y
y
Y
z
Z
x
Z
y
1
Z
z
_

_
=
_
_
_
_
_
u
X
x
u
X
y
u
X
z
u
Y
x
u
Y
y
u
Y
z
u
Z
x
u
Z
y
u
Z
z
_

_
. (7.11)
For the treatment of the Total Lagrangian description it will found to be convenient to arrange the
displacement gradients of (7.10) as a 9-component vector (written as row vector to save space):
g
T
= [ g
1
g
2
g
3
g
4
g
5
g
6
g
7
g
8
g
9
]
=
_
u
X
X
u
Y
X
u
Z
X
u
X
Y
u
Y
Y
u
Z
Y
u
X
Z
u
Y
Z
u
Z
Z
_
.
(7.12)
For arbitrary rigid-body motions (motions without deformations) F
T
F = FF
T
= I, that is, F is an
orthogonal matrix, and G becomes a rotation matrix.
In nonlinear continuum mechanics, displacement gradients play an important role that is absent in
the innitesimal theory. This is especially true in the Total Lagrangian description.
Remark 7.5. Displacement gradient matrices are connected by the relations
G = (I J)
1
I, J = I (I +G)
1
. (7.13)
For small deformations G J
1
and J G
1
.
Remark 7.6. The ratio between innitesimal volume elements dV = dx dy dz and dV
0
= d X dY d Z in the
current and reference conguration appears in several continuum mechanics relations. Because of (7.9) this
ratio may be expressed as
dV
dV
0
=

0

= det F, (7.14)
where and
0
denote the mass densities in the current and reference conguration, respectively. This equation
expresses the law of conservation of mass.
7.4.2. Stretch and Rotation Tensors
Tensors F and Gare the building blocks of various deformation measures used in nonlinear contin-
uummechanics. The whole subject is dominated by the polar decomposition theorem: any particle
712
7.4 NONLINEAR KINEMATICS
deformation can be expressed as a pure deformation followed by a rotation, or by a rotation followed
by a pure deformation. Mathematically this is written as multiplicative decompositions:
F = RU = VR. (7.15)
Here R is an orthogonal rotation tensor, whereas U and V are symmetric positive denite matrices
called the right and left stretch tensors, respectively. If the deformation is a pure rotation, U =
V = I. Premultiplying (7.15) by F
T
= UR
T
gives U
2
= F
T
F and consequently U =

F
T
F.
Postmultiplying (7.15) by F
T
= R
T
Vgives V
2
= FF
T
and consequently V =

FF
T
. Upon taking
the square roots, the rotation is then computed as either R = FU
1
or R = V
1
F. Obviously
U = RVR
T
and V = R
T
UR.
The combinations C
R
= F
T
F and C
L
= FF
T
are symmetric positive denite matrices that are
called the right and left Cauchy-Green stretch tensors, respectively. To get U and V as square roots
it is necessary to solve the eigensystem of C
R
and C
L
, respectively.
To convert a stretch tensor to a strain tensor one substracts I from it or takes its log, so as to have a
measure that vanishes for rigid motions. Either UI or VI represent appropriate strain measures
for geometrically nonlinear analysis. These are difcult, however, to express analytically in terms
of the displacement gradients because of the intermediate eigenproblem. A more convenient strain
measure is described next.
7.4.3. Green-Lagrange Strain Measure
Aconvenient nite strain measure is the Green-Lagrange (GL) strain tensor.
8
Its three-dimensional
expression in Cartesian coordinates is
Fe =
1
2
_
F
T
F I
_
=
1
2
(G+G
T
) +
1
2
G
T
G =
_
e
XX
e
XY
e
XZ
e
Y X
e
YY
e
Y Z
e
Z X
e
ZY
e
Z Z
_
, (7.16)
Identifying the components of F
T
F I or
1
2
(G+G
T
) +
1
2
G
T
Gwith the tensor conponents we get
e
XX
=
u
X
X
+
1
2
_
_
u
X
X
_
2
+
_
u
Y
X
_
2
+
_
u
Z
X
_
2
_
e
YY
=
u
Y
Y
+
1
2
_
_
u
X
Y
_
2
+
_
u
Y
Y
_
2
+
_
u
Z
Y
_
2
_
e
Z Z
=
u
Z
Z
+
1
2
_
_
u
X
Z
_
2
+
_
u
Y
Z
_
2
+
_
u
Z
Z
_
2
_
e
Y Z
=
1
2
_
u
Y
Z
+
u
Z
Y
_
+
1
2
_
u
X
Y
u
X
Z
+
u
Y
Y
u
Y
Z
+
u
Z
Y
u
Z
Z
_
= e
ZY
,
e
Z X
=
1
2
_
u
Z
X
+
u
X
Z
_
+
1
2
_
u
X
Z
u
X
X
+
u
Y
Z
u
Y
X
+
u
Z
Z
u
Z
X
_
= e
XZ
,
e
XY
=
1
2
_
u
X
Y
+
u
Y
X
_
+
1
2
_
u
X
X
u
X
Y
+
u
Y
X
u
Y
Y
+
u
Z
X
u
Z
Y
_
= e
Y X
.
(7.17)
8
A more appropriate name would be Green-St.Venant strain tensor. Actually Lagrange never used it but his name appears
because of the connection to the Lagrangian kinematic description. Many authors call it the Green strain tensor.
713
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
If the nonlinear portion (that enclosed in square brackets) of these expressions is neglected, one
obtains the innitesimal strains
xx
,
yy
, . . .
zx
=
1
2

zx
,
xy
=
1
2

xy
encountered in linear nite
element analysis. For future use in nite element work we shall arrange the components (7.17) as
a 6-component strain vector e constructed as follows:
e =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
e
4
e
5
e
6
_

_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
e
XX
e
YY
e
Z Z
e
Y Z
+e
ZY
e
Z X
+e
XZ
e
XY
+e
Y X
_

_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
e
XX
e
YY
e
Z Z
2e
Y Z
2e
Z X
2e
XY
_

_
. (7.18)
Remark 7.7. Other nite strain measures are used in nonlinear continuummechanics. Their common charac-
teristic is that theymust predict zerostrains for arbitraryrigid-bodymotions, andmust reduce tothe innitesimal
strains if the nonlinear terms are neglected. This topic is further explored in Exercise 7.5.
7.4.4. Strain-Gradient Matrix Expressions
For the development of the TL core-congruential formulation presented in Chapters 10-11 (omitted
in this course offering), it is useful to have a compact matrix expression for the Green-Lagrange
strain components of (7.18) in terms of the displacement gradient vector (7.12). To this end, note
that (7.17) may be rewritten as
e
1
= g
1
+
1
2
(g
2
1
+ g
2
2
+ g
2
3
),
e
2
= g
5
+
1
2
(g
2
4
+ g
2
5
+ g
2
6
),
e
3
= g
9
+
1
2
(g
2
7
+ g
2
8
+ g
2
9
),
e
4
= g
6
+ g
8
+ g
4
g
7
+ g
5
g
8
+ g
6
g
9
,
e
5
= g
3
+ g
7
+ g
1
g
7
+ g
2
g
8
+ g
3
g
9
,
e
6
= g
2
+ g
4
+ g
1
g
4
+ g
2
g
5
+ g
3
g
6
.
(7.19)
These relations may be collectively embodied in the quadratic form
e
i
= h
T
i
g +
1
2
g
T
H
i
g, (7.20)
where h
i
are sparse 9 1 vectors:
h
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
_

_
, h
2
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
_

_
, h
3
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
_

_
, h
4
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
_

_
, h
5
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
_

_
, h
6
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
_

_
, (7.21)
714
7.5 STRESS MEASURE
and H
i
are very sparse 9 9 symmetric matrices:
H
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
_

_
, etc. (7.22)
Remark 7.8. For strain measures other than Green-Lagranges, expressions similar to (7.20) may be con-
structed. But although the h
i
remain the same, the H
i
become complicated functions of the displacement
gradients.
7.4.5. Pull Forward and Pull Back
Most of the foregoing material is classical continuum mechanics as covered in dozens of scholarly
books. Next is a kinematic derivation scheme that is quintaessential FEM. Consider the motion of
an elastic bar element in the 2D plane as depicted in Figure 7.8.
(To be expanded, subsection unnished but not necessary for rest of Chapter)
7.5. Stress Measure
Associated with each nite strain measure is a corresponding stress measure that is conjugate to
it in the sense of virtual work. That corresponding to the Green-Lagrange strain is the second
Piola-Kirchhoff symmetric stress tensor, often abbreviated to PK2 stress. The three-dimensional
component expression of this tensor in Cartesian coordinates is
s =
_
s
XX
s
XY
s
XZ
s
Y X
s
YY
s
Y Z
s
Z X
s
ZY
s
Z Z
_
, (7.23)
in which s
XY
= s
Y X
, etc. As in the case of strains, for future use in nite element work it is
convenient to arrange the components (7.23) as a 6-component stress vector s:
s
T
= [ s
1
s
2
s
3
s
4
s
5
s
6
] = [ s
XX
s
YY
s
Z Z
s
Y Z
s
Z X
s
XY
] . (7.24)
Remark 7.9. The physical meaning of the PK2 stresses is as follows: s
i j
are stresses pulled back to the
reference conguration C
0
and referred to area elements there.
715
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

B
X
X
x
Y
Y
y
~
~
_
_
Globally
aligned
Base
Deformed
Corotated
Figure 7.8. Rigid motion of bar in 2D illustrating concept of globally aligned conguration.
.
Remark 7.10. The PK2 stresses are related to the Cauchy (true) stresses
i j
through the transformation
_
_
_
_
_
_
s
XX
s
YY
s
Z Z
s
Y Z
s
Z X
s
XY
_

_
=

0

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
X
x
X
x
X
y
X
y
X
z
X
z
X
y
X
z
X
z
X
x
X
x
X
y
Y
x
Y
x
Y
y
Y
y
Y
z
Y
z
Y
y
Y
z
Y
z
Y
x
Y
x
Y
y
Z
x
Z
x
Z
y
Z
y
Z
z
Z
z
Z
y
Z
z
Z
z
Z
x
Z
x
Z
y
Y
x
Z
x
Y
y
Z
y
Y
z
Z
z
Y
y
Z
z
Y
z
Z
x
Y
x
Z
y
Z
x
X
x
Z
y
X
y
Z
z
X
z
Z
y
X
z
Z
z
X
x
Z
x
X
y
X
x
Y
x
X
y
Y
y
X
z
Y
z
X
y
Y
z
X
z
Y
x
X
x
Y
y
_

_
_
_
_
_
_
_

XX

YY

Z Z

Y Z

Z X

XY
_

_
, (7.25)
_
_
_
_
_
_

XX

YY

Z Z

Y Z

Z X

XY
_

_
=

0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
X
x
X
x
Y
x
Y
x
Z
x
Z
x
Y
x
Z
x
Z
x
X
x
X
x
Y
y
X
y
X
y
Y
y
Y
y
Z
y
Z
y
Y
y
Z
y
Z
y
X
y
X
y
Y
z
X
z
X
z
Y
z
Y
z
Z
z
Z
z
Y
z
Z
z
Z
z
X
z
X
z
Y
y
X
z
X
y
Y
z
Y
y
Z
z
Z
y
Y
z
Z
y
Z
z
X
y
X
z
Y
z
X
x
X
z
Y
x
Y
z
Z
x
Z
z
Y
x
Z
z
Z
x
X
z
X
x
Y
x
X
y
X
x
Y
y
Y
x
Z
y
Z
x
Y
y
Z
x
Z
y
X
x
X
y
Y
_

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
s
XX
s
YY
s
Z Z
s
Y Z
s
Z X
s
XY
_

_
. (7.26)
The density ratios that appears in these equations may be obtained from (7.14). If all displacement gradients
are small, both transformations reduce to the identity, and the PK2 and Cauchy stresses coalesce.
7.6. Constitutive Equations
Throughout this course we restrict our attention to constitutive behavior in which conjugate strains
and stresses are linearly related. For the Green-Lagrange and PK2 measures used here, the stress-
strain relations will be written, with the summation convention implied,
s
i
= s
0
i
+ E
i j
e
j
, (7.27)
716
7.7 STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY
in which e
i
and s
i
denote components of the GL strain and PK2 stress vectors dened by (7.18) and
(7.24), respectively, s
0
i
are PK2 stresses in the reference conguration (also called initial stresses
or prestresses), and E
i j
are constant elastic moduli with E
i j
= E
j i
. In full matrix notation,
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
s
1
s
2
s
3
s
4
s
5
s
6
_

_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
s
0
1
s
0
2
s
0
3
s
0
4
s
0
5
s
0
6
_

_
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
E
11
E
12
E
13
E
14
E
15
E
16
E
12
E
22
E
23
E
24
E
25
E
26
E
13
E
23
E
33
E
34
E
35
E
36
E
14
E
24
E
34
E
44
E
45
E
46
E
15
E
25
E
35
E
45
E
55
E
56
E
16
E
26
E
36
E
46
E
56
E
66
_

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
e
4
e
5
e
6
_

_
, (7.28)
or in compact form,
s = s
0
+Ee. (7.29)
Remark 7.11. For an invariant reference conguration, PK2 and Cauchy (true) prestresses obviously coincide
(see previous Remark). Thus
0
s
0
in such a case. However if the reference conguration is allowed to
vary often, as in the UL description, things get more complicated.
7.7. Strain Energy Density
We conclude this review by giving the expression of the strain energy density U in the current
conguration reckoned per unit volume of the reference conguration:
U = s
0
i
e
i
+
1
2
(s
i
s
0
i
)e
i
= s
0
i
e
i
+
1
2
e
i
E
i j
e
j
, (7.30)
or, in matrix form
U = e
T
s
0
+
1
2
e
T
Ee. (7.31)
If the current conguration coincides with the reference conguration, e = 0 and U = 0. It can be
observed that the strain energy density is quadratic in the Green-Lagrange strains. To obtain this
density in terms of displacement gradients, substitute their expressions into the above form to get
U = s
0
i
(h
T
i
g +g
T
H
i
g) +
1
2
_
(g
T
h
i
+
1
2
g
T
H
i
g)E
i j
(h
T
j
g +
1
2
g
T
H
j
g)
_
. (7.32)
Because h
i
and H
i
are constant, this relation shows that the strain energy density is quartic in the
displacement gradients collected in g.
The strain energy in the current conguration is obtained by integrating this energy density over
the reference conguration:
U =
_
V
0
U d X dY d Z. (7.33)
This expression forms the basis for deriving nite elements based on the Total Lagrangian (TL)
description.
717
Chapter 7: REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Homework Exercises for Chapter 7
Review of Continuum Mechanics
EXERCISE 7.1 [A:15] Obtain the expressions of H
3
and H
5
.
EXERCISE 7.2 [A:15] Derive (7.30) by integrating s
i
de

i
from C
0
(e

i
= 0) to C (e

i
= e
i
) and using (7.27).
EXERCISE 7.3 [A:20] A bar of length L
0
originally along the X x axis (the reference conguration C
0
) is
rigidly rotated 90

to lie along the Y y axis while retaining the same length (the current conguration C).
Node 1 at the origin X = Y = 0 stays at the same location.
(a) Verify that the motion from C
0
to C is given by
x = Y, y = X, z = Z. (E7.1)
(b) Obtain the displacement eld u, the deformation gradient matrix F, the displacement gradient matrix G
and the Green-Lagrange axial strain e = e
XX
. Showthat the Green-Lagrange measure correctly predicts
zero axial strain whereas the innitesimal strain measure =
XX
= u
X
/ X predicts the absurd value
of 100% strain.
EXERCISE 7.4 [A:20] Let L
0
and L denote the length of a bar element in the reference and current con-
gurations, respectively. The Green-Lagrange nite strain e = e
XX
, if constant over the bar, can be dened
as
e =
L
2
L
2
0
2L
2
0
. (E7.2)
Showthat the denitions (E7.2) and of e = e
XX
in the GLstrain denition (7.17) are equivalent. (Hint: express
L
0
and L in terms of the coordinates and displacements in the bar system.)
EXERCISE 7.5 [A:25] The Green-Lagrange strain measure is not the only nite strain measure used in
structural and solid mechanics. For the uniaxial case of a stretched bar that moves from a length L
0
in C
0
to a
length L in C, some of the other measures are dened as follows:
(a) Uniaxial Almansi strain:
e
A
=
L
2
L
2
0
2L
2
. (E7.3)
(b) Uniaxial Hencky strain, also called logarithmic or true strain:
e
H
= log(L/L
0
), (E7.4)
where log denotes the natural logarithm.
(c) Uniaxial midpoint strain
9
e
M
=
L
2
L
2
0
2[(L + L
0
)/2]
2
. (E7.5)
(d) Uniaxial engineering strain:
e
E
= =
L L
0
L
0
. (E7.6)
If L = (1+)L
0
, showby expanding e
A
, e
H
and e
M
in Taylor series in (about = 0) that these measures, as
well as the Green-Lagrange axial strain (E7.2) agree with each other to rst order [i.e., they differ by O(
2
)]
as 0.
9
The midpoint strain tensor, which is a good approximation of the Hencky strain tensor but more easily computable, is
frequently used in nite element plasticity or viscoplasticity calculations that involve large deformations, for example in
metal forming processes.
718
Exercises
EXERCISE 7.6 [A:35] (Advanced). Extend the denition of the Almansi, Hencky, midpoint and engineering
strain to a three dimensional strain state. Hint: use the spectral decomposition of F
T
F and the concept of
function of a symmetric matrix.
EXERCISE 7.7 [A:35] (Advanced). Extend the denition of engineering strain to a three-dimensional strain
state. The resulting measures (there are actually two) are called the stretch tensors. Hint: use either the
spectral decomposition of F
T
F, or the polar decomposition theorem of tensor calculus.
EXERCISE 7.8 [A:40] (Advanced). Dene the stress measures conjugate to the Almansi, Hencky, midpoint
and engineering strains.
719