SAFE Training Manual November 2011

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APPENDIX B
B.1

DEFLECTION CALCULATIONS

Factors affecting deflections of a slab system Deflection of a slab system depends on many factors. Key factors among these are material properties and loading history. An important fact to remember in slab serviceability considerations is that concrete cracking and associated stiffness loss is an irreversible process. Unloading of a slab system does not conduce to regaining of the stiffness loss. This, in turns, gives the concept of load history. An example of a load history is shown in the following figure. It is important to note that a loading peak may come at an early time in load history and thus would govern the slab system stiffness through the life of the system.
Pour of slab above Load Construction Installation of Nonstructural elements

Live Load Variation

T1

T2

T3

Time

From the materials perspective, variation in concrete strength with time, elastic modulus, creep and shrinkage, slab thickness to exposed surface ratio, relative humidity of the environment, are important parameters. Typically in a tall building, at an early stage, a slab system may be subjected to construction loads that exceed the slab design service loads. The concrete at this time is also normally not expected to provide full strength. This scenario may end up in slab system to undergo the worst loading in its life time. This may not be an issue for a short building for which the shoring is extended to grade. B.2 Calculating extent of flexural cracking Concrete has a tensile capacity which is approximately only one-tenth of its compressive strength. For this reason, flexural cracks develop as tensile stresses resulting from applied moments exceed the tensile capacity of concrete. These cracks cross the flexural reinforcement thus shifting, at crack location, all the tensile force to reinforcement, part of which, was previously passing through the concrete. However, the concrete in between the successive cracks can still contribute towards tensile capacity for flexural section. The reinforcement, between the cracks, acts to

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put back some tensile force back into these little concrete segments. This phenomenon is called tension stiffening. As result of tension stiffening, flexural member shows, between two points along its length, a bending stiffness that is more than fully cracked section but is less than gross section. This intermediate value of stiffness is related to what is called effective moment of inertia. As the applied moment is increased further intermediate sections between previous cracks show concrete reaching its tensile capacity and thus cracking again. So as the loading is increased, flexural members show progressively reduced bending stiffness. Overall, the effective moment of inertia depends on concrete tensile capacity, elastic modular ratio between steel and concrete, and applied moment. Progressive cracking makes the calculation of effective moment of inertia between two points in a member a complicated task. Different approaches are presented in research papers as how to interpolate between the two extremes of moment of inertia and arrive at effective moment of inertia. One such approach is based on Bransons equation[i]:

Ie = Icr + (Ig Icr) (Mcr / Ma)n Ig

where,

Ma Mcr Ie Icr Ig n

= Applied moment on section = Moment capacity of section just before cracking can set in = Effective Moment of Inetria of section at applied moment taking into account the extent of cracking resulted from applied moment = Moment of Inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete = Moment of Inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis neglecting reinforcement = integer for changing the interpolation (for CSA A23.3-04, n = 3).

Bransons equation provides effective moment of inertia of concrete section as a non-linear interpolation of gross moment of inertia of the section and the moment of inertia of a fully cracked section. Research has shown that Bransons equation overestimates the stiffness in the member with low reinforcing ratios. Slabs are typically such members. This has led to other models being developed. Another approach includes using moment-curvature relationship as explained by A. Ghali[ii]. The model has shown good correlation with test results. As per this model, there can be idealized two extreme states of concrete sections in bending, named un-cracked and fully cracked.

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Concrete sections when subjected to bending start with their full section resisting bending. This is first idealised state. This state soon ends when cracking starts. The other state is when loading so much that all the sections of such concrete members have cracked in bending.

2.

As there can always be considered, in between cracked sections, segments of members which are not cracked so overall the member curvatures is in between the two idealized states. Moment curvature for the two extreme states can be written as: State 1: Un-cracked section curvature 1

1 =

Ma E c I tr uncracked

State 2: Fully cracked section curvature 2

2 =

Ma E c I tr cracked

where, subscript tr refers to a transformed section. As the curvature shown by a section is between these two extreme states, an interpolation coefficient is defined for interpolation between curvatures at cracking moment and actual applied moment as

M = 1 1 2 cr M a
where,

1 and 2 are coefficients defined as follows: 1 is a coefficient that describes the bonding properties of reinforcement. For standard deformed rebar 1 = 1 and, for plain rebar 1 = 0.5; and, 2 is a coefficient that is related to the tension capacity of concrete between cracks. Tests have shown that tensile capacity of such portions of concrete reduces to almost half in short time. This closely relates to creep in concrete in tension, increased cracking and degradation of bonding with reinforcement. For first loading 2 = 1.0 and for loading applied in a sustained manner or for large number of load cycles 2 = 0.5. Finally, the interpolated curvature is given as:

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m = (1 ) 1 + 2
Below is a graphical representation of this interpolation between two states.

B.3

Code requirements for deflection calculations Different design codes from around the world present a spectrum of requirements to deal with the two-way slab deflections. Canadian code, CSA A23.3-04, not covering for an adverse time-history of loading, has indirectly incorporated these effects through a procedural approach by reducing the concrete modulus of rupture to half its value for two-way slab. To consider the extent of cracking in members, the code recommends calculation of effective moment of inertia of concrete sections based on Bransons equation; though it also allows use of methods other than Branson equation (clauses 9.8.2.2 and 9.8.2.3). Concrete Design Handbook of Cement Association of Canada, while explaining the Canadian code requirements has recommended two stages of loading; total dead and total service loads. The difference of deflections between these two stages is considered to be the live load deflection. Unlike Canadian code, ACI-318-08 does not enforce using half value of modulus of rupture (though while declaring it to be not a statutory requirement, ACI-435 proposes using half the value of modulus of rupture in two way slab design if significant restraint to in-plane deformation is present). As in Canadian codes, ACI-318-08 also prescribes using the same Branson equation (clause 9.5.2.3).

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The British Standards and Eurocodes, both considering the curvature based methods more amenable to two-way slab deflection calculations recommend its usage as part of their requirements. B.4 SAFE 12 internal calculations for cracked section deflections Deflections are determined in SAFE 12 using moment-curvature relationship. Through the use of time history module provided in SAFE 12, user can take into account the effect of effective curvature variation for a history of load applications. Following is point by point procedure adopted by SAFE for a typical Non-linear Cracked analysis: 1. 2. SAFE performs elastic analysis as per load cases definition. SAFE provides user with options to select the source of the reinforcement that has to be used for cracked-section analysis though: Run Cracking Analysis Options Following dialogue box appears:

Depending on the user selection, SAFE uses reinforcement that is to be used for cracking analysis options. SAFE also allows user to input any minimum reinforcement that should be used by the software. By this minimum reinforcement ratio check, greater of reinforcement from original source and minimum specified is used in analysis. If finite element design is selected by user, SAFE uses it to calculate the reinforcement required against elastic analysis from step 1. Slab reinforcement is designed using the user-defined design preferences. For beams, if user checked No Design option in section definitions of

SAFE Training Manual November 2011

Page B 6 Appendix B beams, then beam is not designed and is considered at its full section for subsequent cracked section analysis (step 3). If, instead, user did not checked the No Design option then beam is designed in accordance with the design data provided. SAFE also provides user with an option to select the value of modulus of rupture to be used in calculating the cracking moment of the concrete sections. Default value of this modulus is set equivalent to 4 fc (psi units), which is quite closer to CSA A23.3-04.
m

3.

SAFE calculates the cracked section properties based on reinforcement from step 2 (cracking moments and cracked section moment of inertia) for slabs and beams. SAFE Interpolates for mean curvature between curvatures from fully cracked from last iteration of step 5 and fully un-cracked sections. SAFE uses interpolation coefficient for determining mean curvature between un-cracked section curvature 1 and fully cracked section curvature 2. A complete description about these states is provided in section B.2. Following equation is used by SAFE:

M = 1 1 2 cr M a
where,

1 as previously defined is a coefficient that describes the bonding properties of reinforcement. SAFE uses 1 = 1 in its calculations;
and, 2 is a coefficient describes the tension stiffening effect. SAFE uses a value of 1.0 if Non-linear Cracked analysis is selected (it changes to 0.5 if Non-linear Long Term Cracked analysis is selected instead). Finally, the interpolated curvature is worked out as:

m = (1 ) 1 + 2
4. SAFE converts these mean curvatures for full slab system into effective flexural stiffness matrix. This is done using a ratio between mean cracked section curvatures and gross section curvatures. SAFE repeats steps 1 through 4 until convergence is achieved.

5.

SAFE Training Manual November 2011 B.5 Office Procedure to calculate deflections with SAFE

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As per current office standards, only immediate deflections are calculated using SAFE 12. Long term effects are then included using appropriate factors. For these factors and associated calculations user is referred to office guideline named Canadian deflections, relative movements and camber design guideline. Office procedure for a typical slab deflection calculation using SAFE 12 is as follows: STEP 1: Define LOAD PATTERNS For a typical deflection calculation, user needs to have minimum three different LOAD PATTERNS: 1. 2. 3. STEP 2: Self-weight (SW) Super Dead Loads (SDL) Live Loads (LL)

Define LOAD CASES Office practice for deflection calculations is based on the recommendation from Concrete Design Handbook of Cement Association of Canada. Following figure explains the conceptual background of the practice. Cracking from combined SW and SDL is used for calculating elastic deflections of SW and SDL. LL deflections are considered as difference of cracked-section deflections from full service load and full dead loads.
Loads

5) LL Deflection
SW + SDL + LL

4) TotalLoad
SW + SDL (Nonlinear Cracked)

2) SW Deflection
SW

1) TotalDead
(Nonlinear Cracked)

3) SDL 3) SDL Deflection

(Linear Elastic from TotalDead)

2) SW
(Linear Elastic from TotalDead)

Deflections

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Following is a procedural approach to implement this concept. Example 1 of this manual describes how this is used in real-time slab system modelling:

1.

Create a non-linear cracked analysis LOAD CASE based on total dead load to be applied on the structure. The initial state of the structure is zero for this case named here as DeadLoad. The structure at the end of this analysis is cracked for the total dead load and resulting deflections indicate immediate cracked section deflections under total dead load. Elastic analysis LOAD CASE is defined for self-weight (referred to as SW in this manual). This analysis is based on the stiffness at the end of DeadLoad LOAD CASE. The deflections obtained from this analysis represent Self weight deflections for a structure that is cracked with total dead load. Elastic analysis LOAD CASE is defined for super dead loads (referred to as SDL in this manual). This analysis is also based on the stiffness at the end of DeadLoad LOAD CASE. The deflections obtained from this analysis represent deflections due to super dead load for a structure that is cracked with total dead load. Create a non-linear cracked analysis LOAD CASE that uses total load to be applied on the structure (including all dead and live loads). The initial state of the structure is zero for this case named here as TotalLoad. The structure at the end of this analysis is cracked for the total load to which the slab structure is subjected and resulting deflections indicate immediate cracked section deflections under total load. Live load cracked sections deflections are calculated as difference of deflections obtained from TotalLoad and DeadLoad LOAD CASES.

2.

3.

4.

5.

STEP 3:

Define LOAD COMBINATIONS Following LOAD COMBINATIONS are to be defined:

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LIVEDEFLECTION: Live load cracked sections deflections are calculated as difference of deflections obtained from TotalLoad and DeadLoad LOAD CASES.

These immediate long term deflections are then converted into long term deflections using coefficients for long term effects. For projects in Canada, these factors can be obtained from Canadian deflections, relative movements and camber design guideline.

Branson D.E., Instantaneous and time-dependent deflections of simple and continuous reinforced concrete beams, HPR Report No. 7, Part 1, Alabama Highway Department, Bureau of Public Roads, 1965, Alabama. ii Ghali, A., Favre, R., and Elbadry, M., Concrete Structures Stresses and Deformations, Spon Press, 2002, New York