Senior Welding Inspector Guide Book

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SENIOR WELDING INSPECTION
(WIS 10)
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WORLD CENfRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Copyright o 2002, TWI Limited
Training & Examination Services
Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge, CB 1 6AL, UK
SENIOR WELDING INSPECTION
(WlS 10)
Section Title
1) Terms & Definitions
2) Duties & Responsibilities
2a) Duties of a Senior 'Welding Inspector
2b) QA/QC
3) Welding Imperfections
4) Mechanical Testing
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5) Welding Procedures/Welder approval
6) Materials Inspection
7) Codes and Standards
8) Welding Symbols on Drawings
9) Introduction to 'Welding Processes
0) Manual Metal Arc Welding
11) Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
12) Metal Inert/Active Gas Welding
13) Submerged Arc Welding
14) Welding Consumables
15) Non Destructive Testing
,
,
16) Weld Repairs
17) Residual Stress & Distortion
18) Heat Treatment of Steels
19) Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding & Cutting
20) Arc Cutting Processes
21) Welding Safety
22) Weldability of steels
23) Fracture Assessments
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VOl. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Senior welding Inspection
General Theory (situations) Paper
1. You are an SWI who has taken over from an SWI who has been on site for a few
months.
It becomes obvious that there is a complete lack of moral amongst your inspectors
but they do not approach you to discuss any grievance. What would be your
approach to the situation?
2. You are an SWI responsible for a team of welding inspectors who have been
for two months. A welding inspector who has been on site for only one week informs
you that the contractor has approached him with an offer of money in return for
). "turning a blind eye" when certain welding work is being performed. Discuss your
. course of action.
3. You are the SWI on a pipeline project. The radiographic interpreter informs you that
he believes that the same weld has been radiographed with different weld numbers
on a number of occasions and the radiographs have been submitted. 'J\/hat action do
you take?
4. You are the SWI working on behalf of a client on a project to build an offshore
platform. You discover that one of the welding inspectors, supplied from a different
agency, who has been on site for one week, does not hold a valid welding inspector
approval. State the actions that you would take.
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You visit a fabrication company as an SWI on behalf of a client and you discover in a
welders electrode quiver a number of incorrect electrodes among the correct ones
which are very different to' those specified for the item being welded. The welder
states that he only uses the correct electrodes. State your course of action
6. Question number 6 is a compulsory question for the SWI examination.
You are required to visit a site on which your welding inspectors have been involved.
The work concerns the inspection of a welded structure to a specified application
standard and is now completed and ready for final approval.
What questions do you ask, what documents do you review and what inspections do
you require before submitting your inspection report to the authorities concerned?
WIS LO MSR/SWI-Q-S l issue 2 Date: 28/05/03 lof4
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1ll01. _
THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Terms and Definitions:
A Weld:
A Joint:
Senior Welding Inspection - Terms & Definitions
1.1
Rev 09-09-02
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd
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1ll01. _
THE WELDING II\JSTITUTE
Types of common welds:
Welds.
-,
Welds.

-. - ....:.,.:
Welds.
Welds.
Welds.
Senior Welding Inspection - Terms & Definitions Rev 09-09-02
1.2

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THE WELDII'JG INSTITUTE
Welded Closed Corner Joints:
A Welded Closed Corner Joint.
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1.10
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Welded Open Corner Joints:
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A Welded OQen Corner Joint.
A Welded O.l!en Corner Joint.
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A Welded OQen Corner Joint.
1.11
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Terms of a Butt Welded Butt Joint:
Weld zone =Weld Metal + HAZ
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Root
.,
A, B, C & 0 =Weld Toes
Welding Inspection - Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.12 . Rev 09-09-02
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Terms of a Fillet Welded T Joint:
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In visual inspection it is usually the leg length that is used to size fillet welded joints. It
is possible to find the design throat thickness easily by multiplying the leg lengthby 0.7
The excess weld metal can be measured by taking the measurable throat reading, then by
deducting the design throat thickness calculated above.
Example:
If the leg length of a convex fillet weld is measured at 10 mm, then the design throat
thickness > 10 x 0.7 which is 7mm.
If the actual throat thickness is 8.5 mm then the excess weld metal is calculated as:
8.5 -7mm = 1.5mm excess weld metal.
1.13
Rev 09-09-02
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'Nominal' and 'Effective' Design Throat Thickness:
Same leg length
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"s" = 'Effective' design throat thickness
(deep penetration fillets)
( ) "a" = 'Nominal' design throat
thickness
When using deep penetrating processes with high current density it is possible to create
deeper throat dimensions.
This may be used in design calculations to carry stresses and is a big advantage by
reducing overall weight of welds in a large welded structure.
Deep throat fillet welds are possible when using high penetration (High current density)
processes, such as FCA\V & SAW.
This throat notation "a" or "s" is used in BSEn 22553 for weld symbols on drawings
throughout Europe.
1.14
Rev 09-09-02
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Fillet Weld Profiles:
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In joints that are to be dynamically loaded with cyclic stresses, concave fillet weld are
preferred to minimise any stress concentrations or sites for fatigue crack initiation.
In critical applications it may be a requirement of the welding procedure that the toes are
lightly ground, or even flushed i ~ with a TIG run, to remove any notches that are present.
1.15
Copyright 2002 TW[ Ltd
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Effect of a Poor Toe Blend:
A very poor weld toe blend angle
6mm ! _

An improved weld toe blend angle

3mm
Generally speaking, most specifications tend to quote that "The weld toes shall blend
smoothly"
This statement can cause problems as it is not a quantitative statement, and therefore
very much open to individual interpretation. To help in your assessment of the
acceptance of the toe blend it should be remembered that the higher the angle at the toe
then the higher is the concentration of stresses, which between 20
0
- 30
0
is almost at a
ratio of2:1
A poor toe blend will be present when the excess weld metal height is excessive,
however it may be possible that the height is within the given limits, yet the toe blend is
not smooth, and is therefore a defect, and unacceptable.
It should be remembered, that apoor toe blend in the root of the weld has the same
effect.
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Summary of "Veld and Joint Terms and Definitions:
A Weld:
A Joint:
A weld preparation:
Types of weld:
Types of joint:
Types of preparation:
Preparation terms:
Weldment terms:
Weld sizing (Butts):
Weld sizing (Fillets):
A Union of materials, produced by heat ancIJor pressure.
A Configuration of members.
Preparing a joint to allow access & fusion through the joint
faces.
Butt. Fillet. Spot. Seam. Edge.
Butt. T. Lap. Open Comer. Closed Comer.
Bevel's. V's. J's. U's. (Single & Double).
Bevel angle. Included angle. Root face. Root gap.
Weld face. Weld root. Fusion Zone. Fusion boundary.
HAZ. Weld toes. Weld width.
Design throat thickness. Actual throat thickness. Excess
weld metal. Excess root penetration.
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Design throat thickness. Actual throat thickness.
Excess weld metal. Leg length.
1.17
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Welding positions in accordance with BS EN 287
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PA Flat
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PG Vertical downwards
PA Flat
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PG Vertical downwards
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PC
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PE Overhead
Horizontal vertical
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PF Vertical upwards
a) Butt welds
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PF Vertical upwards
PB Horizontal vertical
PO Horizontal overhead
1.18
Rev 09-09-02
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THE WELDII\JG II\JSTITUTE
Welding positions in accordance with BS EN 287 continued
PA
Pipe: rotating
Axis: horizontal
Weld: flat
PG
Pipe: fixed
Axis: horizontal
Weld: vertical downwards
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Pipe: fixed
PFAxis: horizontal
Weld: vertical upwards
PC
Pipe; fixed
Axis: vertical
Weld: horizontal vertical
al Butt welds
HL045
Pipe: fixed
Axis: inclined
Weld: upward
PB
Pipe: rotating
Axis: horizontal
PG
Pipe: fixed
Axis: horizontal
Weld: vertical downwards
PF
Pipe: fixed
Axis: horizontal
Weld: vertical upwards
PB
Pipe: fixed
Axis: vertical
. b) Fillet welds
PD
Pipe: fixed
Axis: vertical
Weld: horizontal overhead
1.19
Rev 09-09-02
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Senior Welding Inspection, Steels - WIS 10
Question Paper (MSR-S-SWI-1)
Name: .
Answer all questions
1. In accordance with BS 499 what is the weld junction?
a. The area containing HAZ and weld metal.
b. The weld metal and parent metal.
c. The boundary between the fusion zone and HAZ.
d. The part of the weld, which undergoes metallurgical, changes due to heat from
welding.
2. Which of the following are essential factors for lamellar tearing?
a. High residual stresses, poor through thickness ductility, existing plate laminations.
b. Poor through thickness ductility, fusion face parallel with rolled direction of parent
plate, most commonly occurs in butt welds.
c. Stress, poor through thickness ductility, fusion face parallel with rolled direction of
parent material.
d. Tensile stress, deoxidised parent plate, poor through thickness ductility.
)
3. The strength of a fillet weld is primary controlled by the:
a. Leg length.
b. Weld face.
c. Throat thickness.
d. All of the above.
4. Which of the following is not a fusion welding process?
a. Thermit welding.
b. Electro slag welding.
c. Laser welding.
d. Friction welding.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-l issue 3 Date 28/05/03
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Name the fourth weld process crack which has a totally different formation
mechanism to HICC, solidification cracking and lamellar tearing:
a. Liquiation cracking.
b. Re heat cracking.
c. Crater cracking.
d. Hot tearing.
Which of the following will vary the most when varying the arc length using the m.m.a.
process?
a. Voltage.
b. Amperage.
c. Polarity.
d. Both a and b..
What is another term for suckback?
a. Concave root.
b. Elongated porosity in the rot area of a weld.
c. Lack of root penetration.
d. None of the above.
Which of the following materials has the poorest weldability?
a. Austenitic stainless steel.
b. Martensitic stainless steel.
c. Carbon manganese steel.
d. HSLA steel.
In a fusion weld, which usually has the highest tensile strength?
a. Weld metal.
b. Parent material.
c. Heat affected zone.
d. Fusion zone.
WIS LO Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-L issue 3 Date 28/05/03 2 of 17
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VOL THE WELDING INSTITUTE
10. An undesirable property of aluminium oxide residue is that it:
a. Creates problems when welding in position (vertical, horizontal, overhead).
b. Requires more heat to melt it when compared with aluminium.
c. Creates problems when welding in position (vertical, horizontal, overhead).
d. Decreases weld pool fluidity.
e. Both a and b.
11. Which of the following statements is true regarding hydrogen cracking?
a. It is a type of hot crack.
I j b. It most frequently occurs in ductile materials.
c. It only occurs in the h.a.z of fusion welds.
d. It is the most common type of crack encountered in steel weldments.
12. Which material is the most susceptible to re heat cracking?
a. High carbon steels.
b. Killed steels.
c. Creep resistant steels.
d. Austenitic steels.
13. Three essential factors for producing a fusion weld are; Melting, the removal of
surface oxide from the joint surfaces and elimination of atmosphere from the region of
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the arc. Name the fourth?
a. The weld must be free from stress.
b. The filler material must match that of the weld.
c. The completed joint must at least match the mechanical properties required by the
specification.
d. An arc for a heat source.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-l issue J Date 28/05/03
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14. Which arc welding process/technique is likely to be used to repair localised porosity
in a weld?
a. MMA, PG position.
b. Mechanised arc welding.
c. Sub Arc.
e. None of the above.
15. A welder qualified in the PG position would normally be qualified for welding:
a. All diameters of pipe.
b. Welding positions PA, PC, PG, and PF.
c. In position PG only.
d. All pipe wall thickness.
16. Which ofthe following are considered to be heat affected zone cracks?
a. Solidification cracks, lamellar tearing and reheat cracks.
b. Reheat cracks, Iiquation cracks and solidification cracks.
c. Hydrogen cracks, solidification cracks and liquation cracks.
d. Re heat cracks, liquation cracks and hydrogen cracks.
c.
17. The h.a.z associated with a fusion zone:
a. Cannot be avoided.
b. Usually has the highest u.t.s value of the weld joint.
c. Is desirable to maintain ductility.
d. Both a and b.
e. All of the above.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-1 issue 3 Date 28/05/03 4 of 17
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18. What four criteria are necessary to produce h.i.e.e?
a. Hydrogen. moisture, martensite and heat.
b. Hydrogen, poor weld profiles, a temperature above 200C and slow cooling.
c. A grain structure susceptible to cracking, stress, hydrogen, and a temperature
below 200C.
d. Weld defects, pearlite, hydrogen and a temperature above the material being
welded.
19. A carbon equivalent of 0.48%:
a. Is high for carbon steel and may require a preheat temperature over 100C.
b. Is insignificant for carbon steel and preheat will not be required.
c. Is calculated from the heat-input formula.
d. Is not a consideration for determining preheating temperatures?
20. A semi-automatic welding process is best described as:
a. The welder is responsible for the arc gap and travel speed.
b. The welder is responsible for the travel speed only.
c. The welding plant controls both travel speed and arc gap but under constant
supervision.
d. The welding plant controls both travel speed and arc gap, no supervision
required.
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Which of the following statements is true?
\. a. The core wire of an MMA electrode has a higher melting point than the flux.
b. Basic electrodes are preferred when welding is carried out in situations where
porosity free welds are specified
c. Rutile electrodes always contain a large proportion of iron powder.
d. Cellulose electrodes may deposit in excess of 40 ml of hydrogen per 100g of weld
metal.
22. Preheat prior to welding:
a. Must always be carried put on steels.
b. Need not be carried put if post weld heat is to follow?
c. Is always carried out using gas flames.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWr-l issue 3 Date 28/05/03 5 of 17
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23. Root concavity may be caused by which of the following:
a. Insufficient back purge gas.
b. Entrapped gas.
c. Slow travel speed.
d. Excessive back purge pressure.
24. High phosphorous contents in carbon steels may cause:
a. Cold shortness.
b. Hot shortness.
c. An increase in ductility.
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d. An increase in malleability.
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25. If arc strikes are found on carbon steel (carbon equivalent of 0.5%), what undesirable
grain structure may be present?
a. Perlite.
b. Martensite.
c. Bainite.
d. All of the above are undesirable grain structures in constructional steels.
26. When considering the heat treatment process of tempering:
a. This is achieved by slowly heating the material to a temperature between
200
DC-650
DC and slow cooling in air.
b. This is achieved byheating the material to around 200 DC and soaking for
approximately 10-12 hours and cooling down in air.
c. Very fast cooling from the austenite region.
d. All of the above could give a temper.
27. Which element in steel has the greatest effect on hardness?
a. Manganese.
b. Chromium.
c. Carbon.
d. Nickel.
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28. Which of the following units is used to express the energy absorbed by a charpy
specimen?
a. Joules.
b. Newton's.
c. Mega Pascal's.
d. P.s.i.
29. Which mechanical test(s) can be used to make an assessment of surface breaking
defects?
a. Bend test.
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b. Nick-break test.
c. Micro test.
30. Which of the following is the odd one out?
a. Neon.
b. Xenon.
c. Argon.
d. Nitrogen.
( 11. What does the 70 represent on an E7010 AWS A5.1 classified electrode?
. a. 70 N/mm
2
minimum u.t.s.
b. 70 N/mm
2
minimum impact strength.
c. 70,000 p.s.i. minimum u.t.s.
d. 70 p.s.i. minimum yield strength.
32. If a material has a CE of 0.46:
a. Post heat treatment would always be necessary.
b. It will probably require preheat prior to welding
c. The h.a.z. will be very tough.
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IDOL THE WELDING INSTITUTE
33. Assuming no post-heat treatment has been carried out which of the following is
normally the hardest part of a multi-pass butt weld made on low alloy steel?
a. The cap.
b. The root.
c. The HAZ of the cap.
d. The HAZ of the root.
34. Which of the following is the correct heat input if the amps are 350, volts 32 and
travel speed 310 mm/minute.
a. 2.16 kJ/mm.
b. 0.036 kJ/mm.
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c. 2.61 kJ/mm.
d. 0.36 kJ/mm.
35. Assuming that the specification makes no reference to arc strikes, what would you do
if you found arc strikes on a fabrication constructed out of high tensile strength
material?
a. Have the welders re-approved.
b. Reject all the areas where the arc strikes occur.
c. Have the areas checked for cracking.
d. If the specification makes no reference to arc strikes ignore them.
36. Which of the following may be used for the TIG welding of Nickel and its alloys?
a. Lanthanum electrode, DC. -ve.
b. Cerium electrode, DC -ve.
c. Zirconium electrode AC
d. Thorium electrode, DC +ve.
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roOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
37. Which of the following welding processes uses resistive heating to achieve weld
metal deposition?
a. Flux-core m.a.g.
b. Sub-arc.
c. Resistive spot welding.
d. Electro slag.
38. What are the possible results of having a lower heat input from the approved
procedure?
a. An increase in hardness, lower yield strength and lack of fusion.
b. A reduction in toughness, hydrogen entrapment and an increase in hardness.
c. Entrapped hydrogen, an increase in hardness and lack of fusion.
d. Entrapped hydrogen, a reduction in carbon content and lack of fusion.
39. A multi-run MMA butt weld made on low alloy steel consists of 5 passes using a 6
mm diameter electrode, a 12 pass weld made on the same joint using a 4 mm
diameter electrode on the same material will:
a. Have a lower heat input and a higher degree of grain refinement.
b. Have a lower heat input and a coarse grain structure.
c. Have a lower heat amount of distortion and a higher degree of grain refinement.
d. Have a higher amount of distortion and a lower degree of grain refinement.
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40. Which of the following heat treatments may be applied to a material to give maximum
toughness values:
a. Normalising.
b. Tempering.
c. Annealing.
d. Both a and b.
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41. The main reason for using a back purge when welding 18-8 stainless steel with the
TIG welding process is to:
a. Control the root penetration.
b. Prevent the formation of a dense oxide layer on the root bead.
c. Control porosity in the root bead.
d. Improve positional welding.
42. Which of the following would you expect of a martensitic grain structure?
a. An increase in toughness and a reduction in hardness.
b. An increase in hardness and a reduction in ductility.
c. An increase in ductility and a reduction in toughness.
( )
d. An increase in malleability and an increase in hardness.
43. Which of the following reduce the chances of arc blow?
a. A change from AC current to DC current.
b. A change from DC current to AC current.
c. A change from DC electrode +ve to DC electrode -ve.
d. A change from DC electrode -ve to DC electrode +ve.
44. When considering the advantages of site radiography over conventional ultrasonic
inspection which of the following applies?
a. A permanent record produced, good for the detection of defects that do not have (. )
significant depth in relation to the x-ray beam and defect identification.
b. A permanent record produced, defect identification and not so reliant upon
operator skill for the detection of any possible defects present.
c. A permanent record produced, good for the detection of all surface and sub
surface defects and assessing the through thickness depths of most defects.
d. No controlled areas required on site, a permanent record produced and good for
assessing the extent of pipe wall thickness reductions due to internal corrosion.
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49. What paper work is required prior to witnessing of mechanical testing?
a. Calibration certificates for each test piece.
b. Calibration certificates for the test equipment being used.
c. Test operator's qualifications.
d. Test procedure qualification certificates
50. When using basic coated electrodes, to keep the weld metals hydrogen content down
to scale C:
a. The electrodes must be used indoors, can only be used in a down hand position
and the use of pre-heat.
b. The electrodes must be used in a dry condition but never baked, the use of pre
heat and used with a short arc gap.
c. The electrodes must be used with a short arc gap, the use of a minimum weave
and used in a baked condition.
d. The electrodes must be pre-baked, used on DC electrode +ve and with a
minimum arc gap.
51. The primary function of the addition of silicon to an MMA welding electrode covering
would be to act as:
a. A deoxidiser. .
b. An arc stabiliser.
c. A slag-forming agent.
d. A shielding gas forming agent.
52. Which of the following is most likely to be an essential variable for a welder's
qualification?
a. A change from an electrode to BS EN E46 3 B to an electrode to AWS A5.1
E7018.
b. A change of pipe wall thickness by at least 25 mm.
c. A change in pre-heat from 50to 100C.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-1 issue 3 Date 28/05103 12 of 17
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53. Which of the following are applicable to DC electrode -ve when using the rn.rn.a.
welding process?
a. A broad heat affected zone, a reduction in hardness and a narrow deep fast
freezing weld pool.
b. A narrow heat affected zone, fast freezing weld pool and good penetration
properties.
c. Mechanically and metallurgical no difference to DC electrode -ve.
d. Wide shallow weld pools, flat weld profiles and lower hardness values.
54. When welding rimming steel with autogenous TI8 process which of the following
problems may occur?
a. Porosity.
(-)
b. Lack of fusion.
c. Tungsten inclusions.
d. Excessive root penetration.
55. In MMA welding process, which of the following flux types gives the deepest
penetration?
a. Rutile
b. Acidic.
c. Cellulosic.
d. Basic (low hydrogen).
( )
56. Basic coated electrodes have which of the following properties?
a. High mechanical properties may be used to produce welds of high deposition
rates and are designed to produce welds of low hydrogen content.
b. Friable slag, high mechanical properties and are designed to produce welds of
low hydrogen content.
c. Ease of use, good stop/starting properties and high mechanical properties.
d. High mechanical strength, friable slag and may produce welds of low hydrogen
content.
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57. Which of the following is the most likely appearance of lack of root fusion on a
radiograph taken of a single-vee butt weld in C/C Mn steel?
a. A dark straight line with a light root.
b. A dark straight line with a darker root.
c. A dark root with straight edges.
d. A dark uneven line with a light root.
58. Which of the following methods would be the best suited for the detection of lamellar
tearing in a fabrication?
a. Radiography.
CJ b. Ultrasonic testing
c. Dye penetrant testing
d. Magnetic particle testing
59. Which of the following are applicable to fatigue cracking?
a. A rough randomly torn fracture surface, an initiation point and beach mark(s).
b. A smooth fracture surface, an initiation point and beach mark(s).
c. Beach mark(s), step like appearance and a secondary mode of failure.
60. Which of the following weld symbols in accordance with BS EN 22553 represents a
( fillet weld made on the other side?
a.
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b.
c.
:?=
d.
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WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-l issue 3 Date 28/05/03 14 of 17
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VOl. THE WELDII\JG INSTITUTE
61. A back step welding technique is most often used to?
a. Reduce welding time.
b. Increases weld toughness.
c. Reduce the chances of undercut.
d. Reduce distortion.
62. E6013 electrode would most probably-be used for the welding of?
a. Low-pressure pipe work.
b. High pressure pipe work.
c. Vertical down welding on pressure vessels.
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d. Where welds of low hydrogen content are specified.
63. The need for pre heat for steel will be increased by?
a. Lower carbon contents.
b. A reduction in material thickness.
c. Faster welding speeds.
d. The use of a larger dlarneter-weldlng electrode.
64. From the following electrode coding E50 4 B 160 20 H5, the compulsory part is:
65. When considering radiography using x-ray, which of the following techniques is most
likely to be used for a pipe-to-pipe weld (circumferential), 610 mm diameter pipe with
no internal access?
a. SWSI.
b. DWSI.
c. DWDI.
d. SWSI (panoramic).
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-A-SWI-1 issue 3 Date 28/U5103 15 of 17
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66. What happens to the mechanical properties of carbon steel if its carbon content is
Increased from 0.12% to 0.5%?
a. The material becomes softer.
b. Malleability increases.
c. The tensile strength increases.
d. Ductility increases.
67. One purpose of microscopic examination of a welded joint is to establish?
( _) a. The strength of the weld.
b. The number of alloying elements presents.
c. The grain size.
d. The overall weld toughness.
68. Which of the following tests would you not expect to be carried out on a welder
qualification test?
a. Radiography.
b. Tensile test.
c. Marco.
d. Bend test.
\
69. Which of the following can be welded by DC output when using the TIG welding
process?
a. Copper.
b. Commercial pure aluminium.
c. Siltcon-alurniniurn.
d. Magnesium alloys.
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70. Which of the following defects is most likely to be missed by visual inspection.
a. Cap undercut.
b. Centreline crack.
c. Lack of interun fusion.
d. Lack of root fusion.
( ...
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THE WELDING INSTITUTE VOI. __-----
Questions
au 1.
Terms and Definitions
Sketch a single-U butt joint and indicate the following:
a: root gap b: root face c: included angle d: root radius
~ ~
au 2. Sketch a tee joint, fillet welded and indicate the following
a: leg length b: throat thickness c: root d: weld toes
au 3. Sketch five joint types in addition to a butt weld.
~
aU4. Identify the following butt weld features.
A:
B:
F
E
I ~ ~ I
s-r
\
\: : / ~ " . '\.
c:
.C
D:
E:
I F:
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Terms & Definitions Sec 1
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Duties of a Welding Inspector:
It is the duty of a welding inspector and Senior welding inspector to ensure that all
operations concerning welding are carried out in strict accordance with written, or agreed
practices, or specifications.
This will include monitoring or checking a number of operations including:
Before welding:
Safety:
Ensure that all operations are carried out in complete compliance with local, company, or
National safety legislation (i.e. permits to work are in place). )
Documentation:
Specification. (Year and revision)
Drawings. (Correct revisions)
Welding procedure specifications and welder approvals.
Calibration certification. (Welding equipment/ancillaries and all inspection instruments)
Material and consumable certification
Welding Process and ancillaries:
Welding equipment and all related ancillaries. (Cables, regulators, ovens, quivers etc.)
Incoming Consumables:
All pipe/plate and welding consumables for Size, Type and Condition.
Marking out preparation & set up:
Correct method of cutting weld preparations. (Pre-Heat for thermal cutting if applicable)
Correct preparation. (Relevant bevel angles, root face, root gap, root radius, land, etc.)
Correct pre-welding distortion control. (Tacking, bridging, jigs, line up clamps, etc.)
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Correct pre heat applied prior to tack welding.
All tack welding to be monitored and inspected
During welding:
Pre-heat values. (Heating method, location and control)
In-process distortion control. (Sequence or balanced welding)
Consumable control. (Specification, size, condition, and any special treatments)
Process type and all related variable parameters. (Voltage, amperage, travel speed)
( )
<:>
Purging gases. (Type, pressure/flow and control method)
Welding conditions for root run/hot pass and all subsequent run, and inter-run cleaning.
Minimum, or maximum inter-pass temperature. (Temperature and controlling method)
Compliance with all other variables stated on the approved welding procedure.
After welding:
Visual inspection of the welded joint. (Including dimensional aspects)
NDT requirements. (Method and qualification of operator, and execution)
Identify repairs from assessment of visual or NDT reports. (Refer to repairs below)
(
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) (Heating method and temperature recording system)
Re-inspect with visuallNDT after PWHT. (If applicable)
Hydrostatic test procedures. (For pipelines or pressure vessels)
Repairs:
Excavation procedure. (Approval and execution)
Approval of the NDT procedures (For assessment of complete defect removal)
Repair procedure. (Approval of're-welding procedures and welder approval)
Execution of approved re-welding procedure. (Compliance with repair procedure)
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Re-inspect the repair area with visual inspection and approved NDT method.
Submission of inspection reports, and all related documents to the Q/C department.
Responsibilities of a Welding Inspector:
To Observe
'----_1-+
)
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout production.
This will include a final visual inspection of the weld area.
To Record
(
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality, including a final
map and report sheet showing all identified welding imperfections.
To Compare
1-+
'-------
To compare all reported inforrriation with the acceptance levels/criteria and clauses
within the applied application standard.
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Submit a final inspection report of your findings to the QA/QC department for
analysis and any remedial actions.
'>'
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J 0 1 J a d s U I ~ U ! P l a M . J O ! u a S B J O s a ! l ! u q ! S l l O d s a l [ 1 S ' s o u n r j
B Z O U O n J a s
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The duties and responsibilities of a senior welding inspector
The fabrication industry has come to accept the need for a detailed inspection of welding for a
combination of two reasons:
1. The quality of a manually made weld id critically dependent on the skill of the welder.
2. Much fabrication is made under sub-contracting conditions.
There has developed, therefore, a system which is quite general, but is more obvious in the
fabrication field, of client appointed inspectors who may work independently or alongside the
fabricators own inspectors with or sometimes without the full co-operation of the welding
supervisors and welders
Welding inspection in general sense is the monitoring of the formation of the weld. I.e. materials,
equipment, consumables, approvals of staff and procedures, examination of the compilation, i.e.
size, excess metal, undercut, surface defects, spatter etc., and the compilation of documents into
the fabrication file.
Many quality welds are required to be examined by non-destructive testing techniques and
operatives with required skills are called in as a required and the senior welding inspector obtains
the NDT reports for the fabrication file.
The senior welding inspector grade is able to assess and control welding inspection with a wide
perspective because of his/her wider qualifications and experience. In addition he/she must have
the knowledge of the practice of supervision and to have the necessary personal quality of
leadership.
It is not possible to be a senior welding inspector without technical knowledge but the quality of
leadership is an essential addition.
It is sometimes said that leadership cannot be taught and there is a lot of truth in this but the
ability to lead can be improved by teaching.
Tasks and responsibilities
The following list shows the tasks and responsibilities of welding co-ordination personnel, not all
the tasks given will necessarily be carried out by the senior welding inspector, the tasks and
responsibilities allocated will depend on the contract/project being carried out. Each single
activity in the following list may be associated with a number of tasks and responsibilities such
as: - specification or preparation; -co-ordination; - control; - inspection, check or witnessing.
Where welding co-ordination is carried out by a number of persons, the client will generally
nominate the tasks and responsibilities for the appropriate persons. Welding co-ordination is
considered to be the responsibility of the manufacturing organisation. For some work activities
the co-ordination tasks and responsibilities may be carried out by subcontractors.
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Welding related activities to be considered
1. Contract review
Meetings.
Welding capability and associated activities of the manufacturing organisation.
2. Design review
Relevant welding standards.
Joint location with relation to the design requirements.
Access for welding, inspection and testing
Weld joint details.
Quality and acceptance requirements for welds.
3. Parent material
Weldability of parent material.
Parent material certificates.
Identification of parent material.
Handling and storage of parent materials.
Tractability.
4. Consumables
Compatibility
Delivery' conditions.
Identification of consumables.
Storage and handling of consumables.
( .
5. Subcontractors
Suitability of any subcontractors.
6. Production planning
Suitability of welding procedure specifications (WPS) and welding procedure approval
records (WP AR).
Work instructions.
Welding jigs and fixtures.
Suitability and validity ofwelder approvals.
Welding and assembly sequences for the component
Production weld test requirements.
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7. Equipment

Suitability of welding and associated equipment.

Equipment supplies, identification and handling.

Calibration of equipment.
8. Safety

Health and safety requirements.

Suitability of working area.

Ventilation, extraction etc.
9. Welding operations
; . ~

Issue of work permits,
- ~ (

Issue of work instructions,

Joint fit up and cleaning.

Preparation of production tests.

Assignment and instruction 0 f welders.

Welding consumables and auxiliaries.

Application of tack welding.

Application of welding process parameters.

Application of any intermediate testing.

Application and method of preheating.

Application and method of post weld heat treatment.
,
( Welding sequences.
10. Visual inspection .

Completeness of welding.

Weld dimensions.

Shape, dimensions and tolerances of the welded components.

Joint appearance.
11. Destructive testing

Application and records of destructive testing.
12. Non-destructive testing

Application and records of non-destructive testing.
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D. \-Veld acceptance
Assessment of inspection and test results.
Weld repairs.
Reassessment of repaired welds.
Corrective actions
14. Documentation
. Preparation and maintenance of the necessary records.
The technical skills required by a Senior Welding Inspector are:
1. Knowledge of technology.
2. Knowledge of codes of practice / Normative documents
( )
3. Knowledge of planning.
4. Knowledge of organisation.
5. Knowledge of auditing
The responsibilities of a Senior Welding Inspector:
1. Supervision
2. Planning
3. Organisation
4. Auditing.
Supervision
A supervisor is any person who id given authority and responsibility for planning and controlling
the work of others with whom they are in close touch.
(
Supervisor and operatives
The difference between a supervisor and an operator is that an operator performs his/her own
work but the supervisor gets work done through his operators.
Supervisors and managers
Supervisors are part of the management structure. The term supervision, however generally
implies overseeing and controlling a working group on the spot dealing with situations and details
as they arise.
The term management implies planning ahead and controlling work more remotely using
administrative procedures and reporting systems.
The supervisor is in a key position between operatives and management able to encourage smooth
working or cause disruption both wilfully and unintentionally. He/she is also subject to pressure
from both sides that each expects the supervisor to support their views. He/she must seek to earn
the respect and support of managers and operators, carry out sometimes-unpopular orders and
duties at the same time as looking after the group he/she leads.
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Working with others
The job of the supervisor is enhanced and becomes more satisfying if he she makes LbC of the
assistance of specialist advisors on personnel, work scheduling, work study, finance, etc, thereby
allowing him to spend more time on organising and dealing with his/her staff.
Responsibilities of a supervisor
A supervisor is responsible for his/her subordinates, the activities and the work place, which he is
given formal authority to control, this usually includes:
1. Staff - moral, consultation, discipline, welfare, safety, employment induction, training.
2. Work - maximum economy.
3. Cost - maximum economy.
\ 4. Machines and equipment - maintenance, loading, operation.
(, _/1
5. Materials - supplies, suitability, economic use.
6. Workplace - layout, tidiness, good housekeeping.
Qualities of a good supervisor
Particular circumstances will give different emphasis to the following essential basic qualities
required in the good supervisor.
I. Technical skill and knowledge - ability to explain why and how jobs are to be performed to
eliminate faults, dangerous practices, wastage, to keep up to date.
2. Intelligence - judgment, sound common sense, ability to determine priorities.
3. Drive - vitality, energy, enthusiasm and general good health. Vigour is as infectious as fatigue
is demoralising.
4. Leadership - maintenance of high personal standards, goal setting, trustworthiness, reliability,
(
consistency, fairness, stability, persistence and a sense of humour.
Motivation and the supervisor
It is very important for a supervisor to take an interest in his/her operators, to try to understand
their attitudes and reactions, to treat them in a responsible manner and give respect to their views,
efforts and skills. Responsible treatment includes correcting or reprimanding those who fail to
respond responsibly. Good operatives expect the supervisor to act justly when dealing with those
who do not conform to working requirements.
Staff assessment
Linking motivation with responsibility of a supervisor to achieve targets of performance is the
assessment of staff and the development needs of the supervisor's section.
Whatever policy an organisation applies to staff assessment, a supervisor inevitably forms
judgments on varying capabilities and. attributes of his/her operatives. Assessment procedures
only differ in the degree to which they are formalized..
If no other agreed system applies, a supervisor should first decide the factors that are important in
constituting a good worker. These usually include such factors as quality of output, quantity of
. ~ : .
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Output, versatility (range of capabilities) co-operation, timekeeping, conduct, relationships with
others etc. On the basis of factual records where possible, each operative can be assessed against
each factor using for instance a grading scale.
Below is an example of a grading scale:
POOR BELOW AVERAGE AVERAGE ABOVE AVERAGE
A simpler three-grade scale may be:
BELOW AVERAGE ABOVE
Operatives should be made aware of those factors, which are satisfactory and by discussion
methods should be agreed for improving those aspects, which are not satisfactory.
Planning
The planning function may be taken to mean the consideration of the necessary arrangements,
which must be made from the general notification of the job requirement through to the final
advice of completion.
It is usual to find that this falls into three stages.
1. Preparation and dispatch of staff
2. The inspection and documentation.

Equipment.

Personnel approvals.

Procedure approvals.

Materials.

Consumables.
(

Edge preparations.

Tacking.

Preheats.
Welding operations.
3. Collection of data and certificates.
There are various methods of dealing with the planning function and the three most common are:
1. Allocate staff on a block basis i.e. send an inspector on to the site and allow and expect
himlher to make a useful return on his/her time.
2. The use of charts in which each job function is estimated for time. In certain cases this
situation enables a considerable saving of staff and time to be made. But by the
implication the inspector works harder and tends to travel more.
3. The use of a critical path analysis in which a detailed assessment is made or obtained of
the overall production plan and the inspection function is meshed into this.
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Which of these approaches is used will depend on the nature of the workflow and the number of
calibre of the available inspectors and back-up staff. Also critical is the degree of competition.
which may be the driving force for economic use of staff hence low tendering.
Planning aspects
Planning can be taken to mean to make the general arrangements. There are many ways of
increasing productivity. Amongst them, production projects planning id high on the list. Apart
from improving the utilisation of resources it also forms the basis for effective production or
project control, and thereby reduces the risk of over spending budgets and for failing to achieve
delivery targets.
Some advantages of planning
C_)
1. Jobs are planned and issued in correct sequences thereby reducing unnecessary work-in
progress and minimising the need for overtime or subcontractors.
2. Men and machines are supplied with the correct materials and tools at the right time.
3. The correct quality standards are achieved for minimum cost.
4. Completed goods are dispatched to customers as promised.
5. Adequate stock levels of materials and components are maintained.
6. Greater job satisfaction.
7. Greater job security.
A sound system of planning should clearly show the stages of manufacture and inspection. It
should draw attention to bottlenecks and areas of unused resources, and show what, and Where,
additional resources are needed.
(
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Organisation
The organisation function may be taken to mean the fitting of staff to the plan, which must be
supervised to completion.
In these terms the organisation function means the ability to assess the detailed requirements of
the plan and to gauge the ability of individual staff to be technically competent, available and
temperamentally able to perform the tasks involved.
As a preliminary checklist organisation involves:
1. How much inspection is required
2. Total man hours
3. Number of personnel required
4. Estimation of job times
( )
5. Analysis ofjob sequences
6. Preparation requirements and time
7. Travel and down time (mobilisation/demobilisation)
8. Leave time for personnel
9. Ability of staff
Auditing
The term audit has been taken from accounting practice and means:
I. An overall check of inspection.
2. A detailed check of a very limited area of inspection
In the overall check the general content of the fabrication file examined for completeness and
presentation and generally impression is formed as to the visual quality of the product.
For the detailed check the requirements of a very limited zone is examined with great care and (as
appropriate) the code requirements are checked against the documents in the fabrication file.
Definitions
Audit Program: set of one or more audits planned.
Audit Criteria: set of policies, procedures or requirements used as a reference.
Audit evidence: records, statements of fact, which relate to audit criteria.
Audit findings: results of the evidence of the collected audit evidence against audit
criteria
Audit conclusion: outcome of an audit provided by the audit team, after considerations of
the audit findings.
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Assessments of:
Staff
Equipment
QA / QC and inspection
Documents
Safety
Internal Audits
First-party audits are conducted by or on behalf of, the organisation itself for intemal purposes
and can form the basis for an organisation's self-declaration of conformity.
(j External Audits
Second-party audits are conducted by customers of the organisation or by other persons on
behalf of the customer.
Third-party audits are conducted by extemal independent organisations. Such organisations,
usually accredited, provide certification or registration of conformity against documented
requirements
There are three types of audits currently used in the fabrication industry.
I. Pre - production
This is usually undertaken to assess ability in terms of staff and facilities to perform a task.
2. In - production
This is to confirm that the welding and related activities are being carried out 111
accordance with the requirements of the applicable procedures and specifications.
(
3. Post - production
The objective in this instance is to ensure that the welding and welding inspection are
satisfactory.
Audits are used to determine the extent to which the quality system requirements are fulfilled.
Audit findings are used to assess the effectiveness of the quality system and to identify
opportunities for improvement for improvement.
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Concepts relating to an audit
Audit client
Organization or person
requesting an audit
Audit program
Set of one or more audits
planned for a specific time
frame and directed towards a
specific purpose
Audit criteria /
Set of policy procedures
or requirements used as
a reference
Technical expert
Person who provides
specific knowledge of or
expertise on the subject
to be audited
Audit <Ill
Systematic, independent and
documented process for
obtaining audit evidence and
evaluating it objectively to
determine the extent to which
audit criteria ate fulfilled
!
Audit team
One or more auditors
conducting an audit
Auditor
A person with
competence to
conduct on audit
Auditee
Organization being
audited
(-)
~ Audit findings
Results of the
evaluation of the
collected audit
evidence against audit
criteria
I
Audit evidence
Records, statements
of fact or other
information, which are
\,
relevant to the audit
criteria and verifiable
I
Audit conclusion
Outcome of an audit
provided by the audit
team after
consideration of the
audit objectives and all
audit findings
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Knowledge of technology
The scope and level of the technical aspects of welding with which the senior welding
inspector needs to be familiar are similar to those of the welding inspector with slightly
more depth but in addition a good appreciation of NDT is required together with a proven
ability in radiographic interpretation. The reason for this is a senior welding inspector on
certain projects may also be employed to view radiographs as well as checking the NDT
reports and supervising and giving advice to NDT operatives. For all tasks assigned, a
senior welding shall be able to demonstrate adequate technical knowledge to enable such
tasks to be performed satisfactorily.
The following factors should be considered:
( \
General technical knowledge;
~ ~
Specialised technical knowledge relevant to the assigned tasks. This may be attained by a
combination of theoretical knowledge, training and/or experience.
Knowledge of codes of practice
Neither welding inspectors or senior welding inspectors would be expected to have a detailed
recall of the requirements of a code of practice or be expected to write welding procedures. What
is expected is at a senior level an appreciation of the commonly used codes and a capacity to give
advise on the application of these documents. The senior welding inspector must be aware of the
quality levels required for a particular product and be able to implement the quality requirements
of the applicable codes and standards.
Such documents include:
\'1 1. Standards for consumables
BS EN 499 covered electrodes.
BSEN 440 gas shielded filler wires.
AWS A5.1/A5.5 covered electrodes.
AWS A5.8 shielded filler wires.
2. Standards for welding procedure approval
BS EN 287 approval of welding procedures.
ASME IX approval of welding procedures.
3. Standards for welder approval
BS EN 287 the approval of w e ~ d e r s .
ASME IX
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'-1-. Standards for quality of fabrications.
BS 5500.
ASME VIII
5. Standards for pipeline construction.
BS 4515.
API 1104
B'Gas P2.
It must be noted that standards are merely convenient collections of good practice data, but as a
stand-alone document it is not mandatory. If the client who is commissioning the manufacture
may incorporate a standard into the specification and therefore the legal contract, but the client
may add requirements for the particular component being constructed. Codes and standards plus
client requirements control many major fabrications and projects.
(
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Questions
Terms and Definitions
QU 1. Sketch a single-U butt joint and indicate the following:
a: root gap b: root face c: included angle d: root radius
lJ QU 2.
Sketch a tee joint, fillet welded and indicate the following
a: leg length b: throat thickness c: root d: weld toes
QU 3. Sketch five joint types in addition to a butt weld.
~ . )
QU4. Identify the following butt weld features.
A:
B:
F
S-r-
,
v: : / ~ " -, .
c:
C
D:
E:
I F:
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Terms & Definitions Sec I
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Quality
Quality is a subjective thing, what is quality to one person might not be quality to another person.
Quality its self is very difficult to define but the concepts of quality or shown below
Requirement ........ r----- --IIIo..
Need or ~ Grade
expectation that Category or rank
is stated, given to the different
generally implied quality requirements
or obligatory for products,
processes or
systems having the
same function use
Quality
Degree to which
a set of inherent
characteristics Capability
fulfils
Ability of an organisation, system
requirements
or process to realise a product
that will fulfil the requirements for
that product.
( .,
Customer satisfaction
Customer's perception of the
degree to which the customer's
requirements have been fulfilled.
It must be said that these terms although they are all widely used and definitions of their meanings
defined in many documents, are not sufficiently precise for really general application. It is not
uncommon to find that these functions overlap or that in particular instances QA isplanned and
organized as a department, which in practice covers inspection and quality control. Again many
manufacturing plants are organized with a Project Office dealing with the aims of quality and an
Inspection Office dealing with the attainment of quality.
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Note: quality can be used with objectives such as poor, good or excellent.
Note: inherent, as opposed to assigned, means existing in something, especially as a permanent
characteristic.
Note: requirements can be generated by different interested parties.
Note: a specified requirement is one which is stated, for example a document
Note: when establishing a quality requirement, the grade is generally specified.
Note: customer complaints are a common indicator of low customer satisfaction but their
absence does not necessarily imply high customer satisfaction.
Note: Even when customer requirements have been agreed with the customer and fulfilled, this
does not necessarily ensure high customer satisfaction
QAVSQC
( , , ~ QA applies to all areas, which have an affect on quality and asks the question "has the work been
performed correctly?"
QC deals with the actual measurement of quality performance, this performance is compared
against what is required, and action is taken on the difference and asks the question "is the work
been performed correctly?"
QA VS Inspection
QA is not inspection. It deals mainly with documentation and must see the entire picture.
Inspection is mainly about physical reality, monitoring and measuring basically inspection is a
QC tool.
Definitions Relating to Quality
Quality Assurance: all those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate
confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality or that quality
requirements will be fulfilled.
( Quality Control: The operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfil the requirements
for quality
Inspection: activities such as measuring, examining, testing, gauging one or more characteristics
of a product or service and comparing these with specified requirements to determine conformity.
Inspection is a tool used for quality control.
Aim of quality assurance
The aim of quality assurance is to improve quality whilst keeping costs to an acceptable level.
The objectives of a system used to implement quality assurance, i.e. a quality system is to
determine and rectify the root cause(s) of any problems, thereby reducing faults and wastage. This
will in tum improve quality and reduce costs. The emphasis is on fault prevention rather that
detection and cure i.e. it is a lot more cost effective to prevent welding defects from occurring
rather than repairing defective welds after- detection.
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Benefits of adopting quality assurance
A properly implemented and managed quality system should:
I. Help to ensure that the company focuses on the market needs and requirements.
2. Make the company more competitive in the market place due to an increased customer
confidence in the company's output, i.e. a product or service that a customer wants
3. Lead to a reduction of costs due to a reduction in defective items and wastage
4. Give a measure of performance, which will enable any areas for improvement to be identified.
5. Introduce a more organized way of thinking.
6. Provide motivation, motivate employees provide a better working environment in addition to
the product or service output benefits.
Quality assurance provides the objective evidence needed to give maximum confidence for
(-)
quality. Quality assurance should be considered as a management tool when used within an
organization. A supplier who implements and maintains a system for assuring quality, is
providing maximum confidence to a purchaser, or potential purchaser, that the supplied product or
service attains, or is going to attain, its fitness for purpose.
Concepts relating to quality assurance for measurement process
Measurement process
Set of operations to
Metrological confirmation determine the value of
Set of operations required to quality
ensure that measuring
equipment conforms to the
requirements for its intended
use ~
~
Measurement function
Function with
Measurement control system ~

organisational
Set of interrelated or interacting
responsibility for defining
elements necessary to achieve
and implementing the
metrological confirmation and
measurement control
continual control of
system
measurement process
Measuring equipment
Measuring instrument,
software, measurement .......... Metrological characteristic
standard, reference material Distinguishing features which
or auxiliary apparatus or can influence the results of
combination thereof measurement
necessary to realise a
measurement process
Senior Welding Inspection - QA / QC
2b.3
Rev 09-09-02
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Questions
QU1.
Responsibilities and duties of a welding inspector
Give the three main responsibilities of a welding inspector:
J
QU2. Give three main attributes. which all welding inspectors must possess.
QU3. The welding inspector should refer to what documents and records.
QU4. Give six main duties of a welding inspector before welding.
QU5. Give six main duties of a welding inspector during welding.
QU6. Give six main duties of a welding inspector after welding
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Duties ofa Welding Inspector Sec 2
. )
s u o p o e j . r a d m j ~ n ! P l ~ M
0 n O l l J a s
r J
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Welding Imperfections:
What are welding imperfections?
Welding imperfections are material discontinuities caused by, or during, the process of
welding.
All things contain imperfections, but it is only when they fall outside of a "level of
acceptance" that they should be termed defects, as they may render the product
defective, or unfit for its purpose.
As welds can be considered as castings they may contain all kinds of imperfections
associated with the casting of metals, plus any other particular imperfections associated
with the specific welding process being used. :)
We can classify welding imperfections into the following groups:
1)
3)
5)
7)
Cracks
Solid inclusions
Surface and profile
Misalignment
2)
4)
6)
Gas pores and porosity
Lack of fusion
Mechanical damage
1) Cracks:
Cracks sometimes oceur in welded materials, and may be caused by a great number of
factors. Generally, we can say that for any crack like imperfection to occur in a material,
there are 3 criteria that must be present:
a) A force b) Restraint c) A weakened structure
( .
Typical types of cracks that will be discussed later in the course are:
1) Hz Cracks 2) Solidification Cracks 3) Lamellar Tears
A Material's likelihood to crack during welding can be evaluated under the term
Weldability. This may be defined as:
"The ease with which materials may be welded by the common welding processes"
All cracks have sharp edges, which produce high stress concentrations. This generally
results in rapid progression, however this also depends on the properties of the metal.
Cracks are classed as planar imperfections as they generally have only 2 visible, or
. measurable dimensions i.e. length and depth. Most fall into the defects category, though
some standards allow crater cracks.
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Imperfections Rev 09-09-02
3.1
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2) Gas pores, porosity and cavities:
Gas pores:
Gas pores are defined as intemal gas filled cavities smaller than 1.6mm diameter, which
are created during solidification by the expulsion of gases from solution in the solidifying
weld metal.
Porosity:
These are gas pores < 1.6mm diameter which are generally grouped together, and may be
classified by their number, size and grouping. (i.e. Fine, or coarse cluster porosity) A
singular gas filled cavity = or > 1.6mm diameter is termed a "blow hole" Porosity is
mainly produced when welding improperly cleaned plate, or when using damp welding
consumables. Gases may also be formed by the breakdown of paints, oil based products,
corrosion or anti corrosion products that have been left on the plates to be welded.
""o.l
( ~ )
('
Shrinkage cavity
Hollow root bead . An isolated internal pore
3.2
Copyright 2002 TWl Ltd
TWI
V!lOI. _
4) Solid inclusions:
Solid inclusions include metallic and non-metallic inclusions that may be trapped in the
weld during the process of welding. The type of solid inclusion that may be expected is
really dependant on the welding process being used. In welding processes that use fluxes
to form all the required functions of shielding and chemical cleaning, such as MMA and
Submerged Arc welding, slag inclusions may occur. Other welding processes such as
MIG and TIG use silicon, aluminium and other elements to de-oxidise the weld. These
may form silica, or alumina inclusions. Any of these non-metallic compounds may be
trapped inside a weld during welding. This often happens after slag traps, such as
undercut have been formed. Slag traps are mostly caused by incorrect welding technique.
Metallic inclusions include tungsten inclusions that may be produced during TIG
welding by a poor welding technique, an incorrect tungsten vertex angle, or too high
amperage for the diameter of tungsten being used. Copper inclusions may be caused
during MIGIMAG welding by a lack of welding skill, or incorrect settings in
mechanised, or automated MIG welding. (Mainly welding Aluminium alloys) ( )
Other welding phenomena such "arc blow" or the deviation of the electric arc by
magnetic forces, can cause solid inclusions to be trapped in welds. The locations of these
inclusions may be within the centre of a deposited weld, or between welds where the
result causes "Lack of inter-run fusion", or at the sidewall of the weld preparation
causing "Lack of side wall fusion" Generally solid internal inclusions may be caused by:
1) Lack of welder skill. (Incorrect welding technique)
2) Poor manipulation of the welding process, or electrode.
3) Incorrect parameter settings, i.e. voltage, amperage, speed of travel.
4) Magnetic arc blow.
5) Incorrect positional use of the process, or consumable.
6) Incorrect inter-run cleaning.
Surface breaking solid inclusion
(
Internal solid inclusion causing Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of inter-run fusion a lack of sidewall fusion
Solid inclusions caused by undercut
in the previous weld run
Internal solid inclusion
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Imperfections
3.3
Rev 09-09-02
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3) Lack of fusion:
Lack of fusion imperfections, are defined as a lack of union between two adjacent areas
of material. This may be accompanied, or caused by other imperfections as explained in
the last section. Lack of fusion can be considered a serious imperfection, as like cracks,
they produce areas of high stress concentration. Lack of fusion, or overlap (a form of
lack of fusion) may occur in the weld face area during positional welding caused by the
action of gravity and incorrect use of the process.
Arc blow is a prime cause of lack of fusion imperfections, particularly when using high
current processes, such as Sub Arc using high direct electric currents. (DC+ or DC -)
Lack of fusion may also be formed in the root area of the weld where it may be found on
one, or both plate edges. It may also be accompanied by incomplete root penetration.
Lack of fusion is also a common imperfection in "Dip transfer MIG welding" of metals
l) over 3mm thickness, especially when welding vertically down. This is caused by the
inherent coldness of this form of metal transfer, and the action of gravity.
Like solid inclusions, lack of fusion imperfections may be caused by:
1) Lack of welder skill. (Incorrect welding technique)
2) Poor manipulation of the welding process, or electrode.
3) Incorrect parameter settings, i.e. voltage, amperage, speed of travel.
4) Magnetic arc blow.
5) Incorrect positional use of the process, or consumable.
6) Incorrect inter-run cleaning.
Lack of sidewall fusion
(J
(Incompletely filled groove
in some standards)
I. \Lack of sidewall fusion
Lack of inter-run fusion
Lack of root fusion
3.4
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4) Surface and profile:
Surface and profile imperfections are generally caused by poor welding techniques. This
includes the use of incorrect welding parameters, electrodelblowpipe sizes and/or
manipulation and joint set up.
This category may be split into two further groups of weld face and weld root.
Surface and profile imperfections are shown pictorially in A & B below:
A:
Spatter is not a major factor in lowering the weldment strength, though it may mask
other imperfections, and should therefore be cleaned off before inspection.
Spatter may also hinder NDT and be detrimental to coatings
It can also cause micro cracking or hard spots in some materials due to the localised
heating/quenching effect.
An incompletely filled groove may bring the weld below its DTT. It is a major stress
concentration when accompanied by lack of sidewall fusion.
Lack of root fusion causes a serious stress concentration to occur in the root.
It may also render the root area more susceptible to corrosion in service
Spatter
A
Lack of root fusion
(.
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Imperfections
3.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOOI. _
THE WELDIf\IG INSTITUTE
B:
A bulbous contour is an imperfection as it causes sharp stress concentrations at the toes
of individual passes and may also contribute to overall poor toe blend
Arc strikes, Stray-arcing, or Stray flash may cause many problems including several
types of cracks to occur. They can also cause depressions in the plate bringing it below
its DTT. Arc strikes would normally be NDT inspected and then repaired.
Incomplete root penetration may be caused by too small a root gap, insufficient
amperage, or poor welding technique. It also causes high stress concentrations to occur.
It also generally produces a weld with less throat thickness than the DTT of the joint.
An irregular bead width is a surface imperfection, which is often referenced in
application standards as. "The weld bead should be regular along its linear length"
/ Bulbous, or irregular contour
Arc Strikes
Poor toe blend
G ) r - ~
~
<,
B
Incomplete ro'ot penetration /
(
Undercut:
Undercut can be defined as a depression at the toe of a weld in a previous deposited
weld, or base metal, caused by welding. Undercut is generally caused by incorrect
welding technique, including the use of too high a current for the electrode being used,
and the welding position. It is often caused in the top toe of fillet welds when attempting
to produce a large leg length fillet weld in one run. Undercut can also be considered a
serious imperfection particularly if it is sharp, as again it causes high stress
concentrations. It is gauged in severity by its length, depth and sharpness. Fillet welded
structures intended for fatigue loaded applications often require the toes' to be lightly
ground, or flushed in with a TIG run to remove any toe undercut.
Shrinkage grooves:
Shrinkage grooves may occurin the root area and are caused by contractional forces
pulling on the hot plastic base metal in the root area. It is often mistaken as root undercut.
3.6
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Root Run or "Hot pass" undercut
Parent metal, "top,,:e" nn?t
s.>

Parent metal, surface undercut
y
_
Weld metal, surface undercut
)
Weld metal, surface undercut
t

".jfj:
Shrinkage grooves
(
Root concavity: (suck back)
This may be caused when using too high a gas backing pressure in purging. It may also
be produced when welding with too large a root gap and depositing too thin a root bead,
when the hot pass may pull back the root bead through contractional strains,
. Root concavity
3.7
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Excess penetration:
Often caused by using too high a welding current, and/or, slow travel speed, coupled
with a large root gap, and/or a small root face for the current or process being used. It is
often accompanied by bum through, which can be defined as a local collapse of the weld
puddle causing a hole, or depression in the final weld root bead.
Root oxidation:
Root oxidation may take place when welding re-active metals such as stainless steels
with contaminated, or inadequate purging gas flow.
Crater pipes:
Often occurs during TIG welding, at the end of the weld run, on final solidification. It is
caused by insufficient filler material to meet the solidification process. It can be
eliminated by careful application of the filler metal, or using a slope out control.
I
<:
\
Crater pipe
Excess penetration, and bnrn tbrougb /'1',", Root oxidation in Stainless Steel
To summarize, we can list surface or profile welding imperfections as follows:
1) Incompletely filled grove.
2) Spatter.
(
3) Arc strikes. (Stray arcs)
4) Incomplete root penetration.
S) Bulbous or irregular contour.
6) Poor toe blend.
7) Irregular bead width.
8) Undercut.
9) Root concavity.
10) Excess penetration/Burn through.
11) Root oxidation.
3.8
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5) Mechanical damage:
Mechanical damage:
This can be defined as any surface material damage caused during the manufacturing
process. This can include damage caused by:
1) Grinding. 2) Chipping.
3) Hammering. 4) Braking off welded attachments by hammering.
5) Chiselling. 6) Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs. >
As with the stray arcing, the above imperfections can be detrimental as they reduce the
through thickness dimension of the plate in that area. They can cause local stress
concentrations and should be repaired prior to completing the job.
()
7) lVIisalignment:
There are 2 forms of misalignment, which are termed:
1) Linear misalignment. 2) Angular misalignment.
Linear misalignment: can be controlled during weld set up by the correct use/control of
the weld set up technique i.e. tacking, bridging, clamping etc. Excess weld metal height
is always measured from the lowest plate to the highest point of the weld cap.
3mm
Linear misalignment measured in:: - - - - - - - - - - t-
Angular misalignment: may be controlled by the correct application of distortion
control techniques, i.e. balanced welding, offsetting, or use ofji.gs, clamps, etc.
- - - - 15
0

------
Angular misalignment measured in degrees 0
Good working practices and correct welder training will minimise the occurrence of
unacceptable welding imperfections, or welding defects.
3.9
TWI
V!7!lI. _
(
THE WELDIt\IG INSTITUTE
Summary of Welding Imperfections:
Group Type Causes/Location
1) Cracks Centreline Weld Metal
(Discussed in H
2
Weld Metal & HAZ
Weldability) Lamellar Tears Base metal
Porosity Damp electrodes
Un-cleaned plates/pipes
Loss of gas shield
Gas pore < 1.6mm 0
2) Porosity/Cavities
Blow hole> l.6mm 0
Shrinkage cavity Weld metal d:w > 2:1
Slag MMAISAW Poor Inter-run cleaning
Slag traps. Arc blow Silica TIG/MAG(Fe steels)
3) Solid Inclusions Tungsten TIG Dipping tungsten in pool
Copper (MIG/MAG) Dipping contact tip in pool
4) Lack of Fusion
Lack of side wall fusion
(Can be surface breaking)
Arc Blow
Incorrect welding technique
Lack of root fusion Incorrect welding technique
Cold lapping Positional welding technique
Poor toe blend Incorrect welding technique
Arc Strikes Poor welding technique
Incomplete penetration < Root gap/Amps. >Root face
Incompletely filled groove Incorrect welding technique
Spatter Damp consumables
Bulbous contour Incorrect welding technique
5) Surface & Profile
Undercut:
Surface and root run
Too high an amperage
Poor welding technique
Shrinkage groove (Root) Contractional forces
Root concavity Too high gas pressure
Excess Penetration
Burn through
>Root gap/Amps < Root face
Crater Pipes (Mainly TIG) Incorrect current decay
6) Mechanical damage Hammer/Grinding marks etc. Poor workmanship
Angular Misalignment (0) Poor fit-up. Distortion
7) Misalignment
Linear Misalignment (mm) Poor fit-up. Hi-Low in pipes
Note:
The causes given in the above table should not be considered as the only possible
causes of the imperfection given, but as an example of a probable cause.
3.10
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Questions
QU 1.
QU2.
QU3.
QU4.
QU5.
Welding Imperfections
Give two main causes for the occurrence of a burn through
Give two main causes for the occurrence of excessive root penetration on a single
Vee butt weld.
c)
Give five defects, which may occur when welding carbon steel using the MMA
welding process with the current setting too low.
Give three possible causes for the occurrence of lack of side-wall fusion
(
Sketch the following defects
a. Lack of root fusion
b. Lack of root penetration
. c. Incomplete filled groove
d. Concave root.
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Welding Imperfections Sec 3
1 7 0 n O H J a s
TWI
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Mechanical Testing:
Mechanical tests are generally carried out to ensure that the required levels of certain
mechanical properties have been achieved.
When metals have been welded, the mechanical properties of the plates may have
changed in the HAZ due to the thermal effects of the welding process.
It is also necessary to establish that the weld metal itself reaches the minimum specified
values.
The mechanical types of properties or characteristics most commonly evaluated are:
Hardness: The ability of a material to resist indentation.
)
Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb impact energy and resist fracture.
Strength: The ability of a material to resist a force. (Normally tension)
Ductility: The ability of a material to plastically deform under tension.
To carry out these evaluations we require specific tests. There are a number of
mechanical tests available to test for these specific mechanical properties, the most
common of which are:
1) Hardness testing. (Vlckers/Brinell/Rockwell)
2) Toughness testing. (Charpy V/lzod/CTOD)
Used to measure
Quantity.
3) Tensile testing. (ReducedlRadius /All weld metal)
Tests 1 - 3 have units and are termed quantitative tests.
We use other tests to evaluate the quality of welds
4) Macro testing.
5) Bend testing. (Side/Face/Root)
Used to measure
Quality.
6) Fillet weld fracture testing.
7) Butt weld Nick-break testing.
Tests 4 - 7 have no units and are termed qualitative tests.
Senior Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing Rev 09-0Q-02
4.1
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1) Hardness tests: Used to check the level of hardness across the weld.
Types 0 f hardness test are:
a) Rockwell scale. (Diamond or steel ball)
b) Vickers pyramid. VPN (Diamond)
c) Brinell. BHN (5 or 10 mm diameter steel ball)
d) Shore Schlerescope. (Measures resilience)
Most hardness tests are carried out by (1) impressing a ball, or a diamond into the
surface of a material under a fixed load, (2) then measuring the resultant indentation and
comparing it to a scale of units (BHN/VPN etc.) relevant to that type of test. Hardness
surveys are generally carried out across the weld as shown below. In some applications it
may also be required to takes hardness readings at the weld junction/fusion zone.
A shore schlerescope measures hardness by dropping a weight from a height onto the
surface of a metal and measuring the height of the rebound. The higher the rebound of
the weight, the harder is the material. Early equipment was cumbersome, but more
portable compared to other hardness testing methods. Equipment is now available which
works on the resilience principle, and is the size of a ballpoint pen. This equipment is
generally scaled to give hardness values in all of the above scales.
1
\f
+
o
+
1 r-
2
1 r-
Plate
(>
Senior Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing Rev 09-09-02
4.2
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V!lOI. _
2) Toughness tests: Used to check the resistance to impact loading.
Types 0 f toughness test are:
a) Charpy V. (Joules) Specimen held horizontally in test machine, notch to the rear.
b) Izod. (Ftlbs) Specimen held vertically in test machine, notch to the front.
c) CTOD or Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing. (mm)
There are many factors that affect the toughness of the weldment and weld metal. One of
the important effects is that of testing temperature. In the Charpy V and Izod test, the
fracture toughness is assessed by the amount of impact energy absorbed by a small
specimen of 10 mm- during fracture by a swinging hammer. A graph can be produced
using temperature as the base. The notch is 2mm deep, 0.25 root radius, and notch e45 0
( )
.(. _
10 x 10 mm
Machined notch
Fusion zone & HAZ
(
Graduated scale of Joules
absorbed energy
Pendulum locked in
position
"
Specimen
Notch placed to the
rear 0 f the strike
4.3
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Ductile/Brittle transition curve for a typical ferritic steel
Energy absorbed
47 Joules
28 Joules
__ J _
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I'" i M Ductile/Brittle transition point Transition range
Temperature range-.J
I
I
I
(Joules)
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Degrees Centigrade
The curve can be moved by many factors, including alloying & heat input:
a) Alloying:
The curve can be moved to the left by additions of manganese of up to 1.6 %. In other
(\
words the addition of manganese of up to 1.6% has a positive effect on improving the
toughness of plain" ferritic steels. Nickel also has a very positive effect on low
temperature toughness of steels, however nickel is a very expensive metallic element and
is used only where low temperatures are severe. Steels containing 9% nickel have
excellent low temperature toughness. Fully austenitic stainless steels show measurable
toughness at -270 C, or a few degrees above absolute zero.
b) Heat input:
The curve can be moved to the right by too high a heat input during the welding cycle.
This happens because of the effect called grain growth. At high temperatures, grains
grow and fuse together to form larger grains. The amount of energy needed to fracture a
large grain structure is much less than a fine grain structure. Hence the need to control
inter-pass temperatures.
4.4
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3) Tensile Test: Used to measure tensile strength (Nzmm'') (Ductility as E %)
Types of tensile tests are:
a) Transverse tensile test:
Reduced section: Used to test the strength of the weldment,
Radius reduced section: Can be used to assess the strength of the weld metal.
b) AU weld metal tensile test:
Used to test weld metal for UTS, Yield point and elongation, or E %.
Transverse tensile tests are taken across the weld to test the value of tensile strength in
this area. A reduced tensile test is the standard test where the specimen is first cut and
then reduced to allow a gripping area for the machine with a very low stress
concentration. A radius may be cut into the weld to assess the weld metal strength.
A transverse tensile test specimen
Radius (For radius reduced test specimens only)
Test gripping area Weld
-, I
"

.-'

"'. II>

Plate
"
......
!R:UCed Sectiuu
< 50mm
"
Elongation marks
Failure is generally expected in the plate material, though failure in the weld or HAZ is
not reason to fail the test if the minimum specified tensile stress has been reached.
In a Radius reduced tensile test the weld metal is turned down, and so failure would be
expected in the weld, due to a smaller CSA. It is sometimes used to show the tensile
strength of the weld metal, but it is not very accurate due to the local stress
concentrations that are produced.
All weld metal tensile tests are carried out by electrode manufacturers to determine
weld metal strength, and also ductility as elongation (E%). A deep weld' is made in a
plate and then a tensile specimen is cut along the length of the weld, which should
contain 99.9% undiluted, or pure weld metal. Prior to the test, marks are made 50 mm
apart along the length of the specimen. As the test is being carried out yield stress and
fracture stress are recorded and documented. After fracture, the pieces are placed back
together and the elongation is calculated from the original gauge length and given as E%
)

Senior Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing
4.5
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4) Macro examination tests: Used to check the internal level of quality in the
weld.
A macro specimen is normally cut from a stop/start position in the root, or hot pass of a
welder approval test. The start/stop position is marked out during a welder approval test
by the welding inspector. Once cut, the specimen is polished using progressively finer
grit papers and polishing at 90 to previous polishing direction, until all the scratches
caused by the previous polishing direction have been removed. It is then etched in an
acid solution which is normally 5 -10% Nitric acid in alcohol (carbon steels). Care must
be taken not to under-etch or over-etch the specimen, as this will mask the elements that
can be observed on a correctly etched specimen. After etching for the correct time, the
specimen is then washed and dried. A visual examination should be carried out at all
stages of production to observe any imperfections that are visible. Finally, a report is
then produced on the visual findings, then compared and assessed to the levels of
acceptance in the application standard.
... Macro samples may be sprayed with clear lacquer after inspection, for storage purposes.
(/
Macro Assessment Table
1) Excess weld metal height. 2) Slag with lack of sidewall fusion.
3) Slag with lack of inter-run fusion. 4) Angular misalignment.
5) Root penetration bead height. 6) Segregation bands.
7) Undercut
4.6
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5) Bend tests: Used to check weld ductility & fusion in the area under stress.
The former is moved through a guide (guided bend test), or rollers, and the specimen is
bent to the desired angle.
Types of bend test are:
a) Face bends b) Root bends c) Side bends d) Longitudinal bends
Fonner.
Specimen
Before testing
( )
Guide
A guided side bend test
After testing
(
Specimen is bent through pre-determined angle
Generally, bend tests are carried out for welder approval tests, though they may also be
used during procedure approval to establish good sidewall, root, or weld face fusion.
Inspection of the test face is made after the test to check the integrity of the area in test.
For materials of greater than 12mm thickness, a slice of 10-12mm is normally cut out
along the length and the material is side bend tested. Bend testing is a qualitative
method of mechanical testing. Ductility may be observed but is not measured.
4.7
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6) Fillet weld fracture tests. Used to assess root fusion in fillet welds.
A fillet weld fracture test is normally only carried out during a welder approval test.
The specimen is normally cut by hacksaw through the weld face to a depth (usually 1-2
mm) stated in the standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow
from the rear. Once fracture has been made, both fractured surfaces are inspected for
imperfections.
Finally the vertical plate X is moved through 90 and the line of root fusion is observed
for continuity. Any straight line would indicate a lack of root fusion. In most standards
this is sufficient to fail the welder.
Hammer blow
Saw cut
Fracture line t
Line of fusion
c
( ,
"
B
1
~ 3
Full fracture
X
y
/ 1 . R ~ f ' ~
"Lack of root fusion"
After inspection of both fractured surfaces for imperfections, tum fracture piece X
through 90 vertically and inspect the line of root fusion. (Line 2)
A Fillet weld fracture test is a .qualitative mechanical test, as we are observing weld
quality.
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7) Nick-break tests:
Used to assess root penetration and fusion in double-sided butt welds, and the internal
faces of single sided butt welds. A Nick-break test is normally carried out during a
welder approval test.
The specimen is normally cut by hacksaw through the weld faces to a depth stated in the
standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow from the rear. Once
fracture has been made then both fractures are turned horizontally through 90 and may
then be inspected for imperfections on the fracture faces, as shown below in C.
Hammer blow
Saw Cuts
.D
A
Fracture line
B
Lack of root penetration, or fusion Inclusions on the fracture line
A butt Nick-break test is a qualitative test, as we are observing quality.
Senior Welding Inspection --: Mechanical Testing Rev 09-09-02
4.9
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd .
( .
TWI
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Quantitative and Qualitative Mechanical Testing:
Quantitative:
We test weldments mechanically to establish the level of mechanical properties of the
weld. In such a case we may use the following types of tests:
1) Hardness:
Vickers (VPN) Brinell (BHN) Rockwell (Scale C for steels)
2) Toughness:
Charpy V (Joules) Izod (Ftlbs) CTOD (mm)
3) Tensile Strength:
N/mm
2
(UK) & PSI (USA)
cJ
Transverse reduced & radius reduced. Longitudinal all weld metal.
Elongation E% may be measured during tensile testing.
(The ductility value often given as a % reduction in area mainly in transverse and short
transverse tensile tests)
All the above tests 1 - 3 have units, and are thus termed quantitative tests.
They are used only in welding procedure approvals.
Qualitative:
We also test weldments mechanically to establish the level of quality in the weld.
In such a case we may use the following types oftest:
(
4) Macro testing.
5) Bend testing. (Face. Root. Side. & Longitudinal)
6) Fillet weld fracture testing.
7) Butt nick-break testing.
All the above tests 4 - 7 have no units, and are thus termed qualitative tests.
They are mainly used in welder approvals.
Some of the qualitative tests may be used during procedural approval to establish
good fusion/penetration etc.
4.10
Copyright 2002 T\VI Ltd
TWI
V!lOI. _
Summary of Mechanical Testing:
Name Property Qualitative Units, if Used mainly for
If applicable or applicable
Quantitative
Rockwell scale Hardness Quantitative Scale C is used
for Steels
Welding
Procedure tests
Vickers pyramid Hardness Quantitative VPN Welding
Procedure tests
Brinell Hardness Quantitative BHN Welding
Procedure tests
Shore Schlerescope Hardness Quantitative Measures
Resilience mm
Measuring
Stock materials
Charpy V Toughness Quantitative Joules. Energy
absorbed
Welding
Procedure tests
Izod Toughness Quantitative Ft.lbs Welding
Procedure tests
CTOD Notch Ductility Quantitative 0.0000 mm + a Welding
Toughness detailed report Procedure tests
Transverse Reduced Tensile Strength Quantitative N/mm- or PSI Welding
Tensile Ductility
% Reduction Area
Procedure tests
All Weld Metal Tensile Strength Quantitative N/mm
L
or PSI Welding
Tensile Ductility Elongation % Consumable tests
Radius Reduced
Transverse Tensile
Tensile Strength
of weld metal
Quantitative N/mm
z
or PSI Welding
Procedure tests
Macro N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
or Procedure tests
Bends Ductility may be Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
Face Root or Side observed or Procedure tests
Fillet Weld Fracture
T & Lap Joints
N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
or Procedure tests
Nick Break Test
Butt Joints
N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
or Procedure tests
(
4.11
TWI
V!lOI. _
Questions
QU 1.
QU 2.
)
QU3.
QU4.
Mechanical Testing
Which mechanical properties can be measured in the all-weld metal tensile test?
What is the purpose of a charpy V-notch test and what units are the results give in
Give a brief description of the following mechanical tests
a. bend test b. Nick break test c. Macro
From a transverse tensile test the following information is known. calculate the
ultimate tensile strength for the following
Maximum load applied: 235 Kilo Newton's
Least cross sectional area: 25.20mm x 17.52 mm
Senior Welding Inspection -QU Mechanical Testing Sec 4
I . ' )
S I U A o . l d d u . l a p I a A \ p u n s a m p a o o . r . j ~ U ! P I a A \
( .
\
TWI
V!lOI. _
Welding Procedures:
What is a welding procedure?
A welding procedure is a systematic method of producing a sound weld. For production
purposes this is generally held as a written, or a computer generated document.
Testing a weld sample:
Most production welding procedures are approved. (They have been thoroughly tested)
Having carried out a test weld using the preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(pWPS), the welded specimen is generally sent for visual inspection and non-destructive
testing to assess the level of quality.
If the test weld passes these tests it may then be sent for any required mechanical testing.
The test coupons are cut from the welded test piece from locations that are generally
specified in the application standard, and are then sent to a test house for testing.
These tests may include quantitative tests such as hardness, toughness or tensile tests, and
any required qualitative tests such as macros, bends, or fracture tests.
Documentation:
If all the tests have met the requirements of the standard, the procedure will become
approved. The Welding Procedure Approval Record *(WPAR) will include all the
various welding parameters and test record data.
* Also commonly referred to as a Procedure Qualification record (PQR)
From this data a workable document for production welding is prepared and called a
(
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).
Generally the approved Welding Procedure Specification will have an "Extent of
approval" which may include the following variable parameters:
1) Thickness of plate. 2) Diameter of pipe.
3) Welding position. 4) Material groups.
5) Amperage range. 6) Number of runs.
7) Consumables. 8) Heat input range. (kJ/mm)
A CSWIP 3.2 Senior 'Welding Inspector would generally witness the welding of the
procedure and supervise the subsequent testing ofthe weld.
Senior Welding Inspection - Welder & Procedure Approval 5.1 Rev 09-09-02
Copyright 2002 TWr Ltd
TWI
V!7!lI. _
Welder Approval:
A welder approval test is a test of the level of skill attained by the welder.
Once a welding procedure has been approved it is then important to ensure that all
welders employed using the procedure on a project can meet the level of quality set
down in the application standard. Welder approvals are therefore carried-out, where the
welders are directed to accurately follow the approved WPS by the welding inspector.
The test plate, or pipe is then tested for quality using NDEINDT and some qualitative
mechanical tests. In general a visual examination is carried out, followed by radiography
or ultrasonic testing (depending on the level of skill demanded from the welder) to look
for internal imperfections. The specimen may then be cut into coupons for the various
( )
qualitative mechanical tests. These tests generally require simple equipment such as a
hacksaw, hammer, vice, polishing equipments, and bend testing machine.
The mechanical tests of a welder approval may include:
a) Bend tests. (Side. Face. Root) b) Fillet weld fracture tests.
c) Nick Break tests. d) Macro Assessments.
When supervising a welder test the welding inspector should:
1) Check the welding process, condition of equipment and test area for suitability.
2) Check that extraction systems, goggles and all safety equipment are available.
3) Check grinders, chipping hammers, wire brush and all hand tools are available.
4) Check materials to be welded are correct and stamped correctly for the test.
( .
5) Check welding consumables specification, diameter, and treatment with WPS.
6) Check the welder's name and stamp details are correct.
7) Check that the joint has been correctly prepared and tacked, or jigged.
8) Check that the joint and seam is in the correct position for the test.
9) Explain the nature of the test and check that the welder understands the WPS.
10) Check that the welder carries out the root run, fill and cap as per the WPS.
11) Ensure welders identity and stop start location are dearly marked.
12) Supervise or carry out the required tests and submit results to Q/C department.
ACSWIP 3.1 welding inspector may be called upon to witness/conduct a welder
approval test, and supervise, or carry out thesubsequent testing of the weld.
TWI
V!lIJI. _
A typical welder approval certificate to BS 4872 would contain the following data:
Welder approval test certificate ! Test record No
(BS 4872: Part 1 1982)
:
321
I Organization's Symbol Logo:
! tst
Issue No
001
Manufacturers name: Welders name & Identity No
Mr. A Welder. Stamp 123
XYZ Fabrications Ltd.
Test piece details:
Welding process: MMA III
Parent material: Ferritic steel
Thickness: 5mm
Joint type: Single V butt.
Pipe outside 0: 150mm
Welding position: Overhead. Vertical up.
Horizontal vertical. Flat.
Test piece position: Axis? inclined 45
Fixed/rotated: Fixed
Welding consumables:
Filler metal: BOC Fortrex 7018
(Make & type)
Composition: Ferritic steel.
Specitication: E 50 5 B 12 H 5
Shielding gas: N/A
Specification number: BSEn 499 1994
Visual examination & Test results:
Visual Inspection:
Date of test
9
th
September 2002
Extent of approval:
Welding Process: MMA
Materials Range: Ferritic steels.
Thickness range: 2.5 - 10 mm.
Joint types: Butt welds in
plate & pipe.
Pipe outside 0: 75 - 300mm
Welding Position: All except
Vertical down.
Consumables: Rutile & Basic.
Weld preparation (dimensioned sketch)
1.5 - 2 mm

l.5-2mm

Contour: I1cce;taJle. Penetration (No backing)
Undercut: I1cce;taJle. Penetration (with backing)
Smoothness of joins: I1cce;taJle. Surface defects
l1ue;taJle.
/Y,t otttcaJfe
l1ue;taJfe
Destructive tests:
(
Macro I
Side Bend
I Root Bend I Fillet fracture I Butt Nick break
/Y,t I'efll/iwI
I
. #It I'efll/iwI
I

I
#It I'efll/iwI
I
/Y,t I'efll/iwI
Remarks: Tk Iell 9attel" II'U MIIMI afool fJI!eQl"Mee MI toe blelfr!.
The statements in this certificate are correct. The test weld was prepared in
accordance with the requirements of BS 4872: Part 1 1982.
Manufacturers Representative: Inspecting authority, or test house:
Mr. A'Representative ABC Inspection Ltd.
II Rtll'Uftat/H
It
Position. Witnessed by:
Quality Manager Mr. I C Plenty
Date: 9
th
September 2002 Date: 9
th
September 2002
..............
Ad
:::::: .. .::::::
:CSWlp s.r: DO: t:23:.
..............
::::
TWI
V[JI. _
Questions
au 1.
aU2.
au 3.
aU4.
au 5.
Welding Procedures and Welder Approvals
State six essential variables in a welding procedure specification
What do you understand by the term extent of approval giving four examples?
Describe what you understand by a welding procedure specification a welding
procedure approval record and a welder's certificate.
What are the main reasons for approving a welding procedure and a welder?
Give three reasons why a welder may require re-qualification
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Welding Procedures and Welder Approvals Sec 5
)
u o p o o d s n j S I B ! . I a r r . w
9 0 U 0 ! l J a S
TWI
1ll!J1. _
Materials Inspection:
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
1) Size.
2) Condition.
3) Type/Specification.
In addition, other elements may need to be considered depending on the materials form
or shape. Most plate materials begin life as a casting, which is then rolled out into plate.
Plate is sometimes rolled into pipe and then welded with a longitudinal, or helical seam.
Some imperfections associated with rolling are shown below:
Direction of rolling
Larni
............................/ .
Segregation ~ n d
Laminations contain impurities and major inclusions such as slags that solidify in the
ingot.
When rolled out these major inclusions may exist throughout the plate thickness.
Gas pores in the solidified ingot can also cause laminations when rolled out but will
generally 'close up' during the hot rolling process.
Laminations will become thinner as the plate is rolled into thinner sections and will
eventually become invisible to the naked eye in thinner sheet or plate.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low melting point impurities
such as sulphur or phosphorous which have segregated to the centre of the ingot as that
is the last place to cool. Great care needs to be taken when welding low quality steel as
sulphur levels may be present in the steel which cannot be detected by non destructive
testing.
Segregation bands can only be found on etched surfaces and have an appearance
similar to that of a weld HAZ.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapped metal does not fuse to the base
material due to insufficient temperature, and or pressure.
Senior Welding Inspection - Materials Inspection Rev 09-09-02
6.1
l
TWI
1ll1J1. _
Plate luspection:
Condition:
Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps and Laminations.
Size:
Length
Width
I ~
Thickness
()
( .
Other checks need to be made such as heat treatment condition, distortion,
tolerance, quantity, storage and identification.
Senior Welding Inspection - Materials lnspection Rev 09-09-02
6.2
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Pipe Inspection:
Condition:
Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Wall thickness, Ovality, Laps, Laminations.
Type/Specification:
Welded seam
Size:
Outside 0
Length
Other checks also need to be made, such as heat treatment condition, distortion,
tolerance, quantity, identification and storage.
Senior Welding Inspection - Materials Inspection Rev 09-09-02
6.3
TWI
V!lOI. _
Questions
QU1.
Material Inspection
What should an inspector check for when plate materials arrive on site?
i)
QU2. What is a plate lamination and what inspection method is most suited for
the detection of plate laminations
QU3. What is a lap in steel?
QU4. What should an inspecting check for when pipe arrives on site?
QU5. With regards to the materials being used on site which records or
standards should be checked and referred to by the inspector
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Material Inspection Sec 6
\
;'
s p . m p u m g p u n s a p o . j
L O u O H J a S
(
TWI
V!llll. _
Codes and Standards:
A code of practice is generally a legally binding document containing the rules and laws
required to design, and test a specific product, whereas a standard will generally contain,
or refer to all the relevant optional and mandatory manufacturing, testing and measuring
data. The definitions given in the English dictionary state:
A code of practice:
A set oflaw's, or rules that shall be followed when providing a service or product.
An applied standard:
A level of quality, or specification too which something must be tested.
We use codes and standards to manufacture many things that have been built many times
before. The lessons of failures, or under-design are generally incorporated into the next
revised edition.
Typical design/construction codes and standards used in industry include:
Pipe lines carrying low, and high-pressure fluids.
Oil storage tanks.
Pressure vessels.
Offshore structures.
Nuclear installations.
Composite concrete and steel bridge construction.
Vehicle manufacture.
Nuclear power station pipe work.
Submarine hull construction.
Earth moving equipment.
Building construction etc.
Generally; the higher the level of quality required then the more specific is the
code/standard in terms of the manufacturing method, materials, workmanship, testing
and acceptable imperfection levels.
The application code/standard gives important information to the welding inspector
as it determines the inspection points and stages, and other relevant criteria that must be
followed, or achieved by the contractor during the fabrication process.
Most major application codes and standards contain 3 major sections, which are
dedicated to:
1) Design.
2) Manufacture.
3) Testing.
'-. ~
Senior Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards Rev 09-09-02
7.1
TWI
V!lOI. _
Application codes/standards may not contain all the relevant data required for
manu facture, hut 111ay refer to other app1icab1e standards for special clcrucn ts. Examples
of these are given below:
1) Materials specifications.
2) Welding consumable specifications.
3) Welding procedure and welder approvals.
4) Personnel qualifications for NDT operators.
5) NOT Methods.
On many occasions the application code/standard will contain it own levels of
acceptance, which are drawn up by a board of professional senior engineers, who operate
in that specific industrial area,
Codes and standards are revised periodically! to take into account new data, new
manufacturing methods, or processes that may come into being. If no local legal
obligations exist then it is the year of the application code/standard within the contract
documents, which becomes the legally binding version.
The main areas of responsibility within an application standard is generally divided into:
1) The client, or customer.
2) The contractor, or manufacturer.
3) The third party inspection authority, or client's representative.
The applied code/standard will form hub of the contract documents hence any deviation,
or non-conformance from the code/standard must be applied for by application from the
contractor to the client as a concession. Once a concession has been agreed, it must then
become a signed and written document, which is then filed with the fabrication quality
documents. .
Senior Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards Rev 09-09-02
7.2
TWI
VOI. _
Questions
QU 1.
QU2.
QU 3.
QU4.
QU5.
Codes and Standards
What is the difference between a codes and a standard?
In a code/standard, what is the difference between shall and should
What do you understand by the terms: National standard and Harmonized
standard
As a welding inspector what important information can be obtained form an
application code/standard?
Is it a requirement for the application code/standard to contain all relevant data
required for manufacturing a product? And if not give details of what elements
may be missing.
Senior Welding Inspection -QU Codes & Standards Sec 7
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IiJ.T:' INSTRUCTIONS

WELDS 1 TO 20, DISCUS THE WELD SYMBOL
SHOWN AND SKETCH THE JOINT IWELD AS YOU
(
SEE IT.
ALL FILLET WELDS 6mm UNLESS OTHERWISE
STATED.
ITEM: 2 LIFTING LUG oET AILS: Al
A ITEM: 1 RAM BRKT DETAILS: Al
NO PART
PART:
NO: REO'D:
TWI Training &Certification

'DRAWN BY:
I
UNITS: SCALE: o CD
MARK S ROGERS. METRIC.
PROJECTION: DATE:
ITEM: 2
DEC 12 - 1998
FIRST ANGLE.

DRAWING No:
Ex WIS.10 Drg B
ISSUE No: 2
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ITEM. 21 LIFTING LUG DETAILS
'WELDS 1 TO 25, DISCUS THE \iEl.D SYMBOl.
SHll...N lIND SKETCH THE J1J1NTI ...ELD AS YOU
SEE IT
AU. FILLET 'WELDS 12MM lH.ESS DTHER"'!$[
STATED, AU. 'WELDS """ lH.ESS DTHER"'!SE
STADED
ITEM. 1 IBRICKING FLAT DETAILS
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TWI
VlJOI. _
Weld Symbols on Drawings
We use weld symbols to transfer information from the design office to the workshop.
It is essential that a welding inspector can interpret weld symbols, as a large proportion
of the welding inspectors time will be spent checking that the welder is correctly
completing the weld in accordance with the approved fabrication drawing. Therefore
without a good knowledge of weld symbols, a welding inspector is unable to carry out
his full scope of work. Standards for weld symbols do not follow logic, but are based on
simple conventions.
There are many different standards for weld symbols, as most major manufacturing
countries have their own. Basically a weld symbol is made of 5 different components,
and the following is common to all major standards:
(.)
1) The arrow line:
The arrow line is always a straight and unbroken line, (With the exception of instances
in AWS A2.4) and has only 1 of 2 points on the joint where it must touch, as shown
below:
F.ither/or
2) The reference line:
The reference line must touch the arrow line, and is generally parallel to the bottom of
the drawing page. There is therefore always an angle between the arrow line and
reference line. The point of the joint of the 2 lines is referred to as the knuckle.
Either/or
t/
;;:
3) The symbol:
The orientation of the symbol on the line is generally the same in most standards,
however the concept of arrow side and other side is shown differently in some
standards. This convention is explained within the following text for UK., European, and
ISO standards. (AWS A2A convention for arrow and other side follows that of BS 499)
4) The dimensions:
Basically, all cross sectional dimensions are given to the left, and all linear dimensions
are given to the right hand side of the symbols in most standards.
5) Supplementary information:
Supplementary information, such as welding process, weld profile, NDT, and any special
instructions may differ from standard to standard.
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Symbols on Drawings 8.1 Rev 03-06-05
TWI
V!lOI. _
BS 499 (UK):
The Arrow Line:
a) Shall touch the joint intersection.
b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing.
c) Shall point towards a single plate preparation.
The Reference Line:
a) Shall join the arrow line.
b) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.
Position of Symbols
The position of the symbol is used in conjunction with an arrow line and a reference line
Reference line ~ Other side
I
Arrow line Arrow side
Joint
-,
<,
The position of a weld in a particular joint relative to the parts being joined is indicated by the
head of an arrow, this denotes the reference line side of the joint. The side nearer the arrowhead is
known as the arrow side; the remote side is known as the other side
The symbol is placed below the reference line if the weld (weld face) is on the arrow side of the
joint. The symbol is placed above the reference line if the weld (weld face) is on the other side.
For welds made on both sides the symbols are placed both above and below the reference line.
(
a) To be welded on the a) To be welded on the
arrow side other side
TWI
V!7!lI. _
Supplementary symbols
Supplementary symbols may be used when a specific external weld profile is required. They are
used in conjunction with the relevant elementary symbol.
/
[?
/
[2J
Concave Profile
Convex Profile
v
/
(
Mitre Profile
~
/
Toes Shall be Blended Smoothly
TWI
VIJI. _
Complementary indications
Complementary indications are used for the following.
a peripheral weld-a weld made all round a joint.
a site weld-not a shop weld.
non-destructive testing.
welding process.
Additional information.
Indication of peripheral weld Indication of field or site weld
111
Indication of non-destructive testing Indication of welding process (MMA)
Additional Information, the reference
document Is Indicated In the box
Elementary symbols.
Each weld may be characterised by a symbol which, in general, is representative of the shape of
the weld to be made, or edge preparation to be used, e.g. single-V butt weld. The vertical portion
of a fillet weld symbol, single-bevel butt weld symbol must always be placed on the left-hand
side. An elementary symbol does not indicate the welding process to be used. Detail with
regarding the root gap, root face, bevel angles etc will be stated in the applicable welding
procedure specification (WPS). Providing the joint is not to complex, combinations of elementary
symbols may be used for welds made from two sides and compound welds, e.g. a fillet weld
superimposed on a single bevel butt weld.
TWI
V!l!ll. -- _
1. Square butt weld
2. Single-V butt weld
/
~
______v
3. Single-bevel butt weld
/
y
4. Single-bevel butt weld with a broad root face
(. )
/
5. Single bevel butt weld with broad root face
6. Single-J butt weld
7. Backing run; or back weld IUSAJ
/
~
8. Single-U butt weld (parallel or sloping sided)
/
~
(
9. Fillet weld
,
10. Plug weld /
11. Spot weld
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Symbols or. Drawings 8.5 Rev 03-06-05
I
TWI
1[J[l1. _
Dimensions
Any dimension relating to the cross-section of the weld must be given on the left-hand side of the
symbol; distances between adjacent weld elements must be indicated in parenthesis.
Butt welds are intended to be continuous and have full penetration along the entire length of the
joint, unless dimensional detail specifies otherwise. The cross sectional dimension indicated for a
fillet weld is referring to its leg length. When it is desired to indicate the design throat thickness,
then the leg length dimension is prefixed with the letter b; the design throat thickness dimension
is prefixed with the letter a.
b := leg length
(e)
a =Design throat thickness.
n = number of welds.
(e)
I = length of each weld.
e = distance between each weld.
e I
e
.\..
I" 1" 1" 1" 1
I.. 1.. 1.. 1.. .1 .. .1 ..
e I e I
e
Welds off set staggered welding
nx I (e)
-
b6a4V n x I (e)
..

e I e I e
., ..
I" 1" 1" 1" 1"
I.. .1 .. 1.. 1.. .1 .. .1 ..
e I e I
e
Welds in line not staggered
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Symbols on Drawings Rev 03-06-05
8.6
TWI
V!lfll. _
Single-V
Single-U
/fl
/"',
Single-V Butt flush Single-U Butt with sealing
~ -,
Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
[
n
~
1
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Symbols on Drawings 8.7 . Rev 03-06-05
TWI
V!lOI. _
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
The Arrow Line:
b) Shall touch the joint intersection.
d) Shall not be parallel to the drawing.
e) Shall point towards a single plate preparation.
The Reference Line:
c) Shall join the arrow line.
d) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the ,drawing.
Position of Symbols
The position of the symbol is used in conjunction with an arrow line and two reference lines
The position of a weld in a particular joint relative to the parts being joined is indicated by the
head of an arrow, this denotes the reference line side of the joint. The side nearer the arrowhead is
known as the arrow side; the remote side is known as the other side
The symbol is placed on the dashed reference line if the weld (weld face) is on the other side of
the joint. The symbol is placed on the continuous reference line if the weld (weld face) is on the
other side. For welds made on both sides the symbols are placed on both continuous and dashed
reference lines or alternatively if the weld is the same both sides there is no need to have a dashed
reference line.
- - - ~ - - - - -
/
/---[/7"----
To be welded on the arrow side
To be welded on the other side
To be welded on both sides
---v----
---[/7"----
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Supplementary symbols
Supplementary symbols may be used when a specific external weld profile is required. They arc
used in conjunction with the relevant elementary symbol.
Concave Profile Convex Profile
'\, )
, ~ I --I / If\:
Mitre Profile Toes Shall be Blended Smoothly
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Complementary indications
Complementary indications are used for the following.
a peripheral weld-a weld made all round ajoint.
a site weld-not a shop weld.
non-destructive testing.
welding process.
Additional information.
Indication of peripheral weld Indication of field or site weld
111
Indication of non-destructive testing Indication of welding process (MMA)
Additional information, the reference
document is indicated In the box
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Vflfll. _
Elementary symbols.
Each weld may be characterised by a symbol which, in general, is representative of the shape of
the weld to be made, or edge preparation to be used, e.g. single- V butt weld, The vertical portion
of a fillet weld symbol, single-bevel butt weld symbol must always be placed on the left-hand
side. An elementary symbol does not indicate the welding process to be used. Detail with
regarding the root gap, root face, bevel angles etc will be stated in the applicable welding
procedure specification (WPS). Providing the joint is not to complex, combinations of elementary
symbols may be used for welds made from two sides and compound welds, e.g. a fillet weld
superimposed on a single bevel butt weld.
Steep Flanked Single-V Butt Weld
v
/----------
Steep Flanked Single-Bevel Butt Weld
Surfacing
r:":
Removable backing strip
MR
Permanent backing strip M
Edge flange weld
11
/----------
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Square Butt
Single-V Butt
~
/----------
Single-Bevel Butt
r---
Single-V Butt Weld, Broad Root Face
y
/-----------
Single-Bevel Butt Weld, Broad Root Face
Single-U Butt Weld
Backing/Sealing Weld
r:":
Single-U Butt Weld
Fillet Weld
Plug Weld
r---
Spot Weld
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Dimensions
Any dimension relating to the cross-section of the weld must be given on the left-hand side of the
symbol; distances between adjacent weld elements must be indicated in parenthesis.
Butt welds are intended to be continuous and have full penetration along the entire length of the
joint, unless dimensional detail specifies otherwise. The cross sectional dimension indicated for a
fillet weld is referring to its leg length. When it is desired to indicate the design throat thickness,
then the leg length dimension is prefixed with the letter z; the design throat thickness dimension is
prefixed with the letter a.
z = leg length
z6a4 (e)
a = Design throat thickness.
n = number of welds.
z6a4
(e)
I =length of each weld.
)
e =distance between each weld.
e I
e
4 _1 4
_1 4 _1 4 _1
4
1 -I
14 _14 _1
4
_1
4
_1
4
_1
4
e I e I
e
Welds off set staggered welding
n xI
(e)
z6a41"'"
(
I
z6a4V
n x I (e)
4

e
.4 J ~
e
~ J ~
e
~ I ~
e I e I e
1
4
_'4 _'4 _1 4 _1 4
- I ~
Welds in line not staggered
TWI
V!lIJI. _
/ __":J _
/'l
Single-V
Single-U
( )
~
Single-V Butt flush Single-U Butt with sealing
/_JL__
Double-bevel butt

(
Single-bevel butt
- - - - ~ - ~
n
~
I
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt
TWI
VlJOI. _
Numerical indication of process
No. Process No. Process
I Arc welding
II Metal-arc welding without gas protection
III Metal-arc welding with covered electrode
ll2 Gravity arc welding with covered electrode
ll3 Bare wire metal-arc welding
114 Flux cored metal-arc welding
115 Coated wire metal-arc welding
118 Firecracker welding
12 Submerged arc welding
121 Submerged arc welding with wire electrode
122 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode
13 Gas shielded metal-arc welding
131 MIG welding
135 MAG welding: metal-arc welding with
non-inert gas shield
136 Flux cored metal-arc welding
14 Gas-shielded welding with non-consumable
electrode
141 TIG welding
149 Atomic-hydrogen welding
15 Plasma arc welding
18 Other arc welding processes
181 Carbon arc welding
185 Rotating arc welding
2 Resistance welding
21 Spot welding
22 Steam welding
221 Lap scam welding
225 Seam welding with strip
23 Projection welding
24 Flash welding
25 Resistance butt welding
29 Other resistance welding processes
291 HF resistance welding
3 Gas welding
31 Oxy-fuel gas welding
311 Oxy-acetylene welding
312 Oxy-propane welding
313 Oxy-hydrogen welding
32 Air fuel gas welding
321 Air-acetylene welding
322 Air-propane welding
4 Solid phase welding: Pressure welding
41 Ultrasonic welding
42 Friction welding
43 Forge welding
44 Welding by high mechanical energy
441 Explosive welding
45 Diffusion welding
47 Gas pressure welding
48 Cold welding
7 Other welding processes
71 Thermit welding
72 Electroslag welding
73 Electrogas welding
74 Induction welding
75 Light radiation welding
751 Laser Welding
752 Arc image welding
753 Infrared welding
76 Electron beam welding
77 Percussion welding
78 Stud welding
781 Arc stud welding
782 Resistance welding
9 Brazing, soldering & braze welding
91 Brazing
911 Infrared brazing
912 Flame brazing
913 Furnace brazing
914 Dip brazing
915 Salt bath brazing
916 Induction brazing
917 Ultrasonic brazing
918 Resistance brazing
919 Diffusion brazing
923 Friction brazing
924 Vacuum brazing
93 Other brazing processes
94 Soldering
941 Infrared soldering
942 Flame soldering
943 Furnace soldering
944 Dip soldering
945 Salt bath soldering
946 Induction soldering
947 Ultrasonic soldering
948 Resistance soldering
949 Diffusion soldering
951 Flow soldering
952 Soldering with soldering iron
953 Friction soldering
954 Vacuum soldering
96 Other soldering processes
97 Braze welding
971 Gas braze welding
972 Arc braze welding
* Table 10, This table complies with International Standard ISO 4063
TWI
V!JOI. _
Complete a symbols drawing for the welded cruciform joint given below:
All butt weld are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds with MMA.
10
1
20
35
30
) 15
/
All fillet weld leg lengths are 10 mm
BS EN 22553
'!,
\] 2
(
,m m_m_mnmb
TWI
...
V!7/lI-----------
as 499 part 2 Fillet Weld Exercise
1. Welded both sides: A continuous concave fillet weld
6mm leg lengths.
2. Welded arrow side: Three Intermittent fillet welds,
6 mm leg lengths, the length of each weld 20 mm,
the distance between each weld 30 mm.
Welde.d other side: Two intermittent fillet welds 12
mm leg lengths, the length of each weld 30 mm, the
distance between each weld 10 mm. Welds to be
staggered.
3. Welded both sides. A continuous fillet weld, 6 mm
leg lengths, 4 mm throat thickness, welds to be
carried out on site.
4. Welded arrow side: Three intermittent fillet welds
10 mm leg lengths, 7mm throat thickness, length of
each weld 15 mm, the distance between each weld
25 mm.
Welded other side: A continuous convex fillet weld,
15 mm leg length, 10.5 mm throat thickness.
Senior WeldingInspection - QUBS499 part 2 Fillet WeldingSymbolsSec 8
TWI
V!l!ll-----------
BS EN 22553 Butt Weld Exercise
1. Welded arrow side: Single-V butt weld with permanent
backing strip, flat weld profile.
I I I
2. Welded other side: Single-U butt weld, flat weld profile
I I I
3. Welded arrow side: Single-V butt weld depth of preparation 10 mm
Welded other side: Backing run. (Plate thickness 15 mm.)
I I I
4. Welded arrow side: Single-J butt weld, depth of
preparation 12 mm with a 8 mm fillet weld superimposed.
(plate thickness 15 mm.
. Welded other side: 12 mm leg length fillet weld.
Senior Welding Inspection - QU BS EN 22553 Butt Welding Symbols Sec 8
'
6 0 u o n ~ a s
{
\
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Introduction to Welding Processes:
A welding process: Special equipment used with method, for producing welds.
The 4 main requirements of any fusion welding process are:
I:
Heating: Of high enough intensity to cause melting of base metals and filler metals.
Protection: Of the molten filler metal in transit and base metal from oxidation, and to
protect the heat source and metals from ingress of gases such as hydrogen
& oxygen.
Cleaning: Of the weld metal to remove oxides and impurities, and refine the grains.
Adequate:
properties
Adding alloying. elements to the weld, to produce the desired mechanical
properties.
Senior Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding Rev 09-09-02
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1ll01. _
Heating:
There are many heat sources used for welding. In fusion welding, the main requirement
is that the source must be of sufficient temperature to melt the materials being welded.
Combustion of gases:
Oxygen & acetylene will combust to produce a temperature of 3,200 "C. Other fuel
gases may be used for oxy fuel gas cutting. The intensity of the flame is not as high as
other heating methods and so longer time has to be spent to bring the material to its
melting point.
Electrical resistance:
The heat generated by electrical resistance between 2 surfaces is used to produce over
95% of all welds made, in the resistance spot welding process. Electrical resistance is
(
-,
also used as a heat source in the Electro Slag welding process where the resistance is
given by the molten slag. This process is classed as a resistive heating process.
High intensity energy beams:
We use 3 types of concentrated high intensity energy beams, which are:
1) Laser. (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emissions of Radiation)
2) Electron Beam. (Concentrated beam of electrons, generally in a vacuum)
3) Plasma. (A gas forced through an electric arc to create an ionised gas)
All these welding processes use beams of high energy creating extremely high
temperatures. These energy beams also enable very high welding speeds, which reduce
the amount ofoverall distortion with increased productivity.
Friction:
We can use the heat generated by friction (and pressure) to weld components together.
The joint is made with the materials faces in the plastic state.
The Electric Arc:
By far the most common heat source for fusion welding, the electric arc is utilised in
most of the common welding processes. The electric arc can produce heat of> 6000 C
with extreme levels of ultra-violet, infrared and visible light. Heat is derived from the
collision of electrons and ions with the base material and the electrode. An electric arc
may be defined as the passage of current across an ionised gap. All gases are insulators
and thus sufficient voltage, or pressure needs to be available to enable an electron to be
stripped from an atom into the next. Once this conducting path or plasma has been
created, a lower voltage can maintain the arc. The voltage required to initiate the arc is
termed the open circuit voltage or OCV requirement of the process/consumable. The
voltage that maintains the arc once it is created is termed the welding, or arc voltage.
The conducting path produced is termed the plasma column.
Senior Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding P r o c e s ~ . ~ Rev 09-09-02
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Protection:
In [V[MA welding, the gas shield is produced from the combustion of compounds in the
electrode coating. The gas produced is mainly C0
2
but electrodes are available that
produce hydrogen gas, which give a very high level of penetration.
In Submerged Arc welding the gas shield is again produced from the combustion of
compounds, but these compounds are supplied in a granulated flux, which is supplied
separately to the wire. MMA electrodes or SAW fluxes containing high levels of basic
compounds are used where hydrogen controlled welding is required.
In MIG/MAG & TIG welding the gas is supplied directly from a cylinder, or bulk feed
system and may be stored in a gaseous, or liquid state. In TIG & MIG welding we
generally use the inert gases argon or helium. In MAG welding we generally use C0
2
or
mixtures of C0
2
or 0
2
in argon.
Cleaning (of surface contaminants):
The cleaning, refining and de-oxidation of the weld metal is a major requirement of all
common fusion welding processes. As a weld can be considered as a casting, it is
possible to use low quality wires in some processes, and yet produce high quality weld
metal by adding cleaning agents to the flux. This is especially true in MMA welding,
where many cleaning agents and de-oxidants may be added directly to the electrode
coating. De-oxidants and cleaning agents are also generally added to FCA W & SAW
fluxes. For MIG/MAG & TIG welding wires, de-oxidants, such as silicon, aluminium
and manganese must be added to the wire during initial casting. Electrodes and wires for
MIG & TIG welding must also be refined to the highest quality prior to casting, as they
have no flux to add cleaning agents to the solidifying weld metal.
Adequate properties (from alloying):
As with de-oxidants, we may add alloying elements to the weld metal via a flux in some
processes to produce the desired weld metal properties. It is the main reason why there is
a wide range of consumables for the MMA process. The chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal can be changed easily during manufacture of the flux coating. This
also increases the electrode efficiency. (Electrodes of > 160% are not uncommon). In
SAW, elements such as Ferro-manganese may be added to agglomerated fluxes. It is
much cheaper to add alloying elements to the weld via the flux as an ore, or compound.
As with the cleaning requirement described above, wires for MIG/MAG & TIG must be
drawn as cast, thus all the elements required in the deposited weld metal composition
must be within the cast and drawn wire. This is the main reason why the range of these
consumables is very limited. With the developments of flux core wires, the range of
consumables for FCAW is now very extensive, as alloying elements may be easily added
to the flux core in the same way as MMA electrodes fluxes.
Senior Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding Rev 09-09-02
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THE WELDING 1t\ISTITUTE
Special Terms Related to Welding Safety:
Duty cycle:
A Duty Cycle is the amount of current that can be safely carried by a conductor in a
period of time. The time base is normally 10 minutes and a 60% duty cycle means that
the conductor can safely carry this current for 6 minutes in 10 and then must rest and
cool for 4 minutes. At a 100% duty cycle equipment can carry the current continuously.
Generally 60% & 100% duty cycles are given on welding equipment.
Example: 350amps at 60% duty cycle and 300amps 100% duty cycle.
This should not be confused with the term Operating Factor, often wrongly used for
Duty Cycle, as they are both measured as a percentage. Operating Factors are mainly
)
used in economic calculations to calculate the amount of time required from a welding
process to deposit an amount of weld metal. A typical Operating Factor for MMA would
be only 30%
Occupational, and Maximum Exposure Limit (OEL and MEL):
Operational, and Maximum Exposure Limits may be defined as a safe, or maximum
working limit of exposure to various fume, gases or compounds during certain time
limits, as calculated by the Health and Safety Executive or HSE in the UK. The branch
of the executive that holds responsibility for this function is known as COSHH or
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health. Examples of levels of some fume and gases
that workers may be exposed to, taken from Guidance Note EH/40 2002, are given in
the table below:
Fume or gas Exposure Limit Effect on Health
Cadmium 0.025Mglm
J
Extremely toxic
General Welding Fume 5Mg/nr' Low toxicity
Iron 5Mg/rrr' Low toxicity
Aluminium 5Mg/rrr' Low toxicity
Ozone 0.20 PPM Extremely toxic
Phosgene 0.02 PPM Extremely toxic
Argon No OEL Value
0
2
air content to be controlled
Very low toxicity
*Note MEL/OEL values given in Guidance Note EH/40 may change annually.
The toxicity of these examples can be gauged by the value of exposure limit. Any of the
above examples may be present in welding under certain conditions, which will be
expanded upon by your course lecturer at the relevant time, though Welding Safety will
be discussed fully as a separate subject area.
Senior Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding Processes; Rev 09-09-02
( M V W S V W W ) J . I V
0 1 n 0 ! l J a s
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Arc Characteristic for MMA & TIG:
In MMA & TIG welding, the arc length is controlled by the welder. Whilst an
experienced and highly skilled welder can keep the arc length at a fairly constant length,
there will always be some variation.
When the arc length is increased, the voltage or pressure required to maintain the arc will
also need to increase. This wouldalso reduce the current supplied in a normal electrical
circuit, where the supplied voltage is proportional to a drop in current.
Thus we need to find a way of reducing a large drop in current for the variation in arc
voltage. This is achieved by the use of special electrical components within the
equipment that produce sets of curves as shown below. /
'I
The graph below shows amperage curve (A) selected @ 100 amps, with the effect of
variation inthe arc gap and voltage.
Note how an increase in arc length increases the area under the graph, which
appears to give an increase in overall heat input. The extra heat is, however,
generally lost in the arc and is not transferred to the weld pool.
Constant Current (Drooping) Characteristic
OCV
50-90 volts t ~ ...........__
Output Curves for current selector settings:
A: 100 Amps. B: 140 Amps. C: 180 Amps
Long arc gap
Normal arc gap. 1.Y' mel 0"" Y Mug I I.
Short arc gap
Arc Voltage
Welding Amperage ABC
A large variation in voltage = Asmaller variation in amperage
Senior Welding Inspection - Manual Metal Arc Welding 10.1 Rev 09-09-02
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1ll01. _
Manual Metal Arc Welding:
MMA is a welding process that was first developed in the late 19
th
century using bare
wire electrodes.
Definitions:
MMA: Manual Metal Arc Welding. (UK)
SMAW: Shielded Metal Arc Welding. (USA)
Introduction:
MMA is simple process in tenus of equipment and consumables, using short flux covered
electrodes. The electrode is secured in the electrode holder and the leads for this, and the
power return cable are placed in the + or - electrical ports as required. The process
demands a high level of skill from the welder to obtain consistent high quality welds, but
(
is widely used in industry, mainly because of the range of available consumables, its
positional capabilities and adaptability to site work. (Photograph 1)
The electrode core wire is often of very low quality, as refining elements are easily added
to the flux coating, which can produce high quality weld metal relatively cheaply.
The arc is struck by striking the electrode onto the surface of the plate and withdrawing
it a small distance, as you would strike a match. The arc should be struck in the direct
area of the weld preparation avoiding arc strikes, or stray flash on the plate material. Care
should also be taken to maintain a short and constant arc length and speed of travel.
Photograph 2 shows a trainee dressed in the correct safety clothing, whilst photograph 3
indicates the level of process-produced fume, and the use of a flexible hose extraction
system. Little has changed with the basic principles of the process since it was developed,
but improvements in consumable technologies occur on a very regular basis.
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Manual Metal Arc Welding
Basic Equipment Requirements:
1) Power source TransformerlRectifier. (Constant current type)
2) Holding oven. (Temperature up to 200C)
3) Inverter power source.
4) Electrode holder.
5) Power cable.
6) . Welding visor with correct filter glass rating.
7) Power return cable.
8) Electrodes.
9) Electrode oven. (Bakes up to 350C)
10) Control panel. (Amperage & polarity)
)
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Variable Parameters:
1) Voltage:
The Arc Voltage of the MMA welding process is measured as close to the arc as
possible. It is variable only by changes in arc length.
The OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the
electric arc and will change with the type of electrode being used. Most basic coated
electrodes require an OCV of 70 - 90 volts. Most rutile electrodes require only 50 volts.
2) Current & Polarity:
The type and value of current used will be determined by the choice of electrode
classification, electrode diameter, material type and thickness, and the welding position.
Electrode polarity is generally determined by the operation i.e. surfacing/joining and the
type of electrode, or electrode coating being used. Most surfacing and non-ferrous alloys
require DC - for correct deposition, although there are exceptions to this rule. Electrode
bum off rates will vary with AC or DC + or - depending on the coating type and the
choice of polarity will also affect heat balance of the electric arc.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when MMA Welding:
1) The Welding Equipment:
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good condition.
2) The Electrode:
Checks should be made to ensure that the correct specification of electrode is being used,
that the electrode is of the correct diameter and that the flux coating is in good condition.
A check should be made to ensure that any basic coated electrode being used has been
pre-baked -to that specified in the welding procedure. A general pre-use treatment for
basic coated electrodes would typically be:
a) Baked at 350C for 1 hour.
b) Held in holding ovens at 150 C
c) Issued to the welder in a heated quiver (Normally around 70C)
Vacuum pack pre-baked electrodes do not need to undergo this pre-baking treatment.
If the vacuum seal appears be broken at the point of opening the carton, users should
follow the manufacturers advice and instructions to maintain the hydrogen level specified
on electrode cartons.
The date and time of opening must be recorded to enable re-baking as required.
Copyright 2002 TWl Ltd.
(
-,
C \ \ V . l D D I . l ) 1 \ \ l . l a u I
1 1
( .
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:
TIG welding was first developed in the USA during the 2
nd
world war for welding
aluminium alloys. As helium was used as the gas, the process was known as Heliarc.
Definitions:
TIG: Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. (UK)
GTAW: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. (USA)
Introduction:
TIG welding is a process that requires a very high level of welder skill, which can be
gauged in the degree of concentration of the welder shown in photograph 1 above. It is a
process synonymous with high quality welds, as shown in application of the offshore
powerboat repair in photograph 2. It is considered a comparatively slow process, but
with the development of hot-wire TIG (Photograph 3) TIG welding may produce high
quality welds with deposition rates higher than SAW.
The arc may be struck by using a number of methods, but in cheaper equipment the arc
is struck (Scratch start) in a similar way to MMA welding. This can easily cause
contamination of the tungsten and weld metal and to avoid this high frequency arc
ignition is often used in most equipment to initiate the arc, however high frequency may
cause interference with hi-tech electrical equipment and computer systems. To overcome
this, Lift arc has been developed where the electrode is touched onto the plate and is
withdrawn slightly. An arc is produced with very low amperage, which is increased to
full amperage as the electrode is extended to the normal arc length. In contrast with other
arc processes, the filler wire is added directly into the-pool separately by the welder,
which requires a very high level of hand dexterity and artisan craft skill.
TIG is a far more complex process than MMA, with more variable parameters to adjust,
and parts to check, and therefore more inspection points for the inspector to meet.
Senior Welding Inspection - Tungsten Inert Gas Welding 11.1 Rev 09-09-02
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1ll1J1. _
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
\ )
1) Power source. TransformerlRectifier (Constant Amperage type)
~
3) Power control panel.
4) Power cable hose.
5) Flow-meter.
6) Tungsten electrodes.
7) Torch assemblies.
9) Power Control panel. (Amperage & polarity)
TWI
V!lOI. _
The TIC Torch Head Assembly:
1\
1) Tungsten electrodes.
2) Spare ceramic shield.
3) Gas lens.
4) Torch body.
5) Spare ceramic shield.
6) Gas diffuser.
7) Split copper collett. (For securing the tungsten electrode)
8) On/off or latching switch.
9) Tungsten housing.
TWI
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t) Voltage:
The voltage of the TrG welding process is variable only by the type of gas being used,
and changes in arc length as in MMA.
2) . Current & Polarity:
The current is adj usted proportionally to the diameter of the tungsten being used. The
higher the level of the current, then the higher is the level of penetration and fusion that is
obtained.
The polarity used for steels is always DC -ve as most of the heat is concentrated at the +
pole in TIG welding. This is required to keep the tungsten as cool as possible during
welding. AC is used when welding aluminium and its alloys.
i ~
3) Tungsten type and vertex angle:
The tungsten diameter, type of tungsten, and vertex angle, are all critical factors
considered as essential variables of a welding procedure. The most common types of
tungsten used are thoriated or ceriated for DC and zirconiated with AC (aluminium
alloys) The vertex angle is measured as shown below:
Too fine an angle will promote
melting of the tungsten tip
The tungsten vertex angle e
When welding aluminium alloys with
AC, the tungsten end is chamfered, and
forms a ball end during welding.
4) Gas type and flow rate:
Generally 2 types of pure gases are used for TIG welding; namely argon and helium,
though nitrogen is sometimes added for welding copper and hydrogen additions may be
made for austenitic stainless steels (increasing welding speed). The gas flow rate is a
further essential variable of the welding procedure. This will change on joint type and
welding position.
TIG gases are produced in purity of 99.99% and though argon is cheaper than helium
and has higher density than air, it has low ionisation potential, giving relatively shallow
penetration. Helium is more expensive than argon and has a lower density than argon
and air, and higher ionisation potential, giving higher penetration and a hotter arc. This
means practically that the flow rate of helium must be increased in the down-hand
position, and argon increased in the overhead position, for a similar joint design in order
to maintain adequate gas cover of the weld zone. We sometimes mix argon and helium
gases to combine the useful features of each gas i.e. gas cover and penetration.
Senior Welding Inspection - Turigsten Inert Gas Welding 11.4 Rev 09-09-02
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5) Slope in and slope out:
Slope in and slope out are variables available on some TIO welding equipments, which
can regulate the current climb and decay. This is very beneficial in avoiding crater pipes
at the end of weld runs. The slope in and slope out control may be shown 011 the
equipment as below:
Slope in /
During welding it is used to control the rise and decay of the current at the start and end
of a weld as shown below:
Weld Start
(Slope out) (Slope In)
6) Gas cut off delay:
The gas cut off delay control delays the gas solenoid shut off time at the end of the weld,
and is used to give continued shielding of the solidifying and cooling weld metal at the
end of a run. It is often used when welding materials that oxidise at high temperatures
such as stainless and titanium alloys. It may be shown on the welding equipment as
follows:
Gas delay
C)
Seconds
7) Pulsed TIG welding variables:
The pulse parameters of pulsed TIG are generally adjustable as follows:
a) Pulse background current. c) Pulse peak current.
b) Pulse duration. d) Pulse frequency.
Senior We[ding Inspection - Tungsten Inert Gas Welding 11.5 Rev 09-09-02
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V!l!ll.__--- _
\
)
~
Important lnspection Points/Checks when TlG Welding:
1) The "Velding Equipment:
2) The Torch Head Assembly:
Check the diameter and specification of the tungsten, the required vertex angle has been
correctly ground, and that a gas lens has been fitted. Check the tungsten protrudes the
correct length from the ceramic, the ceramic is the correct type, and is in good condition.
3) Gas type and flow rate:
Check the correct gas, or gas mixture is being used and the flow rate is correct for the
given joint design and position as stated on the approved welding procedure.
Checks should be made to ensure that the type of current and polarity are correctly set,
and that the current range is within that given on the procedure. These values will be
controlled by, the material type, thickness, and diameter and type of tungsten being used.
5) Other Variable Welding Parameters:
Checks should be made for correct angle of torch, arc gap distance, speed of travel and all
other essential variables of the process given on the approved welding procedure.
In mechanised welding checks will need to be made on the speed of the carriage
mechanism and the speed of the filler wire. Additionally when welding reactive materials
checks will need to be made on purging, or backing gas type and pressures.
6) Safety Checks:
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment, and
that all electrical insulation is sound. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid
exposure to ozone and other toxic fumes.
A Check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the
procedure being employed.
Typical Welding Imperfections:
1) Tungsten inclusions, caused by a lack of welder skill, too high current setting,
and/or incorrect vertex angle.
2) Surface porosity, caused by a loss of gas shield particularly when site. welding, or
incorrect gas flow rate for the joint design and/or welding position.
3) Crater pipes, caused by poor weld finish technique, or incorrect use of current
decay.
4) Weld/root oxidation if using insufficient gas cut-off delay, or purge pressure when
welding stainless steels or titanium alloys.
TWI
Ill!ll. _
Summary ofTIG/GTAW:
Equipment requirements:
1) A Transformer/Rectifier. (Constant amperage type)
2) A power and power return cable.
3) An inert shielding gas. (Argon or Helium)
4) Gas hose, flow meter, & gas regulator.
5) TIG torch head with ground tungsten, collets, and ceramics.
6) Method of arc ignition. (High frequency, lift arc, or scratch start.)
7) Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good extraction.
8) Optional filler metal in rod form, to correct specification.
Parameters & Inspection Points:
1) Amperage. 2) Arc voltage.
3) AC/DC & Polarity. 4) Speed of travel.
5) Tungsten type & diameter. 6) Duty cycles.
7) Tungsten vertex angle. 8) Connections.
9) Gas type & flow rate. 10) Insulation/extraction.
11) Ceramic condition, size and type. 12) Gas lens.
1) Tungsten Inclusions. 2) Surface porosity.
3) Crater pipes. 4) Weld/root oxidation.
Advantages & Disadvantages:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1) High quality. 1) High skill factor required.
2) Good control. 2) Small range of consumables.
3) All positional. 3) Protection for site work.
4) Lowest Hz arc welding process. 4) Low productivity (o/f).
5) Low inter run cleaning. 5) High ozone levels.
TWI
V!lOI. _
Questions
au 1.
au 2.
au 3.
aU4.
(i
au 5
au 6.
TIG Welding Process
Give three reasons for the occurrence of tungsten inclusions.
State the essential welding parameters of the TIG welding process
Which electrode polarity is considered essential for the welding of carbon steels?
And give a brief description why
Which electrode polarity is considered essential for the welding of aluminum? And
give a brief description why.
State the tungsten electrode activators required for the welding of carbon steels
and the light alloys
Give the main advantages and disadvantages of the TIG welding process
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding Sec II
\
( M V W D D V W / D I W ) ~ U ! P l a M S B D a A n J V / l . l a u I l ~ l a w
Z I U O n J a s
( )
TWI
V[JI. _
Arc Characteristic for MIG & SAW:
In MIG/MAG & SAW welding we require different welding equipment than used
for MMA & TIG, as the arc length is controlled by voltage.
To achieve this we require a Constant Voltage (Flat) characteristic power source.
Constant Voltage (Flat) Characteristic
. ~
OCV
Large arc ga
)
A ~
Normal arc gap
,,.
Small arc gapI
~ .....
....
...... l1li"'"
(
Arc Voltage
\ .
Welding Amperage
Small change in voltage = Much larger change in amperage.
i.e. 2 volts = 100 amps
When pre-calculating the welding arc voltage from the OCV setting it is considered that
1-2 Open Circuit Volts are lost for every 100 amps of welding current being used.
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert/Active Gas Weldingl2.1 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
Metal Inert Gas Welding:
( )
MIG welding was initially developed in the USA in the late 40's for the welding of
aluminium alloys structures, using argon, or helium gas shielding.
Definitio ns:
MIG: Metal Inert Gas (Using an inert shielding gas i.e. argon or helium)
MAG: Metal Active Gas (Using active gases i.e. pure CO
2
, Ar/C0
2
or Ar/0
2
mixtures)
GMAW: Gas Metal Arc Welding (Used to describe the MIG/MAG process in USA)
FCAW: Flux Cored Arc Welding (Used to describe the flux cored arc process in USA)
Introduction:
The basic equipment requirements of MIG/MAG welding differ from MMA and TIG as a
different type of power source characteristic is required and a continuous wire (from a
spool) is supplied at the welding torch head automatically. The shielding gas is supplied
externally from a separate cylinder. A separate wire feed unit, or internal wire drive
mechanism is also required to drive the wire electrode.
The arc is struck by short circuit of the wire on contact with the work piece, as it is
driven by the drive rolls through the liner, and then out through the contact tip. The type
of metal transfer that occurs is entirely dependant on gas type being used and
amperage/WFS and voltages set. As the electric arc length is controlled by the power
source the process is classified as a semi automatic welding process, which may be used
manually, fully automated by robotics, or can be simply mechanised by using tracking
and/or weaving system. Photograph 1 and 2 show the basic process components and
photograph 3 shows simple mechanisation in the overhead position.
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert/Active Gas Weldingt 2.2 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
THE WELDIt\IG 1t\ISTITUTE
Metal Inert Gas Welding
(
1) Power source. TransformerlRectifier (Constant Voltage type)
3) Power hose assembly. (Liner. Power cable. Water hose. Gas hose)
4) Liner.
5) Spare contact tips.
6) Torch head assembly.
7) Power-return cable & clamp.
8) 15kg wire spool. (Copper coated & uncoated wires)
9) Power control panel.
10) External wire feed unit.:
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert/Active Gas Welding 2.3 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7!lI. _
The lVIIG/lVIAG Wire Drive Assembly
1) An internal wire drive system
2) Half groove bottom drive roller. 3) Wire guide.
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert! Active Gas Welding! 2.4 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
17001. _
The lVnG Torch Head Assembly
I. )
1) Torch body.
2) Onloff or latching switch.
3) Spot welding spacer attachment.
4) Contact tips.
5) Gas diffuser.
6) Spare shrouds.
7) Torch head assembly. (Less the shroud)
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert/Active Gas Weldinl?l2.5 Rev 09-09-02
\.
TWI
VOI. _
Immediately on pressing the torch on/off (latching) switch, the following occurs:
a) The gas solenoid opens and delivers the shielding gas.
b) The wire begins to be driven from the reel and through the contact tip.
c) The contactor closes and delivers current to the contact tip.
d) The water pump circulates the cooling water. (If required)
Types of Metal Transfer:
1) Dip Transfer:
In dip transfer the wire short-circuits the arc between 50 - 200 times/second. This type of
transfer is normally achieved with CO
2
or mixtures of C02 & argon gas + low amps &
welding volts < 24 volts. Dip transfer is all positional, but with a low deposition rate,
penetration and fusion. This is because of the time when the arc is extinguished and only
resistance heating takes place. It is mainly used for thin sheet steel < 3mm(and may also
be used for positional welding in thicker section). The weld metal is deposited during the
short circuit part of the welding cycle.
2) Spray Transfer:
In spray transfer a continuous electric arc and spray metal transfer is produced. This is
usually achieved with pure argon, or argon CO
2
mixtures and higher amps & volts> 24
volts. With steels it can be used only in down-hand butts and H/V fillet welds, but gives
higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than dip transfer because of the continuous
arc heating. It is mainly used for plate steel > 3mm but may be have limited use for
positional welding due to the potential large weld pool involved.
3) Pulsed Transfer:
Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across the arc gap at
a frequency between 50 -300 Pulses/second. Pulse transfer is a development of spray
transfer, that gives positional welding capability for steels, combined with controlled heat
input, good fusion, and high productivity. It may be used for all sheet steel thickness>
1mm, but is mainly used for positional welding of steels> 6mm.
As all the parameters require extremely fine adjustment synergic equipment is normally
used for pulse transfer.
4) Synergic Pulsed Transfer:
Synergic MIG/MAG was developed in the 1980's and uses microprocessor control to
adjust the parameters of the electric arc, in maintaining an optimum conditions for a
selection of wire type & diameter, material and gas. The microprocessor control will
change all other pulse parameters automatically and immediately, for any change in WFS
(Wire feed speed). Equipment may also be used for standard dip, spray and globular
transfer.
5) Globular Transfer:
Globular transfer occurs between dip & spray, but is not normally used for solid wire
MIG-MAG welding, but is sometimes used in FCAW. (Flux cored arc welding)
Senior Welding Inspection- Metal Inert/Active Gas Weldingt2.6 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
1l701. _
1) Wire Feed Speed:
Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire.
Wires are generally produced in 0.6/0.8/1.0/1.2/1.4 & 1.6 mm diameter.
2) Voltage:
The voltage setting is the most important setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc
length. In dip transfer it also effects the rise of current and the overall heat input into the
weld. An increase of both WFS/current and voltage will increase heat input. The welding
connections need to be checked for soundness, as any slack connections will give a hot
junction where voltage will be lost from the circuit and will affect the characteristic of the
welding arc greatly. The voltage will affect the type of transfer achievable, but this is also
highly dependant on the type of gas being used.
3) Gases:
C02 gas cannot sustain spray transfer, as the Ionisation Potential of the gas is too high.
Because of this high ionisation potential it gives very good penetration, but also a very
unstable arc and lots of spatter. Argon has a much lower Ionisation potential and can
sustain spray transfer above 24 welding volts. Argon gives a very stable arc and little
spatter, but lower penetration than CO
2
We mix both argon and CO
2
gas in mixtures of
between 5 - 20% CO
2
in argon to get the benefit of both gases i.e. good penetration with
a stable arc and very little spatter. CO
2
gas is much cheaper than argon or its mixtures.
4) Inductance:
Inductance causes a backpressure of voltage to occur in the wire and operates only when
there is a changing current value. In dip transfer welding the current rises as the electrode
short circuits -on the plate and it is then that the inductance resists the rapid rate of rise of
current at the tip ofthe electrode. This has a main effect of reducing the level of spatter.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when MIG/MAG Welding:
2) The Electrode Wire
The diameter, specification and the quality of the wire are the main inspection headings.
The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor with Single, Double & Triple
de-oxidized wires being available. The quality of the wire winding is also important.
The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, then the lower is the chance of occurrence
of porosity in the weld. The quality of the copper coating, and the quality of the wire
temper and winding are also important factors in minimizing wire feed problems.
Quality of wire windings aud increasing costs
(a) Random wound. (b) Layer wound.c) Precision layer woun
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert!Active Gas Welding),2.7 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllOI. _
\)
~
3) The Drive Rolls and Liner.
Check the drive rolls are of the correct size for the wire and that the pressure is only hand
tight, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess pressure will deform the wire to an
ovular shape. This will make the wire very difficult to drive through the liner and result in
arcing in the contact tip and excessive wear of the contact tip and liner. .
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner will generally
fit 2 sizes of wire i.e. (0.6 & 0.8) (1.0 & 1.2) (1.4 & 1.6) mm diameter. Steel liners are
used for steel wires and Teflon liners for aluminium wires.
4) The Contact Tip.
Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven, and check the
amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire and contact tip will
reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are copper coated to maximise the
transfer of current by contact between 2 copper surfaces at the contact tip, this also
inhibits corrosion. The contact tip should be replaced regularly.
5) The Connections.
The length of the electric arc in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the voltage settings.
This is achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic inside the equipment.
Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the nature and stability of the
electric are, and is thus is a major inspection point.
6) Gas & Gas Flow Rate.
The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the flow rate
from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage over the solidifying and
molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
7) Other Variable Welding Parameters.
Checks should be made for correct WFS, Voltage, Speed of travel, and all other essential
variables of the process given on the approved welding procedure.
8) Safety Checks:
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment and
electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid exposure to
ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the
procedure being employed.
1) Silica inclusions, (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run cleaning.
2) Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically down.
3) Porosity caused from loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants
4) Burn through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal.
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert! Active Gas Welding! 2. 8 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
Advantages of Flux Cored Arc Welding:
In the mid 80's the development of self-shielded and dual-shielded FCAW was a major
step in the successful application of on-site semi automatic welding, and has also enabled
a much wider range of materials to be welded.
The wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux. This flux can contain
elements that would normally be used in MMA electrodes and so the process has a very
wide range of applications.
In addition we can also add gas producing elements and compounds to the flux and so the
process can become independent of a separate gas shield, which restricted the use of
conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field applications. "Dual Shield" wires obtain
their gas shielding from a combination of flux and separate shielding gas.
Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetically with various forms of joint. The
effectiveness of the joint of the wire is an inspection point of cored wire welding,
particularly with wires containing basic fluxes, as moisture can easily be.' absorbed into a
damaged or poor seam.
It is the accepted practise when using basic wires that the first few meters of wire from
the reel is stripped off and discarded as moisture can be absorbed up the length of the
wire through the core of flux if incorrectly stored. Baking of cored wires is ineffective
and will do nothing to restore the condition of a contaminated flux within a wire.
A major advantage of fluxed cored wires is that they produce extremely good penetration.
This is caused by the amount of current density in the wire, or in other words the amount
of current carried in the available CSA of the conductor.
This area is very small in flux-cored wires, in comparison with other welding processes.
( .
MMA
Solid MIG Wire
Flux Cored Wires
3.25 mm (2) @125 Amps
1.2 mm e @180 Amps 2.0mm (} @180 Amps
Wire sheath
. ~
carrying current
~
Flux core centre
- - - - - - - - - - - ~
Increasing Current Density & Penetration Power
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert!Active Gas Welding}, 2.9 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!l!ll.' _
Summarv of Solid wu- NIlG/MAG GyIA"V:
I) A Transformer/Rectifier. (Constant voltage type)
3) An Inert, active, or mixed shielding gas. (Argon or C02)
4) Gas hose, flow meter, & gas regulator.
S) MIG torch with hose, liner, diffuser, contact tip & nozzle.
6) Wire feed unit with correct drive rolls.
7) Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter.
8) Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good extraction.
()
I) WFS/Amperage. 2) OCV & Welding voltage.
3) Wire type & diameter. 4) Gas type & flow rate.
5) Contact tip size and condition. 6) Roller type, size and pressure.
7) Liner size. 8) Inductance settings.
9) Insulation/extraction. 10) Connections. (Voltage drops)
l l ) Duty cycles. 12) Travel speed, direction & angles.
1) Silica inclusions. 2) Lack of fusion. (Mainly dip transfer)
3) SurfacePorosity. 4) Bum through (Using spray for sheet)
\ .
1) High productivity (o/f). 1) Lack of fusion. (Dip Transfer)
2) Easily automated. 2) Small range of consumables.
3) All positional. (Dip & Pulse) 3) Protection for site working.
4) Material thickness range. 4) Complex equipment.
5) Continuous electrode. 5) High ozone levels.
Senior Welding Inspection - Metal Inert! Active Gas Weldingt2.1 0 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!701. _
Questions
QU1.
QU2.
QU3.
(, ') QU4.
QU5.
MIG/MAG Welding Process
State the possible problems, which may occur when using the dip transfer
mode in the MAG welding process
State the application areas for the spray transfer mode when using the
MAG welding process
What power source characteristic is considered essential for a semi
automatic welding process and state the current type and electrode polarity
State the main variables for the MAG welding process
State the advantages and disadvantages of the MAG welding process
when compared to the MMA welding process
Senior Welding Inspection - Qll Metal Active Gas Sec 12
)
C \ \ . v s : J J V
1 n O n J a s
TWI
1ll01. _
Submerged Arc Welding:
SAW or Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union during the 2
nd
world war as an economical means of welding thick steel sections.
Definitions:
SAW: Submerged Arc \Velding. (UK & USA)
Introduction:
This welding process is normally mechanised and uses a constant voltage power source,
as it is the voltage that controls the arc length. Amperages can range from 100 up to and
over 2,000 amps, which gives very high current density in the wire and deep penetration
and dilution into the base metal.
The arc is struck in the same manner as MIG, which is generally aided by the linear
movement of the electrode tip across the surface of the run on tab, though H/F arc
striking is also possible on some equipment. As its name suggests the arc is submerged
beneath a covering of flux, which is of a granular nature. ( ~
A flux delivery system must be incorporated into the equipment, which may also be
accompanied by a flux recovery system. It is restricted in position and is generally used
for thickness of over 10mm. Run-on and run-off tabs are normally used on welded
seams, as this allows the welding arc to settle to its required conditions prior to the
commencement of the actual welding seam. The run off plate allows a similar set of
conditions to occur at the end of the weld. Both run-on and run-off tabs are removed after
the weld seam has been completed. The arc is normally formed as the point of the wire
comes into moving contact with the plate. The flux blanket protects 'the arc from
atmosphere and decomposes in the heat of the arc adding alloying elements and de
oxidants to the molten weld metal. The flux also provides a slag, which forms a
protective barrier to the cooling weld in a similar manner to MMA.
Photographs 1 and 2 show a stationary SAW head with rotated pipe, and photograph 3
shows a mobile tractor/carriage assembly, which may be used for welding deck plates.
Senior Welding Inspection - Submerged Arc Welding Rev 09-09-02
13.1
Copyright 2002 TW[ Ltd '
TWI
V!JI. _
Submerged Arc Welding
'I
1) Welding carriage control panel. -'!o
',",,_,i
2) Welding carriage assembly.
3) Reel of wire.
4) Granulated flux.
5) Transformer rectifier.
6) Power source control panel.
8) Flux hopper.
13.2
TWI
V!lOI. _
Immediately on pressing the switch, the following occurs:
a) The flux is released forming a layer beneath the torch head.
b) The wire begins to feed and strikes the arc.
c) The contactor closes and delivers current to the contact tip.
d) The tractor begins to move. (If mechanised)
Because of the nature of the granular flux, the use of Submerged Arc Welding for
positional welding has been restricted to the flat position. However the process has been
continually developed and is now capable of certain degree of positional welding, with an
addition of some simple extra equipment (i.e. flux dams).
Submerged arc welding has many applications, but certain limitations exist other than the
positional capability of the process, as with the restriction of full penetration welds from
one side without the use of a backing bar or backing strip. One of the most popular
applications for SAW is in the welding of "Spirally welded pipe" where a fixed unit is
stationed inside the pipe to weld the internal seam with an additional fixed unit placed on
the top of the pipe for the outer seam. Full penetration welding takes place as the pipe is
spiralled through. Other factors that may need to be taken into consideration are the
toughness requirements of the joint, as the arc energy input is comparatively high.
Arc blow can also be a major problem as its occurrence due to magnetic field is
proportional to the current used and in SAW currents of over 1,500 amps are not
uncommon. Arc blow can be minimised by the use of tandem wire systems with the
leading wire on DC+ and the trailing wire on AC producing opposing magnetic fields.
The use of double, or multi run techniques also has effects on the properties of the weld
metal and HAZ. Multi run techniques tends to normalise previous weld deposits and
HAZ, giving 'superior properties, The resultant SAW weld metal is difficult to predict, as
the weld is made up from 3 elements. A typical set of values is given below, but this can
change dramatically with any changes in the welding parameters:
1) The Electrode. (25%)
_ '::.:.;',
SAW Weld Metal Analysis
.

2) Elements in the flux. (15%)

I
:. __.
3) . Dilution. (60%)
.. ;.. . ... '.<;":
-

The proportion of these elements in the final weld deposit will vary depending on the
welding parameters set and a variation in arc voltage will change the arc length and thus
affect the amount of flux being melted and overall % of alloying elements in the final
weld.
Senior Welding Inspection - Submerged Arc Welding
13.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOI. _
)
\
1) Wire Feed Speed:
Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire. The
density of the current in the wire is dependant on the cross section area of the wire. The
higher the density of the current, then the higher is the level of penetration and fusion that
is obtained.
2) Voltage:
The voltage setting is a critical variable in SAW affecting the bead shape and penetration
profile and is an essential variable of a SAW welding procedure. It also governs arc
length beneath the flux layer and any changes in arc length will radically alter weld metal
composition due to more or less elements from the flux being alloyed in the weld metal.
3) Electrode stick out:
This variable parameter is adjusted by adjusting the distance of the welding head
assembly from the work surface. It will affect the arc amperage, as power will be
consumed in the resistance heating of the wire from the tip of the contact tip to the end of
the wire. The electrode stick out dimension should be given on the approved welding
procedure specification sheet.
4) Flux depth:
The flux depth is controlled by the flux feed rate and the distance from the feeding head
to the work surface. The flux depth needs to be sufficiently high to cover the arc.
5) Travel Speed:
As SAW is most often a mechanised process the travel speed can be considered as an
important variable parameter affecting penetration and bead profile.
The correct travel speed for the joint should be given on the approved welding procedure
specification sheet.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when Submerged Arc Welding:
2) The Welding Head Assembly & Flux Delivery System:
Checks should be made that the diameter, specification of the electrode wire and the
specification and mesh size of flux being used is correct to the approved WPS.
Checks should also be made to ensure the wire drive system has correct rollers diameter
and that the flux delivery system is operational. A check should be made that the
electrode stick out dimension is correct, and if using run on and run off plates that these
are fitted and tacked in place correctly.
13.4
TWI
V!lOI. _
Checks should be made to ensure that the type 0 f current bei ng used is correct and i CDC
that the polarity is COlTect and that the current range is within that given on the
procedure. Multi wire welding may use both types of current i.e. DC + leading wire with
an AC trailing wire as this improves welding times and offsets the effects of "arc blow"
If using multi wire process the angle of the trailing wire must also be checked. All
parameters should be given on the approved WPS.
4) Other Variable Welding Parameters:
Other procedural parameters may include the use of backing bar or backing strips
particularly when welding from a single side. In addition to the inspection points
mentioned previously checks should also be made to ensure that arc voltage and speed of
travel are within the acceptable limits. All these parameters should be given on the WPS.
A typical single sided weld preparation for SAW could look like this:
A broad root face
with no root gap
40-50
0
A permanently" welded backing bar.
5) Safety Checks:
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment, and
that all electrical insulation is sound. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid
exposure to toxic fumes.
1) Porosity from the use of damp welding fluxes or improperly cleaned plates.
2) Centreline cracks caused by high dilution and sulphur pick up or deep and
narrow welds (Le. depth/width ratio of>3/2)
3) Sb.rinkage cavities caused by a weld depth/ratio of > 3/2
4) Lack of fusion caused by the effects of arc blow.
13.5
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd "
TWI
V!lOI. _
THE W E L D I ~ I G INSTITUTE
Summary of Sub Arc \Velding:
1) A Transformer/Rectifier. (Constant voltage type)
3) A torch head assembly.
4) A granulated flux of the correct type/specification and mesh size.
5) A flux delivery system.
6) A flux recovery system.
7) Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter.
8) Correct safety clothing and good extraction.
IJ
1) AC/DC WFS/Amperage. 2) OCV & Welding Voltage.
3) Flux type and mesh size. 4) Flux condition. (Baking etc.)
5) Electrode wire and condition. 6) Wire specification.
7) Flux delivery/recovery system. 8) Electrode stick-out.
9) Insulation/duty cycles. 10) Connections.
11) Contact tip size/condition. 12) Speed of travel.
1) Lack of fusion. 2) Solidification, or centreline cracks.
3) Shrinkage cavities. 4) Porosity.
(
1) Low weld-metal costs. 1) Restricted in positional welding.
2) Easily mechanised. 2) High probability of arc-blow. (DC+/-)
3) Low levels of ozone production. 3) Prone to shrinkage cavities.
4) High productivity (o/t). 4) Difficult penetration control.
5) No visible arc light. 5) Variable compositions. (Arc length)
13.6
TWI
V!7[JI. _
Questions
QU1.
QU2.
QU3.
QU4.
QU5.
Submerged Arc Welding Process
State the possible problems when using damp and contaminated fluxes in
the SAW welding process.
State the two flux types used in the SAW welding process.
Generally what power source characteristic is required for the SAW welding
process?
State three main items of SAW fluxes, which require inspection
State the advantages and disadvantages of the SAW welding process
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Submerged Arc Welding Process Sec 13
(
M V S ~ D V W / D I W D I L V W l t \ 1 . 1 0 J s o j q a u m s u o . j ~ u ! P I a M
1 7 1 u 0 ! l ; , a s
TWI
V!lOI. _
Welding Consumables:
Welding consumables are defined as all those things that are used up in the production 0 t'
a weld.
This list could include many things including electrical energy, however we normally
refer to welding consumables as those things used up by a particular welding process.
These are namely:
Electrodes wires Fluxes Gases

i't'.
, :1:;-'
:.;
;:::

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.
_ ""0':':" U',l
. . S"A'U'1' .
i,'
.::FVStP: .
. 'Fl' .. ,
... , llX.' ,\,;.,..
I.......
./'
When inspecting welding consumables arriving at site, it is important that they are
inspected for the following:
1) Size.
2) Type or Specification.
3) Condition.
Senior Welding Inspection -Welding Consumables 14.1 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
Consumables for 1VIMA Welding:
Welding consumable for MMA consist of a core wire typically between 350 and 450m01
length and from 2.5 - 6mm diameter. Other lengths and diameters are also available.
The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. The core wire is generally of low
quality steel (Rimming Steel) as the weld can be considered as a casting, and therefore
the weld can be refined by the addition of cleaning, or refining agents in the flux coating.
The flux coating contains many elements and compounds that all have a variety of jobs
during welding.
Silicon is mainly added as a de-oxidising agent (in the form of Ferro silicate), which
removes oxygen from the weld metal by forming the oxide Silica. Manganese additions
of up 1.6% will improve the strength and toughness of steel.
Other metallic and non-metallic compounds are added that have many functions, some of
which are as follows:
1) To aid arc ignition.
2) To improve arc stabilisation.
3) To produce a shielding gas to protect the arc column.
4) To refine and clean the solidifying weld-metal.
5) To form a slag which protects the solidifying weld-metal.
6) To add alloying elements.
7) To control hydrogen content of the weld metal.
8) To form a cone at the end of the electrode, which directs the arc.
Electrodes for MMAJSMAW are grouped depending on the main constituent in their flux
coating, which in turn has a major effect on the weld properties and ease of use.
.
;
The common groups, are given below:
Group Constituent Shield gas Uses AWS AS.1
Rutile Titania CO
2
General purpose E 6013
Basic Calcium compounds CO
2
High quality E 7018
Cellulosic Cellulose Hydrogen + CO Pipe root runs E 6010
--
TWI
V!lOI. _
A Typical BS 639 Specification: E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
Reference given in box letter: A) B) C) D) E) F) G)
A) Tensile strength:
Symbol Min Yield Tensile Strength
Strength Nzmrrr'
I
N/mm
2
43 430-550
51
330
380 510-650
C) Covering types:
B Basic
BB Basic High Efficiency
C Cellulosic
0 Oxidising
R Rutile Medium Coated
Rutile Heavy Coated
S
RR
Other Types
E) Welding position:
Symbol Position
1 All positions
2 All positions except
Vertical Down
3 Flat Butt & Fillets + HV
Fillets.
4 Flat Butt & Fillets
5 Vertical Down +
positions of symbol 3
9 Any position not
I classified by the above.
'I
B) Toughness:
First Digit Second Digit Testing
28 J 47 J Temperature
0 0 Not specified
+20
2
1 1
2 0
3 -20
4
3
4 -30
5 5 -40
[ D) Electrode Efficiency:
I
l % Recovery to nearest 10% (> = 110)
F) Electrical characteristic:
Symbol DC Polarity AC Min OCV
0 Polarity as
recommended
Not recommended
1 + or 500CV
2 - 500CV
3 + 500CV
4 + or 700CV
5 - 700CV
6 + 700CV
7 + or 900CV
8 - 900CV
9 + 900CV
)
I G) Control:
H Indicates Low Hydrogen Potential
(
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VOI. _
A Typical Electrode Specification to BSEn 499
".
(
A Typical Electrode Specification to AWS A 5.1
\. ')
TWI
V!lOI. _
A Typical BSEn 499 Specification: E 46 3 INi B 5 4 HS
Reference given in box letter: A) B) C) D) E) F) G)
A) Tensile strength:
Symbol Min Yield Tensile Min
Strength Strength E%
Nzmrrr' N/rnm
2
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
SO 500 560-720 18
C) Alloying:
B) Toughness at minimum
impact energy 47 Joules:
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
(Deposited weld chemical composition)
Symbol Mn Mo Ni
None
2.0 - -
Mo 104 0.3-0.6
-
MoMo >104-2.0 0.3-0.6 -
INi 104 - 0.6-1.2
2Ni 104 - 1.8-2.6
3NI 104 - >2.6-3.8
Mo INi >104-2.0 - 0.6-1.2
INiMo 104 0.3-0.6 0.6-1.2
D) Covering types:
A Acid
C Cellulosic
R Rutile
RR Rutile thick covering
RC Rutile/Cellulosic
RA Rutile/Acid
RB Rutile/Basic
B Basic
Z Any other agreed
composition
E) Electrical characteristic + recovery %
Symbol Recovery % Current type
1 ac +"dc
2
< 105
< 105 dc
3 > 105 < 125 ac +dc
4 > 105 < 125 dc
5 > 125 < 160 ac+ de
6 > 125 < 160 dc
7 > 160 ac+dc
8 > 160 dc
G) Hydrogen Content of
deposited weld metal:
Symbol Max H2Content
ml/100mgm
H5 5
HIO 10
HIS 15
F) Welding position:
Symbol Position
I All positions
2 All positions except
Vertical Down
3 Flat Butt & Fillets + HV
Fillets.
4 Flat Butt & Fillets
5 Vertical Down +
positions of symbol 3
The strength, toughness, coating of BS 639 plus any light alloying elements of BS EN
499 (If applicable) are the mandatory elements of information that shall be shown on all
electrodes. All other information is normally given on the electrode carton.
TWI
V!lOI. _
Inspection Points for MlVIA Consurnables
1: Size: Wire Diameter & length.
-E
. , ... r,.'
2: Condition: Cracks, chips & concentricity.
)
3: Type (Specification): Correct specification/code.

",
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been through the
correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct temperature (typically 300
350C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding oven at 150C before being issued to the
welders in heated quivers. Most electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly when
damp and care should be taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure that they are
adequately dry, and that all electrodes are stored in conditions of controlled humidity.
Vacuum packed electrodes may be used directly from the carton, only if the vacuum has
been maintained. Directions for hydrogen control are always given on the carton and
should be strictly adhered to.
The cost of each electrode is insignificant compared with the cost of any repair, thus
basic electrodes that are left in the heated quiver after the day's shift may potentially be
re baked, but would normally be discarded to avoid the risk of H, induced problems.
Senior Welding Inspection -Weiding Consumables 14.6 Rev 09-09-02
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V!lOI. _
Consumables for TIG Welding:
Consumables for TIG/GTAW consist of a wire and gas, though tungsten electrodes may
also be grouped in this. Though it is considered as a non-consumable electrode process,
the electrode is consumed by erosion in the arc, and by grinding and incorrect welding
technique.
The wire needs to be of a very high quality as normally no extra cleaning elements can
be added into the weld. The wire is refined at the original casting stage to a very high
quality where it is then rolled and finally drawn down to the correct size.
It is then copper coated and cut into 1m lengths. A code is then stamped on the wire with
a manufacturer's, or nationally recognised number for the correct identification of
chemical composition. A grade of wire is selected from a table of compositions. The
wires are mostly copper coated which inhibits the effects of corrosion. Gases for
TIG/GTAWare generally inert.
Pure argon or helium gases are generally used for TIG welding. The gases are extracted
from the air by liquefaction. Argon is more common in air than helium and thus it is
generally cheaper than helium.
In the USA vast pockets of naturally occurring helium are found and thus helium gas is
more often used in USA. Helium gas produces a deeper penetrating arc than argon. It is
less dense (lighter) than air and needs 2 to 3 times the flow rate of argon gas to produce
sufficient cover to the weld area when welding down-hand. Argon on the other hand is
denser (heavier) than air and thus less gas needs to be used in the down-hand position.
We often use mixtures of argon and helium to balance the properties of the arc and the
shielding cover ability of the gas. Gases for TIG/GTAW need to be of the highest purity
(99.99% pure). Careful attention and inspection should be given to the purging of, and
the condition of gas hoses, as it is possible that contamination of the shielding gas can be
made through a worn, or withered hose.
Tungsten electrodes for TIG welding are generally produced by powder forging
technology. The electrodes contain other oxides to increase their conductivity, electron
emission and also have an effect on the characteristics of the arc. Sizes of tungsten
electrodes are available off the shelf between 1.6 - lOmm diameter. Ceramic shields may
also be considered as a consumable item, as they are easily broken.
The size and shape of ceramic used depends on the type ofjoint design and the diameter
of the tungsten.
TWI
V!lOI. _
Consumables for MIG/lVIAG Welding:
Consumables for MIG/MAG welding consist of a wire and gas. The wire specifications
used for TIG welding are also used for MIG/MAG welding, as a similar level of quality
is required in the wire.
The main purpose of the copper coating of steel MIG/MAG welding wire is to maximise
current pick-up at the contact tip and reduce the level of coefficient of friction in the
liner, with protection against the effects of corrosion being a secondary function.
Wires are available that have not been copper coated as the effects of copper flaking in
the liner can cause many wire feed problems. These wires may be coated in a graphite
compound, which again increases current pick up and reduces friction in the liner. Some
wires, including many cored wires are nickel coated.
)
Wires are available in sizes from 0.6 - 1.6 mm diameter with finer wires available on a
lkg reel though most wires are supplied on a 15kg drum.
Common gases and mixtures used for MIG/MAG welding include:
Gas Type Process Used for Characteristic
Pure Argon MIG
Spray or Pulse
Welding of Steels and
Aluminium alloys
Very stable arc with
poor penetration and
low spatter levels.
Pure CO
2
MAG
Dip Transfer
Welding of Steels
Good penetration
Unstable arc and high
levels of spatter.
Argon +
5 - 20% CO
2
MAG
Dip Spray or Pulse
Welding of Steels
Good penetration
with a stable arc and
low levels of spatter.
Argon +
1-2% O
2
MAG
Spray or Pulse
Welding of
Austenitic or Ferritic
Stainless Steels Only
Active additive gives
good fluidity to the
molten stainless, and
improves toe blend.
( .
TWI
V!lOI. _
Consumables for Sub Arc Welding:
Consumable for Submerged Arc SAW consist of an electrode wire and flux. Electrode
wires are normally of high quality and for welding C/Mn steels are generally graded on
their increasing Carbon and Manganese content, and the level of de-oxidation.
Electrode wires for welding other alloy steels are generally graded by chemical
composition in a table, in a similar way to MIG and TIG electrode wires. Fluxes for
Submerged Arc Welding are graded by their manufacture and composition. There are 2
normal methods of manufacture known as fused and agglomerated.
1) Fused fluxes:
Fused fluxes are mixed together and baked at a very high temperature where all the
components become fused together. When cooled the resultant mass resembles a sheet of
black glass, which is then pulverised into small particles.
These particles again resemble small slivers of black glass. They are hard, reflective,
irregular shaped, and cannot be crushed in the hand. It is impossible to incorporate
certain alloying compounds into the flux such as Ferro manganese, as these would be
destroyed in the high temperatures of the manufacturing process. Fused fluxes tend to be
of the acidic type, which are fairly tolerant of poor surface conditions, but produce
comparatively low quality weld metal in terms of the mechanical properties of tensile
strength and toughness.
-:'I

. ';.
....;:,-:,:.
I,

.' .
TWI
VOOI. _
THE WELDING 1t\ISTITUTE
Agglomerated tluxes:
Agglomerated fluxes on the other hand are a mixture of compounds that are baked at a
much lower temperature and are essentially bonded together by bonding agents into
small particles. The recognition points of these types of fluxes is easier, as they are dull,
generally round granules, that are friable (easily crushed), and can also be very brightly
coloured, as colouring agents may be added in manufacture as a method of identification,
unlike fused fluxes. Agglomerated fluxes tend to be of the basic type and will produce
weld metal that is of much higher quality in terms of strength and toughness. This is at
the expense of usability as these fluxes are much less tolerant of poor surface conditions.
)
\
, '\>!:. ':". ~ :'i:....
;:.it:": . ~ : . :
It can be seen that the weld metal properties will result from using a particular wire, with
a particular flux, in a particular weld sequence and therefore the grading of SAW
consumables is given as a function of a wirelflux combination and welding sequence.
A typical grade will give values for:
1) Tensile Strength. 2) Elongation %.
2) Toughness (Joules at temp) 3) Toughness testing temperature.
The re-use or mixing of used and new flux will depend on the class of work being
undertaken and is generally addressed in the application standard. All consumables for
SAW (wires and fluxes) should be stored in a dry and humid free atmosphere.
Basic fluxes may require baking prior to use, and the manufacturers instructions should
be strictly followed. On no account should different types of fluxes be mixed together.
(
TWI
V!JI. _
Questions
QU1.
Consumables
Why are basic electrodes used mainly on high strength materials? And
what controls are required when using basic electrodes.
QU2. What standard is the following electrode classification taken from and
briefly discuss each separate part of the electrodes coding E 80 18 M.
QU3. Why are cellulose electrodes commonly used for the welding of pressure
pipelines?
(
QU4. Give a brief description of a fusible insert and state two alternative names
give for the insert
QU5. What standard is the following electrode classification taken from and
discuss each separate part of the electrodes coding. E 42 3 1Ni B 4 2 H1
Senior Welding Inspection - Consumables Sec 14
(
~ n I l s a I a A I l J D J : l s a a - n o N
S l u O I l J a S
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V!lOI. -' _
Non-Destructive Testing:
NDT, or Non Destructive Testing is used to assess the quality of a component without
destroying it.
There are many methods ofNDT some of which require a very high level of skill both in
application and analysis and therefore NDT operators for these methods require a high
degree of training and experience to apply them successfully.
The four basic methods ofNDT are:
1) Penetrant testing.
2) Magnetic particle testing.
(
/
,
\
3) Ultrasonic testing.
4) Radiographic testing.
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of all these methods, their
applications, advantages and disadvantages.
NDT operators are examined to establish their level of skill, which is dependant on their
knowledge and experience, in the same way as welders and welding inspectors are
examined and tested to establish their level of skill.
Various examination schemes exist for this purpose throughout the world. In the UK the
CSWIP and PCN examination schemes are those that are recognised most widely.
A good NDT operator has both knowledge and experience, however some of the above
(
techniques are more reliant on these factors than others.
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing
15.1 Rev 09-09-02
uouoadsuj l U U . l l ~ U ~ d (lAO
SI u0!l;}\lS
(
TWI
V!lOI. _
Penetrant Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) Surface preparation.
Component must be thoroughly cleaned.
2) Penetrant application.
Penetrant applied and allowed ~ o dwell for a specified time. (Contact time)
3) Removal of excess penetrant.
Once the dwell or contact time has elapsed, the excess penetrant is removed by
wiping with a clean lint free cloth, finally wipe with a soft paper towel
moistened with liquid solvent. (solvent wipe)
1\ )
4) Application of developer.
Penetrant that has been drawn into a crack by capillary action will be drawn out of
the defect by reverse capillary action.
5) Inspection.
6) Post cleaning and protection.
Method: (Colour contrast, solvent removable)
1) Apply Penetrant. 2) Clean then apply Developer. 3) Result.
C I
15.2
Rev 09-09-02
Copyright 2002 T\\"I Ltd
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Advantage Disadvantages
1) Low operator skill level. 1) Careful surface preparation
required.
2) Applicable to non-ferromagnetic
materials.
2) Surface breaking flaws only.
3) Low cost. 3) Not-applicable to porous
materials.
4)
5)
Simple, cheap and easy to interpret.
Portability.
4)
5)
No permanent record.
Potentially hazardous
chemicals.
(
15.3 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Senior Welding Inspection - WIS 10
Multi - Choice Question Paper (MSR-SWI-PT-1)
Narne: .
t. What is the flash point of a solvent based product?
a. The minimum temperature at which the solvent will be flammable.
b. The temperature at which the vapours given off will spontaneously ignite.
l) c. The minimum temperature at which the vapours given off will ignite if source of
~
ignition is introduced.
d. The temperature at which the dye in a solvent based penetrant losses its capillary
action.
2. What primarily governs the rate (speed) of a penetrant entering a surface breaking
discontinuity?
a. Viscosity.
b. Capillary action.
c. Wetting ability.
d. How the penetrant is applied.
(.
3. Aluminium alloy test specimens that have been tested with penetrant should be
thoroughly cleaned after testing because:
a. The remaining toxic residue from the test may react with the aluminium causing a
fire hazard.
b. The acid in the penetrant may cause server corrosion.
c. Any remaining alkaline penetrant will leave a red permanent stain on the surface
of the aluminium.
d. The alkaline content of wet and most emulsifiers could lead to surface pitting,
especially in high humidity environments.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-PT- issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 1 of 8
TWI
4. Which penetrant type does not exist?
a. Post-emulsifiable fluorescent.
b. Post-emulsifiable visible.
c. Dual sensitivity penetrant.
d. Dry particulate penetrant.
5. Why is it bad practice to prepare soft alloy surfaces with a wire brush prior to testing
with a penetrant test method?
a. It may cause damage to the part.
b. It may close any surface breaking discontinuities.
)
c. It may contaminate the developer.
d. It is not considered to be bad practice.
e. Both a and b are correct.
6. Which of the following NDE method is most likely to detect fatigue cracking?
a. Dye penetrant.
b. Magnetic particle (a.c. current)
c. Ultrasonics.
d. It depends on many factors, none of the above can be selected due to the lack of
information given.
( -
7. Which of the following cleaning methods is generally considered unsuitable for
pentrant testing without further processing?
a. Vapour degreasing.
b. Abrasive blasting.
c. Solvent cleaning.
d. Steam cleaning.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-PT- issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 20f8
TWI
VOL THE WELDIr'\IG INSTITUTE
8. Which of the following penetrant properties influences capillary pressure?
a. Surface tension.
b. Wetting ability.
c. Dimension of surface breaking flaw.
d. All of the above
e. Both a and b.
9. Of the following, which are the most important reasons for filtering the UV-A light
used for fluorescent penetrant inspection?
-,
) a. To minimise the total light intensity by filtering out the visible light rays.
b. To produce better viewing conditions in darkened areas.
c. To reduce overall wavelength bands to allow only green fluorescence.
d. To prevent personal injury from the more penetrating UV-A rays.
10. How would an ideal emulsification time be established when using post-emulsifiable
penetrants?
a. By calculation
b. By experimentation.
c. By measuring the contact angle of the penetrant.
d. By determining the viscosity of the emulsifier.
(
11. Generally speaking, which of the following penetrant systems would be the most time
consuming to use on the same type of component?
a. Solvent based.
b. Post-emulsifiable.
c. \'Vater-washable.
d. All of the above generally would take the same time.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-PT- issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 3 of8
TWI
12. Which of the following may be used to apply penetrant effectively?
a. Spray.
b. Immersion.
c. Brush.
d. All of the above
13. Dry developer should be applied:
a. So that a heavy coat of developer covers all surfaces to be inspected.
b. So that a light dusting covers all surfaces to be inspected.
c. With a dry soft brush, e.g. paint brush.
d. By dipping.
14. Which of the following is not considered good practice when penetrant testing?
a. Applying emulsifier by dipping.
b. Applying developer by dipping.
c. Removing water based penetrant by water spray.
d. Applying emulsifier by brush.
15. The profile of the meniscus of a penetrant would be:
a. Concave when compared to the meniscus of a penetrant with lower penetration.
b. Convex when compared to the meniscus of a penetrant with lower penetration
properties.
c. Flat.
16. Why is it advisable to have an UV-A light source installed at the wash station when
using fluorescent penetrant systems?
a. So that the drying stage can be eliminated to save time.
b. To increase the bleed out speed of the penetrant.
c. To check the effectiveness of the wash cycle.
d. To check that the test components have been adequately covered with penetrant.
TWI
17. Which factor would be used for determining the penetrants contact time required for
the test method to be effective?
a. Type of discontinuity sought.
b. Shape of component.
c. Size of component.
18. Why is the wetting ability a consideration in the design of penetrants?
a. Because it has an effect on capillary action.
) b. Because it has an effect on the penetrants coverage of the components surface.
c. Both a and b.
19. Why are contrast penetrants usually red?
a. Red provides high definition.
b. Red provides high contrast against a white background.
c. Red penetrants are more cost effective than other penetrants of different colours.
d. Both a and b.
20. Which of the following statements is false?
(
a. Penetrant testing can find most types of surface breaking defects.
b. Penetrant testing can under most conditions be just as reliable when testing
ferritic materials as MPI.
c. Penetrant testing can be used to detect fatigue cracks.
d. Penetrant testing is less reliable than radiographic testing when attempting to
detect minute surface breaking defects.
TWI
21. Which of the following would be the most desirable centre wavelength for the light
used in the fluorescent penetrant process.
a. 3200A (320nm).
b. 3650A (365nm).
c. 4650A (465nm).
d. 5960A (596nm).
22. A good commercial penetrant should have a:
a. Low flash point.
b. High flash point.
c. Flash point less than 55C.
d. A flash point is not relevant.
23. Which of the following materials is often difficult to test with a penetrant test method,
due to lack of contrast during final interpretation?
a. Ferromagnetic C-Mn steels.
b. Aluminium.
c. Titanium alloys.
d. Cast iron.
\.
24. If a penetrant system is halogen free it will contain no:
a. Sulphur.
b. Dye.
c. Chlorine.
d. Solvent.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-PT- issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 601'8
TWI
25. Which of the following statements is false regarding the use of cracked panels or
comparator blocks?
a. To establish a standard size of crack, which can be reproduced as, needed.
b. To determine the relative sensitivities of two penetrants.
c. To determine if a fluorescent penetrant has lost or reduced its fluorescence.
d. To determine the degree or method of cleaning necessary to remove penetrant
from the surface without removing it from the crack.
26. Which of the following pentrant test methods is the most common found on site work
if used on ferromagnetic pipework or pressure vessels?
)
a. Water-washable (Fluorescent).
b. Post-emulsifiable (fluorescent).
c. Solvent base (contrast)
d. Penetrant testing is not used on ferromagnetic materials.
27. When using fluorescent water-washable penetrants, adequate rinsing time is assured
by:
a. Timing the rinse cycle.
b. Scrubbing the part surface.
c. Rinsing under UV-A light.
( .. _ d. Using a high-pressure water blast.
28. How long must a penetrant be left on a component before removal?
a. As long as possible to ensure good test sensitivity.
b. 20 minutes.
c. It varies depending on the type of penetrant used, defects to be detected.
d. Always between 6 and 20 minutes.
WIS to Qu paper MSR-SWI-PT- issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 70f8
TWI.
29. Which of the following are unique to a penetrant test report
a. Penetrant used, developer used and dwell time.
b. Penetrant used, development time and contrast paint.
c. Penetrant used, fluorescent particles and drying time.
d. Penetrant used, dwell time and drying time.
30. Which of the following surface breaking defects are best detected using DPI?
a. Equiaxed defects.
b. Planar defects.
(
c. Linear defects.
)
(
u o u a a d s u ] ; } ] J H J U d J H J u t l u W
1 U O ! l J ~ S
TWI
VOL THE WELDII\JG INSTITUTE
5. Materials which are repelled magnetically are called:
a. Paramagnetic.
b. Diamagnetic.
c. Ferromagnetic.
d. Non-magnetic.
6. Which of the following NOT method would be best suited for the detection of surface
breaking defects on a austenitic steel weld:
a. Dye penetrant.
b. Magnetic particle (AC current)
)
c. Ultrasonic.
7. Which of the following are unique to a magnetic particle inspection report:
a. Dwell time, magnetic ink, contrast paint
b. Couplant, magnetic ink, crack detection unit.
c. Magnetic ink, contrast paint, crack detection unit.
d. Development time, magnetic ink, contrast paint.
8. An ASME penetrameter may be used in MPI:
a. To measure test sensitivity.
b. To detect the direction of magnetic flux.
(' I
c. To measure black/fluorescent ink suspensions.
d. Both a and b.
9. What is the curie temperature of a ferromagnetic material?
a. The temperature at which it becomes radioactive.
b. The temperature at which it losses magnetism.
c. The temperature at which it becomes magnetic.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05//03 20f7
TWI
10. The build up of a non-relevant indication due to a sharp contour change in the test
component is referred to as:
a. A defect.
b. Furring.
c. Magnetic writing.
d. None of above.
11. Which of the following are important considerations when carrying out MPI?
a. Material type.
b. Surface condition
c. Type of defects sort after.
d. All of the above
12. A 5 turn coil around a part being tested produces:
a. A longitudinal field.
b. A circular field.
c. An intermittent field.
d. Both a and b depending on current type.
13. Which of the following MPI test methods may be used for the detection of longitudinal
defects on a pipes external surface?
a. The threader bar method.
( .
b. Rigid coil method.
c. Flexible cable wrapped around the pipe making a coil.
14. Which of the following is considered the most sensitive test method when using MPI.
a. Fluorescent particle, wet method.
b. Contrast particle, wet method.
c. Dry powder method.
d. All of the above are considered to be the same sensitivity.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05//03 3 of?
TWI
uOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
15. Which of the following will produce circular magnetism:
a. A.C. yokes.
b. Passing current through a coil.
c. Prods.
16. Which of the following methods would be best suited for the detection of surface
breaking defects on duplex stainless steel?
a. Dye penetrant.
b. Magnetic particle.
( J
c. Radiography.
d. The method used depends on the procedure requirements.
17. In accordance with the relevant standard, what is the specific percentage of
fluorescent particles to the base:
a. 1.25%.
b. 0.8 to 3.5%.
c. 0.1 to 0.3%.
d. 0.3 to 0.8%.
18. When demagnetising a component in situ in a structure that cannot be easily
removed from the parent structure, which of the following techniques is normally
used?
a. Stroking the component in the same direction using an AC yoke.
b. Stroking the component in different directions using a DC Yoke.
c. Stroking the component in the different directions using an AC. yoke.
d. Stroking the component in same direction using a DC Yoke.
19. When using AC. electromagnets, the strength of the magnet shall be assessed by
measuring the lifting power. The lifting power shall be equivalent to or not less than:
a. 4.5 kg for poll spacing of 300 mm.
b. 2.25 kg for poll spacing of 300 rnrn.
c. 18 kg for poll spacing greater than 75 mm.
d. The sensitivity of AC. electromagnets is assessed using penetrameters.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI"MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05//03 40f7
TWI
20. A copper bar is placed inside a 5 mm coil, the amperage required to magnetically
saturate it will be:
a. In the range of 500 to 100 amps.
b. Generally less than steel.
c. Not enough information given to give a correct value.
d. It is not possible to magnetically saturate a copper bar.
21. Which of the following is the most common method for demagnetising a component?
a. AC.
b. DC straight polarity.
( )
c. HW DC
d. The above currents cannot be used for dernagnetising.
2?-. What is coercive force?
a. The magnetic force required to magnetically saturate a part.
b. The magnetic force required to magnetise a part.
c. The reverse magnetic force required to demagnetise a part.
d. The reverse magnetic force required to cause the poles of a magnet to rotate
180.
23. How is the strength of a permanent magnet usually measured?
a. By lifting a specified weight of any material.
(
b. By lifting a specified weight of steel.
c. By ampere-turns.
d. By comparing it against the readings of a magnetometer.
e. Both a and b.
24. What sort of magnetic field is produced when using a permanent magnet? .
a. Longitudinal.
b. Circular.
c. Reversing poles.
WS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/051103 5 on
TWI
25. When considering AC. yokes, which of the following is applicable?
a. Can be used for the detection of both surface and slight sub-surface defects.
b. No power source required.
c. Must be used with at least a 400 mm pole spacing to ensure adequate coverage.
26. An example of an instrument use to determine the direction of a magnetic field is
called a:
a. Burmah-Castrol strip.
-,
b. ASME penetrameter.
)
c. Berthold penetrameter.
27. Why is H.W.D.C. often used with dry powders, as opposed to D.C.?
a. Because dry powders are not attracted to leakage fields caused by direct current.
b. Because the powder retains a residual field with direct current.
c. Because greater powder mobility is achieved on the test surface.
d. A.C. of H.W.D.C. is not used with dry powders.
28. When checking a weld for defects with a permanent magnet, the magnet should be
) placed:
a. Transversely over the weld to look for longitudinal defects.
b. Longitudinal with the weld to look for transverse defects.
c. At 45to the weld to look for both transverse and longitudinal defects at the same
time.
d. Normally in positions A and B if specification does not state otherwise.
29. Which of the following statements is always true?
a. MPI is better than dye penetrant testing.
b. Fluorescent inks used in MPI are always green/yellow.
c. MPI'can only be used on ferromagnetic materials.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-1 issue: 3 Date: 28/05//03 60f7
TWI
30. Which of the following surface breaking defects are best detected using MPI?
a. Equiaxed defects.
b. Planar defects.
c. All types of entrapped gas defects.
d. All surface defects are detected using MPI.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05//03 70f7
u o u o o d s u j J ! U O S 1 U n n
1 U O n ; ) ~ S
TWI
VOI. _
Magnetic Particle Testing:
Basic Procedure:
l) Test method for the detection of surface and sub-surface defects in ferromagnetic
materials.
2) Magnetic field induced in component.
(Permanent magnet, electromagnet (Y6 Yoke) or current flow (Prods).
3) Defects disrupt the magnetic flux.
4) Defects revealed by applying ferromagnetic particles.
(Background contrast paint may be required)
Method:
1) Apply contrast paint. 2) Apply magnet & ink. 3) Result.
( .
? ' < " ; , ~ - ' I
,
lVi';--'"
,
1) Pre-cleaning not as critical as with DPL 1) Ferromagnetic materials only.
2) Will detect some sub-surface defects. 2) Demagnetisation may be
required.
3) Relatively low cost. 3) Direct current flow may
produce Arc strikes.
4) Simple equipment. 4) No permanent record.
5) Possible to inspect through thin coatings. 5) Required to test in 2 directions.
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing 15.4 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Multi - Choice Question Paper (MSR-SWI-MT-1)
Narne: .
1. A desirable property of magnetic particles used for the inspection medium for either
the dry or wet method, is that they:
a. Posses high permeability.
b. Posses high retentively.
c. Must be non-magnetic
d. None of the above
2. The accumulation of particles held at a leakage field on a components surface is
called:
a. A discontinuity.
b. A defect.
c. An indication.
d. Magnetic writing
3. Which of the following methods my be considered for the magnetic particle inspection
of a large casting, both for surface and subsurface defects:
a. A.C. yolk
b. Permanent magnet.
c. D.C. prods.
4. A magnetising force of one oersted produces:
a. 1 gauss.
b. 1 Tesla.
c. 1 Weber.
d. 10
4
Tesla.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-MT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05//03 1 on
TWI
4. Which of the following probes under most circumstances would be best suited for the
detection of plate laminations, on thin plate:
a. 1.5 MHz twin shear wave, 45.
b. 4 MHz single shear wave, 60
c. 4 MHz twin compression wave.
d. 1.5 MHz single compression wave.
5. The number of complete waves which pass a give point in a give period of time
(usually one second) is referred to as:
) a. Amplitude of wave motion.
b. Pulse length of wave motion.
c. Frequency of wave motion.
d. Wave length of wave motion.
6. Which of the following are unique to an ultrasonic test report.
a. Type of couplant, scanning pattern and attenuation checks.
b. Surface preparation, scanning pattern and type of couplant used.
c. Pre-cleaning method, probes used and couplant used.
d. Calibration, probes used and test sensitivity.
(- 7. 25 million cycles per second can also be stated as:
a. 25 kilohertz.
b. 250 kilohertz.
c. 25 megahertz.
d. 2.5 megahertz.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-UT-l issue 3 Date: 28/06/03 20f8
TWI
8. In A scan presentation, the amplitude of the vertical indications on the screen
represents the:
a. Amount of ultrasonic energy returning back to the probe.
b. Distance travelled by the probe.
c. Thickness of the material.
d. Elapsed time since the ultrasonic pulse was generated.
9. In A scan presentation, the horizontal base line represents the:
a. The amount of reflected ultrasonic energy
b. Distance travelled by the probe. (
\
c. Elapsed time or distance.
10. Which of the following are important considerations for the ultrasonic examination of
a fusion butt weld
a. Material thickness.
b. Surface condition.
c. Joint configuration.
d. Both a and b.
(
11. Which of the following probe combinations would you expect to be used on a carbon
steel weld joining two plates 12mm thick (cap left as welded)?
a. 45single crystal shear wave, 85single crystal shear wave, 60single crystal
shear wave and a single crystalcompression.
b. 45single crystal shear wave, 70single crystal shear wave, 60single crystal
shear wave and a twin crystal compression.
c. 0single crystal shear wave, 45single crystal compression, 60single crystal
compression and a combined double longitudinal wave.
d. 45twin crystal transverse wave, 60single crystal transverse wave, 70twin
crystal transverse wave and a 00 twin crystal compression.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-UT-l issue 3 Date: 28/06/03
30r8
TWI
12. The angle of incidence is:
a. Greater than the angle of reflection.
b. Less than the angle of reflection.
c. Equal to the angle of reflection.
d. Not related to the angle of reflection.
13. The gradual loss of sonic energy as the ultrasonic vibrations travel through the
material is referred to as:
a. Reflection.
J b. Refraction.
c. Attenuation
14. The phenomenon whereby an ultrasonic wave changes direction when the wave
crosses a boundary between materials with different velocities is called:
a. Refraction.
b. Reflection.
c. Penetration.
d. Rarefaction.
( \ 15. How many echoes would be present on the CRT if a V1 (A2) block is used to
calibrate a normal probe 0 to 50 mm, on the 25-mm dimension?
a. 2.
b. 4.
c. 8.
d. As many echoes as possible to ensure good test sensitivity.
TWI
16. The 1.5 mm hole in a V1 (A2) test block may be used to:
a. Determine the resolution of the probe.
b. Determine the pulse width of the probe.
c. Set test sensitivity.
17. An echo is set at full screen height on' a vertically calibrated CRT, then the sound is
reduced by 6dB:
a. The echo will drop by 50% of its initial height.
b. The echo will drop to 20% of its initial height.
c. The echo under most circumstance disappears off the screen.
d. The echo will drop to 10% of its initial height.
18. What is the thickness of a V2 (A4) test block?
a. 12.5 mm.
b. 20 mm.
c. 25 mm.
d. Both a and b
\,
19. What does 23 mm of Perspex represent in a V1 (A2) block when using compression
probes:
a. 100 mm of steel.
b. 23 mm of steel.
c. 50 mm of steel.
d. 200 mm of steel.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-UT-l issue 3 Date: 28/06/03 50[8
TWI
20. Which of the following NDE methods is best to use when testing ferromagnetic
materials?
a. Magnetic particle.
b. Radiography.
c. Ultrasonic.
d. All of the above may be used, it depends on many factors.
21. Which of the following statements are true?
a. The higher the probe frequency the faster the sound travels through a given
! J material.
b. The higher the probe frequency the slower the sound travels through a given
material.
c. The higher the probe frequency the more sound is lost due to attenuation.
d. The higher the probe frequency less sound is lost through attenuation.
22. Which of the following wave types travels the fastest in steel
a. Longitudinal.
b. Shear.
c. All wave types travel at the same velocity in steel.
d. Longitudinal and shear waves will not travel in steel.
( ,
23. Which of the following single crystal probes would contain the thinnest crystal?
a. 2.5 MHz compression probe.
b. 5 MHz compression probe.
c. 5 MHz angle probe.
d. 10 MHz angle probe.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-UT-1 issue 3 Date: 28/06/03 6 of8
TWI
24. Which of the following transducers produces the least beam spread in the far zone?
a. 1 MHz, 10 mm diameter crystal.
b. 5 MHz, 25mm diameter crystal.
c. 2 MHz, 25 rnm diameter crystal.
d. 5 MHz, 10 mm diameter crystal.
25. Sound attenuation in a material is due to:
a. Absorption and scattering.
b. Reflection and refraction.
c. Density and velocity.
d. Density and elasticity.
26. Which of the following probes would be best suited for the detection of near surface
plate lamination on 12mm thick plate?
a. 5 MHz, twin compression probe.
b. 2.5 Mhz, twin compression probe.
c. 5 Mhz single 0probe.
d. 5 Mhz twin 60probe.
27. Calculate the wavelength for a frequency of 4.25 MHz at a velocity of 5800 meters
(
per second:
a. 0.73 mm.
b. 1.36 mm.
c. 0.073 mm.
d.0.136mm.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-UT-l issue 3 Date: 28/06/03
70f8
TWI
28. Which of the following scan types produces a plan view of any defective areas under
test?
a. A-scan.
b. B-scan.
c. C-scan.
d. D-scan.
29. When testing a specimen, using a compression probe, a decrease in a wave
frequency (obtained by changing the probe) will result in:
a. An increase in sound velocity.
b. A decrease in sound velocity.
c. No change in velocity.
d. No change in wavelength.
30. Which of the following is acceptable test sensitivity when using a compression probe?
a. 2
nd
BWE 80% FSH at test depth.
b. 1
st
BWE 100% FSH at any depth.
c. Echo from 1.5 rnm hole 100% FSH (V1 test block).
d. Echo from 5 mm hole 80% FSH (V2 test block).
( .
WIS LaQu paper MSR-SWI-UT-l issue 3 Date: 28/06/03 80f8
)
( )

()
..-.--.... _------_._---.._... _.-----_... _... _..-
..
/" ~
.:
Image Quality Indicators
~ ~
Ifhickness
(mm)
0.050
0.063
0.08
0.10
0.125
0.15
0.16
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.32
0.35
0040
0.50
0.60
0.63
0.75 .
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.20
1.25
1.50
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.20
4.00
5.00
6.30
1-6
6
5
4
3
2
1
STEP
7-12
6
5
4
3
2
1
8S 3971
13-18
6
5
4
3
2
1
4-10
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-._------_.
'WIRE
9-15 15-21
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 7
6
5
4
3
2
1
DIN 54 109
WIRE (DIN 62)
1-7
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
6-12
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10-16
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
H 1
6
5
4
3
2
1
8S EN 462-2
STEP/HOLE
H5
6
5
4
3
2
1
H9
6
5
4
3
2
1
H 13
6
5
4
3
2
1
--------_... _..__...
W1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
8S EN 462-1
WIRE
W6 W10 W 13
7
6
5
7 4
6 3
2
4
5
1
7 3
2
5
6
1
4
3
2
1
,
- -- . -_.
TWI
V!7!7I. --__
Annex B (nonnative)
Minimum image quality values
Single-wall technique; rQ{ on source side
Table 13.2 Steplhole IQI
(Illal.ity cluss A
Nomlrial Utickncss t IQI "llluc
l
)

Jnrn
I'fa,Me B.1 \\fire IQI
[lImge lllU1Jity class A
Numinal thlekncss t.
111m
IQI
Up to 1,2 W 18
above 1,2 to 2,0 \V 17
above 2,0 to ;'l,5 \\1 16
above 3,5 to 5,0 \V 15
above 5,0 to 7 W 14
above 7 to 10 'ltY 13
above 10 to It') W 12
above lG to 25 Wll
above 25 to 32 WlO
above 32 to 40 W9
above 40 to 55 \V8
above 55 to 85 W7
above 85 to 160 WI)
above 150 to 250 'W5
above 2fJO W4
1) When using Ir W2 sources, IQI values WO(1iC than the
values can be accepted as fQUQWS;
10rmn to 24 111m: up to two values;
abovo 24 10m lQ :30mm: up to one V'.lIU{l.
'fuble n.is Step/hole IQI
llIlllge tlulllit)' C!l...., 11
Penetrated In
lUllI
IQI value
l
)
Iup to 2,5
above 2,5 to 0,5
above 5,5 to 9,5
above 9,5 to 15
above 15 to 24
above 2-1 to "0
above 40 to 60
above 60 to 80
HZ
113
H4
H5
116
Hi
HS
UO
I) \\11(:11 using Ir W:! sources, IQI worse than ULI! listt1(!
''nhw,:'l C"MI be ;lcce[>lc,l ,L'; followa;
&15 HUll to U"S mm; up to two values;
:t.hu\.'." fJ/", nuu to :!l hUll.: UJllU unc \,Lhw.....
up to 2,0
above 2,0 to 3,5
above 3,5 to 6
above 6 10 10
above 10 to 15
above 15 to 24
above 2'1 to 30
above 30 to 40
above 40 to 60
above 60 to 100
above 100 to 150
above 150 to 200
above 200 to 250
above 250 to 320 .
above 320 to 400
ahove 400
110
H4
H5
no
H7
118
H9
HID
lIll
H 12
II 13
H 14
II 15
H 16
1117
H 18
!) When using Ir Hl2 sources, IQI values W01SC UI,I.(I 1I11: listed
values can be accepted as fOUI)\\'!;:
10rom t.) 24 nun: UJl to two values;
above 24 nun to 30 mm: up to one value.
Single-wall technique; IQI on source side
\
1able B.3 Wire IQI
Image quality class B
Nominal thickne.'iS t
mm
IQI value I)
Up to 1,5 WIg
above 1,5 to 2,5 WI8
above 2,5 to 4 V.[17
above 4 to 6 W16
above 600 8 W 15
above 8 Lo 12 W 14
above 12 to 20 W 13
above 20 to 30 W 12
above 30 to 35 Wll
above 35 to 45_ W 10
above 45 to 65 W9
above 65 to 120 WB
above 120 to 200 W7
above 2.00 to 350 W6
above 350 W5
1) When using Ir 192 sources, IQI values worse than UIC li>.1.ed
Vlllues can be accepted as (ollom;:
12' mm to 40 miu; up to one value.
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing 15,1
Rev 09-09
Copyright 2002 TWr Ltd
I
TWI
V!J[lI. _
r TabLe R.l' Step/hole IQI ITable BA ror
. l mugc qual it.y d.1.S.Q B
Nominal [
mm
[Q[ vn.Iue 1)
Up to 2,5 1I2
above 2,5 tn 4 H3
above '1 to g H4
above <3 to 12 H5
above 12 to 20
H ty
above 20 to 30 H7
above ;30 to ,10 118
above 40 to 60 H9
above 60 to 80 H 10
above 80 to 100 Hll
above 100 to 150 n iz
above 150 to 200 H 1:3
above 200 to 250 lIM
I) W]l('J1 using Ir 192 sources, IQI values worse than the listlld
values can be accepted M
12 mill to '10 mm: UP to one value.
Im:l.':'; [lll,lIlt.)' dass A
Peuetrutcd thickness tv
Hun
Up to 1
above 1 to 2
above 2 to :3,tJ
above 3,5 to 5,5
above 5,5 to 10
above 10 to 18
above 19 to 35
rql v:tlue
l}
H3
H4
H5
HG
H7
HS
FIg
l} ""'hen using Ir 192 sources, IQI values worse than the listed
values be <lCCCI'OO1:t as (ollows:
III' to :3,fi mill: I.lP to two values;
above :!,fi mm to l () mm; Ilf} to one value,
Double-wall technique; double image; {QI ott
801ll"Ce side
Doubfe-walj technique; double Imnge; IQr on
source side
(
Table u.s Wire lQI
lma!:c quality class A
Peuetrnted U,icImcs..q to IQ[ value
mm
up to 1,2 W 18
above 1,2 to 2 W 17
above 2 to 3,5 W 16
above 3,5 to 5 W 15
above 5 t.o7 WB
above 7 to 12 VI 13
ahove 12 to 18 W 12
above 18 to 30 Wl1
above 30 to 40 W 10
above 40 to 50 W9
above 50 to 60 W8
above GO to 8G W7
above S5 to 120 W6
above 120 to 220 W5
above 220 to 380 W4
above 380 W3
Table B.7 Wire IQI
linage quality cla...s n
Penetrated thickness 'w fQI value.
mm
UV to 1,5 W19
above 1,5 to 2,5 w is
above 2,5 to 4 \V 17
above 4 to G W 16
above 6 to 8 W 15
above 8 to 15 W 14
above 15 to 25 W 13
above 25 to 38 W 12
above 38 to 46 Wll
above 45 to 55 W 10
above 55 to 70 W9
above 70 to 100 W8
above 100 to 170 W7
above 170 to 250 W6
above 250 . W5
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing Rev 09-09
15.2
Copyright (;i 2002 TWI Ltd
TWI
V!lOI. _
'nlhle U.S StcpAwlc IQl
qual ity class 8
!
Pcuetrated thickness H1 IQI valueII
111.111
up to 1 U2
above 1 LO 2,5 H3
above 2,5 [0 4 114
above 4 to () 1I5
above 6 [0 11 HI>
above 11 to 20 H7
above 20 to 35 US
II It",ingIt 192 scurces, IQI WOniC th:.ul the 1c.1ed
v,.!ue::i can he 3Cceplcd ColIo\VJI:
" nun to II tum: up to va.lUl!.
Double-wall technique; single or double image;
IQI on film side
Table B.9 Wire lQI
JllInge cluality eless A
Pelletrated thickness w rQ]
film
Up to 1,2 W 18
above 1,2 to 2 W 11
above 2 to 3,5 W 16
above 3,5to 5 W 15
above 5 to 10 W 14
above 10 to 15 W 13
above 15to 22 W 12
above 22 to 38 Wll
above 38 to 48
""10
above 48 to GO W9
above GO to 85 \Va
above 85tof25 W7
above 125 to 225 W6
above to 375 W5
375
WI}
Tnblc a.io Step/hole [QI
lllw.tily cia:,,; A
I'Cllctrlltcd tl'ticknes8 10 IQI
mm
up to 2 H3
above 2lO 5 II 1
above Gto 9 H5
above n10 11\ HG
I
I
above 1'1 to 22 II7
i
above 22 to 36 HB
above 3G to 50 U9
above 50 to 80 HlO
I) Iltint.: (r 19'1 sources, IQI 'i:Ull'!!> \.. U';'II Ill.: fuiled
v.t.lU<'::' c.ID be ;'l<('c.'P!:l;.-d as folJO\vs::
5 lIInI to 9 111m: up [0 two \'a1US;
9 mm to 22 lime up to one
Double-wall tniekness, single or double image;
IQI Oil film side
(
Table n.n Wire IQI
Xn.IUIN Ilull1ity elass B
...,d tltl.ckue!:is tll IQ[ vnlue
mill
up to l,5 w19
1,5 to 2,5 W 18
above 2,5 to .. W 17
above 4 to 6 W 16
above 6 to ]2 W 15
above 12 to is W 1,4
above 18 to 30 W 13
above 30to 45 W 12
above 45 to 55 Wll
above 55to 70 W10
above 70 to 100 \V9
above 100 to ISO \V8
above 180 to 300 W7
above 300 W6
Senior Welding Ir:spection - Non-Destructive Testing
15.3 Rev 09-09
TWI
VIJ[JI. _
500
v V
I
//
V
I-' /
V
/v
V
l/'
/
-
-
-l-
r--
I--'
,/]
/ ;::1-... ....
V ..... I--
v
..........

V
r--

f..-
ro-
./
./'
- .........
I

I
l--
l---
,-
--'-,C
-r-
-
-
kV
300I
400
zooI
100I
It
70
60
SO
40
30
zo0
11 ]() 4.Q 50 601{) mm100
z
:3 " 5 6 7 8910
20
21
1 Copper/nickel and alloys
2
3 TItanium and alloys
.J Alumlnlum and altoy-$
1) voltage
2) Penetrated
Figure 20. Maxlrnwn X-ray voltage for X-ray devices up to tiOO leV as
a function of peuerrated thickness and material
Table 1. Penetrated thickness range for gamma. ray sources and X.ray equipment with energ}'
from 1 MeV and above, for steel, copper and nickel-based alloys

Radiation source
Tm 170
Yb 160
1
)
Se 75
2
)
Ir 192
Co 60
X-ray equipment 'with energy from 1 MeV
to 4 MeV
X-ray equipment wtth energy from '1 MeV
to 12 MeV
X-nw equipment with energy above
12 MeV
Penetrated thIckness, u'
nun
Test class A
1./ -s 5
Is w:=: 15
10 :5 w:S 40
20 s 10 ::; 100
40:s w s 200
30 s'W =:;; 200

Test class B
U1 es 5
2s1v:S:12
14 $111 S 40
2Osw:s90
60 S 1lI :5 150
50 ::;:; tV :=: 180
'1.02::80
10 100
I) For aluminium and tit:miurn, the penetrated material thiclmt'_'i5 is 10 mm <: 1(1 -:: 70 null for class A and 2,., mm < w < 55 mm Ior
c1..'\..'>5 B.
2) For aluminium and titaniuru, the penetrated material thi(".kn= Is 35 liull :;: W ,;; iao mm for crass A.
15.4
Rev 09-09
TWI
1001. THE WELDING Ir'-,ISTITUTE
Multi - Choice Question Paper (MSR-SWI-RT-1)
Name: .
1. If it were necessary to radiograph a 7-inch thick steel product, which of the following
gamma ray sources would most likely be used?
a. Co60.
b. Ir192.
()
c. Ce137
d. Yb169.
2. The kilovoltage applied to an x-ray tube effects:
a. The quality of the x-ray beam.
b. The quantity of the x-ray beam.
c. Has no effect on subject contrast.
3. Isotopes of a single element differ only in the number of:
a. Protons.
(
b. Neutrons.
c. Electrons.
d. Positrons.
4. Calcium tungstate screens used in industrial radiography are usually used to:
a. Improve definition.
b. Improve contrast in the radiograph.
c. Decrease exposure times.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-I issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 1 of7
i
TWI
5. The most common causes for excessively high-density radiographs are:
a. Insufficient washing and overdevelopment.
b. Contaminated fixer and insufficient washing.
c. Overexposure and contaminated fixer.
d. Overexposure and overdevelopment.
6. Movement, geometry and screen contact are three factors that affect radiographic:
a. Contrast.
b. Unsharpness.
_)
c. Reticulation.
d. Density.
7. The half-life of a source is dependent on;
a. It's original intensity.
b. The source to film distance.
c. The physical size of the isotope.
d. The isotope.
8. If a film is placed in a developer solution and allowed to develop without agitation:
('I a. The radiograph will not show correct contrast.
b. It will be impossible to fix the radiograph permanently.
c. There will be a general fogging condition over the entire radiograph.
d. Bromide streaking may result.
9. When a radiograph of a weld which contains a large, the crack will appear ~ n the
radiograph as:
a. A dark intermittent or continuous line.
b. A light, irregular line.
c. Either a dark or light line.
d. A dark rounded indication.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 2of7
TWI
10. Which one of the following persons is allowed to work with ionising radiation?
a. An authorised person.
b. A qualified person.
c. A classified person.
d. A radiation person.
11. Which of the following units is used for measuring the amount of absorbed dose?
a. Sievert.
b. Rem
c. Roentgen.
d. Gray.
12. Lead foil in direct contact with x-ray film:
a. Intensifies the scatter radiation more than the primary radiation.
b. Decreases the contrast of the radiographic image.
c. Intensifies the primary radiation more than the scatter radiation.
d. Should not be used when gamma rays are emitted by the source of radiation.
13. Which of the following defects are likely to be missed using x-ray as the inspection
medium?
(
a. Plate laminations, lack of side wall fusion on a single U butt weld and cap overlap.
b. Toe cracks, plate laminations and lack of side wall fusion on a single U butt weld.
c. Plate laminations, lack of inter run fusion using the MIG/MAG welding process
and cap overlap.
d. All defects are always detected using x-rays.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 30f7
TWI
14. Which of the following is the most likely appearance of lack of root fusion on a
radiograph taken of a single V butt weld?
a. A dark straight line with a light root.
b. A dark straight line with a root of higher density.
c. A dark root with straight edges.
d. A dark uneven line with a light root.
15. Which of the following defects would show up as light indications?
a. Copper inclusions, slag inclusions and excessive root penetration.
() b. Tungsten inclusions, spatter and lack of root penetration.
c. Tungsten inclusions, excessive root penetration and spatter.
d. Excessive cap height, copper inclusions and underflushing.
16. If an exposure time of 3 minutes and 30 seconds were necessary using a 5-metre
source to film distance for a particular exposure, what time would be necessary if a 3
metre source to film distance is used and all other variables remain the same?
a. 1 minute 43 seconds.
b. 1 minute 15 seconds.
c. 65 minutes 12 seconds.
d. 2 minutes 55 seconds.
( /
17. In order to increase the intensity of x-radiation:
a. The tube current should be increased.
b. The tube current should be decreased.
c. The test specimen should be moved nearer to the film.
d. A lower kilovoltage should be applied to the tube.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-S\VI-RT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 4 of7
TWI
1ll01. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
18. Excessive exposure of film to light prior to development of the film will most likely
result in:
a. A fogged film.
b. Yellow stains.
c. An increase in film contrast.
d. Frilling.
19. The penetrating ability of gamma rays is governed by:
a. The isotopes activity.
b. Time plus activity.
)
c. The isotopes half-life.
d. The atomic number of the element used for the isotope.
20. Two different gamma isotopes of the same activity:
a. Will produce different wavelengths of radiation.
b. Will produce the same quality of radiation.
c. Will produce the same intensities and wavelengths of radiation.
d. Will produce only electromagnetic and ionising radiation.
21. A good radiograph is produced using the following exposure conditions, 4 minutes at
3 mAo What exposure time would be needed if the mA were reduced to 2mA?
a. 6 minutes.
b. 3 minutes.
c. 2 minutes.
d. 4 minutes.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-1 issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 50f7
TWI
22. Reticulation resulting in a puckered or netlike film surface is probably caused by:
a. Crimping the film after exposure
b. Sudden extreme temperature change while processing.
c. Crimping the film before exposure.
d. Warm or exhausted fixer.
23. A penetrameter on the film side of the object is used to indicate:
a. The size of discontinuities in a part.
b. The density of the radiograph.
(J
c. The amount of film contrast.
d. The overall quality of the radiographic technique used.
24. X-rays and gamma rays are:
a. Corpuscular and ionising radiation.
b. Particulate and ionising radiation.
c. Particulate and corpuscular radiation.
d. Electromagnetic and ionising radiation.
25. The activity of the developer solution is maintained stable by:
( a. Constant agitation
b. Maintaining processing solutions within the recommended temperature range.
c. Avoiding contamination from the water wash.
d. Addition of replenisher.
26. The small area in the x-ray tube from which the x-radiation emanates is called the:
a. Focalspot.
b. Filament.
c. Focusing cup.
d. Cathode.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 60f7
TWI
1ll01. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
27. The absorption of gamma rays from a given source when passing through matter
depends on:
a. The atomic number, density and thickness or the matter.
b. The Young's modulus value of the matter.
c. The specific activity value of the source.
28. The fact that gases, when bombarded by radiation, ionise and become electrical
conductors makes them useful in:
a. X-ray transformers.
)
b. X-ray tubes.
./
c. Radiation detection equipment.
d. Radiographic film.
29. A graph showing the relation between material thickness, kilovoltage and exposure is
called:
a. A bar chart.
b. An exposure chart.
c. A characteristic curve.
d. An H & 0 curve.
30. Beta particles are:
a. Neutrons.
b. Protons.
c. Electrons.
d. Positrons.
WIS 10 Qu paper MSR-SWI-RT-l issue 3 Date: 28/05/03 7 of7
TWI
V!lOI. _
Ultrasonic Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) Component must be thoroughly cleaned; this may involve light grinding to remove
any spatter, pitting etc in order to obtain a smooth surface.
2) Couplant is then applied to the test surface. (water, oil, grease etc.)
This enables the ultrasound to be transmitted from the probe into the component
under test.
3) A range of angle probes are used to examine the weld root region and fusion faces.
(Ultrasound must strike the fusion faces or any discontinuities present in the weld at
90 in order to obtain the best reflection of ultrasound back to the probe for display
on the cathode ray tube)
Method:
1) Apply Couplant. 2) Apply sound wave. 3) Result.
Signal rebound from the
lack of sidewall fusion
(
1) Can easily detect lack of sidewall fusion. 1) High operator skill level.
2) Ferrous & Non - ferrous alloys. 2) Difficult to interpret.
3) No major safety requirements. 3) Requires calibration.
4) Portable with instant results. 4) No permanent record.
(Unless automated)
5) Able to detect sub-surface defects. 5) Not easily applied to complex
Measures depth and through wall extent. geometry.
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing Rev 09-09-02
15.5
TWI
Multi - Choice Question Paper (MSR-SWI-UT-1)
Name:
.
1. Under most circumstances, which of the following frequencies would result in the best
resolving power when testing C-Mn steel?
a. 1 kilohertz.
b. 1 megahertz.
c. 2 megahertz.
d. 5 megahertz.
I
)
2. Which of the following materials of the same alloy is most likely to produce the
greatest amount of sound attenuation over a given distance?
a. A hand forging.
b. A casting
c. An extrusion.
d. A weld made on a thin plate material.
3. Grass on a CRT display could be caused by:
a. A crack.
b. A large slag inclusion.
c. A coarse grain structure.
d. A gas pore.
(
TWI
VOI. _
Radiographic Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object.
2) Radiation is transmitted in varying degrees dependant upon the density of the
material through which it is travelling.
3) Variations in transmission detected by photographic film or fluorescent screens.
(Film placed between lead screens then placed inside a cassette)
4) An IQI (image quality indicator) should always be placed on top of the specimen to
record the sensitivity of the radiograph.
\,
Method:
a) Load film cassette. b) Exposure to radiation. . c) Developed graph.
%
.---.
Developed
graph
Radioactive source
IQI
~ .,
Latent, or hidden image
1) Permanent record. 1) Skilled interpretation required.
2) . Most materials can be tested. 2) Access to both sides required.
3) Detects internal flaws. 3) Sensitive to defect orientation.
(Possible to miss planar flaws)
4) Gives a direct image of flaws. 4) Health hazard.
5) Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging. 5) High capital cost.
Film cassette:;::::::+'
Senior Welding lnspection - Non-Destructive Testing Rev 09-09-02
15.6
Copyright 2002 TVV! Ltd
SWI) 2
wall sinzle ijllaae SWSl.
.. . .. i:? .... . .....
""!I

..
-Film
101's should be placed source side
2M rwrl:,J ....
SW13.2
M.$.Jl.,....
iQrs are placed on the film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters over
100mm

elliptical exposure
'V
=z=rp'?'"" Fllm-__ iliii.._
Double wall double jmage Ownl
10l's are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than
100mm
5W1:U
No.5.11.,....
"WI}l
:'''9''-':
. SWSl
panoramic .
101'5are placed on the film side
Source inside film outside (single exposure)
$'M3.2
Double wall single image DWSl
Identification
Unique identification
IQI placing
Pitch marks
indicating readable
film length
Copyrighl., 2003 TWI lid
Radiograph
M.SQ..,V'l
5W13.2
Double wall double imag,eDWDI
Identification
Unique identification
IQI placing
Pitch marks
indicating readable
film length
c:op."ir,Illt., ;:-oco TWl lId
'..4'
........ , +
\1!iIlUIUIU (!\II Ultllil:lilillUI,1111
fUlil!1l:WI lifilLfimilllil/l
li

\ID .. J.;,
. ,MR12"... .'
Shot" Radiograph
.... $ a"'fU"
o
TWI
1ll01. _
Summary of Non Destructive Testing:
J
Discipline Application Advantages
I
Disadvantages
--I
I
I Welds/Castings. Low operator skill level Highly clean the material
Surface testing only. All non porous material
Penetrant All materials can be surfaces may be tested Surface flaws only
Testing tested. Colour Low cost process Extremely messy
contrast & florescent. Simple equipment No permanent record
i
Welds/Castings Low operator skill level Fe magnetic metals only
i
Ferrous metals only. Surface/Sub surface flaws De-magnetise after use !
! Magnetic "Vet & Dry inks. Can cause arc strikes using
Particle Yolks. Permanent Relatively low cost straight current technique
Testing magnets and straight Simple equipment No permanent record
current AC/DC
I
Welds/Castings. Can more easily find lack of High operator skill level
One side access. sidewall fusion defects
: Ultra Sonic Un-favoured for large A wide variety of materials Difficult to interpret
Testing grained structured can be tested
I
alloys. No safety requirements Req uires calibration
I
i.e. Austenitic SIS Portable with instant results No permanent record
i
I
Welds/Castings. Permanent record 0 f results High operator skill level
I
Access from both A wide variety of materials Difficult to interpret I
I
sides is required. can be tested
Radiographic All materials. Gamma Can assess penetration in Cannot generally identify
Testing and X-ray sources of small diameter, or line pipe lack of sidewall fusion**
radiation used. Gamma ray is very portable High safety requirements
**To identify planar or 2 dimensional defects such as lack of side wall fusion, or cracks
( ) etc, the orientation of the radiation beam must be in line with the orientation of the defect
as shown below, hence if the radiation source is at the centre of the weld then no
indication of lack of side wall fusion may be shown on the radiograph.
Lack of
sidewall fusion
Radiation beam
Film
Senior Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing Rev 09-09-02
15.7
2002 TWI Ltd
I )
S I u o u o o g
r :
\ )
TWI
Dye Penetrant Report Information
A report should include the following information as a minimum:
1. Client.
2. ProjecUContractor.
3. Item number.
4. Weld identification.
5. Weld geometry/set-up.
6. Relevant specifications/procedures.
7. Relevant acceptance criteria.
8. Date of test.
9. Stage of test.
( )
" '
10. Location.
11. Description of equipment used including manufacturer and serial
numbers.
12. Background and viewing conditions.
13. Consumables used including manufacturer and batch numbers.
14. Method of application.
15. Dwell time.
16. Pre cleaning method.
17. Sensitivity.
18. Surface condition.
19. Method of reporting defects.
20. Details of any test restrictions.
21. Details of all flaws, which exceed the acceptance criteria.
22. The position of any inspection datum's used and the dimensions of the
( .
item under test.
23. Post test cleaning (if applicable).
24. Report number and any report numbers of any complementary
inspection reports (if known).
26. Operators name, signature and qualifications.
WIS 10 MSRlMPIIINFO Issue 1 Date: 14/01/02
TWI
Radiographic Report Information
1. Client.
2. Project/Contractor.
3. Item number.
7. Date of test.
8. Stage of test.
/.
9. Location.
u
10. Technique used.
12. Details of equipment type (manual external, battery internal crawler),
this shall include manufactories name and serial number.
13. Exposure container (where applicable).
14. Tube voltage or source strength.
15. Film type used and the density.
16. Intensifying screens, type and thickness front/back.
17. Shielding (if applicable).
18. Geometric relationship, source/focal spot size, focal film distance,
object film distance, radiation angle with respect to the weld and film.
19. Exposure.
20. Material thickness and surface condition.
(
21. IQI type, size, position and sensitivity.
,
22. Processing, .manual/automatic, development and fixing temperature
and times.
23. Details of any flaws exceeding the written criteria.
24. The positions of any inspection datum's used and the dimensions of
the component under test (weld thickness, circumference).
WISI0 MSRlRTIINFOIssue 1 Date: 14/1/02
TWI
Penetrant Test Report Bad Example 1.
Company Name: !WI Services Location: Melt down power station
Reference No: MSR 112034 Report Number: MSR 110365
Parts Tested
Product No: W21R

Root Gap: 2.5mm
Stage of Test: After Hrr Root Face: 2.0mm
Material Details: Steel Bevel Ang: 20 mm
Surface Cond: As Welded 2.0mm--+1 l+- t Capping 2.0mm
Test Instructions
Test Procedure Number: MSR 1445610365
Test Procedure
I Time 5 mins Viewing Conditions: UV-A Test Temp: 28C
Application: Aerosol Current Used 100 amps IEmulsification: 10 mins
Consumables
Consumable Manufacturer:
Penetrant: solvent removable contrast Ardrox
Developer: Dry powder Ardrox
Remover: water
Test Results:
Crack like indication 1rnrn slight sub-surface 10mm from datum

J
Evaluation of Test Component:
Acceptable as to Specifications Requirements
Test Operators Name: M S Rogers Date of Report: 12112103
Test Operators Signature:
BRlPT1 issueS Date: 10/06/05
TWI
Magnetic Particle Inspection Test Report Bad Example 2.
Company Name:
Reference No:
TWI Services
MSR 1120
Project/Client:
Report Number:
MSROil
MSR 110365 Test date: 3/11/2003
Weld No: W 23 & W 25 Fabrication number 21A
Surface Condition: as welded
Stage of Test: After HIT
Welding Process: TIG/GTAW
Product Details:
Material Details:
Bevel Angle:
Single - U Butt
Austenitic/Ferritic SS
70
Root Gap 2.0 mm
Root Face 2.0 mm
r"
Test Instructions
Test Procedure Number: MSR 110365 Scope of Testing: 100%
Test Equipment
Il)etection Unit: Prods Pole/Prod Space: 2m Viewing Conditions: 150 lux
~ Coil Spacing: 10 mm Wave Form: AC+ Current Used 100 amps
Test Sensitivity: 150 amps per inch of weld IPenetrameter Used: Gauss Meter
(j
Batch Number:
MSR 110012
MSR 110456
( /
Consumables
Consumable
Black Ink
Solvent
Manufacturer:
Johnson % Allen
Johnson % Allen
Post Test Details
Demagnetization: DC coil Test Limitations: N/A
jest Results:
Slight sub-surface defect detected at 6 o'clock position
Gas pore at 20mm from datum
Irrelevant indication at 6 o'clock position Weld W 21
Action: All defects detected shall be removed by grinding and cleared with PT.
Test Operators Name: M S Rogers Date of Report: 11/03/04
Test Operators Signature: m ~ ~ ~
BR/MT2 issue 5 Date: 10/06/05
TWI
Ultrasonic Test Report Bad Example 3.
Company Name:
Reference No:
TWI Services
LOS 26252/P
Location:
Report Number:
Melt down power station
MSR 110YV65 Date: 12/5/2001
Parts Tested
Product No:
Material Thk
Material Details:
Surface Cond:
RW2-11
3mm
Steel
As Welded

2.0mm -+1 k- t
Process MMA root
TIGfill
Bevel Ang: 70
0
Capping 2.0mm
Test Instructions
Test Procedure Number MSRlUT/03456
Test Equipment
I")etection Unit: USN 30
Probe Type
60Compression
45Shear
60Shear
80Shear
Serial No USN1298

10mm single
10mm double
10mm double
10mm double
Scope of Testing: 100%
Viewing Conditions:
Frequency
4 KHz
4 KHz
4 KHz
4 KHz
150 lux l)
Test Sensitivity
Angle Probe Scanning: 12 dB above DAC
Compression Probe Scanning: 100% FSH at test depth
Calibration: oto 200mm from V1 block
rTest Results
(
)
No indications found exceeding the limits of the specification
Test Operators Name: M S Rogers Date of Report: 11/03/04
BRlUT3 issueS Date: 10/06/05
TWI
Ultrasonic Test Report Bad Example 4.
Company Name: TWI Services Location: Kuala Lumpur to Nowhere Pipeline
Reference No: LOS 262521P Report Number: MSR 110YY65 Date: 12/5/2001
Parts Tested
Stage of test After HIT Process MMA
Material Thk 3mm Root Gap 2.5mm
Material Details: Steel Bevel Ang: 50
D ~
Surface Cond: As Welded 2.omm-..1 ~ t
Capping 2.0mm
Material Dimensions: 5mm wall thickness, pipe diameter 36 inch
Test Instructions
Specification: API 1104 Scope of Testing: 100%
(
\
Test Equipment
Detection Unit: ISonatest Sitescan 130
Probe Type Crystal Frequency
MAP 45shear Single 1.5 KHz
MAP 60Shear Single 4 KHz
MAP 80Shear Single 4 KHz
MAP 0Transverse wave Twin 4 KHz
Test Sensitivity
Angle Probe Scanning: 1.5 mm hole 80% FSH
Compression Probe Scanning: 1st BWE 100% FSH
Calibration: oto 200mm from V1 (A4) block
( est Results
o
. APlate lamination detected 450 and 600 probes. 20mm from reference
Tungsten inclusions detected 1OOrnrn X 100mm in area
Lake of sidewall fusion detected
Test Operators Name: M S Rogers 1Date of Report: 14/05/01
Test Operators Signature:
7 I t ~ ~
BRlUTJ issueS Dale: 10/06/05
TWI
Radiographic Test Report Bad Example 5.
Company Name: TWI Services Location: Kuala Lumpur to Nowhere Pipeline
Reference No: PL /177/04 Report Number: TWI 1/4YT7-04 Date: 3/12/2004
Parts Tested
Stage of test Completed Process GTAW
Details pipe to pipe Root Gap 3.0mrn
Material Details: C/Mn Steel Bevel Ang: 70
0
D ~
Surface Cond: As Welded 2.0mm ~ I \+- t
Capping 2.0 mm
Material Dimensions: 25mm WIT, 38' Diameter IProduct No: SEC 12 W24
Test Instructions
Specification: API 1104 Procedure: No 121mr/03 Scope of Testing: 100%
IRadiation Source: Yb 169 FFD/SFD: 700mm IQI Type: 12 cu 10
Source Strength: 600000 Mbq Size of Source: 4 X 2 Sensitivity: 4.5 %
Killo Volts N/A Focal Spot Size: N/A Technique: DWDI
Exposure: 16 Ci Mins Screen type: Salt Film Type: Ultra fine grain factor 10
(
Processing
Development
Time:
Temperature:
FiXing:
4 to 5 minutes Time: 6 minutes
200C Temperature: 20C
Test Results
Shot 1 Density 2 to 3 Sensitivity: 1.9% reshoot
Shot 2 Density 4% Sensitivity: 4% accetable
~ h o t 3 Density 0.2 to 1.0 Sensitivity: 4 wires visible accetable
(
. Shot 4 Density NA Sensitivity: no wires visible reshoot
Test Operators Name: M S Rogers Date of Report: 03/1212004
I est operators t.luaIS: A::;N I L:.:!
Test Operators Signature: m ~ ~
BRlUT3 issueS Date: 10/06/05
TWI
Ultrasonic Report Information
1. Client
2. Item number.
7. Date of test.
8. Stage of test.
9. Location.
(j
10. Flaw detector used (including serial numbers).
11. Details of all probes used including all performance checks and serial
numbers.
12. Reference to inspection sensitivities and dB usedfor each probe.
13. Details of all areas where the surface preparation is out of specification.
14. Details of surface condition during test and parent material quality.
15. All attenuation checks/measurements.
16. Weld geometry's and weld condition
17. Details of any areas with limited access.
18. Details of all flaws, which exceed the recording threshold/acceptance
criteria.
19. Any flaws exceeding the acceptance criteria limits shall be shown on a
drawing.
20. The positions of any inspection datum's used and the dimensions of
(- ./ the component under test (weld thickness, circumference).
21. Flaw sizing technique used.
WISIO MSRlUTIINFO Issue 1 Date: 14/01102
TWI
Magnetic Particle Report Information
1. Client.
2. Project/Contractor.
3. Item number.
8. Date of test.
9. Stage of test.
10. Location.
11. Description of equipment used including manufacturer and serial
numbers.
12. Background and viewing conditions.
13. Detection medium including manufacturer and batch numbers.
14. Method of flux generation.
15. Distance between contact areas.
16. Current type used, AC.lDC.lhalf-wave/full-wave rectified.
17. Current used if applicable.
18. Test Sensitivity.
19. Surface condition.
20. Method of reporting defects.
21. Details of any test restrictions.
( .
22. Details of all flaws, which exceed the acceptance criteria.
23. The position" of any inspection datum's used and the dimensions of the
item under test.
24. Post test cleaning (if applicable).
inspection reports (if known). "
26. Operators name, signature and qualitications.
WIS 10 MSRlMPVINFO Issue 1 Date: 14/01/02
TWI
V!7!lI. _
Questions
QU1.
QU2.
QU3.
QU4.
\,
QU5.
Non-Destructive Testing
Name four NOT methods.
State the two radiation types used in industrial radiography and state the
advantages of each type
Give the advantages and disadvantages of radiography and conventional
ultrasonic testing.
Give the main advantages and disadvantages of magnetic particle
inspection and state at least three methods to magnetise a component.
State the main limitations of the dye penetrant inspection method
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Non-Destructive Testing Sec 15 .
()
) .
S . l ! B d a l I P I a M
9 1 u o n J a S
( )
TWI
V!lOI. _
weu Repairs:
Weld repairs can be divided into two specific areas:
I) Production repairs
2) In service repairs
1) Production repair
The Welding Inspector, or NDT operator repairs during the
process of inspection, or evaluation of reports to the code or applied standard. A typical
defect is shown below:
".
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be fulfilled:
1) An analysis of the defect may need to be made by the QIA department to
discover the likely reason for the occurrence of the defect (Material/Process or
Skill related).
2) A detailed assessment needs to be made to find out the extremity of the defect.
This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDT method.
3) Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked out.
(
4) An excavation procedure will need to be produced, approved and executed.
5) NDT should be used to provide confirmation that the defect has been located.
6) NDT used to establish total removal of the defect
7) A welding repair procedure will need to be drafted and approved.
8) Welder approval to the approved repair procedure.
(Normally carried out during the repair procedural approval)
9) A final method of NDT will have to be identified and a procedure prepared to
ensure that the repair has been successfuUy carried out.
10) Any post repair procedures that need to be carried out i.e. Heat treatment.
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Repairs 16.1 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
THE WELDIf\IG INSTITUTE
Analysis:
As this defect has occurred in the HAZ the fault could be a problem with either the
material or the welding procedure, however if the approved procedure was followed no
blame can be apportioned to the skill of the welder.
Assessment:
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, penetrant testing may be used
to gauge the depth and length a f the defect.
lJ
Excavation:
As this defect is a crack it is likely that the ends of the crack should be drilled to avoid
further propagation during excavation, particularly if a thermal method of excavation is
being used.
The excavation procedure may also need approval, particularly if it will affect the
metallurgical structure of the component i.e. Arc Gouging.
Plan View of defect with drilled ends
\ .
Side View of defect excavation
Seruor Welding Inspection - Weld Repairs Rev 09-09-02
16.2
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Confirmation of excavation:
At this stage NOT should be used to confirm that the defect has been completely
excavated from the area.
Re-welding of the excavation:
Prior to re-welding of the excavation a detailed weld procedure will need to be drafted
and approved. This is often carried out by the welder to be used in the repair who should
then become automatically approved, should the procedure become qualified.
NOT confirmation of successful repair:
After the excavation has been filled the weldment should then undergo a complete retest
using ~ ' D T to ensure no further defects have been introduced by the repair. NDT may
also need to be further applied after any additional post weld heat treatment has been
carried out.
In service repairs:
~
~
Most in service repairs can be of a very complex as the component is very likely
to be in a different welding position and condition than it wa ring production. It may
also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible fluids hence a permit to work will
need to be sought prior to any work being carried out. The repair welding procedure may
look very different to the original production procedure due to changes in these elements.
Other factors may also be taken into consideration, such as the effect of heat on any
surrounding areas of the component i.e. electrical components, or materials that may
become damaged by the repair procedure. This may also include difficulty in carrying
out any required pre or post welding heat treatments and a possible restriction of access
to the area to be repaired. For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take
place on site and without a shut down of operations, which may bring other elements that
need to be considered.
Repair of in service defects may require consideration of these and many other factors,
and as such' are generally considered more complicated than production repairs.
Senior Welding Inspection - Weld Repairs Rev 09-09-02 16.3
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The degree of distortion that occurs is dependant on the ability of the material to resist
these stresses and deformation.
It is this deforn1ation that produces distortion of a product. Distortion, like the overall
pattern of residual stresses can be very complex, however we can show the three basic
directions of distortion exaggerated as follows:
Longitudinal distortion
(
Transverse distortion
(
t
Angular distortion
.. tii :.. ----.

,""iii.
Senior Welding Inspection- Residual Stress and Distortion 17.2
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd. Rev 09-09-02
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The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of local expansion and
contraction, hence the more volume of weld metal then the overall amount of distortion
wi II be higher.
Preparation angle of 60
=:
(0
,
, ...,' '." ...

':1

"';:{.
The effect of expansion and contraction causing distortion during welding can be
graphically seen when gas welding 2 free plates together, as the plates tend first to move
apart and then back together and then apart again and finally change direction once again
and move together. This effect is caused by what is called the reversal of stresses, where
(
expansion and contraction are taking place as the weld cools and each weld element acts
as a fulcrum for the following element upon contraction. As progression is made down
the weld the weld becomes fixed in a final position and is restrained from further
movement by the previous length of weld, as shown below:
I) Plates are 2) Welding begins 3) Fulcrum effect. 4) Fulcrum reversal. 5) Final position.
unrestrained. with contraction.
..
:'.' ,,' ,., ..
:.,..;...:.:
;.'>;'$

,r....
D
" ,
'."':
. .
Senior Welding Inspection - Residual Stress and Distortion 17.3 Rev 09-09-02
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To counteract the effects of expansion contraction and distortion we can carry out one 0 f'
the following techniques:
Offsetting:
Offsetting means to offset the plates to a pre-determined angle to allow distortion to take
place, with the final position of the weld being that required. Examples of this are shown
below:
, .. :"*"'Z4S

,,44
"':;',"1,- .. ,'" ;,t..::.... :..
Imp' tit .:

)
.",>,.4$ .. . ..
"';-,:..,,:;,
f 5'<tw.,:"=,,,,
l"trr"'"
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of trial & error, but if there are
many numbers of components to produce it can be an economical method of controlling
distortion.
Back-step welding and balance welding:
These 2 methods of distortion control use a special welding technique, or welding
sequence to control the effects of distortion. Examples are given below:
Back-step welding Balance welding of a pipe butt weld (

""\'--.
Weld
C
Weld 1 from A-B Weld 2 fromC-D
Weld 3 from B C Weld 4 from D-A
Senior Welding Inspection - Residual Stress and Distortion 17.4 Rev 09-09-02
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Clamping Jigging and Tacking:
In clamping and jigging, the materials to be welded are prevented trorn moving by the
clamp or jig. The advantage of using a jig is that elements in a fabrication can be
precisely located in the position to be welded and can be a very time saving method of
manufacturing high volume products. On most occasions the components are accurately
positioned by the jig and then tacked in position to prevent movement, then the jig is
removed to allow full access for welding. The use of clamps, jigs, strong backs, bridging
pieces, and tack welds will severely restrict any movement of material, and so reduce
distortion, this however will also increase the maximum amount of residual stresses.
Pictorial examples of some of these methods are shown below:
a)
Summary of Residual Stresses & Distortion:
1) Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is caused by local expansion &
contraction in the weld area.
2) Residual stresses should be removed from structures after welding as they may
cause Stress Corrosion Cracking to occur, and can compound with applied stresses.
They may also affect dimensional stability, when machining a welded component.
3) The amount of contraction is controlled by: The volume of weld metal in the joint,
the thickness, heat input, joint design, and the coefficient of conduction.
4) Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
\ I
5) If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking, clamping or jigging etc
(restraint). then the amount of residual stresses that remain will be higher.
6) The movement caused by welding related stresses is called distortion.
7) The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is very complex, as is the
amount and type of final distortion, however we can say that there are 3 directions:
a) Longitudinal b) Transverse c) Short transverse
8) A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by heat treatments.
Ultrasound has also been used in the stress relieving of fabrications.
9) The peening of weld faces (With the use a pneumatic needle gun) will only re
distribute the residual stress, and place the' weld face in compression.
Senior Welding inspection - Residual Stress and Distortion 17.5 Rev 09-09-02
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Questions
Stress and Distortion
QU1.
What causes residual stresses in a welded joint?
QU2.
State three directions which residual stresses form in a welded joint
-,
(, )
QU3. Give four methods of controlling distortion
QU4. Sketch "a balanced welding technique
,
r
QU5. State four factors. which affect distortion
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Stress and Distortion Sec 17
)
s l a a l S j O m o u n a a r j , l B a H
8 1 n O l l J a s
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Heat Treatment of Steels:
All heat treatments are basically cycles of three elements, which are:
a) Heating. b) Holding, or Soaking. c) Cooling.
Q,l
I..<
b. Holding
:::l
...
~
I..<
Q,l
c. Cooling
c.
5
Q,l
Eo-<
Time
We use heat treatments to change properties of metal, or as a method of controlling
formation of structures, or expansion/contractional forces during welding.
In heat treating metals and alloys there are many elements for the welding inspector to
check that may be of great importance, such as the rate of climb and any hold points in
the heating cycle. The holding or soaking time is generally calculated at 1hour for every
25mm of thickness, but this can vary. Heat treatments that are briefiy covered in this
section are as follows:
1) Annealing 2) Normalising
3) Hardening 4) Tempering
5) Stress relieving 6) Pre-heating
The methods/sources that may be used to apply heat to a fabrication may include:
a) Flame burners/heaters (Propane etc.). Preheating.
b) Electric resistance heating blankets. Pre-heating & PWHT.
c) Furnaces. Annealing. Normalising. Hardening. Tempering.
The tools that an inspector may use to measure the temperatures of furnaces and heated
materials may include.
a) . Temperature indicating crayons (Tempil sticks). Pre-heating. PWHT.
b) Thermo-couples. All heat treatments.
c) Pyrorneters (Optical. Resistance. Radiation.). Furnace heat treatments.
d) Segar cones. Furnace heat treatments.
All heat treatment records are an important part of the quality documentation.
Senior Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels 18.1 Rev 09-09-02
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1) Annealing:
Full Annealing
UCT
LCT
Annealing for steels
Annealing is a heat treatment process that may be carried out on steels, and most metals
that have been worked hardened or strengthened by an alloying precipitant, to regain the
softness and ductility. In the latter case we generally refer to solution annealing. In
work hardened non-ferrous metals, annealing is used to re-crystallise work-hardened
grains. When annealing most work hardened non-ferrous alloys the cooling rate is not
always critical, and cooling may be rapid without forming any hardened structures. In
steels we can carry out 2 basic kinds of annealing:
a) Full Annealing (Including Solution Annealing)
b) Sub Critical Annealing
In full annealing of steels the steel is heated above its UCT (upper critical temperature)
and allowed to cool very slowly in a furnace. This slow cooling will result in a degree of
grain growth, which produces a soft and ductile structure. There are no temperatures that
can be quoted for annealing steels, as this will depend entirely upon the carbon content of
the steel.
The DCT range ofP.lain Carbon Steels is between 910 -723C, however the temperature
is mostly taken to 50C above the calculated UCT to allow for any inaccuracies in the
temperature measuring device. Plain carbon steel of carbon content of 0.2% would have
an annealing temperature in the region of 850 - 950C
The solution annealing of some metallic alloys may require a rapid cooling rate.
In sub critical annealing the steel is heated to temperatures well below the lower critical
temperature (723C). This type of annealing is similar to that used with non-ferrous
metals as it is only the deformed ferritic grains that can be re-crystallised at these lower
temperatures.
The term annealing generally means to bring a metal, or alloy, to its softest and most
ductile natural condition. In steels this also means a reduction in toughness, as the
resultant large grain structure shows very low impact strength.
Senior Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02
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".,
2) Normalising: i.
~ . " ' :
UCT
Cooling in still air
Normalising is a heat treatment process that is generally used for steels. The temperature
climb and holding may be exactly the same as for annealing, however the steel is
removed from the furnace after the soaking period to be allowed to cool in still air. \ .
This produces a much finer grain structure than annealing and although the softness and
ductility is reduced, the strength and hardness is increased. Far more importantly the
toughness, or impact strength is vastly improved.
3) Hardening:
UCT
Rapid cooling
In the thermal hardening of steels the alloy must be taken above its VCT as with all the
heat treatment processes discussed thus far, and soaked for the same period. The major
difference is in the cooling cycle where cooling is generally rapid.
For plain carbon steel, the steel must have a sufficiently high carbon content to be
hardened by thermal treatment, which is generally considered as > 0.3% carbon. Alloy
steels containing carbon contents below 0.1% with added Mn. Cr. Mo. or Ni. Etc. can be
made much harder by thermal heat treatment.
Some steels are specially designed to produce hardness even at very slow rates of
cooling, and are included in a group of steels called Air Hardening Steels.
The cooling media for quenching steels is very important; as if the steel is cooled too
quickly then the thermal shock may be too rapid and cause cracking to occur in the steel.
Brine is considered to be the fasted cooling media followed by water and then oil.
Sel". .r Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02 18.3
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4) Tempering:
Fe steel temper colours:
1
2
r'C_
Tempering range 220 - 723C
240
0
e
220
0
e
Tempering is a sub critical heat treatment process that is used only after hardening has
first been carried out. Hardening will leave some steels very hard, but also very brittle.
Balance of properties, after Hardening.
Balance of properties after a temper at 350C
o~ ()
Balance of properties after a temper at 720C
Senior Welding Inspection - HeatTreatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02
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Copyright 2002 T\YI Ltd
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The softness, anel far more importantly the toughness, is of very low values after thermal
hardening, and the term temper really means to balance. When tempering steel we re
balance the properties of excessive hardness and brittleness by decreasing the hardness
and increasing the level a f toughness.
The process of tempering the hardness commences measurably at around 220C and
continues up to the LCT, or 723C. At this point most of the extra hardness produced by
thermal hardening has been removed, or fully tempered, but the fine grain structure
produced by the hardening process will remain, giving the steel good toughness and
strength. This is the mechanism used to give good toughness, and strength to Q/T steels.
5) Stress relieving, or PWHT:
The purpose of stress relieving is to relieve internal elastic stress that has become trapped
inside the weld during welding. The procedure of heat, hold and cool is the same as all
other heat treatments however special heating curves are required when stress relieving
some types of steels, particularly Creep Resistant Steels.
In stress relieving the steel may be heated between 200-950 C depending on the steel
type and the amount of stress that is to be relieved. To understand what happens during
stress relieving there are a number of terms that require to be defined:
Yield Point (Re)
This is the point where steel can no longer support elastic strain and becomes plastically
deformed i.e. plastic strain occurs. This means that the steel will no longer return to its
original dimensions. The residual stresses that are contained within steels after welding
are all elastic, with the remaining stresses having been absorbed by plastic movement of
the steel (Distortion). The stress/strain diagram of annealed low carbon steel below
shows this point:
Yield Point
'/ Failure point
CIl
CIl
~
......
(/)

Elastic strain Plastic Strain
When steel is heated the yield point is suppressed, which means that the elastic strain
shown above will now start to. become plastic strain. The higher the temperature, then
generally the more elastic strain will be converted to plastic strain, or plastic movement.
\ )
Senior Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02 18.5

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It is generally accepted that lip to 90
0
ft) of residual welding stresses can be plastically
relieved during this process. ThLS change is shown diagrammatically below:
Elastic strain
New Yield Point . ~ / Failure point
..
..
..
..
.
..

.
.
.
.
.
.. tr:
. . tr:
b
Il)
'"
CIl
Plastic Strain
When the temperature is returned to ambient temperatures, the yield point returns to
practically the same position as at the start of the heat treatment.
6) Pre-heating:
We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for a number of reasons. Primarily we
use most pre-heats to achieve one or more of the following:
I) To control the structure of the weld metal and HAZ on cooling.
2) To improve the diffusion of gas molecules through an atomic structure.
3) To control the effects of expansion and contraction.
We can control the formation of un-desirable microstructures that are produced from
rapid cooling of certain types of steel. Martensite is produced by the entrapment of
carbon in solution at temperatures below 300C. The function of a pre-heat with
susceptible steels is thus 2 fold, the first being the suppression of martensite formation by
delaying the cooling rate, and secondly allowing the trapped hydrogen gas to diffuse out
of the HAZ, or weld metal area back to the atmosphere. We may also control the effect
of expansion and contraction in welds.
Summary:
We use heat treatments to change, or control the final properties of welded joints and
fabrications. All heat treatments are cycles of 3 elements, heating, holding and cooling.
The welding inspector should carefully monitor the heat treatment procedure, its
method of application, and measuring system. All documents and graphs relating to
heat treatments should be submitted to the Senior Inspector in the Q/C department
to be logged in the fabrication quality document files.
Senior Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02
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Copyright 2002 TW Ltd
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Summary of Heat Treatments of Steels:
Treatment I lVlethod -, Uses
I
.. -------lThe steel is heated its upper critical temperature S SO[[
UlIU vVL.&.l"-VU l.V L L LLV \.Ll 1.VI. V v \wI1 J ...;.".-' L llLl1 V L \.l1.LVl"-LLV"""". I .... ..
The furnace is then turned off and the steel remains in
Annealing the furnace to cool.
This produces a large or course grain structure that is
soft and ductile but has very low toughness.
The steel is heated above its upper critical temperature Used to make steels
as in annealing and soaked for 1 hour for every 25mm tougher and stronger
Normalising of thickness. Once the soaking time has elapsed the
steel is removed from the furnace to cool in still air.
Produces a small, or fine grain structure that has high
toughness and strength, though ductility is lower than
(
annealed steel.
The steel is heated above its upper critical temperature Used to make medium
as in annealing and soaked for 1 hour for every 25mm or high plain carbon and
s
of thickness. Once the soaking time has elapsed the most low alloy steels
Hardening steel is removed from the furnace to quench in a harder.
cooling medium.
Produces a fine grain martensitic structure that has
very high hardness and strength, though ductility is
almost zero, with very low toughness.
The steel is re-heated after hardening, and the balance Used to rebalance the
of hardness to toughness is adjusted as the temperature properties of thermally
is increased from 220 - 723C hardened steels.
Tempering At 723 C all martensite has been tempered removing
brittleness, and returning the ductility.
The fine structure is retained giving high strength and
(
further improving the toughness.
The steel is heated to a temperature dependant on the Used after welding to
type of steel being heat-treated. relieve the trapped
Stress elastic stresses caused by
Relieving Plastic flow of stresses increases as the temperature expansion/contraction.
rises relieving the locked in elastic stresses.
The steel is heated to a temperature dependant on the Used to control the
Pre-Heating type of steel being heat treated, but normally less than formation of H2 cracks.
350C Also used to control the
This suppresses the formation of Martensite and allows effects of expansion and
time/temperature for diffusion of'H, contractional stresses.
Senior Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels Rev 09-09-02 18.7
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Questions
Heat Treatments
QU1. How can the levels of hardness be controlled in the HAZ?
l)
QU2. What is the maximum recommended heat treatment temperature for steel
weldments? State which heat treatment may be considered when
maximum toughness is required?
QU3. What are the four main considerations for determining pre-heat
temperatures, and as a welding inspector, which factors require inspection
when applying pre-heat to carbon steel joint to be welded
\ 1
QU4. What factors need to be checked/controlled during a heat treatment
process?
QU5. Which heat treatment process is required when maximum' ductility is
required. for example for cold working operations or extensive machining?
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Heat Treatments Sec 18
p U B S B D l a n i [ A X Q
6 1 u o n J a S
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Oxy Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting:
The oxy fuel gas heating method has been used for many decades as a portable means of
applying heat for many operations directly linked to welding, some of which are given
below:
1) Pre-heating. 2) PWHT.
3) Cutting. 4) Soldering.
5) Brazing. 6) Bronze welding.
7) Fusion welding. 8) Straightening.
The equipment generally consists of 2 cylinders, 1 containing acetylene and 1 containing
oxygen. Acetylene gas is very unstable and will self detonate at very low pressure, hence
it becomes a very dangerous gas to store in a cylinder under pressure.
To enable storage to be achieved acetylene is dissolved in liquid acetone, which can
absorb around 25 times its own volume of acetylene gas. The acetone is then absorbed in
a charcoal and kapok mass, this makes the gas much more stable to store.
For this reason the cylinder should always be used in the vertical position, as liquid
acetone will be expelled from the blowpipe if it is not used vertically. This will have a
similar effect to a flame-thrower, and is a very dangerous situation.
If transported, or stored horizontally the cylinder should be placed vertically and not used
for a minimum of 1 hour to avoid this effect.
Oxygen may be supplied at pressures of up to 3,500 PSI and must therefore be treated
with the greatest respect. Should the valve seat of an oxygen cylinder become fractured
by sudden impact the results would be horrific, with a high possibility of death for
anyone in the vicinity.
Key safety factors that must be observed:
Cylinders must be secured in vertical position
Only correct fittings must be used for connections*
Oil and grease must not be used on connections**
Left-handed threads must be used for fuel gasses
Colour coding of hoses must be adhered to
Flash back arrestors must be used on oxygen and fuel gas supplies
One way valves must be used on each hose/torch connection
The correct start up and shutdown procedure must be followed
All equipment must be thoroughly leak tested
*Use of non-propriety grades of brass may contain a high % of Cu which may form
explosive compounds on contact with pressurised acetylene.
**Oxygen will readily spontaneously combust when in contact with oil and grease.
\
!
(
Senior Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding /Cuttit1!9.1 Rev 09-09-02

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A typical set of oxy-acetylene welding equipment is shown below:
-.-:
Outlet
Cylind.,r
contents gauge
pressure gaug e
\",
l""/'
AcotlylillrW
hose
/'
">. A.cetv1eno
r.y!inder
IMaroonl
Safety cradle cvlinder stands
Oxy - Acetylene Fusion Welding:
\
"
The flame temperature of Acetylene combusted in air is 2,300 DC, whilst the flame
temperature combusted with oxygen is 3,200 DC, which is the highest temperature
achievable from the normal combustion of industrial gases.
This is higher than all the metals with the exception of tungsten, which has a melting
point of over 3,410 DC. During the welding of metals and alloys it is required that the
surface oxide needs to be removed from the molten pool. In the arc welding processes
the heat of the arc is generally high enough to melt the surface oxides of the metal with
the exception of the TIG welding of aluminium as the surface oxide called alumina
(aluminium oxide) has a melting point of over 2000 DC
For this reason we often need to use a flux when gas welding many ferrous and non
ferrous alloys, such as the fusion welding of stainless steels and aluminium alloys. When
welding plain carbon steels we do not need a nux as the melting point of iron oxide is
below that of the alloy.
Senior Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding ICuttilll9 ,2 Rev 09-09-02
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Oxy - Acetylene Flame Types
_
Uses
A neutral flame used for the fusion
welding of most metals and alloys,
including all types of steels
Also used for cutting (nozzle difference)
An oxidising flame used mainly for
bronze welding.
A carburising flame used mainly for
hard facing, and the fusion welding and
brazing of aluminium and its alloys.
Oxy - Fuel Gas Brazing and Bronze Welding:
Oxy fuel gas welding may be used very successfully as a heat source for brazing and
bronze welding, the difference between the terms being that the term brazing involves a
capillary action of some kind within the joint, and bronze welding is simply a shape of
weld, which is generally a fillet or butt weld, made of a bronze, or brass alloy. Cast irons
are very often brazed as the heat input is far less than fusion welding, and therefore the (
chances of cracking due to expansion forces is also less. 9% Nickel bronze filler wires
are mostly used for brazing of cast irons. (Nickel bronze has a tensile strength double
that of low carbon steels) Aluminium and aluminium alloys may be brazed using an
Oxy-Acetylene flame heat source, with an aluminium braze filler metal containing>15%
silicon.
In the correct application, a brazed, or bronze welded joint may be stronger than a fusion
welded joint, as the surface area of bonding is much higher, as shown below;
Area of fusion welds
.' .
Area of braze weld
Fusion welded T joint Brazed T joint
Senior Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding /CuttiI1l:9.3 Rev 09-09-02
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Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting:
lu oxy-fuel gas cutting we do not need to melt the steel, but simply heat it until il reaches
its ignition temperature. (Appears bright cherry red) At this temperature the iron will
react with pure oxygen to produce an exothermic chemical reaction, the product being
FE3 0 4 or magnetic oxide of iron. A jet of pure oxygen is sent from an orifice in the
centre of the nozzle that reacts with the iron at its ignition temperature. The velocity of
the oxygen jet removes the magnetic iron oxide from the cut face (The kerf),
As we do not require to reach the high temperatures needed for fusion welding, we do
not need to use acetylene gas. Therefore propane, butane and other cheaper gases may be
used for oxy-fuel gas cutting. Temperature reached during the chemical exothermic
reaction of oxygen with iron is sufficient to melt most metals, though a restriction of
oxy-fuel gas cutting is that it cannot be used successfully in its conventional form to cut
metals with high melting point oxides (i.e. Stainless Steels). By the addition of an iron
"
\-/)
powder injection system, the iron-oxygen reaction can be produced ahead of the
materials surface by the exothermic reaction of the heated iron powder within the oxygen
jet. The thickness of steel that may be cut using the Oxy-Fuel gas cutting method is
solely dependant on the nozzle size and gas pressure available. The oxy-fuel gas cutting
system may be simply mechanised and used to cut plates (Photograph 1) and
preparations on pipe to be welded. (Photographs 2.3. & 4). It must be recognised that the
cut face may be hardened up to a depth of 3mm, therefore dressing is normally required
to remove this hardened region as well as removing oxide.
The main inspection points of conventional oxy fuel gas cutting will include:
SAFETY POINTS +
1) Cutting nozzle type, and size. 2) Nozzle distance from work.
3) Cutting oxygen pressure. 4) Speed of travel of the cutting head.
S) Angle of cut. 6) Fuel gas type and flame setting.
\, 7) Pre-heat, if specified. 8) The condition of the kerf.
If all the above parameters are set correctly then the cut face or kerf should appear
as in photograph 4 below
-;t.. ":", ,,,"X',,,_ '". '
I Main oxygen
cutting jet
,:{f.

';i
Fuel gas
& oxygen
Fe304
Jet
Senior Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding /Cuttirt9.4 Rev 09-09-02
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Questions
QU1.
Oxy Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting
What is the principal limitation of oxy/fuel gas cutting?
lJ
QU2. Give three flame types and their respective applications
QU3. What is the flame temperature of acetylene in Oxygen?
\
QU5. Why is preheat some times required prior to oxy-gas cutting.
QU6. Give any major limitations of oxy-acetylene welding
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Oxy Fuel Gas Welding & Cutting Sec 19
. )
B W S B l d p U B
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Arc and Plasma Cutting Processes:
All thermal cutting processes that we use in fabrication must satisfy 2 major functions to
be successfully used as a cutting/gouging process.
1)A high temperature. (Capable of melting the materials being cut)
2) A high Velocity. (Capable of removing the molten materials in the cut)
In oxy-fuel gas cutting described in the previous section the temperature is achieved by
the exothermic reaction of iron at its ignition temperature and pure oxygen. The product
of iron oxide is removed from the cut edge, or kerf by the velocity of the oxygen gas jet.
Plasma Cutting:
Plasma cutting utilises the temperatures reached from the production of the plasmas from
certain types of gases. Nitrogen gas plasma can reach a temperature of over 20,000C but
temperature of air plasma is much lower. Air however is freely available and therefore
cheaper and can be compressed by a compressor in the equipment, but is restricted in the
depth of cut attainable.
~ - )
The velocity for plasma cutting is produced by the expansion of the plasma in the torch
chamber, which is then forced through a constricting orifice at the torch head, producing
the velocity required.
There are 2 different types of the plasma cutting process, which are:
1)
2)
Transferred arc. (Used for cutting conductive materials)
Non-transferred arc. (Used for cutting non-conductive materials)
Air Plasma Cutting Equipment
(
----,
Power
source
Shielding gas
-
.. ~ -.-.
J
Senior Welding Inspection - Arc and Plasma Cutting
20.1 Rev 09-09-02
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Arc Cutting & Gouging:
We can use the temperature attained by an electric arc in cutting processes to reach the
temperatures required to melt the metal or alloy to be cut. There are 3 types of process
that are generally used, the main differences being in the consumables and the gas used
in producing the velocity required.
1) Conventional cutting/gouging electrodes.
2) Oxy-Arc cutting/gouging.
3) Arc-Air cutting/gouging.
Conventional cutting/gouging electrodes:
(,J
In conventional arc gouging there is no requirement for any additional equipment other
than that required for MMNSMAW welding. The consumables consist of a light alloy
central core wire, which is mainly to give rigidity, and a heavy flux coating, which
provides elements that produce arc energy. The arc is struck in a conventional way to
MMA welding, however the arc melts the base material, which is then pushed away by
using a pushing action with the electrode. The process generates a great volume of
welding fume and is not very effective, but is suitable for the occasional need to remove
old welds, or gouge grooves in base metal.
Oxy-Arc cutting/gouging:
In oxy-arc cutting we require a special type of electrode holder. The consumables are
tubular in section and are coated with a very light flux coating. The electrode is located
in the special electrode holder to which is attached a power cable and gas hose. The
power cable is attached to the power source and the gas hose is attached to a source of
compressed oxygen. The arc is struck and the compressed oxygen may be activated at the
torch head. The heat of the electric arc will melt the base metal or alloy and the velocity
to remove it is provided by the compressed oxygen. When cutting ferritic alloys, a
similar effect can be produced to the exothermic reaction found when using conventional
oxy-fuel gas cutting. This process is generally used for decommissioning/scrapping plant
as the cut surface is generally not consistent.
Arc-Air cutting/gouging:
Arc-air cutting is the most commonly used method of arc cutting/gouging and is used
extensively for gouging old welds and removing materials. The consumable is a copper
coated carbon electrode. The gas used is of course compressed air. The' process is
basically a "melt and blow process" in that no exothermic reaction is involved
The main disadvantages include the high level of high-pitched noise produced and the
volume of fumes generated. The cut face will require dressing due to potential carbon
pick up and the rapid heating/ cooling cycle involved. A major safety inspection point in
the use of all arc processes is that correct ear protection is in use and also that an efficient
fully isolated breathing supply system is also being used.
Senior Welding Inspection - Arc and Plasma Cutting Rev 09-09-02
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1)

\J

Light flux coating
Cross Section
Tubular steel core wire containing
compressed oxygen
Oxy-Arc Gouging.
Gouged metal

2) Arc-Air Gouging.
Jet of compressed air
supplied from holes in
the electrode holder ----.

0

.'.' ...
;.,
Copper covered carbon electrode
Senior Welding Inspection - Arc and Plasma Cutting
20.3 Rev 09-09-02
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Questions
QU1.
QU2.
QU3.
QU4.
QU5.
Arc and Plasma Cutting
What are the two types of the plasma cutting process? State what each
cutting process is used for.
Name three types of arc cutting and gouging processes.
What is the main application area for arc gouging, with regards to welding
related activities?
At what temperature is reached during Nitrogen gas plasma cutting?
State at least one advantage of plasma arc cutting over conventional
thermal cutting (oxy-fuel gas). .
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Arc and Plasma cutting Sec 20
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Welding Safety:
As a respected officer, it is a duty of a welding inspector to ensure that safe working
practices are strictly followed. Safety in welding can be divided into several areas, some
of which are as follows:
1) Welding/cutting process safety.
2) Electrical safety.
3) Welding fumes & gases. (Use & storage of gases.)
4) Safe use of lifting equipment.
( )
5) Safe use of hand tools and grinding machines.
6) General welding safety awareness.
1) \Velding/cutting process safety:
Consideration should be given to safety when using gas, or arc cutting systems by:
a) Removing any combustible materials from the area.
b) Checking all containers to be cut or welded are fume free. (Permits to work etc.)
c) Providing ventilation and extraction where required.
l
d) Ensuring good gas safety is being practised.
e) Keeping oil and grease away from oxygen.
f) Appropriate PPE is worn at all times
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Related Safety 21.1 Rev 09-09-02
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~ )
(- \
2) Electrical Safety:
Safe working with electrical power is essential. Ensure that insulation is used where
required and that cables and connections are in good condition. Be especially vigilant in
wet or damp conditions.
Low voltage supply (110 v) must be used where appropriate for all power tools etc.
All electrical equipment must be regularly tested and identified as such accordingly.
3) Gases & Fume Safety:
The danger of exposure to dangerous fumes and gases in welding cannot be over
emphasised. Exposure to these welding fumes and gases may come from electrodes,
plating, base metals and gases used in and produced during the welding process.
Dangerous gases that may be produced during the welding process include ozone,
nitrous oxides, and phosgene (caused by the breakdown of Trichloroethlylene based
degreasing agents in arc light); all of which are extremely poisonous and will result in
death when over-exposure occurs.
Other gases used in welding can also cause problems by displacing air, or reducing the
oxygen content.
Most gases are stored under high pressure, and therefore the greatest care should be
exercised in the storage and use of such gases. All gases should be treated with respect
and are considered a major hazard area in welding safety.
Cadmium, chromium, and other metallic fumes are extremely toxic and again will
result in death if over-exposure results. Know the effects of a coating fume and always
use correct extraction or breathing systems, which are essential items in safe welding
practice.
If in doubt stop the work! Until a health and safety officer takes full responsibility.
4) Lifting Equipment:
It is essential that correct lifting practices are used for slinging and that strops of the
correct load rating are used for lifts. All lifting equipment is subject to regular inspection
according to national regulations in the country concerned. In the UK this is governed by
the HSE under the LOLER requirements, which are mandatory for all operations within
the UK.
Cutting comers is an extremely dangerous practice when lifting and often leads to
fatalities. (Never stand beneath a load)
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Related Safety Rev 09-09-02
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5) Hand tools and grinding machines:
Hand tools should always be in a sate and serviceable condition (grinding machines
should have wheels changed by an approved person) and should always be used in a safe
and correct manner. Use cutting discs for cutting, and grinding discs for grinding only.
6) General:
Accidents do not just happen, but are usually attributable to someone's neglect, or
ignorance of a hazard. Be aware of the hazards in any welding job, and always minimise
the risk. Always refer to your safety advisor if any doubt exists.
~ .
Senior Welding Inspection - Welding Related Safety
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Exercise:
Complete the table below, by inserting any specific safety issues that will need to be
considered:
l)
~
Material Process Other Information Issues to be considered
Stainless Steel MAG
Vessel contained
explosive & toxic
compounds
Stainless Steel Silver braze Cd braze alloy
Steel Gas
Welding
Galvanized
Steel MMA Cadmium plated
Steel TIG
Degreased with
Trichloroethylene,
but still damp
Steel Arc Air
Gouging
Confined space
Steel Overhead
Lift
500 tonnes
Steel MMA Site work
Wet conditions
Stainless Steel TIG Confined space
In an area containing
combustibles
I
. Steel Oxy- Fuel
cutting
Senior Welding lnspection - Welding Related Safety
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)
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Questions
Welding Safety
QU1. How can the welder protect himself against UVA light:
QU2. Occasional accidental exposure to the eye can produce an extremely
painful condition known as:
cJ
QU3. To reduce the possibility of electric shock, a correctly wired welding circuit
should contain three leads these leads are:
a).
b).
c).
QU4. Arc welding produce fumes and dust particles, state the precautions a
welder must take to protect against fumes and dust particles:
(
QU5 When welding on items, which have been degreased particular
precautions, must be made, why?
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Arc Welding Safety Sec 21
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)
s l a a l S J O A n n q u P l a M . a q l .
z z U O n J a s
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The Weldabilitv of Steels:
0/
In general, the term weldability of materials can be defined as:
"The ability of a material to be welded by most of the common welding processes, and
retain the properties for which it has been designed"
The weldability of steels can involve many factors depending on the type of steel, the
process and the mechanical properties required.
Welding engineers involved only with the welding of C/Mn structural steel could probably
define weldability as carbon equivalent, however this is a narrow application of the term.
Poor weldability generally results in the occurrence of some sort of cracking problem,
though most steels have a degree of weldability.
When considering any type of weld cracking mechanism, three elements must be present
for it's occurrence:
1) Stress.
2) Restraint.
3) Susceptible microstructure.
1. Residual stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion & contraction.
2. Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded to others.
3. The microstructure is often made susceptible to cracking by the process of welding.
The types of cracking mechanism prevalent in steels in which the CSWIP 3.1 Welding
Inspector should have some knowledge are: (
1. Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking. (elMn steels)
2. Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking. (HSLA steels)
3. Solidification cracking. (All steels)
4. Lamellar tearing. (All steels)
5. Inter-crystalline corrosion. (Stainless steels)
Senior Welding Inspection - The Weldability of Steels
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Definitions:
To compliment this section it is important to understand the following terms.
Solubility:
Maximum
Solubility:
Steel:
Plain
Carbon Steels:
Low
Carbon Steel:
lVIedium
Carbon Steel:
High
Carbon Steels:
Low
Alloy Steels:
High
Alloy Steels:
Ferrite:
Austenite:
Martensite:
Diffusion:
To be able to dissolve one substance in another, like sugar in tea.
The maximum % of a substance that can be dissolved in another.
An alloy of the iron with the non-metal carbon. (0.01 - 1.4% C)
Steels that contain only iron & carbon as main alloying elements.
Traces ofMn, Si, A, P & S may be also present from refining.
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.0 I - 0.3% C
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.3 - 0.6% C
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.6 - 1.4 % C
Steel containing iron and carbon, and other allying elements i.e.
lVIn, Cr, Ni, lVIo < 7% Total
Steel containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements i.e.
lVIn, Cr, Ni, Mo > 7% Total
. A low temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the
maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 0.02 %
A high temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the
maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 2.06%
A hard structure produced in some steels by the rapid ,cooling from
high temperature austenite, generally to temperatures below 300C
The movement of solute atoms, or molecules through a crystalline
structure. This can generally be accelerated with increasing levels
of heat energy in the material.
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Effect of alloying elements:
Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties required to make it useful for
an application. Most elements can have many effects on the properties 0 t' steels.
Below is a list of most common elements alloyed to steel, with some of their effects.
Aluminium:
Carbon:
Chromium:
Manganese:
Molybdenum:
Nickel:
Niobium:
Silicon:
Titanium:
Tungsten:
Vanadium:
Alloyed to steels mainly as a grain refiner, and is also used as a de
oxidising agent in triple de-oxidised steel and welding consumables.
A prime and essential element in steel alloys. An increase in Carbon
content will increase hardness and strength, but reduces the ductility.
Alloyed in additions > 12% to produce stainless steels, but is 0 ften
used in low alloy steels < 5% to increase hardness strength and
greatly increase the resistance to oxidation at higher temperatures.
("
Chromium stabilises carbide formation, but promotes grain growth
if added in isolation. It is thus often alloyed together with Ni or Mo
Alloyed to structural steels < 1.6% to increase the toughness and
strength. It is also used to control solidification cracking in ferritic
steels. Alloyed up to 14% in wearlimpact resistant Hadfield steel.
Alloyed to low alloy steels to control the effects of creep. It is also
used as a stabilising element in stainless steels, and will a limit the
effects of grain growth. Alloyed in Cr/Ni/Mo low alloy steels to
control an effect called temper embrittlement.
Nickel is alloyed to produce austenitic stainless steels. It may also
be added < 9% in the low temperature nickel steels. It promotes
graphitisation, but is good grain refiner, and is often used to offset
some effects of Chromium. Nickel is very expensive, but improves
the strength, toughness, ductility and corrosion resistance of steels.
Carbide former used to stabilise stainless, also in HSLA < .05%
Is alloyed in small amounts < 0.8% as a de-oxidant in ferritic steels.
It is alloyed to valve and spring steels, and can also increase fluidity.
Used mainly to stabilise stainless steel, and < .05% in HSLA steels.
Mainly alloyed to high alloy High Speed Tool steels. This increases
the high temperature hardness required of such steels, due to the
tempering effect of frictional heat on other steels during cutting.
Used as a de-oxidant, or as a binary alloy as in HSLA steels < .05%
It should be remembered that most alloying additions increases the ability of a steel to
harden by the thermal hardening process. This property is termed "hardenability"
22.3 Rev 09-09-02
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Crack type: Hydrogen cracking (cold cracking)
Location: a. HAZ. Longitudinal
b. Weld metal. Transverse or longitudinal
Steel types: a. All hardenable steels
b. HSLA steels & QT Steels
Susceptible microstructure: Martensite.
Causes:
Hydrogen cracking may occur in the HAZ or the weld metal, depending on the type of
steel being welded. Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc from water on the plates,
moisture in the air, paint or oil on the plates or the breakdown of gas shielding etc. An
( ~ ) E60 I0 cellulosic electrode uses hydrogen as a shielding gas.
Hydrogen will easily dissolve in the molten weld metal, and remain in solution on
solidification to austenite. The weld will cool down and transform to ferrite, where the
hydrogen has less solubility and will want to diffuse to the HAZ, which will still be
austenitic.
This occurs rapidly as diffusion is increased with high temperatures. If the HAZ is un
hardenable it will itself transform to ferrite and the hydrogen, which has some solubility
in ferrite, will eventually diffuse out of the weldment. If the HAZ has some
hardenability, then the transformation of the HAZ will be from austenite to martensite,
which has no solubility for hydrogen.
This will result in great internal stress, occurring in a microstructure, which is very
brittle. Cracks may occur at areas of high stress concentration, such as the toes of a
weld, and move through the hardened HAZ and in extreme cases, the weld metal.
The four minimum critical factors and their values, where hydrogen cracking is
likely to occur, are considered to be:
a. Hydrogen content: > 15 ml/l00 gm of deposited weld metal.
b. Hardness: > 350 VPN.
c. Stresses: > 0.5 of the yield stress.
d. Temperature: < 300C.
22.4
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Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc zone and liquid weld metal from:
E 6010 electrodes produce
Hz as a shielding gas.
Weld metal changes
phase to a ferrite and
Hz diffuses into HAZ
" A long, or an unstable arc.
. y Austenite in HAZ

\
. se

Rust, oil, grease, or
paint etc. on the plate.
Austenite in HAZ changes to
H
2
diffusion to HAZ
martensite at 300C trapping Hz
and forcing it out of solution.
(
Hz HAZ Cracking a. Butt joints.
Martensitic HAZ
Stress concentrations
Hz HAZ Cracking
lVIartensitic HAZ
Stress concentrations
b. T joints.
22.5 Rev 09-09-02
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Prevention of hydrogen HAZ cracking:
To control hydrogen cracking in the HAZ it may be necessary to pre-heat the weldment.
Pre-heating retards the rate of cooling and suppresses the formation of martensite and
other hard structures, which is formed on rapid cooling.
It will also allow some of the trapped hydrogen to diffuse back to the atmosphere.
Elements that are to be considered when calculating pre-heat are:
a. Hardenability of the joint. (i.e, Ceq)
c. Arc energy input.
b. Thickness of metal and joint type.
d. Hydrogen scale, or achievable limit.
I, - ')
'--/
Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking is found when welding HSLA (High strength
low alloy) steels which are alloyed with micro amounts of titanium, vanadium and/or
niobium. (Typically 0.05%)
In order to match the weld strength to plate strength, weld metal with increased carbon
content is used, as carbon content increases tensile strength. A graph showing the effect
of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels is given below.
This results in a hardenable steel weld deposit, in which the austenite of the weld
transforms directly to martensite, causing the same conditions as found in the HAZ
previously and cracking may now occur within the weld metal.
Prevention of H2 for these steels is as per H2 HAZ cracking, by the preheating of the
weld area, but this is principally to allow any trapped hydrogen the time at temperature to
diffuse from the weld & HAZ area back to the atmosphere.
. (
Both HAZ and weld metal H2 cracks are considered as cold cracks 300C) and final
inspection is often delayed for up to 72 hours as these cracks may appear within this
time.
Tensile Strength
Ductility
. ~
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
22.6 Rev 09-09-02
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It can be clearly seen from the graph that additions of carbon (up to O.83%C) will
increase the tens i le strength 0 f plain carbon steel dramaticall y. \Vhilst this wi II serve the
purpose of cheaply matching the weld metal strength to the base metal, it will also give
the weld metal much higher hardenability.
This may now result in H2 cracking in the weld metal, as the weld will transform from
austenite - martensite trapping the hydrogen in weld, before it is able to diffuse to the
HAZ. It can also be seen from the graph that higher carbon steels have very little
ductility, which further complicates the problem.
Cracks tend to be transverse, as the main residual stresses are generally in the
longitudinal direction, though they may occasionally be longitudinal, or even at 45 to
the weld metal.
(j
High strength low ductility weld metal. Hydrogen induced weld metal cracks.
Prevention of hydrogen cracking in the weld metal of HSLA, or Micro-alloyed steels
is very much the same as for hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of other low alloy
steels.
Summary of prevention methods:
a. Use a low hydrogen process and/or hydrogen controlled consumables.
b. Maximise arc energy (taking HAZ and weld toughness into consideration).
c. Use correctly treated H2 controlled consumables
d. Minimise restraint.
e. Ensure plate is dry and free from rust, oil, paint or other coatings.
f. Use a constant and correct arc length.
g. Ensure pre-heat is applied and maintained before any arc is struck.
h. Control interpass temperature
i. Ensure welding is carried out under controlled environmental conditions
Senior Welding Inspection - The Weldability of Steels Rev 09-09-02 22.7
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Crack type:
Location:
Steel types:
Susceptible microstructure:
Causes:
Solidification cracking (Hot cracking)
Weld centre. (longitudinal)
All
Columnar grains.
(In the direction of solidification)
Solidification cracking, is a hot cracking mechanism that occurs during solidification of
welds in steels, having high sulphur content or contaminated with sulphur.
Another potential cause is the depth/width ratio of the weld, which in normal welding
situations refers to deep narrow welds (cladding applications may produce shallow wide
( --)
welds, which are also prone to this problem).
~
Therefore if we have a combination of deep narrow welds with a high incidence of
sulphur we are great! y increasing the likelihood of hot cracking.
As with all cracking mechanisms stress plays a major role in susceptibility.
During welding, sulphur in or on the plate may be re-melted and will join with the iron to
form iron sulphides. Iron sulphides are low melting point impurities, which will seek the
last point of solidification of the weld, which is the weld centreline.
It is here that they form liquid films around the hot solidifying grains, which are
themselves now under great stress due to the actions of contractional forces.
The bonding between the grains may now be insufficient to maintain cohesion and a
crack will result running the length of the weld on its centreline.
(
Prevention of solidification cracking in ferritic steels: To prevent the occurrence of
solidification cracking in ferritic steels that contain high levels of sulphur (these steels
are said to suffer from Hot Shortness), manganese is added to the weld via the
consumable.
Sulphur related:
Scrutiny of Mill sheets is essential to assess the materials Sulphur content.
A typical maximum level allowed in a low carbon steel specification is 0.05%. Even this
seemingly low figure may be excessive for certain high stress/higher carbon applications,
or if the depth/width ratio is excessive.
Another potential source of Sulphur is paint, oil and grease. This is why temperature
Crayons always carry the statement "sulphur free".
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This is a prime reason for thorough cleaning, which becomes of even greater
importance when dealing with Austenitic Stainless Steels
if material availability dictates the necessity of welding high sulphur steels consumables
with a relatively high Manganese content are specified.
An example of steel with very high sulphur levels would be a free machining steel. Some
of the free machining steels could be considered not weldable in normal circumstances as
sulphur levels are so high.
Manganese has the effect of forming preferential manganese sulphides with the sulphur.
Mn/S are spherical, solidify at a higher temperature than iron sulphides and therefore are
distributed more evenly throughout the weld. The cohesion between the grains is thus
maintained and the crack will not occur.
(
'--"
)
Careful consideration must be given to the Mn/S ratio, which should be in the region of
about 40: 1. Increased carbon content can rapidly increase the required ratio
exponentially; thus carbon must be reduced as low as possible, with low plate dilution
and low carbon, high manganese filler wires.
A summary of prevention methods:
a. Use low dilution processes b. Use high manganese consumables
c. Maintain a low carbon content d. Minimise restraint/stress
e. Specify low sulphur content of plate f. Remove laminations
g. Thorough cleaning of preparation h. Minimise dilution
.Solidification cracking (Sulphur related)

Direction of grain solidification
Weld centre line with liqnid Iron -
aronnd the solidifying grains -
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Effect of Manganese Sulphides formation
Direction of grain solidification
Spheroidal Mn sulphides form between the
solidifying grains, maintaining inter-granular
strength.
~ ~
(J
Depth/width ratio related
The shape of the weld will also contribute to the possibility of cracking. This may be
totally independent from the sulphur aspect but is usually in combination.
Processes such as SAW and MAG (using spray transfer) may readily provide these
deep/narrow susceptible welds.
\ However it is not the weld volume that is the prime factor but the weld shape as referred
to previously. Therefore root runs and tack welds may readily provide the susceptible
profile. As root runs are also areas of high dilution (therefore greater sulphur pick up)
and more likely to be highly stressed these must always be inspected with solidification
cracking in mind.
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Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steel is particularly prone to solidification cracking.
This is due to:
A comparatively large grain size, which gives rise to a reduction of grain boundary area.
High coefficient of thermal expansion, with resultant high stress.
An atomic structure that is very intolerant of contaminants, such as sulphur,
phosphorous and additional elements such as boron.
The cause and avoidance may be regarded as the same as that of plain carbon steel but
with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning requirements prior to welding.
The welding procedure will have been written to control the balance of austenite and
ferrite in the weld metal. This balance will directly effect the structures tolerance of
' ~ )
contaminants and the resultant grain boundary area. This is why the filler material
specified often does not appear to match the parent material.
Careful monitoring of parameters is required to control dilution to ensure this balance is
maintained.
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Crack type: Lamellar tearing.
Location: Parent material
Steel types: Any steel type
Susceptible microstructure: Low through thickness ductility
Causes:
When welding of joints where high contractional stresses are passed in the through
thickness direction of one of the plates in the joint.
This short transverse direction is lacking in ductility in cold rolled plates, but ductility
is required to accommodate the plastic strain caused by contraction.
A stepped like crack may initiate in the affected plate, just below the HAZ, in a
') horizontal plane. Micro inclusions of impurities such as sulphides and silicates, which
(,.
occur during steel manufacture, cause this poor through thickness ductility. When
subjected to high short transverse stress this may lead to lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing. (Ferritic steels)
b. Butt joints.
--.:.
'r.
~ ~ .
~
Through thickness contractional strain. = ~
c. T joints. d. Lap joints.
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Methods of controlling the occurrence of lamellar tearing:
1) Change of weld design
High ductility weld metal
[;
2) Use weld metal buttering layers
3) Minimise restraint
Aluminium wire
A pre formed T piece
4) Use pre formed T piece for critical joints
22.14 Rev 09-09-02
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Summary of Weldahility of Steels:
Hydrogen induced HAZ or weld metal cracks.
Cause'
Key words:
R ~ HAZ cracks Process Consumables Paint, Rust, Grease
Delayed inspection. Solubility o concentrations HAZ
Diffusion Transformation Martensite Critical factors =
Hardness> 350VPN Hydrogen>15ml o > 0.5 yield stress. Temp < 300C
HSLA weld cracks High strength metal High carbon weld Low ductility
Weld contraction Transverse crack Micro alloy Nb T V Longitudinal (J
Prevention'
()
Pre-heat Hydrogen control Bake consumable Use low H
2
Process
Minimise restraint Remove coatings Stable arc length y SIS Weld metal
Arc energy Use low Ceq plate Use hot pass ASAP Use low H
2
Cons'
Solidification cracking in C/Mn steels. Keywords:
Cause'
Sulphur. Fe/Sulphides Weld centreline Contraction
Low melting point film Contraction forces Loss of cohesion Hot shortness
Prevention:
High manganese % Use low restraint Control carbon % Use low dilution
Control heat input Control sulphur % Change Preparation Cleaning
Lamellar tearing in C/Mn steels. Key words:
Cause:
Poor ductility Plastic strain Micro inclusions
Contraction Short transverse Segregation
( \
Prevention'
NDT for laminations I Through '1' tensile I Buttering layers Contraction gap
Re-design joint I Forged T piece I Chemical analysis Control heat input
Inter - crystalline corrosion in stainless steels. Key words:
Cause:
Chromium depletion TTemp gradient I Cr Carbide Sensitisation
Parallel to weld I In HAZ I Loss of resistance Stabilised
Prevention:
Low Carbon .03%
.Low heat inout
Stabilising elements I Niobium
Titanium I Solution anneal
Run sequence
Low interpass temp.
TWI
V!lOI. _
Questions
Weldability of Steels
QU1. Briefly discuss the four essential factors for hydrogen cracking to occur
QU2. State four precautions to reduce hydrogen cracking
( ~
QU3. In which steel type is weld decay experienced? and state how it can be
prevented.
~ )
QU4. State the precautions to reduce the chance ofthe occurrence of
solidification cracking
QU5. State four essential factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Senior Welding Inspection - QU Weldabilityof SteelsSec 22
Copyright 2003TWI Ltd
s m o u r s s e s s v
' Z
o
TWI
Fracture Assessments:
You are required to:
Record the sample number
Sketch the fracture surface.
Indicate the fracture initiation points (if known)
Show any defects present on the fracture surface
( \
<:
Identify the primary mode of failure.
Identify the secondary mode of failure (if present)
State the location of failure e.g parent material, weld metal or both (ifknown)
Write a conclusion to summarise your findings, providing reasons for the
fracture occurance and evidence.
Sign and date your report
Senior Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards
23.1 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Fracture Assessments: Example Report
Sample Number 12.
C
A. Crackslforging bursts
D
B. Fatiguefracture surface
A
C. Ductilefracture surface
C) E
B
D. Brittlefracture surface
E. Initiation point
A
N,
T.
".' )P
. -,
"I .. :
r j ! " t ~ f '.0 ~ ,
Primary and final mode of failure: Fatigue fracture
Secondary mode of failure: Brittle fracture.
Third mode of failure: Brittlefracture
( .Conclusion: The threaded barfailedfrom afatigue crack, which
initiated at the base'of the thread (E).
The primary mode offailure is afatigue fracture (B) this is evident by
the smooth fracture surface, which initiatedfrom the base ofthe thread
(E). The secondary mode offailure is a ductile fracture (C) this is
evident by the fibrous appearance ofthe fracture surface with evidence
of plastic deformation. Thefinal mode offailure is brittle (D) this is
evident by the bright crystallinefracture surface.
Name: Mark Roqers Date: 13/06/03. Signature: M.S Roqers
Senior Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards
23.2
Rev 09-09-02
SW13.2
Fracture Surfaces
Introduction:
Fatigue and brittle fractures are the two most
important forms of service failure in welded
structures
e Fatigue fractures account for more than 90% of all
"'I
service failures C-.--/
- Brittle fractures although rare in occurrence are usually
catastrophic in economic terms and may cause loss in
life
Copyright 2003 Nil Ltd
M. s , Rog9rs
SW13.2
Fatigue Fracture Surfaces
Features of Fatigue fractures:
(
-Service failure
-Occurs under cyclic/fluctuating stress
-Smooth appearance
-Initiates at some form of stress concentration. These
stress points may be weld defects, poor profiles,
notches etc
-In certain cases evidence of beach markings
-Fracture occurs perpendicular to the applied stress
Copyright 2003 TWI ltd
M. S.Rogers.
c
SW13.2
Fatigue Fracture Surfaces
()
Copyright e 2003 TWI Ltd
:-i .3. R o g ~ o : s
SW13.2
Fatigue. Fracture Surfaces
M. S. Rogen
SW13.2
Ductile Fracture
Features of ductile fractures:
-Rouqh fibrous appearance
-Dull grey in colour
In certain cases evidence of shear lips
-ln most cases a reduction in area LJ
-Occurs as a secondary mode of failure
K. S . R o g ~ r 9
SW13.2
Brittle Fracture
Features of brittle fractures:
( !
Usually occurs without visible or audible warning
-ln certain cases bright crystalline appearance
-ln certain cases a chevron pattern appearance, the
chevron pattern points back to the point of
initiation
-Little if no reduction in area
-Little if no evidence off shear lips
-May be a straight brittle fracture or secondary
mode of failure,
l-:.S.ltogers I .
(J
Initiation point
Initiation point
Initiation point
Initiation point
Initiation point
F. Initiation point
G. Initiation point
Fracture Sample 1
H. Weld crater/crater pipe
I. Cap undercut
J. Ductile fracture
K. Ductile fracture
L. Fatigue fracture
M. Shear lips
SW13.2
Ductile
Fracture
!of.
SW13.2
Fracture Sample 2
(
A-A. Initiation point
Ductile Fracture
B. Stepping
C. Stepping
D. Ductile fracture
E. Inclusions
F. Inclusions
G. Fatigue fracture
M. S. Rogen
,(

Fracture Sample 3
SW13.2
Ductile
Fracture
A. Slag inclusion
B. Slag inclusion
C. Slag inclusion
D. Weld Defect
E. Slag inclusion
F. Shear lip
G. Fatigue fracture
H. Ductile fracture
Note: Reduction in area
M. S.R.ogers
( \
\---)
Fracture Sample 4
SWl3.2
)
Ductile
Fracture
A. Gas porelinitiation
point
B. Beach mark
C. Ductile fracture
D. Fatigue fracture
E. Shear lip
F. Shear lip
G. Shear lip
M. S. Rogers
Fracture Sample 5
SW13.2
Brittle
Fracture
.. J_\
'.)
A. Weld defect possible toe crack initiation point
B. Small shear lip
C. Shear lip
D. Shear lip
Note: Patterned fracture surface - Brittle fracture.
Copyright @ 2003 TWI Ltd M. S.Rogers
SW13,2
Fracture Sample 6
/_:"'1
~ /
Brittle Fracture.
Note: Patterned/chevron fracture surface - Brittle
fracture.
Note: Small shear lips along both plate surfaces.
Copyright @ 2003 TWI Ltd M. S.Rogers
B.
C.
Copyright 2003 1W1 Ltd
SW13.2
Fracture Sample 7
CTOD Brittle Fracture
Machined notch initiation point
Fatigue fracture surface
Brittle fracture
. ( ~ )
Note: Very little reduction in area
and no evidence of shear lips
M. G.Roger:J
H. S. Rogers
B. Fatigue fracture surface
A. Machined notch initiation point
SW13.2
CTOD Ductile Fracture
C. Ductile fracture surface
Note: The reduction in area and the
large shear lips
Fracture Sample 8
'Copyright 2003 1W1 Ltd
--...,
,., ~ )
C ~ ....../

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