Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ESSAY: ARGUMENTATIVE
An argumentative essay is a selection of writing designed to defend a position or thesis.
The purpose of the argumentative essay is to convince the reader through reason, logic and illustration that a
stated position, view, theory or premise is true or false. Structurally the argumentative essay follows the thesis,
point development, conclusion pattern of the formal essay. The audience must be clearly understood by the writer
as he develops arguments, anticipates rebuttals, defends conclusions which that audience is likely to present or
need in order to be convinced. Thought may be either inductive (moving from the specific to the general) or
deductive (moving from a generalization to specific application). The language will be precise, organized,
denotative. Where effective, exposition will provide the needed explanation or analysis in order to make a point.
While persuasion appeals to emotion and personal involvement, the tone of argumentation is factual, removed,
precise, logical. The impact of an argumentative essay is to convince logically and rationally that a viewpoint is
true or false, right or wrong.
ESSAY: DESCRIPTIVE
The descriptive essay focuses on the use of a descriptive style develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the descriptive essay is to use description to support ideas about a subject. The audience is
determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay
(introduction, development, conclusion) with those of descriptive writing. The language is built around a
descriptive style which uses vivid language, figurative devices, emotive vocabulary, sensory imagery to appeal to
the audience. The description is not limited to people, places or things, but may make clear abstract thought,
establish the power of a feeling. The development of ideas on a topic remains the dominant throat of this writing,
and the descriptive style is the dominant technique used. The voice of the writer will show sensitivity and creative
appreciation of the manner in which description will enhance the development of the chosen topic. The voice may
be objective or impressionistic communicating the observer’s feelings. In the descriptive essay the tone will be
strongly individualistic as the personality of the writer is brought to bear on the chosen topic. The impact of the
descriptive essay is its appeal to the reader’s senses and feelings.
ESSAY: NARRATIVE
The informal narrative essay focuses on the use of a narrative style to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the narrative essay is to communicate a significant experience in order to enlighten and perhaps
persuade the reader. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay
blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of a narrative. It has
elements of story, but its thrust is to relate an idea or thesis, explicitly or implicitly, as opposed to developing
character or plot in a pure narrative. A strong sense of sequencing is retained to establish a point in time, and the
consequences of that experience. Chronology may be altered for dramatic or emotional impact. The language
may be formal to informal and even colloquial. It is strongly expressive, using striking images, vivid storytelling.
The voice of the writer is strongly individualistic as it uses those narrative activities to present his/her audience
with thoughts about a chosen topic. The impact is determined by how effectively the narration elucidates the
chosen thesis for the reader.
ESSAY: PERSUASIVE
A persuasive essay is a selection of writing designed to change the reader's mind.
The purpose of the persuasive essay is to convince the reader through a strong voice, the writer's conviction, vivid
example and illustration to support the stated position taken by the writer. Structurally the persuasive essay
respects the organization of the formal essay with greater freedom being taken in the use of supporting material
and the impact of voice. The audience will shape the voice and tone of the writer, as it is the writer's intent to
influence that group of readers. The voice of the writer is intentionally slanted, but must retain its credibility or
integrity by avoiding generalization, fallacious reasoning, exaggeration. The language of a persuasive essay
appeals to emotion more than to reason. Because of the predominance of the writer's voice, persuasion may be
more emotional, the language more informal and even colloquial. The tone is fundamentally one of appealing to
the reader to accept a thesis. The impact of a persuasive essay is to change or to confirm the reader's thinking
about an issue or subject with a strong appeal to the emotions, by using examples and illustration, and by citing
experience.
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
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Definition Refuting opposing arguments
Organization Language
Supporting our ideas Sample argumentative essay
Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with
the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should
clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of
them do not want to change.
Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that
• it should be narrowed down
X Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some
medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to
use it in case of suffering from too much pain)
√ Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.
• it should contain an argument
X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support
having bicycles or cars?)
√ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead
of a car.
X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an
argument)
√ Cheating helps students learn.
X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts
cannot be arguments)
√ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.
• it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source
citations, etc.)
X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (feelings cannot be
supported; we cannot persuade other people)
If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively,
you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:
Cheating is beneficial for students.
Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers.
Stress is good for the human body.
Polygamy is quite natural.
For women, there is no need for men.
Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is
imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them for
supporting and refuting.
Pattern 1:
Thesis statement:
PRO idea 1
PRO idea 2
CON(s) + Refutation(s)
Conclusion
Pattern 2:
Thesis statement:
CON(s) + Refutation(s)
PRO idea 1
PRO idea 2
Conclusion
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
Pattern 3:
Thesis statement:
Conclusion
The sample essay has been written according to the third pattern.
Thesis: Do Reiki instead of taking medicine.
Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking
some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts,
statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty
supports we should avoid:
Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because …
e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they
are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant
/insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.)
√ Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they
are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world.
However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some
countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and
psychologically mature at that age.
Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to
follow our arguments easily.
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
• completely disagree:
After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.
Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could
be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to
buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to
our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing is at our fingertips:
we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.
Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and
scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai
Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is
medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain
for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they
provide. However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches,
insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an
Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of
these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep
without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How
about a safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need
anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history, it was discovered in Japan
in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread particularly throughout America and Western
Europe. In quantum physics, energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the
universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective
way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained.
Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and
cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of
their lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is
very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of
chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is
common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also
cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and
their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs which are
expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life,
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
find an emotional balance, leave the stress of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries.
Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor
diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections as
well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-
being, we should definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.
Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even
“lacking time” that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would
it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even
find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15
minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully
simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is
less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some
complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.
Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What
is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere,
anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last
a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!
Retrieved from:
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUMENTATIVE%20ESSAY.htm
Essay Structure
Writing an academic essay means fashioning a coherent set of ideas into an argument. Because essays
are essentially linear—they offer one idea at a time—they must present their ideas in the order that makes most
sense to a reader. Successfully structuring an essay means attending to a reader's logic.
The focus of such an essay predicts its structure. It dictates the information readers need to know and the
order in which they need to receive it. Thus your essay's structure is necessarily unique to the main claim you're
making. Although there are guidelines for constructing certain classic essay types (e.g., comparative analysis),
there are no set formulas.
Answering Questions: The Parts of an Essay
A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections.
Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-
arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument,
for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the
ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or
criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and
the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.
It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might
ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely
simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim).
"What?" The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the
phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus
demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often
directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might
have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third
(often much less) of your finished essay. If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or
description.
"How?" A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The
corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How
does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the
claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since
you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in
mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-
argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
"Why?" Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It
allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its
own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly
belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse,
as pointless or insular.
Mapping an Essay
Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a
reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds.
The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a
preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in
understanding your idea.
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument,
close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with
paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect
your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that
claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're
anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.
Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know
is..." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence
you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you
may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)
Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is..." Once
again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what,
how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are
flexible; they evolve with your ideas.
Signs of Trouble
A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or
"description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such
essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that
lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough
they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need
work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words:
first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition,
the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil"). Copyright 2000,
Elizabeth Abrams, for the Writing Center at Harvard University.
toward establishing its validity. A given assignment may not tell you that you need to come up with a thesis and
defend it, but these are the unspoken requirements of any scholarly paper.
Deciding upon a thesis can generate considerable anxiety. Students may think, "How can I have a new
idea about a subject scholars have spent their whole lives exploring? I just read a few books in the last few days,
and now I'm supposed to be an expert?" But you can be original on different scales. We can't possibly know
everything that has been, or is being, thought or written by everyone in the world—even given the vastness and
speed of the Internet. What is required is a rigorous, good faith effort to establish originality, given the demands of
the assignment and the discipline. It is a good exercise throughout the writing process to stop periodically and
reformulate your thesis as succinctly as possible so someone in another field could understand its meaning as
well as its importance. A thesis can be relatively complex, but you should be able to distill its essence. This does
not mean you have to give the game away right from the start. Guided by a clear understanding of the point you
wish to argue, you can spark your reader's curiosity by first asking questions—the very questions that may have
guided you in your research—and carefully building a case for the validity of your idea. Or you can start with a
provocative observation, inviting your audience to follow your own path of discovery.
The Tension of Argument
Argument implies tension but not combative fireworks. This tension comes from the fundamental
asymmetry between the one who wishes to persuade and those who must be persuaded. The common ground
they share is reason. Your objective is to make a case so that any reasonable person would be convinced of the
reasonableness of your thesis. The first task, even before you start to write, is gathering and ordering evidence,
classifying it by kind and strength. You might decide to move from the smallest piece of evidence to the most
impressive. Or you might start with the most convincing, then mention other supporting details afterward. You
could hold back a surprising piece of evidence until the very end.
In any case, it is important to review evidence that could be used against your idea and generate
responses to anticipated objections. This is the crucial concept of counter-argument. If nothing can be said
against an idea, it is probably obvious or vacuous. (And if too much can be said against it, it's time for another
thesis.) By not indicating an awareness of possible objections, you might seem to be hiding something, and your
argument will be weaker as a consequence. You should also become familiar with the various fallacies that can
undermine an argument—the "straw man" fallacy, fallacies of causation and of analogy, etc.—and strive to avoid
them.
The Structure of Argument
The heart of the academic essay is persuasion, and the structure of your argument plays a vital role in
this. To persuade, you must set the stage, provide a context, and decide how to reveal your evidence. Of course,
if you are addressing a community of specialists, some aspects of a shared context can be taken for granted. But
clarity is always a virtue. The essay's objective should be described swiftly, by posing a question that will lead to
your thesis, or making a thesis statement. There is considerable flexibility about when and where this happens,
but within the first page or two, we should know where we are going, even if some welcome suspense is
preserved. In the body of the paper, merely listing evidence without any discernible logic of presentation is a
common mistake. What might suffice in conversation is too informal for an essay. If the point being made is lost in
a welter of specifics, the argument falters.
The most common argumentative structure in English prose is deductive: starting off with a generalization
or assertion, and then providing support for it. This pattern can be used to order a paragraph as well as an entire
essay. Another possible structure is inductive: facts, instances or observations can be reviewed, and the
conclusion to be drawn from them follows. There is no blueprint for a successful essay; the best ones show us a
focused mind making sense of some manageable aspect of the world, a mind where insightfulness, reason, and
clarity are joined.
Copyright 1998, Kathy Duffin, for the Writing Center at Harvard University
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
Essay Structure
Introduction
This module introduces you to the process of essay writing - from analysing the question through to the final
redrafting and editing. This diagram summarises the process. Click on each of the stages to find out more. Don't
forget that the first place to start is at the essay question itself.
The Question
Information Gathering
Writing
You should have allocated a large amount of time for this part
of the process and it should occur well before the due date.
people suffer some form of communication apprehension (CA). The focus of this paper is on communication
apprehension as a construct and on how it affects the behaviour and lifestyle of an individual.
Although constructs such as CA, communication reticence, and unwillingness-to-communicate have often
been treated in literature as interchangeable, (McCroskey, 1982) particularly in earlier work, some researchers
have found the need to distinguish between them. Reticence was originally thought of in relation to CA,
particularly in connection with stage fright, and anxiety was identified as the causative agent that produced the
characteristic behavior patterns. (McCroskey, 1977b; McCroskey, 1982). However during the 1970’s the
constructs of reticence and CA evolved and changed to become quite disparate. According to McCroskey (1982)
the contemporary view is that reticent people are those who do not communicate competently. Phillips (1984)
further states that reticent people “avoid communication because they believe they will lose more by talking than
remaining silent” (p.52). So while the construct of reticence was initially the same as CA, reticence is now
perceived as a concept that represents a broad range of communicative incompetence while CA relates to
communicative incompetence that stems from anxiety or fear. (McCroskey, 1982).
The unwillingness-to-communicate construct, which was introduced by Burgoon (1976, as cited in
McCroskey, 1982) focuses on the individual's unwillingness to communicate with others. This construct was an
attempt to look beyond the concepts of CA and reticence (as it was perceived at the time) and along with fear and
anxiety, considers low self-esteem, introversion, anomia1 and alienation. “Thus this construct can be viewed as
intermediary between CA and the contemporary view of reticence. More simply, reticence is concerned with
people who do not communicate effectively; unwillingness-to-communicate is concerned with one of the reasons
that people may not do so (i.e., they do not want to); and, [although it is highly associated with ineffective
communication], CA is concerned with one of the reasons that people may be unwilling-to-communicate”.
(McCroskey, 1982, p.4).
1
Anomia refers to difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute.
(Carlson, 1994)
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
attention. (McCroskey, 1984) When individuals are ignored or stared at the level of CA often rises. The level of
CA also often rises where a prior history of failure increases the likelihood of failure again. (McCroskey, 1984).
Clearly, some of these causal elements stem from reticence due to inexperience and/or communicative
incompetence within certain contexts, while others are the result of learning or conformity to social norms and
expectations.
Culture
While communication exists in all cultures and subcultures communication norms and expectations may
be vastly diverse as a function of culture. For instance, in the United States and many other western nations oral
communication is highly valued with positive social evaluation while silence is often perceived as representing
high CA. In other cultures, however, silence may be an integral part of the communication process. In Apache
culture, for example, strangers who come together in an environment such as work may remain silent for several
days and young Apache women are explicitly taught that silence is a sign of modesty (Devito, 1985). In Papua
New Guinea individuals learn to remain silent in the presence of an elder as a sign of respect (Francis, 1992).
They believe that overriding the talk of an elder may endanger key relationships and networks within the whole
group. Thus, one’s communication norms and competencies are culture-bound. Unfortunately, the majority of the
studies in communication have been carried out in the United States and have rarely made allowance for the
differences in communication styles between cultures. “Consequently remaining silent is considered a problem
and silent cultures are interpreted as representing a high prevalence of communication apprehension.”
(McCroskey & Sallinen-Kuparinen, 1991, p.56).
However, CA may still play a part when different cultural groups come together. When individuals find
themselves in situations where their culture or sub-culture is in the minority they are said to be ‘culturally
divergent’ (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990). To be effective communicators in another culture the onus is generally
on the culturally divergent individual to adjust to the communicative norms of the dominant group. Culturally
divergent individuals may be likened to people who have deficit communication skills. Because they do not have
effective communication skills, they tend to be much less willing to communicate at all for fear of failure and
possible negative consequences. This may be particularly so when speaking a second language. For example,
one study found that 43 % of Puerto Rican students experienced CA when speaking their second language,
English, compared to only 11% when they were speaking their native language, Spanish (McCroskey, Gudykunst
& Nishida, 1985). Therefore, the difference between the culturally divergent person and the skill-deficit one is that
a culturally divergent individual may have excellent communication skills in their own culture and within the
confines of their own culture CA may not be a problem (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990; McCroskey & Richmond,
1987).
The conclusion that we can draw from the research and studies that have been conducted so far is that
communication is an ongoing process that involves constant changes within the people involved and their
environment. When communicating with others, individuals are influenced and affected by many variables and CA
may be the result of any number of different causes. The degree of CA that an individual experiences can vary
depending on their personality and the context of situation. Nonetheless, the notion that high levels of CA
negatively affects an individual’s success both academically and socially appears to be supported by the
research.
Written Language III- Ana Laura Bozzani
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