"" CARD 81

EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS
Mammals were once on insignificant group of vertebrates. But after
the decline and extinction of dinosaurs about 6S million years ago,
mammals came to dominate the animal kingdom in some ways.
KEY FACTS
THE RISE OF MAMMALS
Scientists disagree about what
brought an end to the Age of
Dinosaurs some 65 million years
ago. But whatever the cause, di-
nosaurs had totally disappeared
within a million years. Mammals
then expanded rapidly in forms
and sizes, filling vacant spots in
the planet'S ecology.
About 80 million years before
the dinosaurs disappeared, the
mammals split into two main
reproductive groupings: marsu-
pials and placental mammals. A
marsupial gives birth after a very
short gestation period, when its
offspring is barely formed. The
infant then spends a number of
months feeding on its mother's
milk, usually within her pouch.
A placental mammal has a more
efficient initial method of devel-
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
All mammals feed their young
with milk that is produced by
the mother's body. No other
class of animals does this.
Several mammalian features
are found in other vertebrates.
Most mammals give birth to live
young, but so do some fish and
amphibians. On the other hand,
monotreme mammals (the platy-
pus and echidnas) lay eggs.
opment for its young in which
the offspring remains inside the
womb for a longer time than a
marsupial does. It is nourished
by the mother's blood via the
placenta, an organ attached to
the womb lining.
Right: Kangaroos and other mar-
supials spend a long time develop-
ing in their mothers' pouches.
Right: All but
three species of
mammal give
birth to live off-
spring. But this
characteristic
appears in oth-
er classes of an-
imals as well.
Most mammals are hairy and
warm-blooded with fairly steady
Left: A female
mammal's pro-
duction of milk
for her offspring
is called lacta-
tion. This pro-
cess is unique
to all mammal
species.
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l eft: Young wan-
dering shrews and
all other placental
mammals spend
longer develop-
ing in the womb
than young mar-
supials do. As a
result, newborn
placental mam-
mals need less
help than new-
born marsupials.
body temperatures, but some,
including humans, are almost
hairless. Others may vary their
body heat, especially if they hi-
bernate. While most mammals
are active, consuming lots of en-
ergy, tree sloths are sluggish.
Mammals have a few unique
skeletal features, such as a lower
jaw that is formed from a single
bone on each side.
0160200901 PACKET 90
The earliest mammals were small, shrewlike creatures.
THE FIRST MAMMALS EVOLUTION & EXTINCTION
The tremendous diversity of modern mammal species
evolved from these ancient animals. Today mammals
range in size from the featherweight pygmy shrew
to the 130-ton blue whale. They have adapted to
all of the Earth's environments. One group of
even learned to fly.
FROM REPTILES TO MAMMALS
Mammals evolved very gradual-
ly from reptiles. Approximately
300 million years ago, the first
true reptiles, known as diapsids
and synapsids, appeared. Diap-
sids were the ancestors of dino-
saurs and today's birds, lizards,
snakes, and crocodiles. Synap-
sids were the ancestors of vari-
ous reptiles, including the ones
that evolved into mammals.
legs. They also had flexible ver-
tebrae, possibly enabling them
to curl up. They may even have
suckled their young.
Probably, later mammal-like
reptiles had hair, more constant
body temperatures, and sweat
glands that were modified to
give milk for the young. Like to-
day's monotremes (egg-laying
mammals), the first true mam-
mals probably laid eggs.
By 225 million years ago, there
were some mammal ancestors
that seemed closer to mammals
than reptiles. One example is
the shrewlike Megazostrodon.
Yet for 150 million years, dino-
saurs dominated the world. Fos-
sils indicate that all the earliest
true mammals were small. Only
after the sudden decline of di-
nosaurs, approximately 65 mil-
lion years ago, did mammals
begin to develop the great va-
riety of forms and sizes that we
know today.
During the years of dinosaur
supremacy, mammals consoli-
dated their efficient basic de-
sign. They evolved a powerful
four-chambered heart as well
as a diaphragm to help them
inhale and exhale and to sup-
ply the lungs with oxygen. A
"false" palate in the roof of the
By the middle Triassic period,
230 million years ago, some
reptiles had become mammal-
like. The reptile's multi boned
lower jaw began changing in-
to the mammal's single-boned
jaw. In addition, unspecialized
reptilian teeth began to evolve
into specialized mammalian
teeth with incisors in front, fol-
lowed by large canines, pre-
molars, and molars.
Megazostrodon
A group known as cynodonts
were equipped with fairly large,
doglike skulls and mammal-like
legs rather than squat reptilian
Thrinaxodon
-- .. .. ::- .....
I <."
. t.
, .'
I. .. ,,-""" J.. ./
Haramiya
Kuehneotherium
MID-TRIASSIC PERIOD
225 million years ago
mouth enabled them to eat and
breathe at the same time. Hair-
covered skin containing sweat
glands helped the animals re-
main warm or cool according
to need. Perhaps most signifi-
cant, the skull became larger to
hold an increasingly large and
capable brain.
Front cover: Big cats such as the
mountain lion are usually the top
predators in their range.
Front insets: Mammals such as the
greater horseshoe bat (left) and the
killer whale (right) have evolved to
conquer the skies and oceans.
Below: Thrinaxodon was a small,
swift flesh eater that could regulate
its own body heat. Its descendants
split into three main groups. Two
of these survived and evolved into
today's mammals, from the duck-
billed platypus to chimpanzees
and humans.
There were three main groups
of early mammals. They can be
distinguished from one another
by their teeth. Megazostrodon
was the ancestor of the insect-
eating mammals. Its cheek teeth
-premolars and molars--ach
had three cusps (raised points)
arranged in a line, helping the
animal slice the hard shells and
wing cases of its insect prey. To-
day, the only surviving descen-
dants of Megazostrodon are the
egg-laying mammals.
Living about 230 million years
ago, Haramiya was the ancestor
of rodents. It had large, gnaw-
ing incisors and cheek teeth that
had several cusps to grind plant
matter. This line of early mam-
mals became extinct about 60
million years ago because it was
not able to compete successful-
ly with the descendants of the
Taeniolabis
EARLY CRETACEOUS PERIOD
140 million yeors ogo
third and most adaptable early
mammal-Kuehneotherium.
Kuehneotherium had cusps on
its premolars and molars that
enabled it to crush and slice. Its
descendants-the pantotheres
-adapted to a wide variety of
diets and became the ancestors
of all of today's mammal species
except the monotremes.
Fossilized skeletons of an early
pantothere called Crusafontia in-
dicate that it was a small, tree-
dwelling insect eater. Its body
length was approximately eight
inches. It had a long tail, which
probably helped it to balance
and may also have been prehen-
sile (capable of gripping twigs
and branches). This squirrel-like
animal is believed to be the an-
cestor of whales, kangaroos, el-
ephants, bats, and most other
mammals, including humans.
Duck-billed platypus
Chimpanzee
LATE QUATERNARY PERIOD
Present day
EVOLUTION OF FISH
~ - - ~ - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - --- - - ~
Fish were the first vertebrates to appear on earth, nearly S 00
million years ago. Since that time they have evolved into one
of the most diverse and successful of all animal groups.
KEY FACTS
FISH DIVERSITY
Some fish have developed ex-
traordinary adaptations. Many
that live in the ocean depths are
illuminated by rows of fluores-
cent lights. These lights protect
the fish by imitating light from
the surface and disguising their
silhouettes. However, few pro-
tective measures are effective
against a shark. It can detect
tiny electric impulses flickering
through a victim's nervous sys-
tem, so it can find prey even in
dimly lit water.
The variety of shapes and col-
ors of fish is amazing. Some,
like clownfish, advertise their
identities with bright colors.
Others are well camouflaged.
The upright seahorse swims
Left: The elec-
tric eel of the
Amazon basin
has organs in
its tail that can
discharge up
to 550 volts of
electricity-en-
abling it to stun
prey such as an-
other fish or a
frog.
FROM FISH TO LAND CREATURES
The fins of most fish consist of
flexible rays that are connected
to bones inside their bodies. In
bony fish the rays may be visi-
ble. In others they are covered
yvith thick skin. In some fish, like
the lungfish and the coelacanth,
each fin has an internal bone
structure like that of an arm.
The bones support fin rays.
Such "lobe-finned" fish were
common in the Devonian peri-
od, 400 million years ago. Fossils
suggest that they crawled out
of the water on limblike fins and
became the first vertebrates on
land. Eventually, their descen-
dants lost their fin rays and ac-
quired lungs, developing into
!C) MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U,S.A.
Left: The flash-
light fish lives
in the ocean's
dimly lit depths.
Using a chemi-
cal process, its
light-emitting
organs produce
a glow that con-
fuses predators.
unnoticed among underwater
plants, and the gray-mottled,
flat flounder blends into the
ocean floor.
Many fish display remarkable
powers of navigation. In order
to spawn, a salmon can find
its way from the ocean back to
the freshwater stream where it
was born. It may detect chemi-
cal changes in the water.
Some fish, such as the mud-
skipper, are able to absorb oxy-
gen from both air and water.
This amphibious lifestyle en-
ables them to exploit extra
food sources.
creatures resembling newts.
These gave rise to reptiles and
ultimately birds and mammals.
Left: The five-
foot-long coel-
acanth is the
closest living
relative, of the
first land verte-
brates. Discov-
eredin 1938,
this "living fos-
sil" is almost
identical to fos-
sils that are as
old as 140 mil-
lion years.
0160200911 PACKET 91
Although all fish are superbly adapted water-dwelling
vertebrates, there are many differences among them.
In fact the word fish encompasses a huge variety of
animals. To a biologist, a lamprey, a shark, and a perch
are no more alike than a snake, an eagle, and a gorilla.
FISH EVOLUTION
The most primitive fish today
are the 32 species of hagfish:
wormlike scavengers with no
jawbone and no true backbone,
ribs, or skull. In place of jaws, a
hagfish has a rasping tongue. A
flexible rod of gristle called the
notochord acts as a backbone.
Similar in appearance to hag-
fish are the 40 parasitic lamprey
species, which suck body fluids
from living fish. Lampreys do
not have jawbones, but they
have rudimentary skeletons
made of cartilage.
Although hagfish and lam-
preys are grouped together as
"jaw less fish," they are very dif-
ferent and are placed in sepa-
rate classes. According to fossil
remains, the first fish, such as
Arandapsis, were also jawless
but had broad bodies armored
with bony plates, which proba-
bly kept them on the seabed.
Fish with proper skeletons and
jaws appeared much later. They
evolved along two distinct lines
represented by the other two
classes of modern fish: sharks
and rays in one class and bony
fish in the other.
Sharks and rays have skeletons
of cartilage, but bony fish have
skeletons of true bone. The two
types split apart some 400 mil-
lion years ago and have been
evolving ever since, with vary-
ing success. Bony fish have di-
versified into more than 20,750
species, compared to about 710
species of sharks and rays. These
two classes account for over half
the vertebrate species on earth.
WHAT IS A FISH?
Fish come in many shapes and
sizes and vary greatly in their
habits. However, they all rely
on water to supply them with
needed oxygen, which they ab-
sorb through gills. They also de-
pend on water to maintain a
steady body temperature.
Another feature that all fish
have in common is that they
are vertebrates. A vertebrate is
an animal with a backbone, a
structure that evolved for the
first time among fish about 480
million years ago. All the other
vertebrates-amphibians, rep-
tiles, birds, and mammals-
trace their ancestry to those
primeval fish.
Other vertebrates gradually
found ways of living on land.
But fish, with very few excep-
tions, have stayed in the water.
Front cover: The diverse
fish includes fast-moving killers such
as the great white shark, camou-
flaged ambushers like the toad fish
(inset left), and primitive sucking
parasites like lampreys (inset right).
Arandapsis
................ -:\'";,r: ...... _":' ..
.: ..
..
i. ) .. :.. .....
DEVONIAN PERIOD
400 million years ago
Hemicyclaspis
LIVING IN WATER
The main difference between
living in water and living in air
is that water is much denser, re-
quiring more energy to move
through it. The bodies of many
aquatic animals such as jellyfish
have much the same density as
water, so they float. They do not
need skeletons or muscles since
the water holds them up.
Fish are supported in a similar
way, but they are heavier, so
they tend to sink slowly. Sharks
and other fast-moving fish over-
come this by swimming with
their winglike fins angled up-
ward. The related rays spend
their adult lives on the seabed.
Many bony fish have swim blad-
ders (gas-filled buoyancy cham-
bers) that they are able to fill or
empty in order to rise or sink.
The density of water has two
further consequences. First, a
fast-moving fish must be stream-
lined to pass through water eas-
ily. The torpedo-shaped bodies
of marlins and sharks are good
examples: Second, because wa-
ter is so dense, fish can generate
a lot of thrust if their fins are con-
nected to strong muscles, even
though the fins themselves are
relatively small compared with
a bird's wings.
The fins' muscles need a firm
foundation, which is the main
function of the backbone. The
vertebrate skeleton evolved to
enhance the swimming ability
of fish. It developed into a sup-
porting frame only after their
HOLOCENE PERIOD
Today
descendants emerged from the
water to live on land.
Living in water, fish must deal
with the problem of becoming
waterlogged or sometimes de-
hydrated. Water continuously
passes into the body of a fresh-
water fish by a process called
osmosis. Since the fish's body
fluids are more concentrated
than the surrounding water, the
water seeps in to dilute them.
In order to avoid becoming fa-
tally bloated, the fish must con-
stantly pump out water. For a
marine fish, the problem is re-
versed. Its body fluids are less
concentrated than the salt wa-
ter around it, so water seeps out
of its body. It must constantly
drink water and expel the salt.
Cartilaginous
fish: Sharks,
chimaeras,
skates, and
rays. Their
skeletons,
made of car-
Wage, are
lightweight.
Bony fish: The
last group to
evolve, it in-
cludes more
than 20,750
living species.
These fish have
skeletons made
of true bone.
Jawless fish:
These include
the most primi-
tive living fish
species: hagfish
and lampreys.
They lack jaws
and have a pli-
able notochord
as a backbone.
THE FALCON FAMILY
There are about 60 falcon species throughout the world, ranging
from the tiny, sparrow-size falconets of Southeast Asia to the
great white gyrfalcon of Arctic North America and Eurasia.
KEY FACTS
HUNTING CHARACTERISTICS
Falcons in the genus Falco usual-
ly have pointed wings and are
impressive fliers. The largest-
such as the gyrfalcon and the
peregrine, lanner, saker, lugger,
and prairie falcons-are strong
predators, killing birds in midair.
Hobbies have long wings and
are very fast fliers. They feed pri-
marily on large insects such as
dragonflies but can also catch
swifts, swallows, and bats.
Eleonora's falcon of the Medi-
terranean and the sooty falcon
of North Africa seize small mi-
FALCON CONSERVATION
People have both admired and
persecuted falcons for centuries.
Falconry-a sport using trained
birds to hunt wild game-be-
gan in the Far East about 4,000
DID YOU KNOW?
The rarest falcon is the Mau-
ritius kestrel. Only 10 or so are
left on the island of Mauritius.
In species like the peregrine
falcon, Barbary falcon, or gyr-
grating birds. The red-headed
falcon of Africa and India and
the merlin of northern Eurasia
and North America are fast little
falcons that hunt small birds in
open country.
South America's forest falcons
have short, rounded wings and
long tails, giving maneuverabili-
ty. They twist and turn through
trees in pursuit of prey, which
they seize with their long legs.
Right: When it hunts, a kestrel hov-
ers and scans the ground below for
small mammals.
years ago. In medieval societies,
each noble rank was allotted a
particular falcon species. These
"noble hawks" were highly val-
ued, and any peasants caught
harming them or stealing their
eggs were severely punished.
But attitudes toward falcons
changed in the 17th century.
Landowners and gamekeepers
destroyed them as pests, along
with other birds of prey. In addi-
tion, collectors killed and stuffed
birds. Falcon eggs were prized
for their scarcity and the chal-
lenge of taking them from cliff-
ledge nest sites.
left: In Great Britain, the lanner
falcon was traditionally used only
by squires.
falcon, the female weighs near-
ly twice as much as the male.
The gyrfalcon is the only day-
active bird of prey that is able to
survive the Arctic winter.
PRINT Fn IN I I S A
Since World War II, sympathy
for falcons has grown, and there
has also been a revival of falcon-
ry. Falcons are now protected in
many countries, and conserva-
tion projects are trying to save
rare species such as the Mauri-
tius kestrel.
But threats to falcons remain.
Because they are predators at
the top of the food chain, fal-
cons may suffer severely from
pesticide pollution. Toxins build
up in their bodies when they eat
poisoned prey. The decline of
the peregrine falcon during the
1950s and 1960s as a result of
DDT alerted conservationists to
the destructive effects pesticides
can have on wildlife.
The crested caracara is Mex-
ico's national bird. Nicknamed
the "Mexican eagle," it is big,
with broad wings and slow
wing beats.
0160200991 PA KE
Although the falcon family includes the carrion-eating
~ DIFFERENT TYPES OF FALCON
caracaras, all the other falcon species feed on a wide variety
of live prey. 50me of the smaller birds capture insects, voles,
and even snakes. Other members of the falcon family catch
birds the size of ducks and owls. Big species, such as the
peregrine falcon and the magnificent gyrfalcon, at
The falcons (Fa/conidae) are the
second biggest family of day-
active birds of prey, after eagles,
vultures, and hawks. They live in
diverse habitats on every conti-
nent except Antarctica. Some,
such as kestrels and peregrines,
may nest in city centers, while
others live in remote areas.
times prey on mammals that are as large as hares.
There are four subgroups: the
laughing and forest falcons; the
falconets and pygmy falcons;
the caracaras; and the true fal-
cons (genus Fa/co).
~ ORIGINS
It is thought that falcons initially
evolved in South America. The
caracaras, forest falcons, and
laughing falcon that now live
in South America may be direct
descendants of the first falcons.
Over time changes in
global climate resulted
in fewer forest areas and
more grasslands as well
European kestrel: This very
adaptable bird lives in a vari-
ety of habitats. It generally
hunts by hovering for some
time on fast-beating wings
and then swooping to the
ground to snatch its prey
in its feet.
laughing falcon: Named for
its shrill call , which sounds
like hysterical laughter. This
bird specializes in catching
snakes. After scanning the
ground from a tree, it drops
like a stone onto its victim.
as other kinds of open habitats.
Falcons then developed special
adaptations that exploited the
new habitats. The first birds re-
sembling today's typical falcons
were probably kestrel-like
predators that hunted a
variety of prey using
several different
techniques.
The true falcons are the larg-
est subgroup, with 38 species.
These aggressive birds include
the peregrine falcon, the gyrfal-
con, and the hobbies, merlins,
and kestrels. Most are solitary
and defend their own hunting
and breeding territories. Some
Crested caracara: Inhabits
open country in addition to
mountains and forests. It is
not a powerful hunter, feeding
on sick or wounded animals
as well as fish, frogs, and any
carrion it finds. In contrast to
other falcons' sharp, curved
talons, it has flat , blunt claws
that are adapted for walking
and scratching in soil or vege-
tation for insects.
Merlin: One of the
smallest typical fal-
cons, it hunts by fly-
ing fast and low over
its moorland habitat,
following each turn
of its bird prey.
tropical species live in pairs, de-
fending a territory and hunting
together. Others, such as the
lesser kestrel and the red-footed
falcon, live in groups.
The falconets and pygmy fal-
cons inhabit the tropics of Africa,
India, and Southeast Asia. They
are the smallest day-active birds
of prey. The laughing and forest
falcons are a little-known group
of seven primitive species in Cen-
tral and South American forests.
There are nine caracara spe-
cies. These primitive falcons live
only in the Americas. In contrast
to other falcons, they are bulky,
broad-winged birds with long
legs. They are sluggish, spend-
ing much of their time perching
or walking around, searching
for food.
~ BREEDING
Typical falcons remain with the
same mate for many years. The
courtship displays may involve
spectacular aerobatics with the
birds chasing each other and the
male diving, swooping, and roil-
ing over on his back. At times he
circles with prey in his talons and
then drops it to the female be-
low, who turns on her back to
catch it. During the display, the
birds give shrill chattering, cack-
ling, and wailing calls. Later, they
frequently perform bowing cer-
emonies at the nest site.
Instead of building nests, most
falcons lay their eggs on a rock
ledge, often using the same site
year after year. Kestrels may use
ledges on buildings. Some spe-
cies nest in tree holes, using oth-
er birds' abandoned nest holes.
Gyrfalcon: The largest "
and most powerful fal-
con, it inhabits cliffs
and uplands. It chases
its mammal and bird
prey relentlessly, fly-
ing low over
the ground,
often for long
distances.
African pygmy falcon: A bold pred-
ator for its size, it kills large in-
sects and small birds. It has
large ear openings that help
it pinpoint the source of
even the faintest rus-
tle of its prey.
Caracaras, however, do create
untidy, bulky structures of sticks
and twigs in trees or cacti, on
cliffs, or on the ground.
In most species, both parents
incubate the eggs, although the
female spends more time on the
nest. The male usually feeds the
female during the egg-laying as
well as incubation periods.
The newly hatched chicks are
covered with thick white down
and then grow a longer, denser
coat of grayish down after 10 to
12 days. Small species remain in
the nest for four to five weeks
and larger species, six to seven
weeks. After they fledge, the
young are dependent on their
parents another two to three
weeks in smaller falcons and up
to eight weeks in large species.
Front cover: Like most typical fal-
cons, the saker is a powerful hunter
and prefers open country.
Front insets: The crested caraeara
(left) is a primitive falcon. The pere-
grine falcon (right) has been used
by falconers for centuries.
HOW ANIMALS STAY CLEAN
Like humans, animals also try to keep themselves clean.
But unlike us, they do not restrict themselves to baths and
showers or even to washing with water.
KEY FACTS
SOCIAL GROOMING
Mutual grooming often plays
a vital role in primate societies
and is part of the daily routine.
Unable to reach the fur on its
back, an individual must often
PREENING
Feathers are complex structures
that need a lot of care. In order
to fly well, a bird must keep its
plumage in good condition.
Most birds have preen glands
that produce an oil, which they
spread over their feathers with
their bills. This gland is largest in
water birds like ducks, geese,
petrels, and pelicans. Ducks and
geese preen up to 17 times daily
so that water rolls off their feath-
ers, leaving them light and dry.
rely on another to keep the area
free of dirt and parasites.
Primates of all sizes-from go-
rillas to chimpanzees--engage
in mutual grooming. This activi-
Left: The bar-
bary ape lives
in a highly or-
ganized com-
munity. Parents
and older, non-
related group
members help
groom the
young.
Some birds expose their preen
gland to the sun to stimulate
the release of the oil.
Grooming movements can
serve as social signals among
birds. Courting birds may en-
gage in ritualized mutual preen-
ing. By turning its head away to
preen its feathers, a bird may in-
dicate submission to its partner.
Right: Birds spend much of their
time preening and always preen
after a bath.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
ty usually takes place among rel-
atives, strengt hening the bond
between a paired male and fe-
male or between a mother and
her young. But grooming unre-
lated group members also has
its rewards. Vervet monkeys, for
example, live in big groups with
much rivalry and bickering. Sci-
entists have observed a female
vervet helping an unrelated fe-
male who groomed her earlier.
Thus, keeping clean not only
contributes to personal well -
being, but it is also the founda-
tion of social alliances.
Left: The an-
hinga can sub-
merge silently
in water due
to its water-
permeable
plumage. To
keep its feath-
ers in good
condition, it
spreads its
wings to dry
after fishing
for food.
0160200881 PACKET 88
An animal cannot survive if its body is not adequately
shielded from the elements. It therefore needs some kind of
protective covering such as fur, feathers, scales, or thick skin. /"
This covering must be maintained in prime condition at all
times-by preening, bathing, or other cleaning methods.
FUR, FEATHERS &: SCALES
Fur keeps an animal warm, but a bird's volume without contrib-
it must be kept "open" to be ef- uting much to its weight. They
fective. Fur insulates by trapping also form a waterproof outer lay-
warm air between its fibers. If it er, enabling a bird to take off
is caked with dirt, the fur cannot without being dragged down
trap air. by the weight of the water.
Feathers provide better insula- The risk of infection from par-
tion. Penguins have a thick layer asites or wounds is a problem
of insulating fat under their skin. for all animals. If fleas and ticks
But their dense down and stiff are not removed regularly from
feathers playa key role in keep- a mammal's coat, infected sores
ing them warm by maintaining develop. Bats lick their wings ev-
a layer of warm air between the ery day to heal tiny nicks. Even
skin and the Antarctic cold. snakes, with seemingly spotless
The oily feathers of water birds scales, must rub against rocks to
provide buoyancy by adding to get rid of mites.
Front cover:
Like many birds
that eat carrion
(dead animal
flesh), the king
vulture has no
neck plumage
to get soiled.
Front inset
left: The Cape
buffalo takes
mud baths to
soothe its skin
and protect it
from parasites.
Front inset
right: A clean-
er fish is able to
obtain food by
grooming larg-
er fish such as
angelfish.
Many animals have cleaning
equipment right on their bod-
ies. A bird such as a heron, bit-
tern, or tinamou has a patch of
down that grows continually
on its breast and belly. The tips
of these feathers constantly dis-
integrate to form a fine, water-
resistant powder. As the bird
preens itself or fluffs its breast
feathers, the powder spreads
over its body, helping to re-
move excess oil and grease
that would impede flight.
Some mammals also have
built-in cleaning equipment.
The slow loris combs its fur
with its long lower incisors,
Left: A lion must lick a wound
almost constantly to prevent it
from becoming infected.
Left: Ground-
dwelling birds
such as the jun-
gle fowl like to
take dust baths
to remove any
excess oil from
their plumage.
while the aye-aye lemur uses a
thin claw on its index finger to
untangle its fur and pick off
parasites. The echidna has a
special long claw on the sec-
ond toe of its hind foot with
which it scrapes off parasites
from between its long spines.
Some animals actually pro-
vide a cleaning service for oth-
er species. Small, colorful fish
that are called cleaner wrasse
nibble dead skin, fish lice, and
fungus off the scales of larger
fish. The oxpecker, a small bird,
provides a similar service by
picking ticks and fleas off large
grazing mammals.
Right: Water birds such as herons
preen often in order to keep their
feathers waterproof.

Wallowing in mud can serve a
cleansing purpose. A mud bath
helps remove ticks from a hip-
po's body and soothes the irri-
tated skin. The mud also dries
on the animal to form a thin
crust that keeps parasites from
getting to the skin.
Elephants also take mud baths
and spend a great deal of time
caring for their inch-thick skin.
If possible, an elephant bathes
in water daily, using its trunk to
spray water over its own back
or a companion's. After bathing,
it rolls in dust or sprays dust on
its back with its trunk to cover
its skin with a thin film that pro-
tects against parasites.
Many birds, from house spar-
rows to eagles, also take dust
baths. Desert birds and game
Left: Using its trunk, an elephant
can spray its entire body with mud
and water.
birds vigorously fluff up their
feathers to create dust clouds,
which help remove excess oils
that might mat their feathers.
Some birds "bathe" in smoke,
fumigating parasites from their
feathers by flying right through
smoke rising from a chimney.
A crow or jay may clean itself
by spreading its wings, ruffling
its plumage, and then sitting on
an ants' nest, so that the insects
can crawl through its feathers. It
is not clear how this activity aids
cleanliness, but the formic acid
that the ants excrete may repel
parasites, relieve itching, or de-
stroy feather mites. The pango-
lin, an African mammal that has
armorlike scales, also engages in
"anting." It raises its scales to al-
low the insects to crawl under-
neath, then flattens the scales to
crush the ants, creating an abra-
sive effect.
With more than 3,000 species, lizards outnumber all other
reptiles. Extremely varied in shape and size, they have
successfully colonized almost every habitat on earth.
KEY FACTS
~ - - - - - - < ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
LIZARD FEATURES
Scales: Lizard scales are made
of keratin-the substance that
forms human fingernails. New
scales constantly grow beneath
the old ones, which the reptile
sheds in patches. Lizard scales
take many forms. The Gila mon-
ster and beaded lizard found in
the southwestern United States
have hard, knobby scales that
repel predators, sand, and heat.
The thorny devil's spikes, the
crests of some male iguanas,
and the "horns" of some cha-
meleons are all modified scales.
Limbs: Most lizards have very
muscular legs with clawed feet
for digging, running, or climb-
LIZARD DEFENSES
Lizards have many different de-
fenses against predators. Best
known is their ability to shed
their tails when attacked.
Some lizards rely on a quick
The giant mosasaur lizards
of 100 million years ago devel-
oped nostrils on their heads
and paddlelike limbs similar
to those of whales.
Marine iguanas often dive to
depths of 65 feet to forage for
seaweed. These lizards have
ing-whatever the habitat de-
mands. However, burrowing liz-
ards like the so-called slowworm
of Europe and the glass lizard of
the United States have no legs
at all. They move like snakes in
sand or soft soil.
Teeth: The teeth of lizards vary
escape. Fast-moving sand liz-
ards like the fringe-toed lizard
dive into the sand and "swim"
away under the surface. In con-
trast, the chuckwalla from the
Left: A lizard's
cast-off tail
wriggles, dis-
tracting the
predator while
the lizard es-
capes. It will
grow another
tail later.
special glands for ridding their
bodies of salt.
When threatened, a horned
lizard can squirt a drop of blood
out of its eye in order to startle
an enemy.
Some lizards possess a "third
eye," called a parietal eye, near
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: A chame-
leon has mus-
cular legs and
a gripping tail,
so it can hold
onto branches
tightly while
stretching out
acrobatically
to reach an
insect.
according to their diet. Insect
eaters have sharp teeth for seiz-
ing and holding prey. Plant eat-
ers, such as iguanas, have teeth
with serrated edges for ripping
vegetation. The caiman lizard,
which eats shellfish, has blunt
teeth for crunching hard shells.
Southwest's deserts relies on
staying put. It wedges its body
into a crevice and keeps gulp-
ing air until it swells up like a
balloon, making itself impossi-
ble to dislodge.
The Australian frilled lizard
frightens away enemies by ex-
tending its huge throat frill and
opening its mouth wide. To de-
ter attackers, the African arma-
dillo lizard holds its tail in its
mouth, turning itself into an
unapproachable spiny ball.
the back of the head. Covered
in translucent skin, it acts as a
light meter to help control the
reptile's sun-basking hours.
Most small lizards live a few
years at most. But one captive
slowworm reached the age of
54 years.
0160200881 PACKET 88
Lizards are found all over the world, from equatorial
deserts to cold regions inside the Arctic Circle. These reptiles
range in size from tiny geckos to massive monitors, and
they display an amazing variety of survival adaptations.
Some species are capable of gliding through the air. Other
lizards are able to move underneath sand dunes. Still
others can even patter across water on their hind legs.

Lizards share a reptile ancestor
with dinosaurs and crocodiles.
By the time the dinosaurs began
roaming the earth, lizards were
already evolving along a sepa-
rate path.
The oldest known true lizard
fossils are from the late Triassic
period, 150 to 200 million years
ago. But many scientists believe
that there were earlier true liz-
ards, which have not yet been
discovered in fossilized form.
One extinct group of lizards,
Front cover:
Although Aus-
tralia's thorny
devil looks in-
timidating, it
preys only on
tiny ants.
Front inset
left: The frilled
lizard scares off
its enemies by
spreading its
neck frill to
make itself
look bigger.
Front inset
right: The ko-
modo dragon is
the heaviest liz-
ard. It is a very
fierce, powerful
flesh eater.
the mosasaurs, lived in the sea.
At over 20 feet long, they were
much larger than modern liz-
ards. No lizards live entirely in
the sea today, but marine igua-
nas in the Galapagos Islands do
dive off rocks to find seaweed.
By the Oligocene epoch, 26
to 38 million years ago, many
lizards almost identical to mod-
ern forms had appeared.
Right: A chameleon is able to grip
branches firmly because it has op-
posable digits on its feet.

Most lizards lay eggs, which are
placed in a scraped-out hollow.
Small lizards often lay only one
or two eggs, but larger species
like iguanas lay up to 50. The
egg usually has a leathery skin
and gets bigger as the embryo
grows. Gecko eggs are an ex-
ception, with shells that harden
and then remain the same size.
Many lizards are extremely fast
runners. The fastest are those
that run on their hind legs, us-
ing their long tails for balance.
The racerunner lizard of North
America can run 15 miles per
hour, and the tropical American
basilisk lizard can dash across
the surface of water. In contrast
to these species, chameleons
move slowly.
Many lizards are well adapted
for life in the desert. The Aus-
tralian thorny devil as well as
the American horned "toad"
have short, flat bodies covered
with fierce-looking spikes. Their
Left: The basilisk lizard is sometimes
called the Jesus lizard because it can
run across water.
Some lizards, including many
in cold climates, produce live
young. Outside the body of the
mother, the eggs would perish
in low temperatures. Some spe-
cies, like the whip-tailed lizard,
reproduce without mating. They
are all-female species whose off-
spring are genetically identical
to their mothers.
coloring and body texture cam-
ouflage them in their arid, rocky
habitats. The spikes also have a
cooling function. By increasing
the body surface area, they aid
heat loss and provide surfaces
and channels on which mois-
ture from the air can condense.
Other desert lizards cope well
in sandy conditions. The fringe-
toed lizard has scaly fringes on
its feet, so it moves easily over
sand. It can also bury itself when
threatened and "swim" under
the sand. Another species that
uses the same tactic is the Ara-
bian toad-headed agamid.
Right: The feet of Australia's leaf-
tailed gecko are adapted for grip-
ping smooth surfaces.

Lizards come in many sizes and
shapes. This diversity is the se-
cret of their success as an order.
The smallest lizards are geck-
os, some of which weigh a frac-
tion of an ounce. Geckos have
tiny hairs on their feet, so they
can cling to slight irregularities
on a surface. These "sticky" feet
and a gecko's light weight en-
able the lizard to climb appar-
ently smooth surfaces and walk
upside down on a ceiling.
At the other end of the scale
Left: The whip-
tailed lizard is
an all-female
species of the
southwestern
United States
and Mexico.
The offspring
hatch from un-
fertilized eggs
and are exact
clones of their
mothers.
is the jungle-dwelling komodo
dragon of Indonesia. It reaches
a length of 10 feet and a weight
of over 330 pounds. This pow-
erful, fast-moving predator can
kill wild pigs and deer.
Chameleons are tree dwellers
that can change color to blend
in with their surroundings. Their
toes, which are separated into
opposed groups, give them a
firm hold on branches. Their
prehensile (gripping) tails pro-
vide extra security.
FLIGHTLESS BIRDS
... , ,, 1 '.. .. ' .. _ ~ : "'. . " ~ '.' . . . _ .... . .. _
A bird that cannot fly may seem a contradiction in terms.
Yet some birds are better able to exploit their habitats
by keeping their feet on the ground than by flying.
KEY FACTS
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
EVOLUTION OF RATITES AND PENGUINS
Ratites appeared 80 million years
ago. Different types evolved on
each continent when the land-
masses separated. The surviving
ratite groups are classified in dis-
tinct orders, indicating that each
group is highly differentiated.
Below: A full-grown rhea can run
I
faster than a horse over the pam-
pas of South America.
CONSERVATION
Flightless birds on islands with-
out mammal predators were
threatened when settlers intro-
duced livestock, pets, and pests.
The birds lacked defenses, and
I
their ground nests were vulner-
able. One victim was New Zea-
land's kakapo, and now only
about 40 birds remain.
All ratites must have evolved
from ancestors that could fly,
since they share many charac-
teristics with flying birds. Along
with biochemical evidence, the
similar bone structures of ratites
and weak-flying tinamous from
Central and South America sug-
gests that the ancestors of these
birds may have been related.
Kiwis have declined since the
first Europeans arrived in New
Zealand over 150 years ago. Al-
though the brown kiwi and the
great spotted kiwi are still wide-
spread on South Island, land
clearance poses a threat to the
brown kiwi on North Island. To
protect the endangered little
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Penguins developed about 70
million years ago and evolved
underwater "flight" 45 million
years ago. Since then, they have
changed little, spending up to
three-fourths of their life in icy
southern waters.
Below: Using its razor-sharp claws,
a cassowary can disembowel an en-
emy with a well-aimed kick.
spotted kiwi, its population was
moved to Kapiti Island in Cook
Strait. While its numbers have
increased, it is still at risk.
Rheas are hunted for food and
for their plumage, which is used
for feather dusters. They are also
killed because they supposedly
damage crops.
The ostrich is not threatened,
but many populations have de-
clined because of habitat loss.
Cassowaries are at risk due to
destruction of tropical forests.
Humans have actually helped
the emu, which has colonized
dry areas in Australia's interior
where watering points were set
up for cattle and sheep.
Left: The little spotted kiwi has no
defenses against mammals that
settlers brought to New Zealand.
0160200921 PACKET 92
Some birds became flightless because they lived on
predator-free islands and, as a result, had no need to take
to the air. Others, like penguins, exchanged their wings for
paddlelike structures that helped them "fly" underwater.
Still other birds, such as the ostrich, developed long,
powerful legs on which they could outrun their enemies.
~ WHY FLIGHTLESS BIRDS DEVELOPED
The 50 or so flightless bird spe-
cies alive today all evolved from
flying ancestors. Although flight
has advantages, it also imposes
restrictions. It limits a bird's size
and weight, reducing the bird's
efficiency in exploiting certain
food supplies. In addition, a bird
must develop special muscles to
fly and keep its plumage in per-
fect condition. So when there
was little benefit from flying, as
on islands that had no mammal
predators, birds such as the ka-
kapo and many rail species be-
came flightless.
Front cover:
The brown kiwi
has an excellent
sense of smell.
It searches for
beetles as well
as earthworms
in soft soil with
its long, curved
bill.
Front inset
left: On land,
the appropri-
ately named
rockhopper
penguin hops
with both feet.
Front inset
right: The ka-
kapo uses its
bill and sharp
claws to climb
trees.
In the vast, open South Amer-
ican pampas and African savan-
nas, the ostrich and the rheas
abandoned flight for greater
size. Their long necks and legs
let them spot predators at a dis-
tance and sprint to safety.
Penguins' wings evolved into
"paddles," propelling them un-
derwater. Growing larger and
heavier, these birds acquired an
insulating layer of fat and con-
quered the icy Antarctic waters.
Right: Although the emperor pen-
guin is clumsy on land or ice floes,
it moves well in the water.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Flightless birds must generally
feed on the ground, but they
are good at exploiting the avail-
able food supplies. Rheas eat
weeds that most other animals
avoid, while the ostrich selects
the most nutritious plants on
the dry plains. Both birds have
long digestive tracts that help
~ BREEDING
New Zealand once had no land-
based predators, so the kakapo
could safely nest on the ground.
But settlers introduced rats and
cats, which stole its eggs.
Many penguins do not use a
nest at all. They incubate their
eggs between their warm feet
and a warm fold of their bellies.
Up to 12 females mate with
a dominant male rhea, laying
a total of about 60 eggs in his
nest. The male then incubates
the clutch, and he cares for the
chicks for up to six months.
Cassowaries, emus, and kiwis
form pairs, but a female casso-
Left: Since a cassowary has a short-
er neck and legs than an ostrich, it
can forge through dense thickets.
deal with their vegetarian diets.
The emu prefers seeds, fruits,
flowers, and young shoots. With
its large fat reserves, it can trav-
el hundreds of miles if there is a
food shortage.
Penguins feed on prey in the
water, diving for several minutes
to find their food.
wary may mate with one or two
other males after laying her first
clutch. The male incubates the
eggs and rears the chicks.
A male ostrich loosely bonds
with a dominant, "major" hen
but mates with up to five other
hens. Unlike other ratites, both
the male and major hen incu-
bate the eggs. Although these
eggs are the largest bird eggs,
they are the smallest in relation
to the female's size-at about
1.5 percent of her body weight.
After hatching, ostrich broods
often join up and are guarded
by one or two adults.
Right: A male ostrich may help in-
cubate dozens of eggs from several
females in one nest.
Ratites are large, flightless birds
that have lost the large keel on
their sternum, or breastbone. In
flying birds this bone anchors
the powerful flight muscles.
People exterminated two rat-
ite orders: New Zealand's moas
and Africa's and Madagascar's
elephant birds. The surviving
orders contain the ostrich, cas-
sowaries, rheas, emu, and kiwis.
The ostrich, the largest bird in
the world, is the only species that
has just two toes per foot . It can
run over 40 miles per hour and
over 60 in short bursts.
Left: When it is
in the wild, the
flightless kaka-
po feeds mainly
on shrub ber-
ries, roots, and
grasses. Birds in
captivity favor
sweet foods as
well as fruit.
The two rhea species live in
grassland and scrub from Brazil
to South America's southern tip.
Like the ostrich, they have prom-
inent wings and flap these dra-
matically when courting.
In Australia the emu lives in
open areas, while the three cas-
sowary species dwell in the jun-
gles. Cassowaries possess only
remnants of wings.
All four kiwi species are squat,
essentially wingless birds that
forage in the forests and scrub
of New Zealand. Their feathers
resemble a mammal's hair.
FROGS AND TOADS
There are nearly 2,700 frog and toad species, making up the bulk
of the world IS amphibian species. Most of these creatures go
through a larval stage and spend part of their lives in water.
KEY FACTS
CAMOUFLAGE AND SELF-PROTECTION

face many predators, and

their thin-skinned bodies offer
little protection against sharp
I
claws, teeth, and beaks. To sur-
:,ive, frogs use and,
In some cases, pOisonous secre-
tions in their skin.
One North American treefrog
is patterned and colored so as
to blend in with rough bark and
patchy lichens. Rainforest frogs,
such as Hyla granosa from Ecua-
dor, are frequently bright green,
matching the lush foliage.
The Asian horned frog mimics
the colors and textures of dead
leaves on the forest floor. It even
TOADS
Toads belong to the family Bu-
fonidae, one of the 20 frog fami-
lies. Compared to frogs, toads
are squat and often seem clum-
sy. They are usually warty, with
drier skin than frogs' skin. Many
have short hind legs, which are
better for walking than hopping.
Most toads are dull in color, but
there are exceptions, such as the
European green toad, which has
green and orange markings.
Right: The male midwife toad car-
ries the eggs on his back until they
I are ready to hatch.
Left: A poison-
arrow frog pro-
duces a dead-
ly toxin. Some
tribes in South
American for-
ests smear this
poison on the
tips of their ar-
rows and blow
darts.
Most toads are active mainly
at night. In the breeding season
large numbers gather at ponds
.9 MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FI LETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
Left: The Asian
horned frog has
flaps of skin, or
" horns," that
camouflage it
among leaves
on the forest
floor. Horned
frogs do not
move much,
preferring to
wait and am-
bush snakes,
lizards, mice,
and the oth-
er vertebrates
that form their
staple diet.
has a dead leaf's shape, with flat
points over its eyes and snout.
Frogs that produce dangerous
toxins often advertise this with
brilliant skin colors. Phyllobates
terribilis from Colombia is one of
the most lethal, making enough
toxin to kill12 or more people.
Its warning color is bright yel-
low or orange.
or other breeding sites. Individ-
uals often return to the same
pond year after year.
0160200931 PACKET 93
Frogs and toads can be found in a variety of habitats
throughout the world. They live in swamps, in trees, on
the ground, and even in arid deserts, where they bury
themselves between the infrequent downpours. These
amphibians range in size from a tiny South American
treefrog only a few inches long to the huge goliath frog
of the West African rainforests, weighing over six pounds.

Amphibians-the class between
fish and reptiles- were the first
vertebrates to move from water
to land. Frogs and toads form
the largest order of amphibians.
The earliest froglike fossil was
found in Madagascar and is 220
to 230 million years old. Called
Triadobatrachus, this animal was
about four inches long, with a
wide, flat skull, elongated hind
legs, and a short tail.
The first true frog fossils, called
Front cover:
The European
treefrog often
spends the day
perched near
water while it
soaks up sun.
Front inset
left: Like most
treefrogs, the
South Ameri-
can brown and
gold treefrog
has adhesive
pads at the tips
of its fingers to
grip branches.
Front inset
right: A com-
mon frog has
reached the
adult stage
when its tail is
fully absorbed.
the" ancient frogs" (Archaeoba-
trachia) lived some 150 million
years ago. The next group, re-
ferred to as "middle frogs," ap-
peared 100 to 135 million years
ago. The "new frogs," forming
the suborder Neobatrachia, date
back 50 million years. All mod-
ern frog families originated in
these three ancient suborders.
Right: Frogs use their strong legs to
make a series of springy leaps, while
toads crawl.

Most frogs live near water rath-
er than entirely in it. A frog that
spends most of its life in water
usually has powerful, webbed
rear limbs. Its eyes and nostrils
are set high on its head, so it
can see and breathe with most
of its body submerged.
Central and South American
treefrogs form one of the larg-
est groups. They are excellent
climbers with large, adhesive
toe pads that enable them to
cling to smooth leaves as well
as branches. Rhacophorus nigro-
palmatus is a species that can
glide from tree to tree. As it
Left: Treefrogs can climb relatively
smooth surfaces using their suction-
like toe pads.
Left: Frogs go
through a two-
stage develop-
ment from the
egg to the final
adult form. The
larval stage, or
tadpole, devel-
ops in water
and feeds on
plants.
leaps, this frog spreads out its
webbed hands and feet to form
a gliding surface.
Spadefoot toads are named
for the leathery projections on
their hind limbs that they use
to burrow backward into the
ground. The American spade-
foot lives in desert regions and
escapes the long months of dry
weather by burrowing under
the ground. Once the rains be-
gin, the spadefoot comes out
of its burrow to spawn. All the
developmental stages are then
sped up, so the cycle is finished
in three weeks.
Right: Frogs do not have clearly
defined necks, so their heads seem
directly attached to their bodies.
lIFECYClE
Frogs' eggs lack shells but are
protected by a jellylike material.
Many frogs lay their eggs in clus-
ters, while some toads lay their
eggs in long double strings. In
some places frogs make foam
nests to protect their eggs. For-
est frogs may lay their eggs on
leaves overhanging water, so
emerging tadpoles fall from the
leaves into the pond or stream.
Other frogs lay their eggs in spe-
cially created mud basins or in
small pools. They leave a mud-
dy passage to help the tadpoles
reach larger bodies of water, or
they carry the tadpoles there.
The egg is fertilized in most
species as it emerges from the
female. The single cell begins to
divide, and the embryo length-
ens into the larval stage called
a tadpole. The speed of growth
depends on the species as well
as the climate. When the em-
bryo has developed a mouth,
eyes, and external fishlike gills, it
usually hatches from its jellylike
casing and continues to devel-
op as a free-swimming tadpole.
Most tadpoles feed on small
plant organisms. Some filter wa-
ter through an internal particle
trap. Others are equipped with
a horny mouth lining that they
use to file organic material from
leaves and rocks. Most of a tad-
pole's body consists of the long,
coiled intestine that it needs to
digest plant food.
Eventually the hind legs begin
to grow out from the body. The
tadpole's forelimbs appear from
under a flap of skin, and its tail is
reabsorbed by the body. Its soft
bones harden, while its mouth
widens. Increasingly, the tad-
pole begins to look like a frog.
When the tail has disappeared,
metamorphosis is complete,
although the new frog contin-
ues to grow.
HOW MAMMALS SWIM
- -- -- - - - - - - - . - ~ - - - -
A surprising number of mammals are able to swim. Those that spend
all or most of their time in the water have special adaptations that
allow them to swim fast or dive deep for long periods.
KEY FACTS
AQUATIC MAMMALS
Most mammals can swim, but
only two groups spend all their
time in water. They are the ce-
taceans (whales, dolphins, and
porpoises) and sirenians (the du-
gong and manatees).
While the pinnipeds are most-
ly aquatic, they come ashore to
breed. This group contains true
I
seals, eared seals (fur seals and
sea lions, which have small ex-
ternal earflaps), and the walrus.
There are also four-legged, of-
ten furred mammal species that
TAIL POWER
Seals swim by moving their rear
flippers sideways, but cetaceans
and sirenians lack external hind
limbs. Instead, they have flat,
horizontal tails. Manatees have
spade-shaped tails, while other
species have fishlike tails.
The animal is propelled by its
tail as well as the rear third of its
I DID YOU KNOW?
Blubber is not a soft or jelly-
like substance. It is hard like a
slab of bacon.
An adult male sperm whale
was recorded making a dive
of oVer an hour and a half.
are at home on land but spend
some of their time in the water,
cooling off, grazing, or hunting
prey. They range in size from the
body. Its tail and body move up
and down, not sideways. Large
muscles above the midline impel
the upstroke. Smaller muscles,
below the midline, pull the tail
down. The flukes (two halves of
the tail) flex up but not down,
left: The Florida manatee's broad,
rounded tail both propels and sta-
bilizes its huge bulk.
A bull elephant seal has 124
gallons of blood, while a per-
son has less than 5 quarts.
The hippopotamus at times
submerges to walk along the
riverbed. It sinks or rises to the
MCMXCI I IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRI NTED IN U.SA
left: Like oth-
er sirenians, a
manatee is to-
tally aquatic.
But it must rise
to breathe every
few minutes. It
is also limited
to warm tropi-
calor subtropi-
cal waters.
polar bear and hippopotamus,
through medium-size beavers
and otters, to the small Pyrene-
an desman and water shrews.
Left: The flukes
of its tail propel
the humpback
at speeds of up
to 17 miles per
hour. At times
the whale slaps
the water, per-
haps to stun
its prey.
so on the upstroke the tail is ful-
ly spread for maximum power.
To lessen resistance, the ani-
mal has a streamlined body. Its
smooth, firm skin reduces drag.
Cetaceans may lubricate their
skin to minimize friction.
The front flippers aid steering
and balance. Some species have
dorsal fins to improve balance.
surface by contracting or ex-
panding its lungs.
The sperm whale has been
recorded at a depth of close
to 3,760 feet, and it may dive
to 9,840 feet.
0160200971 PACKET 97
Only the fully aquatic mammals have completely conquered
the problems of moving, feeding, and staying warm in water.
However, the ability to swim gives a land-based mammal
certain advantages, including the possibilities of expanding
its range, broadening its diet, and avoiding enemies.
~ ROWING & PADDLING
Fur seals, sea lions, and the wal-
rus propel themselves with row-
ing strokes of their front flippers.
For maximum speed, they also
use their flexible hind flippers
and rear end.
A four-legged, partly aquatic
mammal often does a kind of
"dog paddle." A long tail may
be used as a rudder. However,
the giant otter shrew keeps its
legs close to its body and undu-
lates its long, flattened tail.
Limbs and tails are frequently
adapted to maximize their area
in the water. A water shrew has
hairy fringes on its feet and its
Right: Thick skin plus a layer of
blubber up to six inches thick keep
the walrus warm in Arctic seas.
Front cover:
With its flexible
neck, the belu-
ga whale can
turn sharply.
Front inset
left: The South
American sea
lion swims with
a speed and a
grace that few
other mammals
can match.
Front inset
right: The hip-
popotamus en-
ters a river to
take the weight
off its legs.
tail's underside. The Pyrenean
desman has a long, flattened tail
and stiff bristles on its webbed
feet and partly webbed fingers.
The larger Russian desman can
use its flexible snout as a snorkel.
All beavers paddle with their
webbed hind feet, using their
broad, flat tails as rudders. But
the polar bear-which spends
much of its life in Arctic waters-
does not have such adaptations.
~ ECHOLOCATION
Underwater visibility is generally
poor, and below 650 feet there
is little light. Like bats, dolphins,
porpoises, toothed whales, and
seals use echolocation to survey
their surroundings, communi-
cate, and hunt prey.
~ STAYING WARM
Mammals have two adaptations
to keep out the chill of icy water.
Many furred mammals, such as
mink, otters, and muskrats, pos-
sess two layers of hair. The long,
water-repellent guard hairs cov-
er a dense, fluffy undercoat. The
guard hairs mat together when
wet to form a waterproof "skin"
that traps an insulating layer of
air in the undercoat. Water nev-
er reaches the skin. After a few
shakes on land, the animal is dry.
A water shrew does not have
Left: A water shrew traps an insu-
lating layer of warm air in its fine
fur when it dives.
The animal emits sound clicks,
each shorter than a millisecond.
If these bounce off an object, the
animal picks up the echo, which
tells it the distance, shape, and
size of the object. It can focus its
clicks on a small fish to pursue it.
long guard hairs but traps air in
its velvety fur. Water eventually
reaches the skin, so when the
shrew lands it runs through a
tight tunnel to wring itself dry.
Truly aquatic mammals lack
fur but have insulating blubber
(oil-filled cells) below their skin.
Some whales' blubber is a foot
thick. To regulate its tempera-
ture, a whale can open or close
blood vessels in its blubber, let-
ting blood flow near its skin if it
needs to cool off.
Right: The common seal's stream-
lined body enables it to swim and
dive rapidly.
~ DIVING
Whales must breathe air but can
stay underwater for more than
an hour, and some dive over a
half-mile. While a seal exhales
before it dives, a whale inhales,
diving with a lungful of air.
Pressure at depths below 325
feet causes lungs to collapse, so
the whale stores oxygen in its
blood and muscles. It has a large
Left: The polar bear uses its forelegs
to pull itself through the water.
Left: The sleek-
skinned com-
mon dolphin is
the fastest of
all small dol-
phins, but it
must still sur-
face to breathe.
volume of blood, rich in hemo-
globin-a protein carrying dis-
solved oxygen. The whale drops
its heartbeat, slowing the flow
of blood, and it can reserve ox-
ygenated blood for its brain. It
can tolerate relatively high lev-
els of carbon dioxide dissolved
in the bloodstream.
If they surface too quickly, hu-
man divers get the "bends," a
condition where dissolved nitro-
gen bubbles out into the blood.
To avoid this problem, a whale
has oily foam in its air passages
to absorb the nitrogen. This is
expelled when the whale sur-
faces and blows.
Left: The European otter is equally
at home in water or on land.
HOW MAMMALS HUNT
Many mammals actively hunt for prey, rather than simply foraging
for food. The most specialized hunters are members of the true
carnivore families, which feed almost exclusively on flesh.
KEY FACTS
- - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
WHAT MAKES A GOOD HUNTER?
To detect prey, hunting mam-
mals need keen sight, smell, or
hearing. They must also be able
to move fast, judge distances,
seize prey, and quickly kill it. The
carnivores, including the dog,
cat, bear, weasel, civet, and hy-
ena families, possess many of
these hunting characteristics.
Cats are muscular and lithe
with quick reflexes. Their long,
flexible bodies and strong limbs
are suited to bursts of action,
rather than long chases. Most
cats have sharp, retractile claws.
While stalking prey, a cat keeps
its claws sheathed, but when it
leaps it unleashes them, using
them to hold the prey while it
attacks with its jaws and teeth.
With short bodies, large rib
cages, narrow hips, and long,
slender legs, many dog family
members are adapted to long
chases, using their stamina to
wear down prey. They run on
the tips of their toes, aided by
blunt, nonretractile claws.
Many weasel family members
have long, sinuous bodies and
short legs, so they can pursue
mice, rabbits, and other prey
into their underground tunnels.
A hunting mammal general-
ly has fairly close-set eyes at the
front of its skull, giving it binocu-
/ar(overlapping) vision. This en-
ables it to judge distances and
hit its prey when it leaps. In con-
trast, most prey animals have
eyes at the sides of their heads,
giving them all-around vision
to look out for predators.
Cats have some color vision
and keen night vision, with re-
flective tissue in each eye that
maximizes image detection.
Their touch-sensitive whiskers
Left: Lionesses
are more effi-
cient hunters
than lions. But
both sexes have
long canines
set in short
jaws, giving
them tremen-
dous biting
power.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: Before pouncing, the serval
listens intently to pinpoint the loea-
tion of its prey.
help in the dark, and they can
hear high-frequency sounds,
such as small rodents' squeaks.
Dog family members depend
mostly on smell to follow prey,
often hunting with their muz-
zles close to the ground. Some
foxes and jackals have superb
hearing. With its huge ears, the
bat-eared fox can hear dung
beetle grubs gnawing under-
ground. Other foxes listen for
rodents burrowing in snow.
Left: An otter
swims as well as
the fish it preys
upon andean
travel 7,300 feet
underwater be-
fore surfacing.
Matted guard
hairs covering
its coat help
keep it warm.
0160200941 PACKET 94
Hunting mammals have evolved specialized techniques
to ensure their survival. Some stalk their prey at night,
while others catch their victims during the day. Some work
in teams, while others hunt alone. Most have sharp teeth
that can cut through flesh strong claws, acute senses, and
muscular bodies capable of sudden bursts of activity.
~ O R I G I N S
Some of the earliest mammals
ate insects. Instead of actively
hunting, they probably foraged
for prey, scurrying through the
undergrowth and devouring in-
sects as they came upon them.
For many millions of years, al l
mammals were foragers, eating
insects, plant material, or both.
The ancestors of today's car-
nivores evolved in the Eocene
epoch, 54 to 38 million years
ago. They developed carnassial
teeth, which could cut through
animal flesh. All modern carni-
vores possess carnassials.
Front cover:
The Alaskan
brown bear
learns by trial
and error to
seize leaping
salmon in its
jaws or claws.
Front inset
left: The leop-
ard is a wary
hunter, looking
out for the lions
and tigers that
will attack it if
they can.
Front inset
right: Like foxes
and jackals, the
coyote pounces
from a height
onto prey.
t -
Left: African
wild dogs seize
a wildebeest by
the upper lip,
which seems to
tranquilize it.
Meanwhile, fel-
low pack mem-
bers grab its
tail and rear
limbs to bring
it down.
~ SOLITARY HUNTERS
The polar bear is camouflaged
by its white fur, whether it stalks
seals on the ice or crouches by a
hole in the ice, waiting for seals
to rise for air. Many bears, such
as the American black bear and
grizzly, catch fish in the shallows.
They hook prey with their claws
or grab fish with their jaws.
Cats are superb stalkers. They
crouch low and creep slowly,
pause stock-still for minutes if
necessary, and then explode
into a charge or leap. The chee-
tah is one of the few cats that
chases its prey. With its long,
Left: The cheetah 5 sinuous, lithe
body is suitable for a high-speed
chase rather than an ambush.
flexible spine, it can sprint over
60 miles per hour, although it
lacks the stamina for a lengthy
chase. To kill prey, the cheetah
bites it on the throat and holds
on until it suffocates. Specially
adapted nasal passages let the
cat breathe while biting.
Members of the weasel family,
such as otters and mink, can be
ferocious. The weasel, the small-
est in the family, can kill a hare
10 times its weight. It mesmer-
izes birds by doing spins and
somersaults, then lunges into
the air to sei ze a victim.
Right: Camouflaged and warmed
by its coat, the polar bear waits for
seals to surface.
~ TEAMWORK ON THE HUNT
The gray wolf hunts in packs. In
forests where deer are the main
food, up to eight wolves hunt
together over a territory of 40
square miles. In the Asian and
North American tundra, gray
wolves hunt for caribou in packs
of up to 20 animals, roaming up
to 400 square miles.
A hunting pack, often in sin-
gle file, travels through its terri-
tory until it flushes out a lone
quarry or encounters a grazing
herd. The wolves usually corner
single animals. With a herd of
large prey such as musk oxen or
caribou, they harass the group
until panic disrupts its defensive
formation. The wolves then iso-
late a vulnerable animal, such as
an old adult or a calf.
The African wild dog is an ex-
pert in hunting cooperatively.
Packs of 6 to 30 dogs cover up
Left: In a team effort, some lions
hide downwind, while others herd
prey into the ambush.
to 30 miles per day, searching
for prey. The dominant breed-
ing pair leads the hunt, usually
at dawn or dusk. After selecting
a victim, such as a gazelle, and
separating it from the herd, the
wild dogs wear it down by their
speed and stamina. They can
keep up the chase for 3 miles at
a speed of almost 40 miles per
hour. The wild dogs attack the
tired animal from both ends,
bringing it to the ground and
quickly disemboweling it.
Lions hunt as a team. When
they move in on a herd of prey,
they may spread out in a line to
intercept strays. Often the males
roar, so the herd panics, splitting
and fleeing in all directions.
Chimpanzees may also work
in teams to capture a monkey.
They chase their prey through
the branches and force it to take
risks until it is cornered or falls to
the ground, where other chim-
panzees trap it.
Marsupials range from tiny shrewlike animals to kangaroos. Barely
developed at birth, the young live on their mother's milk for up to a
year and a half and are often protected in a special pouch.
KEY FACTS
AMERICAN MARSUPIALS
1
0 large marsupials remain in
the Americas. The surviving spe-
cies are mainly in the opossum
family. Most are good climbers,
with well-developed digits and
a thumblike big toe. They usual-
ly have prehensile tails, which
they curl around branches when
climbing. Some, such as the Pat-
agonian opossum and several
mouse opossums, can store fat
in their tails if food is scarce.
The Virginia opossum of Cen-
tral and North America eats any-
I thing from fruit to city garbage.
The largest American opossum,
it can be over three feet long. In
contrast, the Formosan mouse
opossum of Argentina measures
about five inches.
The water opossum, the only
truly aquatic marsupial, uses its
webbed hind feet to swim. The
entrance of the female's pouch
closes to keep water out when
SMALL MARSUPIALS OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA
The most numerous marsupials
in Australia and New Guinea are
probably the dasyures, a family
of primarily small flesh eaters. A
number of them resemble mice
or shrews, with pointed snouts
for digging up insects and small
but sharp teeth.
The fierce, carrion-eating Tas-
man ian devil is the biggest das-
yure. The spotted-tailed native
cat is almost as large. It prefers
live prey such as wallabies and
some reptiles.
Bandicoots, phalangers, and
gliders also live in this area. Ban-
dicoots have thickset bodies and
dig up worms and grubs with
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
Left: The lutrine
water opossum
nests in reeds at
the riverside. It
is a strong swim-
mer, lashing its
tail like a whip
from side to side
and paddling
with its hind
feet.
she submerges to find fish, crus-
taceans, and frogs.
Shrew or rat opossums live in
the Andes. Usually less than 31
inches long, they are most active
at night, foraging on the ground
for insects or small vertebrates.
their three-toed forefeet. The
brindled bandicoot may have
the shortest gestation of any
mammal ( 1 2 ~ days).
Phalangers have big eyes and
gripping tails. Most are night-
active tree dwellers. New Guin-
ea's cuscuses possess tiny ears
and dense fur. Brush-tailed pos-
sums in Australia and New Zea-
land have larger ears.
The sugar glider and its rela-
tives live in forests and eat fruit,
leaves, gums, pollen, sap, and
nectar. Using skin membranes
between their limbs, they glide
from tree to tree.
The marsupial mole has a cy-
lindrical body, blunt snout, short
but strong legs, and sleek, pale
brown fur. It uses its sturdy claws
to burrow and eats insect larvae.
Left: A tough plate on the marsupi-
al mole's nose protects it as it digs.
0160200981 PACKET 98
Marsupials are found mainly in Australia, New Guinea,
and the Americas. They include grazing species, such as
kangaroos; fruit and nectar eaters, like woolly opossums;
and flesh eaters, such as the spotted-tail native cat and
Tasmanian devil. Marsupials are adapted to a variety of
different environments, with opossums climbing in trees
and the marsupial mole burrowing in the ground.
~ O R I G I N S
Some 100 million years ago, the
marsupial and placental mam-
mals diverged. Placentals devel-
oped a system of nurturing their
young inside the female's body,
while marsupials gave birth to
embryonic offspring and then
nursed them outside of the fe-
male's body, usually in a pouch.
The oldest fossils of marsupials
come from 75-million-year-old
rocks in North America. Those
animals spread into what is now
South America. Then the land-
masses separated. Marsupials in
North America, unable to com-
Front cover: The koala is a peace-
able tree dweller.
Front inset left: The sugar glider
"flies" between trees.
Front inset right: Most newborn
marsupials suckle for some time in
their mother's pouch.
pete with placenta Is, died out.
Isolated from placentals, mar-
supials in South America evolved
freely for 60 million years. Two
to five million years ago, a land
bridge reunited the two Ameri-
cas. Placental mammals moved
south, and the big marsupials
became extinct. Smaller marsu-
pials survived, and some even
went north. Today the Virginia
opossum is the most common
North American marsupial.
The earliest marsupials in Aus-
tralia date back some 32 million
years. They probably reached
there via Antarctica, which con-
nected Australia to the Americas.
In time Australia split away and
drifted north, remaining isolated
from other landmasses. Its mar-
supials evolved without compe-
tition into a range of creatures.
Numbat: Lives in the wood-
lands of southwestern Aus-
tralia. It employs its claws to
dig out termite colonies, ex-
tract ing the insects with its
tongue. Since the female
lacks a pouch, she keeps
her litter in a burrow.
~ THE LARGE MARSUPIALS
The best-known Australian mar-
supials are the koala, wombats,
kangaroos, and wallabies. The
koala and wombats have some
similarities, but the koala lives
only in trees, while wombats
live in burrows. The koala finds
all its food in the trees, eating
the leaves of about 20 species
of eucalyptus. The female bears
one offspring every two years. It
lives in her pouch for 7 months
and then travels on her back, fi-
nally leaving her at 11 months.
Wombats are squat and pow-
erful, using their long claws to
dig burrows as long as 100 feet.
They rest underground to avoid
the daytime heat and emerge
to feed on grasses after dark.
Kangaroos and wallabies are,
respectively, big and small mem-
bers of the .same family. While
they are related to kangaroos,
rat kangaroos are much smaller
and belong to a separate family.
Some prehistoric kangaroos
were huge-1 0 feet high. The
largest marsupial today is the
red, or plains, kangaroo. Some
males are over 5 feet tall and
weigh about 200 pounds. The
red kangaroo is widespread in
Australia's dry flatlands. Prefer-
ring to travel in groups, it can
leap 5 feet with a slow hop and
over 13 feet in a hurry. Males
can move 40 miles per hour.
Other kangaroos include gray
kangaroos, which inhabit forest
~ BREEDING
Marsupials get their name from
the Latin marsupium, meaning
"pouch." Most have some sort
of pouch in which their young
develop. In some, such as a kan-
garoo, it opens forward. In oth-
ers, such as the koala, it opens
to the rear.
Compared to placental mam-
mals, marsupials have a very
Western gray kangaroo: One of the
largest marsupials. After leaving the
pouch, the joey (young) returns for
milk, suckling at a "personal " teat that
yields the correct milk composition.
Tasmanian devil:
Weighs up to 18
pounds and reaches
three feet in length.
and scrubland. They sleep in the
shade during the day and come
out at dusk to graze.
The whiptail wallaby lives on
grassy hillsides, where it grazes
in groups of about 50 animals.
The swamp wallaby is at home
in marshy country on the east-
ern coast, while the brush-tailed
rock wallaby hops among rocks
and cliffs in the mountains of
New South Wales, employing
its long, slender tail for balance.
One of the smallest true kan-
garoos is the quokka. About the
size of a hare, it has a squat body
with short ears. It inhabits the
swamps and thickets of Austra-
lia's southwest coast and one or
two small islands.
short gestation. Opossums are
born in only 12 to 14 days, pha-
langers in 16 to 17 days, koalas
in 34 to 36 days, and kangaroos
in 36 days at most.
The newborn is hairless, blind,
and embryolike with only crude
limbs. As it makes its way to the
pouch, it sometimes follows a
track of fur licked down by its
mother. After it is inside, it sucks
on a nipple that swells to fill its
mouth and remains securely at-
tached for several months. The
pouch protects the offspring, so
It eats mainly dead
flesh, using its pow-
erful jaws and large
teeth to rip carcasses
apart and crunch up
bones. It has been
known to steal poul-
try and lambs from
farms.
Mouse opossum: The 47 species vary
greatly in their diets, climbing abilities,
and habitats. The young cling to their
mother, since she lacks a pouch.
it can reach a well-developed
stage before facing the dangers
of the outside world.
In some kangaroo species, the
mother mates shortly after giv-
ing birth. But the fertilized egg
remains in her body and only
develops after the first offspring
has left her pouch. The young
kangaroo goes out for brief peri-
ods at first, leaving the pouch
for good at 5 to 11 months old.
It may stay with its mother for
another 2 to 6 months, suckling
from outside the pouch.