Chng 2 LNG TNH SONG - HAT CUA VAT CHAT

2.1. GIA THUYET DE BROGLIE VE SONG VAT CHAT 2.1.1. Gia thuyet De Broglie Cac nha Vat Ly hiem khi sai lam trong viec trong i nhng oi xng c ban cua t nhien.. Chang han khi ta biet rang t trng bien thien sinh ra ien trng th ta cung co nhieu c may phan oan ung khi cho rang ngc lai ien trng bien thien cung sinh ra t trng. Va ieu o a c chng minh. Mot v du khac khi phat hien ra electron co phan hat la positron th ngi ta cung d oan proton cung co phan hat. May gia toc proton en nang lng 5GeV a c xay dng tai trng ai hoc Tong Hp California Berkeley e tm kiem va a tm thay phan hat proton nay. Nam 1924 Louis De Broglie, mot nha Vat Ly va la mot thanh vien cua mot gia nh quy toc Phap noi tieng a tran tr trc s that la anh sang co lng tnh song hat. Vay th vat chat co tnh song hay khong. Lieu anh sang va vat chat co phai la cac dang khac nhau cua nang lng, co the chuyen hoa cho nhau va cung tuan theo cac oi xng khong- thi gian cua ly thuyet tng oi hay khong. T o ong a ra gia thuyet tao bao rang vat chat cung co lng tnh song hat. Rang cac hat nh electron chang han cung co the co tnh chat song. Va mot cach tng ong vi anh sang co xung lng
p= E h h = = c c

Ong cung lap luan mot hat co xung lng p se lien ket vi mot song co bc song:
=
h p

T o ong a ra gia thuyet:

Mot hat chuyen ong t do vi xung lng p va nang lng E se lien ket vi mot song, goi la song vat chat, co tan so va bc song thoa cac he thc = E/h va = h/p. (2.2) (2.1)

Chung ta thay rang ay cung la chnh la cac cong thc theo gia thuyet photon anh sang cua Einstein. ieu khac biet quan trong la chung ap dung cho cac hat vat chat. oi vi cac hat quan he gia bc song va tan so = c/ khong con ung na, v cac hat chuyen ong vi van toc nh hn van toc anh sang c. Bc song thng c goi la bc song de Broglie cua song vat chat, lien ket vi hat chuyen ong vi xung lng p. V du tnh : Bc song cua 1 virus co m = 1.0x10-15 kg chuyen ong vi van toc 2 mm/s la = h/p = h/mv = 3,3x10-16 m. Bc song cua 1 electron co ong nang K =54 eV la = h/p = h/(2mK) = 6,625.10-34 J.s/(2x9,1x10-31 J.m-2.s2 x54x1,6x10-19J)1/2 = 1,67.10-10 m. Ta thay bc song de Broglie cua nhng oi tng vat chat thong thng rat nho, nho hn ca kch thc hat nhan! S d no nho v trong cong thc (2.2), hang so Planck la rat nho va xung lng cua nhng oi tng vat chat thong thng lai tng oi ln. Ch trong cac hien tng xay ra trong nguyen t hay hat nhan, khi cac hat tham d co xung lng be th tnh chat song cua vat chat mi the hien ro net. 2.1.2. Cac th nghiem xac nhan gia thuyet de Broglie Tnh chat song the hien qua hien tng nhieu xa. Do o neu gia thuyet de Broglie ung, th ta co the quan sat c s nhieu xa cua vat chat. Trong thc te ieu nay la rat kho, do bc song vat chat qua ngan. Ta biet rang oi vi anh sang, ta ch quan sat
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c hien tng nhieu xa khi bc song bang hoac ln hn o rong D cua khe nhieu xa ( D). oi vi electron trong v du tren, 10-10m, xap x bang khoang cach gia cac nguyen t trong mang tinh the. Nh vay co the li dung mang tinh the e lam cach t nhieu xa, tng t nh oi vi tia X. Bang cach nay, Davisson va Germer a quan sat c hien tng nhieu xa cua electron vao nam 1927. a. Th nghiem Davisson-Germer

Chum tia nhieu xa

Chum tia ti

Hnh 2.1. Nhieu xa tren mang tinh the

Hnh 2.2. Vanh nhieu xa

Nam 1927, Davisson va Germer thay chum tia X trong th nghiem nhieu xa cua tia X tren mang tinh the, bang chum electron. Ket qua cho thay s phan bo cng o sang do cac ien t tan xa tren Ni giong hoan toan nh hien tng cua tia X tren tinh the. Xac nh v tr cc ai cua cac van nhieu xa, ta co the tm c bc song cua song phang n sac tng ng vi chum ien t ti theo cong thc Bragg: 2d.sin = n ( 2.3 ) Trong o d la khoang cach gia hai lp nguyen t trong mang tinh the, la goc trt tao bi chum ti vi phng mat phang nguyen t trong tinh the. Goi la goc tan xa, goc tao bi chum ien t ti va chum tia lo, goc trt cua hai tia ti va lo bang nhau, th : 180 =
2
3

Vi dong electron 54 eV chieu ti tinh the Ni, thc nghiem ghi nhan c mot nh nhon cc ai cac electron tan xa theo phng goc 50o so vi phng chum ti. Goc trt = 65o. Khoang cach d gia hai lp nguyen t trong tinh the c xac nh bi th nghiem nhieu xa cua tia X la d = 0,091 nm. Vi van cc ai th nhat n = 1, o dai song cua ien t tnh theo cong thc Bragg se la:

= (2)(0,091nm)(sin 65 o ) = 0,165nm

Hnh 2.3. Phan bo chum phan xa theo goc phan xa Bay gi tnh o dai song de Broglie cua ien t co ong nang 54eV t cong thc
=
h . V ong nang 54 eV rat nho so vi nang lng ngh cua ien t 0,51 MeV, mv

nen khong can dung he thc tng oi tnh. Do o:

p = mv = 2mKE = (2)(9,1.10 31 kg )(54eV )(1,6.10 19 J / eV ) = 4,0.10 24 kgm / s

Suy ra bc song ien t:

=
h 6,63.10 34 Js = = 1,66.10 10 m = 0,166nm mv 4,0.10 24 kg.m / s

Ket qua phu hp rat tot va th nghiem nay a trc tiep chng to s ton tai song vat chat de Broglie. b. Th nghiem Thomson Cung nam 1927, G.P.Thomson a tien hanh th nghiem vi phng phap khac va cung xac nhan gia thuyet de Broglie. Ong chieu mot chum electron co nang lng kha ln vao mot bia mong gom nhieu tinh the nho nh hng ngau nhien (H.2.4.a). Do co nang lng ln, cac electron co the xuyen qua bia. Sau bia ong at mot knh anh. Knh
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anh co tnh chat la khi co mot electron ri vao no th se xuat hien mot cham sang, cho nao co cang nhieu electron en ap vao th se cang sang nhieu. Ket qua la tren knh anh ong quan sat c nhng vong tron ong tam rat ro net (H.2.4.b). Bc tranh nay rat giong bc tranh nhieu xa cua mot chum tia X co cung bc song. Ket qua nay la mot bang chng khong the phu nhan c ve tnh chat song cua electron.

Hnh 2.4.a. Mo ta th nghiem cua G.P Thomson

Hnh 2.4.b. Vanh nhieu xa

Nh vay moi electron rieng le eu co tnh chat song va eu co kha nang gay ra s giao thoa. Cac th nghiem khac c tien hanh vi phan t hidro, nguyen t helium hay vi neutron cung cho thay cac oi tng nay co tnh chat song. Nh vay tnh chat song la mot ac trng chung cho vat chat. 2.2. Y NGHA XAC SUAT CUA SONG VAT CHAT -HAM SONG VA NGUYEN LY CHONG CHAT TRANG THAI Cac th nghiem tren cho thay cac hat vi mo qua that co tnh chat song. Nhng chung ta van cha biet o la song g. No co giong nh song tren mat nc hay song ien t hay khong? Hay la mot loai song nao hoan toan khac? Trong tiet nay chung ta se tm hieu ban chat cua song vat chat. T o suy ra nhng tnh chat cua ham song mo ta no.

2.2.1. Ham song va y ngha xac suat e tm hieu y ngha cua song vat chat chung ta hay so sanh no vi song anh sang. Chung ta xem lai hai bc tranh nhieu xa, mot la cua tia X va mot la cua electron, ca hai co cung bc song. Trong anh nhieu xa tia X, nhng van sang ng vi v tr co cng o anh sang at cc ai, nhng van toi ng vi cng o anh sang at cc tieu. Cng o anh sang t le vi bnh phng vect cng o ien trng : I 2. Con ban than vect cng o ien trng la mot ham cua toa o khong gian va thi gian: = (x,,z,t). Trong bc tranh nhieu xa cua electron. Nhng van sang ng vi v tr co so electron en la cc ai, con nhng van toi ng vi v tr co so electron en la cc tieu. Goi No la tong so electron en man va N(r) la so lng electron ng vi ban knh r tnh t tam cua hnh tron. Ta thay N(r) co nhng cc ai va cc tieu xen ke nhau. Khi so lng electron c phat ra trong mot giay cang nhieu va thi gian lam th nghiem cang dai th tong so electron en man No cang ln va so electron en tai v tr r la N(r) cung cang ln. Nhng t so n(r) = N(r)/No gan nh khong phu thuoc vao tong so electron en man. T so nay cho biet kha nang e electron en v tr ng vi ban knh r la ln hay be. Trong toan hoc ngi ta goi kha nang nay la xac suat. Nh vay, van sang ng vi v tr co xac suat electron en la cc ai, con nhng van toi ng vi v tr co xac suat electron en la cc tieu. V bc tranh mo ta xac suat xuat hien electron hoan toan giong bc tranh mo ta cng o anh sang, nen ta phai ngh rang chung co tuan theo cung mot qui luat. V cng o anh sang t le vi bnh phng vect cng o ien trng , nen xac suat co electron cung phai la bnh phng cua mot ai lng nao o, ma ta goi la ham song. Tng t nh vect cng o ien trng , ham song cung la mot ham cua cac toa o khong gian va thi gian, nen ngi ta thng viet (x,y,z,t). ac biet, nhng nghien cu tiep theo cho thay khac vi cac loai song thong thng, ham song noi chung la

mot ham so phc. Do o xac suat phai c tnh bang bnh phng cua tr tuyet oi cua ham song |(x,y,z,t)|2. Nh vay song vat chat de Broglie la song xac suat. No khong nh song anh sang hay song nc thong thng ma ta co the cam nhan trc tiep c. Tuy nhien song xac suat nay cung tuan theo cac qui luat giao thoa, phan xa nh song anh sang, nh chung ta a thay qua cac th nghiem noi tren. Y ngha xac suat cua song vat chat a c Max Born giai thch lan au tien. Theo ong, ban than ham song (x,y,z,t) khong co y ngha vat ly trc tiep, ma ch bnh phng cua tr tuyet oi cua no, |(x,y,z,t)|2 mi la mot ai lng vat ly ma chung ta co the o c. |(x,y,z,t)|2 cho biet xac suat e hat nam trong mot n v the tch bao quanh iem (x,y,z) tai thi iem t. Do o ngi ta goi |(x,y,z,t)|2 la mat o xac suat. Nh vay |(x,y,z,t)|2.dV = |(x,y,z,t)|2.dxdydz la xac suat e hat nam trong the tch vi phan dV = dxdydz bao quanh iem (x,y,z) o tai thi iem t. 2.2.2. ieu kien chuan hoa va nguyen ly chong chat trang thai V xac suat e tm thay hat trong toan khong gian phai bang 100%, nen t y ngha cua ham song, ta phai co ||2(r,t).dV = 1. ay la ieu kien chuan hoa cua ham song. T y ngha xac suat cua ham song ta thay rang trong th nghiem Davisson-Germer, moi electron i en be mat tinh the tng ng vi mot song xac suat. Song nay tan xa tren cac nguyen t va tach ra thanh nhieu song i khac nhau. Moi song nh the mo ta mot trang thai kha d cua electron. Tai mot iem cho trc, cac song i nay chong chat len nhau va cho mot song mi = 1 + 2 +... (s giao thoa). Neu tai v tr at detector cac song nay tang cng nhau, xac suat tm thay electron tai o ln. Neu chung triet tieu nhau, xac suat tm thay electron tai o be. Do o s chong chat cua cac song cho ta mot bc tranh giao thoa. Nh vay song xac suat cung tuan theo nguyen ly
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(2.4)

chong chat nh song anh sang hay song nc. Nhng trong vat ly lng t, ay la s chong chat cac trang thai ma he co the co. Trong vat ly lng t, kha nang chong chat trang thai la mot trong nhng nguyen ly c ban, c phat bieu nh sau: Neu mot he co the trong cac trang thai c mo ta bi cac ham song 1 ,2,.. th he cung co the trong trang thai mo ta bi ham song thoa ieu kien: = c11 + c22 + ...(2.5) trong o c1 va c2, ... la nhng hang so phc bat ky nao o. Trong trang thai nay xac suat tm thay he trang thai i (i = 1,2,) t le vi bnh phng cua tr tuyet oi cua he so tng ng |ci|2. Nguyen ly chong chat trang thai cho phep ta phan tch mot trang thai cua he thanh mot tap hp cua nhng trang thai. Trong cac trang thai thanh phan nay he co nhng ac trng xac nh, v du xung lng xac nh. 2.2.3. Cac v du ve ham song Chung ta hay xet ham song cua mot hat co xung lng va nang lng xac nh px va E, chuyen ong doc theo truc x. Theo gia thuyet de Broglie hat nay se co bc song = c/px va tan so = E/h xac nh, do o ham song cua no co dang: (x,t) = A.exp{2i(x/-t)} = A.exp{i(kx-t)}, (2.6)

trong o A la mot hang so phc nao o, k = 2/ c goi la so song va = 2 c goi la tan so vong cua song. Ham song nay mo ta mot song phang, mat o xac suat tng ng ||2 = |A|2 khong oi trong khoang t x = - en x = +. Nh vay xac suat tm thay hat la khong oi trong toan khong gian. oi vi song loai nay, ieu kien chuan hoa tren khong c thoa man.

Thong thng, xac suat tm thay hat tai mot vung nao o trong khong gian tai mot thi iem nao o la khac khong, con tai cac vung khac la rat be. Tng ng, ham song mo ta hat phai co dang mot bo song. 2.3. NGUYEN LY BAT NH HEISENBERG - CAC HE THC BAT NH 2.3.1.Tnh chat bat nh cua cac hien tng vi mo Trong c hoc lng t ta khong the mo ta trang thai cua cac hat vi mo mot cach chnh xac nh trong c hoc co ien van thng lam. Viec khong the mo ta chnh xac cac ac trng vat ly cua cac hat vi mo c dien ta bi cac nguyen ly bat nh va cac he thc bat nh noi tieng, do Heisenberg a ra vao nam 1927. 2.3.2. S khong xac nh ong thi cua toa o va xung lng Nguyen ly bat nh Heisenberg cho toa o va xung lng cua hat c phat bieu nh sau: Khong the xac nh toa o va xung lng tng ng cua mot hat ong thi vi o chnh xac tuy y. o bat nh khi o toa o va xung lng cua hat lien he vi nhau qua cac he thc sau: px.x h /2, py.y h /2, pz.z h /2. Trong o h = h/2 = 1,0.10-34 J.s va c goi la "h gach". Ta nhan thay trong cac he thc (2.7), tch so cua o bat nh x va px, luon luon ln hn h /2. Do o khi ta o ong thi toa o x va xung lng px cua mot hat, neu ta o c toa o x cua hat cang chnh xac (x cang be) th o chnh xac cua xung lng px cua hat cang ln (px cang ln), va ngc lai. Chung ta co the o x hay px rieng biet vi o chnh xac tuy y, nhng khi ta tm cach giam x th px se tang va ngc lai. ieu nay cung ung cho cac cap (y,py) va (z,pz). (2.7)

Lu y rang cac he thc (2.7) ch ung cho cac cap toa o va xung lng cua cung mot chieu, (x,px), (y,py) va (z,pz), ch khong cho cap (x,py) chang han. Ngha la hat co the co toa o x va xung lng py hoan toan xac nh ong thi. 2.3.3. S khong xac nh ong thi cua thi gian va nang lng Tng t nh toa o va xung lng, gia nang lng va thi gian cung co nguyen ly bat nh sau: Khong the xac nh nang lng va thi gian ac trng cho mot he lng t vi mot o chnh xac tuy y. o bat nh khi o nang lng E va thi gian t cua mot he lng t lien he vi nhau qua he thc sau E.t h /2 (2.8)

e o nang lng cua mot he ta luon luon can mot khoang thi gian. Theo (2.8), neu thi gian o la t th nang lng E ma ta o c se co o khong xac nh la E, va tch cua t va E luon luon ln hn h /2. V du: ta biet rang nguyen t thng trong trang thai c ban, khi b kch thch len cac trang thai cao hn, nguyen t nhanh chong tr ve trang thai c ban. Do o theo (2.8), nang lng cua trang thai c ban co the c xac nh chnh xac hn nhieu so vi nang lng cac trang thai cao hn.

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Chng 3 PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER

Nam 1926, nha vat ly ngi Ao Schrodinger a a ra mot phng trnh cho phep xac nh c ham song mo ta trang thai cua mot he lng t. Phng trnh nay ong mot vai tro can ban trong c hoc lng t, tng t nh phng trnh Newton trong c hoc co ien. Khi giai phng trnh Schrodinger, chung ta co the tm c ham song va t o ta co the tnh c xac suat e he co cac toa o, xung lng, v.v.. nao o. 3.1. PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER 3.1.1. Phng trnh Schrodinger phu thuoc thi gian Xet mot hat co khoi lng m, di chuyen trong mot trng lc (chang han trong trng hap dan cua qua at hay trong mot trng ien t). T c hoc Newton ta biet rang, moi thi iem va ng vi moi v tr hat co mot the nang nao o U = U(x,y,z,t). Phng trnh Schrodinger cho phep ta tm c ham song khi biet the nang nay. Phng trnh Schrodinger cho ham song mo ta trang thai cua hat co dang
h2 ( x, y, z, t ) ( x, y, z, t ) + U. ( x, y, z, t ) = ih 2m t

(3.1)

trong o i la so ao, con la toan t Laplace. Trong he toa o Descartes ta co

= 2 2 2 + + . x 2 y 2 z 2

Nhan xet 1. Khac vi phng trnh Newton, ay la 1 phng trnh vi phan theo ca toa o khong gian va thi gian. 2. ay la 1 phng trnh ao ham rieng, tuyen tnh oi vi . Do o, neu 1 va 2 la hai nghiem bat ky th = c11 + c22 cung la mot nghiem. ieu nay phu hp vi nguyen ly chong chat trang thai.

11

3. Trong trng hp mot chieu, khi ham song ch phu thuoc vao toa o x va thi gian t, phng trnh (3.1) co dang:

h 2 2 ( x, t ) ( x, t ) + U( x, t )( x, t ) = ih 2 2m x t

(3.2)

Sau nay chung ta se thng lam viec vi phng trnh song mot chieu nay. Khi U(x,t) = 0, ng vi trng hp hat chuyen ong t do, ta co phng trnh
( x, t ) h 2 2 ( x, t ) = ih . 2 2m x t

(3.3)

3.1.2. ieu kien cua ham song Theo tnh chat cua phng trnh Schrodinger va y ngha cua ham song, chung ta co the suy ra rang ngoai ieu kien chuan hoa no con co cac tnh chat sau ay: 1) Hu han, neu khong th ieu kien chuan hoa khong c thoa man; 2) n tr, v ng vi moi trang thai, tai mot iem ch co mot xac suat tm thay hat; 3) va ao ham bac nhat cua no theo cac toa o khong gian phai lien tuc. ieu kien nay la do phng trnh Schrodinger co cha cac ao ham bac hai cua theo cac toa o khong gian. e phng trnh co ngha, ao ham bac hai cua phai hu han, muon vay va ao ham bac nhat cua no phai lien tuc. 3.1.3. Phng trnh Schrodinger khong phu thuoc thi gian (cho trang thai dng) Neu trng lc ma trong o hat chuyen ong la dng, tc la the nang U cua hat khong phu thuoc tng minh vao t, th co the viet di dang U = U(x,y,z).
(x,y,z,t) = (x,y,z).exp[-iEt/h],

va phng trnh oi vi ham ch phu thuoc toa o (x,y,z) co dang

h2 ( x, y, z) + U. ( x, y, z) = E( x, y, z) 2m

(3.4)

Phng trnh nay c goi la phng trnh cho trang thai dng. Nghiem cua no mo ta nhng trang thai, trong o nang lng cua hat khong thay oi theo thi gian. T ay

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ve sau, thc chat chung ta se ch xet nhng trng hp tng ng vi phng trnh nay. Ta se goi no n gian la phng trnh Schrodinger. Phng trnh trang thai dng cho trng hp mot chieu co dang (h2/2m)d2/dx2 + U(x)(x) = E 3.2. HAT TRONG HO THE MOT CHIEU Ch trong nhng trng hp n gian nhat, phng trnh Schrodinger mi co nghiem chnh xac, con trong a so trng hp ngi ta phai giai bang phng phap gan ung. Sau ay chung ta se giai phng trnh Schrodinger cho trng hp n gian, khi hat nam trong mot ho the U(x) mot chieu co dang
U(x)

(3.5)

khi x < 0 U(x) = 0 khi 0 < x < a,

khi x > a

Hnh 3.1. Hnh anh mot ho the mot chieu

Mot ho the nh vay co c minh hoa tren hnh Hnh 3.1. Khi hat ben trong ho the, the nang cua no bang, do o hat chuyen ong hoan toan t do. Nhng hat khong the thoat khoi ho the. Do o (x) phai bang khong khi x < 0 hay x > a. Chung ta se ap dung cac ieu kien nay khi giai phng trnh Schrodinger. Phng trnh Schrodinger cho chuyen ong cua hat trong ho the nh vay co dang (h2/2m)d2/dx2 = E. Ta bien oi no ve dang n gian hn. Nhan cheo (h2/2m) qua ve sau va at 2mE/h2 = k2, ta c d2/dx2 + k2 = 0, Phng trnh vi phan bac hai nay co nghiem tong quat la (x) = Asinkx + Bcoskx
13

(3.9)

trong o A, B la nhng hang so tch phan, c xac nh t ieu kien cua bai toan. tren ta thay ( x < 0) = ( x > 0) = 0. Nhng do tnh lien tuc cua ham song, ta cung phai co (0) = (a) = 0, cac ieu kien nay xac nh cac he so A va B. Ap dung cac ieu kien tren cho ham song (3.9) ta suy ra (0) = B = 0, (a) = Asinka = 0. V B = 0 nen khong the lay A = 0 (khi o 0 la mot nghiem tam thng). Do o phai co sinka = 0, k = n/a (n = 1,2,..). Nh vay, ieu kien ham song triet tieu tai bien cua ho the a dan en viec xuat hien cac so nguyen n = 1,2,. Hang so A co the c xac nh t ieu kien chuan hoa (2.4). V ch khac khong trong mien 0 < x < a nen ta co

/ ( x ) /
0

dx = 1

A
0 a

sin 2 (n..x / a )dx = 1 a a sin[ 2n] ) 2 4 n

(Chu y rang: sin 2 (n..x / a )dx =

0

A = 2/a Vay ham song c xac nh hoan toan

n = 2 / a sin( n..x / a )

(3.6)

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Bay gi ta xac nh nang lng cua hat. T bieu thc 2mE/h2 = k2 va k = n/a ta suy ra nang lng cua hat En = 2h2n2/(2ma2) (n=1,2,3,...) (3.7)

Nh vay, nang lng cua hat a b lng t hoa. Hat ch co the co nhng nang lng xac nh ch khong the co moi nang lng tuy y. Cac mc nang lng cua hat c bieu dien tren Hnh H.3-2, khoang cach gia 2 mc lien tiep la E = En+1 - En = 2h2 (2n+1)/(2ma2). Ta thay khi nang lng cang ln khoang cach nay cang xa nhau. Chu y rang vi n = 1 ta co gia tr nang lng be nhat ma hat co the co la khac khong E1 = 2h2/(2ma2). Ngha la hat luon luon chuyen ong ch khong the ng yen. ay la mot he qua cua nguyen ly bat nh. That vay, o bat nh ve v tr cua hat trong ho la x a, v xung lng cua hat p1 =
2mE1 = h/a nen co the lay p1 h/a xp1 h. Neu

hat co E = 0 th xung lng cua no cung = 0, ieu nay trai vi nguyen ly bat nh. Mat o xac suat tm thay hat trong ho ng vi ham song n la |n(x)|2 = (2/a)sin2(nx/a), Mat o nay c bieu dien tren Hnh 3.3.

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Hnh 3.2. Cac mc nang lng cua hat

Hnh 3.3. Mat o xac suat tm thay hat ng vi n

Ta thay ng vi n = 1, xac suat tm thay hat tai tam ho la cc ai. ieu nay khac vi tien oan cua ly thuyet co ien, theo o xac suat tm thay hat la ong eu tren toan ho. Tuy nhien khi n ln, co the thay xac suat tm thay hat trung bnh theo ly thuyet lng t ong eu hn va trung vi ly thuyet co ien. ay la mot v du ve nguyen ly tng ng a c e cap ti trong chng 2.

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