2.

DC Motor Control
2.2.2.3 In separately excited DC motor (RLE) load
The basic circuit for a single phase full converter fed separately excited dc motor
is shown in figure 2.30.The armature voltage of the motor is controlled by a single phase
full converter and the field circuit is fed from the ac supply through a diode bridge
rectifier. For conducting the field control the uncontrolled rectifier is replaced by
controlled rectifier depends on the field ratings. The motor current cannot reverse due to
the thyrsitors in the converters.
Figure 2.30 Basic circuit for full converter fed separately excited motor.
The single phase full converters drives are used for low and medium horsepower
applications. Such drives have poor speed regulation on open loop firing angle control.
However, with armature voltage or speed feedback, good regulation can be achieved.
From the previous chapter, we know that the average speed

Ke
IaRa V
Ke
E
m


(2.7)
So the speed of the motor can vary, either by varying the terminal voltage or
armature current or the file current. The figure 2.30 shows the speed control of separately
excited motor by varying the voltage.
Figure 2.31 Single phase controlled rectifier fed separately excited motor
The figure 2.31 shows a single phase fully controlled rectifier supplying a dc
separately excited motor. The armature circuit of the motor is replaced by the armature
resistance Ra, armature inductance La and the back emf Eg
As discussed earlier, for positive half cycle at angle

, the thyristors T1, T2

receives firing pulses. At the instant (

), the thyristors T3 and T4 receives the

power. The positive and the negative half cycle current flow path as like shown in figure
2.27 and 2.28 respectively. Due to the inductance value, there is a small change in the
time intervals 0to

and

to (

) in wave forms as discussed earlier, the output

may be continuous and discontinuous. Next section we deeply study about the modes of
operation.
2.2.2.4 Modes of operation
The single phase full converter with motor load has two modes of operation. They
are
1. Motoring mode
(a) Discontinuous conduction mode
(b) Continuous conduction mode
2. Regenerative braking mode
a) Discontinuous conduction mode
b) Continuous conduction mode
1. Motoring mode
The condition for making the full converter with RLE load as motoring mode is firing
angle should be less than 90 degree. So the net armature terminal voltage or full converter
output voltage is positive and relatively high compare to the back emf Eg. So the current
flowing through the armature is
Ra
Eg Va
Ia

= Positive (2.8)
Figure 2.32 Equivalent circuit of motoring mode
So the machine is rotate in the forward direction as shown in figure 2.32. This
mode is called motoring mode. The wave forms are shown in figure 2.33.
In motoring mode the following points are useful to know the operation.
1. In the motoring mode, the armature current flows through the source, and either
through the thyristors T1,T2 or through the pair T3,T4.When the pairs T1,T2
and T3,T4 conduct, the output voltage of the converter Va is Vs(Supply
voltage).When none of the thyristor pair conducts Ia = 0 and Va = E.
2. When Ia>0 at the instant of firing a thyristor pair, then the biasing of thyristor
pairs will be decided by the source voltage only. If the source voltage provides a
positive bias, thyristors will turn on even when the source voltage is less than E.
Since the property of thyristor to remains it in on state is, the anode current
above the latching current.
3. When Ia is zero at the instant of firing a thyristor pair, then the biasing on
thyristor pairs will be decided by the difference of the source voltage and the
back emf. That means (Vs-Eg) and Vs>Eg.
(a)Discontinuous conduction mode in motoring
In discontinuous conduction mode, current starts flowing with turn on of
thyristors T1 and T2 at the firing angle

.Motor gets connected to the source and its

terminal voltage equal Vs. After the instant

, the armature current falls to zero at

,
before to reach the instant of next thyristor pair(T3,T4) triggered (

).So due to the

absence of current, T1 and T2 turn-off. From the instant

, the motor terminal voltage is

now equal to its back emf Eg. When thyristors T3 and T4 are fired at (

), next
cycle of the motor terminal voltage Va starts. The output voltage and the current wave
forms are shown in the figure 2.33.
Figure 2.33.Discontinuous conduction mode (motoring mode)
Let us take the motor terminal voltage Va, in discontinuous mode the drive
operates in two intervals such as duty interval and zero interval.
In the duty intervals are the intervals in which the mote is connected in the source
and the terminal voltage Va = Vs (Supply voltage).The interval is
t
.In this
interval, by using the basis of electric circuits, we can write the voltage equation as
t VmSin E
dt
dIa
La RaIa Va + + , for
t
(2.9)
In the zero intervals, there is no current flow in the load. So that the armature
current Ia = 0.
Therefore,
Eg Va
, and Ia=0, for
+ t
(2.10)
The equation (2.9) can be write as
La
Eg t VmSin
Ia
La
Ra
dt
dIa
+

Complimentary function (C.F)
0
,
_

+ Ia
La
Ra
D
The auxiliary equation of the above is
La
Ra
m
La
Ra
m

+ 0
The auxiliary equation consists of only one real root
Therefore the complimentary function C.F =
,
_

t
La
Ra
A exp
Particular Integral P.I =
( )
La
Ra
D
La
Eg t VmSin
+

=
( )

,
_

,
_

+
La
Ra
D La
Eg
La
Ra
D
La
Vm
= P.I1+P.I2
P.I1=
La
Ra
D
t Sin
La
Vm
+

,
_

,
_

,
_

2
2
La
Ra
D
t Sin
La
Ra
D
La
Vm

=

,
_

,
_

+
1
]
1

2
2
La
Ra
t Sin
La
Ra
t Cos
La
Vm

=
[ ]
( )

1
]
1

t Sin
Z
Vm
Sin t Cos Cos t Sin
Z
Vm
t Cos
Z
La
t Sin
Z
Ra
Z
Vm
P.I2 =

Ra
Eg
La
Ra
La
Eg
La
Ra
D La
e Eg
t

,
_

0

The Solution of this equation is =C.F +P.I
Ra
Eg
t Sin
Z
Vm
t Ia _ ) ( ) ( + t
La
Ra
Ae

.(2.11)

Ra
Eg
t Sin
Z
Vm
t Ia _ ) ( ) ( + ( ) tCot A exp for
t
. (2.12)
In the above solution consists of two components. One is due tot h ac
source ) ( t Sin
Z
Vm
, and other due to back emf
Ra
Eg
.
Where, Z=
2 2
) ( La Ra +

,
_

Ra
La

1
tan
Ra
La
a is the armature circuit time constant.
Between the intervals
t
, the initial current
0 ) ( Ia
, so at
0 ) ( , t Ia t
, Substitute those values in equation 2.12.The equation 2.12 yields
( ) ( ) Cot
Ra
Eg
Sin
Z
Vm
A exp
1
]
1

(2.13)
Substitute the value of 2.13 in equation 2.12
( ) [ ] [ ]


Cot t Cot t
e
Ra
E
e Sin t Sin
Z
Vm
t Ia
) ( ) (
1 ) ( ) (

, for
t
.. (2.14)
Between the same interval final time
t
,
0 ) ( t Ia
, Substitute those values in
equation 2.14,We get
0 ) ( ) (
) (

1
]
1

+


Cot
e Sin
Z
Vm
Ra
Eg
Ra
Eg
Sin
Z
Vm
(2.15)
From the equation 2.15, we can evaluate the value of

by using numerical
methods.
Since the voltage drop across the armature inductance due to dc component of
armature current is zero
Therefore Va= Eg + IaRa(2.16)
Where Va and Ia are respectively dc components of armature voltage and current
respectively.
From the waveforms 2.33, the armature voltage or output voltage of the full
converter is
1
1
]
1

+

+

) ( ) (
2
2
t Ed t td VmSin Va
( )

Eg Cos Cos Vm + +

) (
.. (2.17)
Armature current consists of dc component Ia and harmonics. When flux constant,
only dc components produces steady torque. Harmonics produce alternating torque
components and the average value of torque is zero.
Compare equations 2.16 and 2.17 we get,
Eg + IaRa
( )

Eg Cos Cos Vm + +

) (
(2.18)
For constant flux,
Back emf Eg=K
m
. (2.19)
Torque T=KIa.. (2.20)
Substitute the values of Eg and Ia from equation 2.19 and 2.20 respectively in
equation 2.18, Therefore equation 2.18 becomes
T
K
Ra
K
Cos Cos Vm
m
) ( ) (
) (
2

(2.21)
From the figure 2.33, we have seen that
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction is reached when
+
.Substitute the value in equation 2.21.So the speed at which the angle
+
is called critical speed
mc
.
Substitute the value in equation 2.15,we get
( ) 0 ) ( (
) (

1
]
1

1
]
1

+
+

Cot
e
Ra
Eg
Sin
Z
Vm
Ra
Eg
Sin
Vm
Therefore Eg=
1
]
1

1
1
) (



Cot
Cot
e
e
Sin Vm
Z
Ra
Ie) K
mc
1
]
1

1
1
) (



Cot
Cot
e
e
Sin Vm
Z
Ra
Therefore the critical speed
mc
K
1
1
]
1

1
1
) (



Cot
Cot
e
e
Sin Vm
Z
Ra
.. (2.22)
(b)Continuous conduction mode in motoring
In continuous conduction mode, positive current flows through the motor and
Thyristor pairs T3 and T4 are in conduction just before

.At the instant

gate pulses
given to the thyristor pairs T1 and T2.Conduction of T1 and T2 reverse biases the
thyristors T3 and T4and turns off them. So the continuous armature current Ia is flowing
to the motor. But it is not perfect dc, the motor torque fluctuates. The waveforms are
shown in below.
Figure 2.34 Motoring mode of full converter

<90 (Continuous conduction)

From the figure 2.34, the average output voltage of the full converter or the
terminal voltage of the motor is

t d t Sin Vm Va
2
2
=

Cos
Vm 2
.... (2.23)
Compare equation 2.16 and 2.23 we get,
Eg + IaRa =

Cos
Vm 2
(2.24)
Substitute the values of Eg and Ia from equation 2.19 and 2.20 respectively in
equation 2.24, Therefore equation 2.24 becomes
T
K
Ra
Cos
K
Vm
m
2
2

..(2.25)
Figure 2.35 Speed verses torque characteristics
Speed torque curves for the drive are shown in figure 2.35.When both pairs of
thyristor fail to fire, the armature current will be zero. The no load operation is obtained
when armature current Ia=0This will happen when the back emf greater than the supply
voltage through out the period for which firing pulses are present. Therefore, when firing
angle less than 90 degree, the back emf should be greater or equal to Vm and when firing
angle greater than 90 degree, back emf should be greater or equal to Vm t Sin
.Therefore, no load speeds are given by
K
Vm
mo , for
2
0


K
VmSin
mo

, for

2
When firing angle 0 , Equation 2.23 gives the maximum average terminal
voltage as

Vm 2
.This is the rated motor voltage. The ideal no load speed of the motor
when fed by a perfect direct voltage of rated value will be
K
Vm

2
.The boundary between
the continuous and discontinuous conduction is shown in figure 2.35.So if 90 degree
the output voltage is zero.
The drive operates in quadrant I or forward motoring and reverses regenerative
braking or quadrant IV. In the equation 2.25.When firing angle less than 90 degree, the
power is fed from source to load. That means rectifying mode. So the speed is positive.
The polarities are shown in figure 2.32.
2. Regenerative braking mode
The condition for making the full converter with RLE load as regenerative braking
mode is firing angle should be greater than 90 degree. So the net armature terminal
voltage or full converter output voltage is negative and the magnitude of back emf is
greater than magnitude of full converter output.. So the current flowing through the
armature is negative. This operation is called inversion. So the power is fed from dc to ac
source.
Ra
Eg Va
Ia

= Negative (2.26)
Figure2.36. Equivalent circuit of regenerative braking mode
So the machine is rotate in the reverse direction as shown in figure 2.36. This
mode is called regenerative braking mode. The wave forms are shown in figure 2.37.In
regenerative braking the armature current should be reversed. But it is not possible in the
full converter, because the controlling element in which the converter is used as a
unidirectional device. So by changing the polarity of the back emf we can make
regenerative braking without change in the direction of armature current. The reversal of
the motor emf with respect to rectifier terminal can be done by any of the following
changes.
1. An active load coupled to a motor shaft may drive it in the reverse direction.
This gives reverse regeneration. In this case no changes are required in the
armature connection with respect to the rectifier terminals.
2. The field current may be reversed, with the motor running in the forward
direction. This gives forward regeneration. In this case also no changes are
required in the armature connection.
3. The motor armature connection may be reversed with respect to the rectifier
output terminals, with the motor till running in the forward direction. This will
give forward regeneration.
In regenerative braking mode the following points are useful to know the
operation.
1. The regenerative braking operation is obtained by reversing the back emf by
any of those three methods and adjusting

so that the average terminal

voltage of the converter Va is negative. Thus the modes of operation drawn
for (+Eg) are for motoring and those drawn for (Eg) are for regeneration.
2. The rate of change of the armature current is given by the following
[ ] ) (
1
IaRa Eg Va
La dt
dIa
+ .According to the equation, if the armature
resistance drop is neglected, the rate of change of he current will be positive
when Va >Eg; otherwise it will be negative.
The mathematical proof is same as the expression which we have seen already. The
wave forms for discontinuous conduction and continuous conduction are shown in figure
2.37 and 2.38 respectively.
Figure 2.37.Discontinuous conduction mode (regenerative braking mode)
Figure 2.38.Continuous conduction mode (regenerative braking mode)
The characteristics curve armature voltage Va verses the firing angle is shown in
figure 2.39
Figure 2.39 Output voltage Verses firing angle for full converter with RLE load
Example1
The speed of a 10hp, 230V, 1200rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a
single phase full converter. The rated motor armature current is 38A and the armature
resistance Ra=0.3Ohm.The ac supply voltage is 260V.The motor voltage constant
182 . 0 Ke
V/rpm. Assume that sufficient inductance is present in the armature circuit
to make the motor current continuous and ripple free.
1. Rectifier operation(Motoring action)
For a firing angle 30degree and rated motor current, calculate
a) The motor torque
b) The speed of the motor
c) The supply power factor
2. Inverter operation(regenerating action)
The polarity of the motor back emf Eb is reversed, say by reversing the
field excitation. Calculate
a) The firing angle to keep the motor current at its rated value
b) The power fed back to the supply
Solution

182 . 0 Ke
V/rpm.

2
60 182 . 0
V.Sec / radian
=1.74V.Sec/radian
(a) The motor torque T=Ke

Ia=KIa [Since flux is constant]

= m N 12 . 66 38 74 . 1
(b) Given the motor current is continuous
Therefore the armature voltage from the full converter

t d t Sin Vm Va
2
2
=

Cos
Vm 2
=

Cos
Vs 2 2
V Cos 82 . 202 30
14 . 3
260 2 2

Therefore Eg=Va-IaRa
=202.82-(38

0.3)
=191.42V
Therefore
42 . 191 m Ke
Volts
Therefore speed
182 . 0
42 . 191
m rpm [Since flux Constant]
= 1051.8rpm
We may calculate the value of speed as follows
In continuous conduction speed T
K
Ra
Cos
K
Vm
m
2
2

12 . 66
74 . 1
3 . 0
74 . 1
30 260 2 2
2

Cos
=110.01rad/Sec
= rpm 60
2
01 . 110

=1051 rpm
(c) If the motor current is constant and ripple free, the rms supply current is same as
load current
Is=Irms=Ia=38Amps
Supply volt-ampere is =VsIs
=260

38
=9880VA
If the losses are neglected the real power or power from the supply
Ps=VaIa
=202.82

38
=7707.2W
Therefore supply power factor =
Amp Supplyvolt
Ps

9880
2 . 7707

=0.78
2. At the time of regenerating action
The polarity of the motor back emf Eb is reversed,
(a) Therefore -Eg=Va- IaRa
Ie) -191.42=Va-(38

0.3)
Therefore Va= -180.02Volts
The firing angle to keep the motor current at its rated value is
Va=

Cos
Vs 2 2
= -180.02
Therefore 2 . 140
(b) Power from the dc machine Pg=EgIa=191.42

38=7273.96Watts
Power lost by the armature resistance = Ra Ia
2
=38
2

0.3=433.2Watts
Therefore,
The power fed back to the supply Ps=Generated power-Losses or (VaIa)
=7273.96-433.2=6840.76Watts
Three phase full converter fed dc drive
The most widely used dc drive control is the three phase fully controlled or six
pulse bridge rectifier fed dc separately excited drive as shown in figure 2.40. Thyristors
are fired with a phase difference of 60 degree. Each thyristor conducts for 120 degree and
only two thyristors conduct at a time one is positive group and one negative group.
Thyristors are commutated by natural commutation, in positive cross over point positive
group thyristors are commutated and in negative cross over point negative group
thyristors are commutated.
Figure2.40 Three phase fully controlled rectifier fed Dc drive
What ever may be the load, it is making continuous and discontinues conduction.
If the firing angle of the thyristors is less than 60 degree it is producing continuous
conduction. If

is greater than 60 degree, it is producing discontinuous conduction. For

our convenience, the firing angle for the thyristors are measured from cross over points.
The conducting sequence and the output voltage and current waveforms in motoring
operation are shown in figure 2.41.Figure 2.42 shows the waveforms for continuous
conduction in braking operation of three phase full converter with RLE load.
General operation
At the instant

+
6
t , Thyristor T6 is already conducting and thyristor T1 is
turn on and duration for each thyristor remains in on state is 120 degree. During the
interval (

+
6
) to (

+
2
) thyristors T1 and T6 conduct and the line to line voltage
VRY appears across the motor terminals. Since the VR voltage is positively high and the
VY voltage is negatively high.
At

+
2
t , thyristor T2 is fired and Thyristor T6 is reverse biased .So during
the interval

+
2
to

+
6
5
,thyristors T1 and T2 conduct and the line to line voltage
VRB appears across the load. Since the VR voltage is positively high and the VB voltage is
negatively high. So the conducting sequence for three phase full converter is (T1,T2),
(T2,T3),(T3,T4),(T4,T5),(T5,T6) and (T6,T1).
Figure2.41. Wave form for 3-phase full converter with R or RL or RLE load at

=30 Degree Motoring operation (Continuous conduction)

Figure2.42. Wave form for 3-phase full converter with RLE load at

=120 Degree braking operation (Continuous conduction)

During the discontinuous conduction, if there is no conduction in the circuit, the
back emf is considered in RLE load, as shown in figure 2.43.
Figure 2.43.Three phase full converter with RLE load (Discontinuous conduction)
The discontinuous conduction is not significant for control the dc motor. So
consider for continuous conduction the armature output voltage
Va=
t d t Sin Vmph

+
+
3
2
3
3
2
6
=

Cos Vmph
3 3
. (2.27)
According to the expression which studied earlier in single phase full converter
with RLE load, the speed is
Ta
K
Ra
K
Cos V
m
mph
2
3 3

(2.28)
The output voltage verses the firing angle pf the full converter is same as shown
in figure 2.39.It is also working in first and fourth quadrant.
Example 5
The speed of 125hp, 600V, 1800rpm, and separately excited dc motor is controlled by
a three phase full converter. The converter is operated from a three phase, 480 V, 60Hz
supply. The rated armature current of the motor is 165A.The motor Parameters are
Ra=0.0874 Ohm, La=6.5mH and Ka

=0.33V/rpm.The converter and ac supply are

considered to be ideal.
1. Find no-load speeds at firing angles 0 and 30 degree. Assume that at no load, the
armature current is 10% of the rated current and is continuous
2. Find the firing angle to obtain rated speed of 1800rpm at rated motor current.
Compute the supply power factor
3. Compute the speed regulation for the firing angle obtained in part2.
Solution
The output voltage of the full converter Va=

Cos Vmph
3 3
Cos
14 . 3
480 2 3
Cos 55 . 648
1. At

= 0 ,Va =648.55 Volts

Given
10
165
Ia =16.5
Therefore Eg = Va-IaRa = 648.55 ( ) 0874 . 0 5 . 16
= 646.6 Volts
At no-load, the speed 1959
33 . 0
6 . 646

K
Eg
mo rpm
At

= 30 ,Va = 648.55 30 Cos =561.2 Volts

Therefore Eg = Va-IaRa = 561.2 ( ) 0874 . 0 5 . 16
= 559.8 Volts
At no-load, the speed rpm
K
Eg
mo 1696
33 . 0
8 . 559

2. We know that, speed
K
Eg
m
But, Speed
rpm m 1800
Therefore, Eg = 594 33 . 0 1800 Volts
Motor terminal voltage at rated current is Va= Eg+IaRa
=
4 . 608 ) 0874 . 0 165 ( 594 +
Volts
Therefore, 4 . 608 648 Cos
Cos 94 . 0
648
4 . 608
1 . 20
At full load condition, the ripples in the motor current are very less. Therefore the supply
current or source current IR (Phase current) is a square wave of amplitude 165 Amps and
width 120 degree.
Therefore, rms value of the supply current is
2
1
2
3
2

,
_

,
_

Ia
IR
=
64 . 134
165
3
2 3
2
165
2
1
2

,
_

,
_

Ie) IR = 134.64 Amps

The supply volt- ampere
64 . 134
3
480
3 3

,
_

R PhI V Q

= 111,885.8 VA
Consider, there are no losses in the converter. Therefore the supply power to the
converter is same as the power input to the motor.
Hence, the supply power to the converter is

386 , 100 165 4 . 608 VaIa Ps
Watts
Therefore, the supply power factor is
9 . 0
8 . 111885
100386

Q
Ps
s Cos
3. Speed regulation
At the firing angle 1 . 20 the output voltage Va = 608.4 Volts
At full load condition motor current is 165 Amps and the speed is 1800rpm.If the load
is thrown off keeping the firing angle the same at 1 . 20 the motor current decreases
to 16.5 Amps. Therefore
Volts
IaRa Va Eg
96 . 606
) 0874 . 0 5 . 16 ( 4 . 608

At the firing angle 1 . 20 the no load speed 3 . 1839
33 . 0
96 . 606

K
Eg
mo rpm
Therefore the percentage of speed regulation is
=
) (
) (
Ratedspeed eed Fullloadsp
Ratedspeed eed Fullloadsp d Noloadspee
% 100
= % 18 . 2 % 100
1800
1800 3 . 1839

Example 6
A 220 V,1500rpm dc motor has the armature resistance and inductance of 2 Ohm
and 28.36mH,respectively.It is controlled by a three phase fully controlled rectifier from
an ac source operating at 50Hz.Calculate the ac source voltage required to get the rated
voltage across the motor terminals when operating in continuous conduction
Solution
At 0
The output voltage of the full converter Va=

Vs Vm 2 3 3 3 3

The rated voltage Va=220 Volts

94
14 . 3
2 3 3
220

Vs
Vs
Volts (Phase voltage)
Example 7
A 220V, 1500rpm, 50Amps separately excited motor with armature resistance of 0.5
Ohm, is fed from a three phase fully controlled rectifier. Available ac source has a line
voltage of 440Volts,50Hz.A stardelta connected transformer is used to feed the armature
so that motor terminal voltage equals rated voltage when converter firing angle is zero
1. Calculate transformer turns ratio?
2. Determine the value of firing angle when:
a. Motor is running at 1200rpm and rated
torque
b. When motor is running ( 800 ) rpm and
twice the rated torque.
Assume continuous conduction
Solution
Given in the transformer, primary is star connected and the secondary is delta
connected. So in the secondary side the phase and line voltages are same. But in primary
side the phase voltage is equal to
3
1
times of line voltage.
a) For three phase full converter in continuous conduction the input voltage to
the motor

Cos
V
Va
mph 3 3

For rated terminal voltage Va =220, 0 Therefore,

mph V 3 3
220
4 . 230 3 mph V Volts
Rms converter input line voltage =
9 . 162
2
4 . 230

Volts (Secondary voltage)

Therefore turns ratio =
559 . 1
9 . 162
3
440
2
1

V
V
.
b) (a) Motoring is running at 1200rpm
But the back emf at 1500rpm Eg=Va-IaRa
( ) 195 5 . 0 50 220 Eg Volts
Therefore, the back emf at 1200rpm 156 195
1500
1200
1 Eg Volts
The terminal voltage at the same speed Va1=Eg1+ IaRa
=
181 ) 5 . 0 50 ( 156 +
Volts
The output voltage of the full converter

Cos
V
Va
mph 3 3

Therefore,
mph V
Va
Cos
3 3


=
4 . 230 3
181

=0.8227 [Since Va=Va1]
65 . 34
(b) At 800 rpm the back emf Eg2= 104 195
1500
800

Volts
The terminal voltage at the same speed Va2=Eg2+ IaRa
= 54 5 . 0 100 104 + Volts
2454 . 0
4 . 230 3
54

Cos
Therefore 20 . 104
Chopper fed DC drive
Principles of chopper operation
A chopper is nothing but a thyristor on/off switch that connects load to and
disconnects it from the supply and produces a chopped or variable load voltage from a
constant input supply voltage. The chopper is represented by an SCR inside a dotted
square. If we use the SCR as a switching device in dc supply, the commutation circuit is
needed. So that, for explaining the operation of dc chopper SCR is replaced by GTO as
shown in figure 2.43.The name of this type of chopper is step-down chopper
Figure 2.43.Basic configuration of chopper (step-down chopper)
The operation of the chopper is shown in figure 2.44.During the period Ton, or
when chopper is on, the supply terminals are connected to the load terminals. During the
interval of Toff or when chopper is in off, load current flows through the free wheeling
diode D, because of the energy delivering of load inductor and the load terminals are
shorted. A chopped dc voltage is thus produced at the load terminals as shown in
figure 2.44.So the average output voltage and current are positive.
Figure 2.44.Operation of step-down chopper
From the figure 2.44, we can see that, during the Ton time there is a output
voltage
Total time T=Ton+Toff
Therefore, dc output voltage

,
_

Toff Ton
Ton
Vdc Vo

=
Vdc Vdc
T
Ton

,
_

(2.29)
Where, Duty cycle =
T
Ton
From the equation (2.29), the load voltage is controlled by the duty cycle of the
chopper. So the output voltage can be varied from one of the following ways such as
a) Time ratio control and
b) Current limit control
The time ratio-control is further classified as in to
1. Constant frequency system
2. Variable frequency system
Time ratio control
In the time ratio control, the value of or the ratio of the turn on time to the total
time
,
_

T
Ton
is varied. This is effected in two ways .The are constant frequency operation
and variable frequency operation
Constant frequency system
We know that, the chopping frequency
T
f
1

.Constant frequency scheme is

nothing but, the total time T is kept constant and one-time Ton is varied. Because of that,
remains the chopping frequency is constant. This may be called as pulse width
modulation. Figure 2.45 shows the wave forms of constant frequency scheme with less
on time and high on time.
Figure 2.45.Constatnt frequency scheme
Variable frequency system
In the variable frequency scheme, the chopping period T is varied, either by on
time is kept constant or off-time is kept constant. This may be called as frequency
modulation. Figure 2.46 illustrates the principle of frequency modulation. In that first
case is chopping period T is varied but on-time is kept constant. In the second case the
chopping period T is varied but off time is kept constant.
Figure 2.46.Variable frequency scheme
The constant frequency scheme is thus preferred scheme because of the
disadvantages of frequency modulation technique. The disadvantages such as
a) The frequency has to be varied over a wide range to provide the full output
voltage range. Filter design for variable frequency operation is difficult.
b) The possibility of interference with signaling and telephone line is greater.
c) The large off-time at low output voltage will make the current of a dc motor
load discontinuous.
Steady state analysis of time ratio control
The steady state analysis gives the motor speed-torque curves and the armature current
ripple. To analysis the system we have to take two intervals such as duty interval and free
wheeling interval.
Duty interval is nothing but the on time of the chopper. The time duration of the
interval is 0<t<Ton or 0<t< T [Since
T
Ton
]
During this interval the voltage equation becomes
Vdc E
dt
dIa
La RaIa + + ..(2.30)
Take the Laplace transform of equation (2.30)
s
Vdc
s
Eg
Ia s sIa La s RaIa + + )] 0 ( ) ( [ ) (
Let Ia(0) = Ia1
Therefore

,
_

+
+

,
_

La
Ra
s
Ia
La
Ra
s s
La
Eg Vdc
s Ia
1
) (
1
) (

,
_

+
+

,
_

,
_

+
+

La
Ra
s
Ia
La
Ra
s
B
s
A
La
Eg Vdc
s Ia
1
) (
.(2.31)
By using partial fraction method
A=
Ra
La
B
Ra
La
,
Take the inverse Laplace transform of equation (2.31)

,
_

,
_

,
_

a
t
Ia
a
t
Ra
Eg Vdc
Ia

exp 1 exp 1
[Since armature circuit time constant
Ra
La
a ]
If the current at the end of the duty interval (Ton= T ) is Ia2, then the above
equation becomes [Since T Ton
T
Ton
]

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

a
T
Ia
a
T
Ra
Eg Vdc
Ia

exp 1 exp 1 2
.(2.32)
Free wheeling interval is nothing but the off time of the chopper. The time
duration of the interval is Ton<t<T or T <t< T
The voltage equation is
0
'
+ + Eg
dt
dIa
La RaIa ..(2.33)
Where, T t t '
The initial current (at t=0) is Ia2
Solution of the equation 2.33 is as like the solution of equation 2.30 is

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

a
t
Ia
a
t
Ra
Eg
Ia

'
exp 2
'
exp 1
.(2.34)
In steady state, the value of Ia, at the end of the chopping cycle should be the
same as at the beginning of the cycle. Thus, the value of Ia for t=T-Ton=( )T 1 will be
Ia1.Subsititue the value in equation 2.34.
Therefore, Ia1=
( ) ( )

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

a
T
Ia
a
T
Ra
Eg

1
exp 2
1
exp 1
(2.35)
Solve the equations (2.32) and (2.35) we get
The current ripple
Ra
Eg
a
T
a
T
Ra
Vdc
Ia
Ra
Eg
a
T
a
T
Ra
Vdc
Ia

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

exp 1
exp 1
2
1 exp
1 exp
1
( )
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

1 exp
1
exp exp exp 1
2 2
1 2
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
Ra
Vdc Ia Ia
Ia

(2.36)
The steady state average voltage drop across the inductance is zero, therefore
Va=Eg+IaRa..(2.37)
Where,Va and Ia aare the average values of the armature terminal voltage and
current respectively.
We know that Va= Vdc
Therefore equation (2.37)
Ra
Eg Vdc
Ia
IaRa Eg Vdc

.(2.38)
The flux is constant, so the average motor torque depends only on the dc
component or average value of the armature current.
Therefore the motor torque Ta=KIa (2.39)
Substitute the value of Ia from the equation (2, 38) to (2.39)
Ra
Eg Vdc
K Ta

But Eg= m K
Where
m
is the motor speed in radian/Sec.
Therefore Ta
K
Ra
K
Vdc
m
2


(2.40)
In lossless chopper 1 , therefore the speed
Ta
K
Ra
K
Vdc
m
2

In the series motor
K
IaRa Vdc
m
IaRa m K Vdc

Current limit control
In the current limit control strategy, the chopper is switched ON and OFF so that
the current in the load is maintained between two limits such as upper limit I2 and lower
limit I1.When the current exceeds the upper limit, the chopper is switched off. During off
period, the load current freewheels and decrease exponential. When it reaches the lower
limit, the chopper is switched ON. Current limit control is possible either with constant
frequency or with constant Ton. The current limit control is used only when the load has
energy storage element especially inductor. Since the chopper operates between
prescribed current limits, discontinuity cannot occur. The difference between maximum
and the minimum output current limit decides the switching frequency. The ripples in the
load current can be reduced if the difference between the maximum and minimum limits
is less. Figure 2.47 illustrate the current limit control.
Figure 2.47.Current limit control
Steady state analysis for current limit control
In current limit control, chopper operates to control the armature current between
the prescribed limits Ia1 and Ia2. The chopper adjusts the value of and T such that the
current fluctuates between these prescribed limits. In CLC, we can calculate the speed
and torque as follows.
In the duty interval the equation of Ia is same as derived in time ratio control
Therefore from equation (2.32)

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

a
T
Ia
a
T
Ra
Eg Vdc
Ia

exp 1 exp 1 2
From the above equation
1
]
1

2
1
log
RaIa Eg Vdc
RaIa Eg Vdc
a T e
.(2.41)
From the equation (2.35)
Ia1=
( ) ( )

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

a
T
Ia
a
T
Ra
Eg

1
exp 2
1
exp 1
From the above equation
( )

,
_

+
+

2
1
log 1
RaIa Eg
RaIa Eg
a T e
..(2.42)
Adding equations (2.41) and (2.42) gives
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
2
2
1
log
RaIa Eg
RaIa Eg
RaIa Eg Vdc
RaIa Eg Vdc
a T e
..(2.43)
If we get the value of T from equation (2.43), we can calculate the value of
from equation (2.41).Then we can calculate the value of armature current Ia and the
torque Ta.
Since the durations T and ( )T 1 are small compared to the armature circuit
time constant, the variation of armature current Ia between Ia1 and Ia2 takes place along
the initial parts of the exponential curves, which can be approximated by straight line.
Therefore
( )
( )
t Cons
Ia Ia
dt t
T
Ia Ia
Ia dt t
T
Ia Ia
Ia
T
Ia
T T
tan
2
2 1
' '
1
2 1
2
1 2
1
1
0
1
0

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
,
_

+



The current limit changes the motor speed-torque characteristic from a constant
speed to a constant torque characteristic. This type of characteristic can be used for
constant current starting of a motor or for torque control of a motor driving a battery
operated vehicle. This type of characteristic is not suitable for driving most loads to the
problem of instability.
Example.8
The speed of a separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper as figure
2.43.The dc supply voltage is 120V, armature circuit resistance is Ra=0.5 Ohm, armature
circuit inductance is La=20mH, and motor constant is Ka

=0.05V/rpm.The motor drives

a constant- torque load requiring an average armature current of 20A.Assume that motor
current is continuous .Determine:
1. The range of speed control
2. The range of the duty cycle.
Solution
We know that, the armature terminal voltage Va = Eg+IaRa
When Eg =0,the speed becomes zero
Therefore Va= 10 5 . 0 20 0 + IaRa Volts
In step-down chopper the output voltage Vo=Va= Vdc
Ie) 10 =
12
1
120
The speed becomes maximum when 1 at Va=120V
Therefore Eg =120 ( ) 110 ) 5 . 0 20 Volts
Speed
rpm
K
Eg
Ka
Eg
m 200
05 . 0
110

[Since flux

is constant]
From that the range of speed is 0< 2200 < m rpm, and the range of duty cycle is
1
12
1
< <
,
_

.
Example: 9
A 230V, 960 rpm and 200 Amps separately excited dc motor has an armature
resistance of 0.02 Ohm. The motor is fed from a chopper which provides both motoring
and braking operations. The source has a voltage of 230 Volts. Assume continuous
conduction.
1. Calculate duty ratio of chopper for motoring operation at rated torque and 350
rpm
2. Calculate duty ratio of chopper for braking operation at rated torque and 350 rpm
3. If maximum duty ratio of chopper is limited to 0.95 and maximum permissible
motor current is twice the rated, calculate maximum permissible motor speed
obtainable without field weakening and power fed to the source
4. If motor field is also controlled in 3
rd
part, calculate field current as a fraction of
its rated value for a speed of 1200rpm.
Solution
We know that, the back emf Eg = Va-IaRa
= 230- ( ) 226 02 . 0 200 Volts
1. Given speed
m
350 rpm and it is a motoring operation
Back emf at 350 rpm is Eg1=
226
960
350

,
_

= 82.4 Volts
Terminal voltage of the motor at 350 rpm is Va1=Eg1+IaRa
= ( ) 4 . 86 02 . 0 200 4 . 82 + Volts
Therefore, duty cycle 376 . 0
230
4 . 86 1

Va
Va
Volts
2. Given speed
m
350 rpm and it is a braking operation,
While braking the current direction will be reverse. Therefore
Terminal voltage of the motor at 350 rpm is Va1=Eg1- IaRa
( ) 4 . 78 02 . 0 200 4 . 82 Volts
Therefore, duty cycle 34 . 0
230
4 . 78 1

Va
Va
Volts
3. Given the maximum duty ratio 95 . 0 max
Therefore maximum available voltage Vamax = Vs max
= 230 95 . 0 =218.5 Volts
Given the armature current at the time is twice the rated current
The back emf Eg3 =Vamax +( ) Ra Ia 2
= ( ) 5 . 226 02 . 0 200 2 5 . 218 + Volts
The maximum permissible motor speed
(max) m
= 962 960
226
5 . 226
rpm
Here losses are not mentioned. So consider loss is negligible.
Therefore power fed to the source = Ia Va Ia Va 2 max max max
KW 4 . 87 400 5 . 218
4. Given, the motor field is controlled by the method which is mentioned in
part3.Therefore back emf Eg3 = 226.5 Volts. Assume linear magnetic circuit.
Therefore back emf Eg3 will be inversely proportional to field current. Field
current as a ratio of its rated speed and the given speed.
That is equal to 8 . 0
1200
960

Operation of four quadrant chopper

The four quadrant operation can be obtained by using the class E chopper as
shown in figure 2.48. The operation of this chopper can be explained by using the
following quadrants. The simplified quadrant operation is shown in figure 2.49.
Figure2.48. Four quadrant class E choppers
Quadrant (1)
The first quadrant operation is called forward motoring. In this operation, the
output voltage as well as the current is positive. In this mode chopper (CH4) is
permanently ON and chopper (CH1) is made on and Off. Otherwise the time ratio control
(TRC) is done by varying the duty cycle
) (
from minimum to maximum so as to provide
the speed from minimum to maximum. When CH1 is off, output current (Io) freewheels
through diode D2 and chopper CH4 gives zero output voltage. Both output voltage Vo
and current Io is positive and Io varies from I1 to I2.
In this mode, the chopper is act like a step-down (Type-A) chopper as shown in
figure2.50.
Quadrant (2)
Let the motor rotate forward direction with positive armature current Io.
The motor back emf Eg is less than Vo. Hence the current Io cannot reverse. The current
Io can reverse if the speed of the motor increases. The motor curt can reverse if chopper
CH4, CH1 are off and the duty cycle of chopper CH2 is varied by using time ratio
control. Now the current Io reverses and free wheels through CH2,D4 and D1,D4 and
returns the energy to the source Vdc as shown in figure .This applies a negative torque or
braking action on the motor and its speed comes to zero in a short time and also the Io
becomes zero. So in the second quadrant the output voltage is positive and the current is
negative. The wave forms for quadrant I and quadrant II are shown in figure 2.52.In this
quadrant chopper is act like a step-up chopper.
Quadrant (3)
In this quadrant, Chopper CH2 is permanently on and the time ratio control is
provided by CH3 from minimum to maximum so as to increase the speed in reverse
direction. In this instant, the motor voltage and current Vo, Io both are reversed. The
motor current is kept continuous due to free wheeling action of CH2, D4 as shown in
figure2.53.So in this instant also, the chopper is act like a step down chopper, but the
output voltage is negative.
Quadrant (4)
In this quadrant, the motor is rotating in reverse direction and its voltage is negative. The
motor current can be reversed only if the speed increased beyond normal. The motor
current can also be reversed if the chopper CH2, CH3 are off and duty cycle of CH4 is
varied
Now the current Io will be reversed that is positive direction, and it freewheels through
D2,D3 and Ch4D2 and return energy to the source Vdc as shown in figure 2.54.This
applies a negative torque or braking action in reverse rotation of the motor, which
decreases its speed and the motor comes to zero speed in a short time.