FEATI UNIVERSITY

Helios St., Sta Cruz Manila

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

HYDRAULICS
LABORATORY MANUAL

BY
ENGR. TOMAS U. GANIRON, JR.
June 1994

EXPERIMENT NO. 01

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT USING A

VOLUMETRIC TANK
OBJECTIVE:
To measure Q which is the rate of discharge or flow from a source in units of volume per
unit time.
EQUIPMENT:
Volumetric tank or container of measurable capacity
Stop watch
Weighing scale
Water source
Tape measure
FORMULAS:
Q1

= total volume (m3/s)

elapsed time

where:
Q = volume discharge in kg.wt/s
M2 =

Weight
elapsed time

where:
M = mass discharge water
Q = M2
P
where:
P = mass density of liquid
= 1 KN/ m3 for water
PROCEDURE:
A. For Q,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Measure volume of tank/container in m.

Turn on flow reservoir or source of steady flow
Catch flow into container at same time that stop watch is started.
Determine time in seconds to fill tank/container.
Repeat at least 2 trials w/ different openings of top/source.

B. For M2 (if weighing scale is available for use)

1. Place container on weighing scale and determine weight of empty container,
(W0) in kg.wt.
2. Turn on flow from reservoir or source.
3. Record time that the mass-weight of container and flow reach several values
of W1, W2, etc..
DATA AND COMPUTATIONS:

SKETCH:

THEORY/DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 02

VENTURI METERS
OBJECT:
To measure the rate of flow in pipe and to determine the coefficient of discharge Cd.
THEORY:
A constriction in a stream tube tend to produce an accelerated flow and fall of pressure
which is directly related to flow rate and thus is an excellent matter in w/c rate of flow maybe
calculated from pressure measurements.
The form of Venturi tube is usually a conical nozzle like reducer followed by a more
general enlargement to the original size. It is generally a casting consisting of an upstream
section w/c is the same size as the pipe, has a bronze lining and contains a piezometer ring for
measuring static pressure; a converging conical section; a short cylindrical section containing a
piezometer ring and a diffuser in order to minimize head loss.
The pressure at the base of meter (section 1) and at the throat (section 2) are obtained by
piezometer rings and the pressure difference is usually measured by a differential manometer.
The pressure at the upstream section and throat are the actual pressures. The velocities from
Bernoullis equation are theoretical velocities. If losses are considered in the energy equation, the
velocities are then the actual velocities. Now from the principle of continuity, Q = AV, the
actual velocity times the actual area of the throat determines the actual discharge. Because of
stream lining the flow passage, any contraction beyond the smallest section is eliminated;
consequently the coefficient of contraction has a value of unity and the basic discharge equation
for the venture meter for incompressible flow is:

Q = CdA2

2gR1 [(So/Si)] 1

1 (D2/D1)4

where: R1 = gage difference

S0 = specific gravity of manometer liquid
S = specific gravity of flowing liquid
Note, that since the contraction coefficient is unity: hence
Cd = CvCc = C1(1) or Cd = Cv
where: Cd is the coefficient of discharge

APPARATUS:
Hydro-synthetic machine
Stop watch
Container
PROCEDURES:
1. Run the pump to let water flow through the pipe lines.
2. Allow the liquid to collect in a container and note the rise in the liquid surface in a
measured time.
3. Read the manometer gage difference.
4. Make five (5) trials.
REPORT:
1. Derive the formula for the actual discharge through a venture meter.
2. What is a piezometer and what is its function?
3. What is the purpose of the contriction in the venture meter?
4. How is the pipe line flow measured by a nozzle, orifice and elbow meters? Sketch
the longitudinal section and discuss briefly the working principle.

5. Compute the average coefficient of discharge.

DATA:

COMPUTATIONS:

GRAPH:

SKETCH:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

REFERENCES:

DATA:

EXPERIMENT NO. 03

AN INVESTIGATION OF DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION

I. INTRODUCTION:
A. Background
The flow of fluids through various conduits and elements results in a friction loss.
This experiment aims to examine this loss with the use of the Friction Loss
Apparatus.
B. Statement of the Problem
To investigate the validity of the Darcy-Weisbach Equation.
C. Objective
1. To determine the head loss using the head loss apparatus
2. to compare the experimental head loss with the theoretical head loss.
II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS:
A. Darcy-Weisbach Equation
h = f L
D

2g

where: f = friction factor

L = length of pipe, m
V = velocity, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
g = gravity, m/s

III. EXPERIMENTATION:
A. Procedure of Experiment
1. Select the pipe lines to be considered in the experiment.
2. Take note of the pipe diameter involved.
3. Measure the lengths of the pipe involved.
4. Allow the water to flow.
5. Determine the discharge by taking note of the volume of flow and time
taken.
6. Repeat for other pipes selected.
B. Data
Trials Length
(m)

Dia.
(m)

1
2
3

COMPUTATIONS:

APPARATUS:

Area
(m2)

Vd
(m3)

t
(sec)

Q
(m3/s)

V
(m/s)

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

REFERENCES:

EXPERIMENT NO. 04
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT USING AN ORIFICE
OBJECTIVE:
To measure discharge through an orifice by:
a. Trajectory method
b. Direct measurement of jet diameter and velocity at vena contracts by
a Pitot tube.
PRINCIPLE:
An orifice is an opening (usually) circular in the wall of a tank or in a plate normal to the
axis of a pipe either an end of pipe or in some intermediate location. An orifice is characterized
by the very small relation of wall or plate thickness compared to the size of the opening. Fig. (a)
and (b) are standard orifices, (c) and (d) are not standard because the flow through them is
affected by the following thickness of plate, roughness of surface and radius of curvature.
A jet is a stream issuing from an orifice, nozzle or tube. It is not enclosed by solid
boundary walls but surrounded by fluid of the same type, say a gas jet discharging in to a gas or
a liquid. A submerged jet is buoyed up by the surrounding fluid and is not directly under the
action of gravity.
h1 = h3 + V12
2g
V1 =

2g (h1-h3)

2g (H)

V1 = ideal velocity at vena contractu

There the streamlines converge in approaching an orifice, as shown in fig. B, they continue to
converge beyond the upstream section of the orifice until they reach the section xy where
become parallel. Commonly this section is about USD. From the upstream edge of the opening,
where Do ids the diameter of the orifice. The section xy is then the section of minimum area and
is called the vena contract. Beyond the vena contract, the streamlines commonly diverge because
of frictional effects. The minimum section is referred as a submerged vena contract as it is
surrounded by its own fluid. In Fig. A-4, there is no vena contract as the rounded entry to the
opening permits of the streamline to gradually converge to the cross-sectional area of the orifice.
Jet velocity is defined as the average velocity of the vena contracts. A free liquid to jet
will describe a trajectory, a path under the action of gravity. The trajectory is streamline, and if
an friction is neglected.
Vo = x g
2z

where: x = range
z = mass ht.

Coefficients: Coefficient of contraction, Cc =

Ajet
A orifice or opening
Coefficient of velocity, Cv =
Vi

where: Vi = ideal velocity for no friction

Coefficient of discharge, Cd = actual Q
ideal Q

APPARATUS:
Stop watch
Meter stick
Rectangular weir
Caliper
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure orifice area and vena contracts using caliper and orifice area.
2. Determine the (water) height in m.
3. Allow the H2O to flow in volumetric tank. Measure the volume and time as the water
reaches the higher depth.
4. With the aid of meter stick, determine the position of the vena contrata (x and y).
5. Compute for the three coefficient of orifice.
DATA:
Aj
Aa Cc H
Vt
V
Cv Vol Time
Q
Qt
x
y c Cc
(m2) (m2)
(m) (m/s) (m/s)
(m3) (s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m) (m)

COMPUTATIONS:

DISCUSSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

DRAWING:

CONCLUSION:

REFERENCE:

EXPERIMENT NO. 05
AN EXPERIMENT ON WEIR APPARATUS

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study.
A weir involves flow of a liquid with a free surface over the top of the plate. It is
also an overflow structure built across an open channel for the purpose of measuring the
flow. It is commonly used to measure the flow of the water, but their used in
measurement of other liquids is increasing. The same principle applies to all liquids, and
the fundaqmental formulas based upon these principles are in all respects general.
Classification with reference to the shape of the opening through which the liquid
flows, weirs maybe rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, circular, parabolic or any other
regular form. The first three forms are most commonly used for measurements of water;
the triangular weir is usually best adapted for measurements of other liquids.
B. Statement of the Problem.
This study aims to associate us with the uses and purposes of weir apparatus.
C. Objective of the Study
To compare the theoretical discharge, Q with the actual value of Q by the use of
weir.
APPARATUS:
Meter stick
Stop watch
Weir accessories

PROCEDURE:

1. Start the machine at low voltage, get the discharge and height of water using
trapezoidal, triangular and doubly rectangular contracted weir.
2. Tabulate the result.
DATA:
Types of Weir
Trapezoidal
Triangular
Doubly
Rectangular
Contracted
COMPUTATIONS:

DISCUSSION:

H
(m)

t
(s)

Actual Q
(m3/s)

Theoretical Q
(m3/s)

% Error

DRAWING

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 06
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
I. INTRODUCTION:
A. Background of the Study
Hydrokinetics is that branch of hydrology which deals with the study of fluids,
mainly water. In motion, it is totally different from hydrostatics both in concept and in
principle.
In the history of hydraulics, many investigation have been made to determine the
laws which govern the flow of fluids in closed conduits. Chezy, in 1775, developed one
of the earliest expressions for energy loss in pipes. This and many other empirical
formulas, developed from test data, were based on the assumption that energy loss was
dependent only on velocity, conduit dimensions, and wall roughness. However, these
studies were to be followed by other researches which showed that fluid density and
viscosity were also factors to be considered. Included here are the works of Hagen
(1839), Poiseuille (1840) and Osborne Reynolds (1883), whose Reynolds Number will
be the main focus of this study.
B. Statement of the Problem.
This study aims to investigate in its entirely the concept and principle behind the
Reynolds Number through actual experimentation.
D. Objective of the Study.
1. To determine the Reynolds Number of water at any given flow condition.
2. To determine the range of Reynolds number between laminar and turbulent
flow.

II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS:

A. Concepts.
In the classification of flow, one must determine whether fluid movement is
laminar or turbulent. In laminar flow, the fluid moves in parallel layers with no
crosscurrents. Meanwhile, turbulent flow is characterized by pulsatory crosscurrents
velocities which result in the formation of a more uniform velocity distribution.
However, it is also important to note that turbulent flow experiences greater energy loss
than laminar flow. In circular pipes, the maximum velocity for laminar flow is twice the
average velocity: whereas for turbulent flow, it is approximately 1.25 times the average
velocity.

B. The Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number (R) is the criterion which distinguishes between laminar
and turbulent flow. For circular pipes, flowing full:
R=
u

dvp

dv

where: d = diameter of pipe

v = average velocity
p = density
u = viscosity
v = kinematic velocity

In pipes, when R is less than or equal to 2,100, the flow is said to be laminar.
Turbulent flow, on the other hand, occurs when R is equal to or greater than 3,000. For
values R between 2,100 and 3,000, flow is said to be in a transitional condition.
In order to better understand the physical significance of the Reynolds Number.
It can be expressed as the ratio of the inertial force to viscous force. Here, the inertial
force represents the tendency of a fluid to develop turbulence at boundary irregularities
while the viscous force tends to damp out turbulence.
D. Derivation of Reynolds Number
Let us suppose that we have a cube of fluid of side d in a fluid flow of velocity V.
To accelerate this body requires a force equal to the mass times the acceleration. As
measure of the acceleration we take dV/dt V/t V2/d, and the mass equal to Qd2, we
obtain an inertial force
Fin Qd2V2
The viscous shear forces are proportional to the viscosity, cross-sectional area,
and the velocity gradient; that is,
Fvis uVd

where Fin

= inertial force

Fvis

= viscous force

III. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter of the pipe w/ vernier caliper.
2. Dteremine the unit of water in N/m3 and kinematic viscosity include the room temp.
at C.
3. Measure height of 10cm, 30cm, 20cm and 40cm. Then allow the water to flow. The
value should be adjusted. Take the time required for each height.
4. After gathering the required data, compute for Reynolds number and determine the
flow w/c is laminar and turbulent. Fill the data sheets.

DATA SHEET:
Pipe diameter

Room temp.

Mass density

Weight

Cross-sectional area of pipe =

Kinematic viscosity

Trial No.

Vol.
(m3)

Time
(s)

Q
(m3/s)

Velocity
(m/s)

Re

Remarks

1
2
3
4

DISCUSSION:
Chezy, in 1775, developed one of the earliest expressions of energy loss in pipes. This
and many other empirical formulas, developed from test data, were based on the assumption that
energy loss was dependent only on velocity, conduit dimensions and wall roughness. However,

these studies were to be followed by other researches which showed that fluid density and
viscosity were also factors to be considered.
In the classification of flow, one must determine whether fluids move in parallel layers
with no crosscurrents. Meanwhile, turbulent flow is characterized by pulsatory crosscurrent
velocities w/c result in the formation of a more uniform velocity distribution. Turbulent flow
experiences greater energy loss than laminar flow.
We only distinguish the classification of flow by getting the Reynolds number. The
formula for Re is the product of the diameter of pipe and the average velocity for viscosity. The
result of this formula will identify whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Reynolds number
less than 2,000 considered as laminar and Reynolds number greater than 4,000 considered as
turbulent flow.

COMPUTATIONS:

APPARATUS:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 07
ANALYSIS OF PIPE NETWORK
OBJECTIVE:
To study piping system encountered on water supply distribution system.
APPARATUS:
Assembly of 8 hydraulic bench.
PRINCIPLE:
An extension of pipes in parallel is a case frequently encountered in municipal
distribution systems, in which the pipe are interconnected so that the flow to a given outlet may
come by several different P, as shown in Fig. 8.31. Indeed, it is frequently impossible to tell by
inspection which way the flow travels, as in pipe BE. Nevertheless, the flow in any network,
however complicated, must satisfy the basic relations of continuity and energy as follows:
1. The flow into any junction must equal the flow out of it.
2. The flow in each pipe must satisfy the pipe-friction laws for flow in single a pipe.
3. The algebraic sum of the head and any closed loop must be zero.
Pipe networks are generally too complicated to solve analytically, as was possible in the
simpler case of parallel pipes (Sec. 8.26). A practical procedure is a method of successive
approximations, introduced by Cross.
It consists of the following elements, in order:
1. By careful inspection assume the most reasonable distribution of flow that satisfies
condition1.
2. Write condition 2 for each pipe in the form
hL = KQn
Where K is the constant for each pipe. For example, the standard pipe-friction
equation in the form of Fig. (8.62) would yield K = 1/C2 and n = 2 for constant f. The
empirical formulas (8.45) and (8.46) are seen to be readily reducible to the desired
form. Minor losses within any loop may be included but many losses at the junction
points are neglected.
3. To investigate condition 3, compute the algebraic sum of the head loss around each
elementary loop, hL = KQn. Consider losses from clockwise flows as positive,
counterclockwise negative. Only by good luck will these add to zero on the first trial.

4. Adjust the flow in such loop by a correction, Q, to balance the head in that loop and
give KQn 0. The heart of this method lies in the determination of Q. For any pipe
we may write,
Q = Q0 + Q
where Q is the correct discharge and Q0 is the assumed discharge. Then, for each
pipe.
hL = KQll = K (Q0 + Q)ll = + mon-1Q + )
If Q is small compared with Q0, the terms of the series after the second one may
be neglected. Now, for a circuit with Q the same for all pipes.
hL = KQll = KQno + Q KQn-20 = 0
As the corrections of head loss in all pipes must summed arithmetically, we may
solve this equation for Q.
Q

- KQno
KnQon-2

Lh

hL Qo

as for Eq. (8.63), hL Q = KQn-1. It must be emphasized again that the numerator for
Eq. (8.64) is to be summed algebraically, with due account of sign, while the
denominator is summed arithmetically. The negative sign in Eq. (8.64) indicates that
when there is an excess of hand around n loop in the clockwise direction, the Q must
be subtracted from clockwise Qo 5 and added to counterclockwise ones. The reverse
is true if there is a deficiency of hand loss around a loop in the clockwise direction.
5. After each circuit is given a first correction, the losses will still not be balance
because of the interaction of one circuit upon another (pipes which are common to
two circuit receive two independent corrections, one for each circuit). The procedure
is repeated., arriving at second correction, and so on, until the correction become
negligible.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take up the , and 1 inch piping assembly. Open their gate valve.
2. Record reading of manometer simultaneously.
3. Compute their discharge.

DISCUSSION:

DATA:

COMPUTATIONS:

DRAWING:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 08
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

DESCRIPTION:
I. Definition.
Open channel is applied to liquid flow exposed to atmospheric pressure.
II. Main types of open channels are:
a. Natural streams or rivers
b. Artificial canals or flumes
c. Sewers, tunnels and pipe lines not flowing full
III. Essential properties of uniform flow in open channels are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Uniform depth : d1 = d2 = depth at any section

Uniform areas : A1 = A2 = area at any section
Uniform velocity : V1 = V2 = velocity at any section
Equal slopes of energy gradient of stream bed and water
Surface : S = Sd = Sws
S = hf = slope of the stream bed
L
S0 = slope of steam bed
Sws = slope of water surface or hydraulic gradient

IV. Formulas:
a. Chezy equation (1775)
V=C

RS

where: R = hydraulic radius = A

P
S = slope of energy gradient
sin= tanfor small
c = coefficient dependent on characteristics of channel,
length and time.

b. 3 Ways of finding of C
1. Kutter and Ganguillet equation (1869)

C=

23 + .00155 + 1
s
n
1 +_n_ (23 + .00155)
R

2. Manning equation (1890)

V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
where: C = R1/6
n
3. Bazin equation (1887)
C = __87__
1+m
R

m=n
restricted for m small artificial channels
xerox of table

PROCEDURE:
1. Allow the water to flow in a volumetric tank and measure the discharge by
determining the following parameters.
L = .50m
W = .10m
A = .0015m2V = .00075m3

t = .015m
t = 10 s

2. As the water flow measure the wetted perimeter of the channel and determine the
slope of e.g. and channel are equal.
Pw = .035 (2) + .10
S = .015
So = .035/.10

A = .0035m
R = .0206m

Note: Roughness coefficient of iron pipe (n) = 0.015

3. Compute the discharge obtained in Procedure 1 and 2 and compare the values.
COMPUTATIONS:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 09
HYDRAULIC JUMP

OBJECTIVES:
To analyze water surface profile in a rectangular channel producing a mark discontinuity
the surface characterized by an upward steep slope of the profile broken throughout with
violent turbulence and known universally an hydraulic jump.
PRINCIPLES:
This phenomenon occurs when supercritical flow is reduced to sub-critical.
Some situations which produces hydraulic jump are the following:
a. when there is a change of slope in the channel.
b. When there is a change in width in the channel.
c. When uniform flow changes to non-uniform flow due to an
obstruction.
EQUIPMENT:
Tape measure
Steady source
Rectangular flume
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the depth of upper and lower stream of water as the water flow.
d1 = 2.5cm
d2 = 15.5cm
2. Determine the width of the channel.
3. Allow the water to flow and determine the discharge of the channel. Measure the
following parameters.
Volume of the tank = .116m3
time = 112s
Q = 1.04 x 10-3m3/s
V1 = .4 m/s
V2 = .064m3
4. Compute the provide no. of upper stream and lower stream.
F1 = .80
F2 = .05

5. Classify what type of flow obtain in upper stream and lower stream.
DEFINITION AND FORMULAS:
1. Critical depth is the depth at which velocity is maximum, V = critical velocity. This
occurs at 0.6y to 0.7y. It is also the depth of minimum specific energy for a given
flow.
Yc =
E =

____2____ E
3
y + __V2_
2g

eq. 1
eq. 2

thus:
qmax
q

gyc3

eq. 3

= volume rate of flow per unit length of rectangular channel

= in m/s

2. Super critical flow occurs when __V__

2g
3. Sub critical flow occurs when
__V__
2g

>
<

__Yo__
2
__Yo__
2

4. For a rectangular channel & slope 5%

Y2 = Y1
2

(-1 +

1 + 8q2
gy12

eq. 4

5. Length of jump approximated to about 5y2, since this is difficult to determine.

DATA:
n
b
Q
S1
S2

=
=
=
=
=

COMPUTATION AND PROCEDURE:

1. Solve for y01 = normal flow at upper slope flow for rectangular channel.
Q = di ko maintindihan
Rm = ( _A1_ + __A2_ )
P1
P2
2
S = ( nVm )
R2/3m
So = slope 2
PROFILE:

DATA AND COMPUTATIONS:

CONCLUSION:

DISCUSSION:

DRAWING:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
WATER HAMMER
OBJECTIVE:
To measure water hammer
EQUIPMENT:
Water source
Velocity measuring devices (Pitot tube)
Stop watch
Caliper
PRINCIPLE:
Water hammer occurs in liquid-flow pressure systems whenever a valve is suddenly
closed. This is an increase in pressure and acts as a pressure wave when velocity of a liquid is
decreased abruptly.
Three Cases of Study:
1. Ideal case instantaneous closure
(Physically impossible)
Tr = 2L
Cp
Ph = CpV

Tr = time for round trip of pressure wave in L distance

2. Rapid closure
Tc < 2L
Cp
X = tc Cp
2

Tc = time of closure
X = distance from intake to point given

3. Slow closure
tc > 2L
Cp
C = di ko mawawaan
C
Bv
D
t
Ev
Cp

= celerity of pressure wave in liquid

= 1440m/s for water
= Bulk modulus of liquid
= mass density of liquid
= diameter of elastic pipe
= thickness of elastic pipe
= elasticity of elastic pipe
= pressure wave in elastic pipe
= 600 1200m/s 1440m/s

B. Vary Q and tc for partial closure

COMPUTATIONS:

Problems
Give three method of protecting pipe from effects of high-water hammer pressure.

DATA SHEET:

PROCEDURE:

DISCUSSION:

DRAWING:

CONCLUSION:

RECOMMENDATION: