28

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- CHINA

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS - CHINA (QUESTTONS PAGES 309-319 rN THE COURSEBOOK)

- written in 1982 importantsourceof legitimacyforthestate. Tlreprincipleof ruleof lawalmostalwaysassociatedwith liberal -isnotan democracies, is based on the belief that rulers should not have absolute power over their sub-iects, and that their actions should be constrained by the same principles that control ordinary citizens. From the communist point of view, law is part of politics that the bourgeoisie uses to suppress the proletariat. Early Communist leaders, then, never acknowledged rule of law as a legitimate principle. Even though rule of law has now been acknowledged by the Clrinese government, it is still not an important source of legitimacy for the govenrment.
I.E

Because rule of law has only started to develop in Clrirra in recent years, the current Constitution

Both Confucianism and communism emphasize the responsibility of the ruler to the ruled. Confucianism emphasized the importance of order and harmony, and encouraged Chinese citizens to subrnit to the emperor's power, and reinforced the emperor's responsibility to fulfill his duties conscientiously. This aspect of Confucianism may be tied to democratic centralism, or the communist belief in a small group of leaders wlro make decisions for tlre people. Confu2. cianism is still a major influence on Chinese society today since it contradicts the egalitarian ideology of communism with its central belief in unequal relationships and mutual respect among people of different statuses, especially witlrin families.
The vast majority of the population live in urban areas in tlre east, with many cities located along rivers and in coastal areas. Large stretches of mountains and deserts make tlre westenr and northenr parts of the country less habit-

A-

3. C

able.

4.8 - This famous

1962 statement by Deng Xiaoping reflects his practicalapproach to solving China's problerns. ln other words, he didn't worry too muclr about whether a policy was capitalist or socialist as long as it irnproved the econorny.

The result of his leadership (1978-1997) was a dramatic turnaround of the Clrinese economy through a combination of socialist planning and the capitalist free market. His political and social views, however, remained true to Communist tradition - the party should supervise all, and no allowances should be made for individual freedoms and/or democracy. China, like the U.S.S.R., recruits its leaders through nomenklatura, a system of choosirrg cadres from lower levels of the party hierarchy for advancement based on their loyalty and contributiorrs to the well-being of the party. However, Chinese leaders communicate with one another tlrrough a patron-client network called guanxi. These linkages are similar to "good old boys networks" in the West, arrd tlrey underscore tlre importance of personal career ties among individuals as they rise in bureaucratic or political structures. Besides bureaucratic and personalties, guanxl is based on ideological differences and similarities, and as a result, has been the source of factions within the party. Guanxi is also pervasive at the Iocal level, where ordinary people link up with village leaders and lower party officials.
5. B

6. D - China experienced two major revolutions during the first half of the 20'h century: one in l9l I that overtlrrew tlre last emperor of the Qing dynasty, and one in 1949 that brought in tlre communist state. Tlre People's Republic of China was born from a civil war between the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists under Mao Zedong. After many years of competitive struggle, Mao's arrny forced Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters offthe mainland to the island of Taiwan (Formosa). Mao named his new China the "People's Republic of China," and Chiang clairned that his headquarters in Taiwan formed the true government. In Russia, the Revolution of l9l 7 brought in a new regime. At the turn of the century, Russia was still primarily an agricultural society with little industrial development. In his 1905 pamphlet lYhat Is To Be Done?, V. L Lenin clranged the meaning of Marxisrn wlren he argued for democratic centralism, or a "vanguard" leadership group that would lead the revolution because the people could not organize themselves. Lenin believed that the situation in Russia was so bad that tlre revolution could occur even though it was a non-industrialized society. Lenin's followers came to be called tlre Bolsheviks, and they took control of the govenrment in late l9l 7. Russia was then renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
7. C - The important philosophical influence of Confucianism throughout China's lorrg history errcouraged a hierarchical society that assumed inequalities as basic to an orderly society with men and women playing very traditional, farnilybased roles. As the revolutionary spirit erupted in China during the early 20tlr century, wou'len's rights became an impor-

ANSWER EXPI,ANATIONS

_ CHTNA 29

tarrt issue, resulting in a ban on foot binding and an increase in educatiorral and career opportunities for women. When Mao Zedong irrstituted tlre egalitarian values of communism in China, one effect was to create more equal roles for men and women. Mao was cornmitted to women's equality because, in his words, "women hold up half of the heavens."

8.A-Between l960and l966,Maoallowedtwooflrisfaithful-LiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping-toimplementmarketoriented policies that revived tlre economy, but Mao was still urrlrappy witlr China's progress toward true egalitarianism. And so he instituted the Cultural Revolution - a much more profound reforrn in that it encompassed political and social change, as well as ecolromic. His main goal was to purify the party and tlre country tlrrough radical transfonnation. Important principles were the ethic of struggle, mass line, collectivism, and egalitarianism. Marketization had no place in
the Cultural Revolution.

9. B - Even amorrg the Han Chinese there is great linguistic diversity. although they have shared a written language for many centuries. Sirrce its inception the Communist regime lras tried to make Mandarin the official language of goverrrntent and education. For example, in early 2006 China stepped up its repression of Sl-ranghainese (or Cantonese), a language wlriclr, in its various forms, is native to close to 100 million people, especially around Shanglrai, China's largest city. Rules required most people in the public sector, including teachers and members of the broadcast media, to use Mandarin when addressing the public. An increasitrgly important divide irr Chirrese society is between rural and urban areas. Most of China's tremendous economic growth over the past few decades has taken place in cities. As a result, the gap between urban and rural incomes has grown to the point that some observers have redefined the meaning of "two Chinas" - this time, a rural and an urban one. The divide is not just economic, but also irrcludes social lifestyle differences that form the basis for growing resentments across the countryside. One result has been an upsurge in protests in rural areas, where some believe that tlre government is not looking out for tlreir interests.
10.

A-

Even tlrouglr the transparency of the British government was seriously shaken by the parliamentary scandal in 2009" the rights of citizens to shape and be informed about tlre govenrment's policies and activities are well established. The Clrinese govenrment is much less transparent. Activists had virtually no say in the Chinese political system until the 1990s wlren Beijing allowed non-governrnental organizations (NGOs) to register with the government. Today China has thousands of NGOs, ranging frorn ping-pong clubs to environmentalist groups. A key test of China's tolerance is religion. Today Christianity and Buddhism are rebounding, afteryears of communist suppression of religion. Despite these changes, the govenrrnent still keeps close control of tlrese groups, with their 1999-2001crackdown on the religious movernent Falon Gong a good example of the party's limited tolerance of activities outside the political realm.

ll.

l2.E - Although the vast rnajority of protests eaclr year take place in rural areas, urban unrest - such as recent riots by factory workers in the southern province of Cuangdong, is now more common. Part of the unrest has to do with hukou, China's traditional houselrold registration system that rnakes it difficult to move from one place to anotlrer. In the early days of Deng Xiaoping's refonns, hukou restrictiorrs were loosened, allowing migrations from rural to urban areas. Howeveq the largest cities now find themselves overcrowded, and so tlrey are shutting down shelters for workers wlro have recently migrated from ruralareas and erecting other barriers to entry for unskilled workers.
13. A - Itt communist states, recruitment of elites takes place througlr nontenklatura,the process of filling inffuentialjobs in the state, society, or the economy with people approved and clrosen by the Communist Party. The nomenklatura includes not only politicaljobs, but almost all top positions in other areas as well, suclr as university presidents, newspaper editors, and rnilitary officers. Party approval translates as party membership, so the easiest way for an individual to get ahead is to.ioin the party.

I4. D - All are bodies of the Clrinese Communist Party. The National People's Congress consists of more than 2000
delegates chosen prirnarily from congresses or1 lower levels. It only meets every five years, so it is obviously not important in policyrnaking. The Central Committee has about 340 rnernbers (some of whom are alternates) that meet together annually for about a week. They carry on the business of the National Parfy Congress between sessions, although their size and infrequent meetings limit their policyrnaking powers. Their rneetirlgs are called plenums, and they are irnportant irr that they are gatherings of the political elites, and from their rnidst are chosen the Politburo and the Standing Commit-

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ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- CHINA

tee. These most powerful political organizations are at the very top of the CCP structure. They are chosen by the Central Committee, and their decisions dictate government policies. The Politburo has 24 members and the Standing Committee - chosen from the Politburo membership - has only 7. They meet in secret, and their membership reflects the balance of power among factions and the relative influence of different groups in policymaking.
The PRC holds elections in order to legitimize the government and the CCP. The party controls the commissions that run elections, and it reviews draft lists of proposed candidates to weed out those it finds politically objectionable. The only direct elections are held at the local level, with voters choosing deputies to serve on the county people's congresses. The people's congresses at higher levels are selected from and by the lower levels, not directly by the people. Since the 1980s the party has allowed more than one candidate to run for county positions, and most candidates are nominated by the people. One move toward democracy has occurred at the village level, where local officials are no longer appointed from above, but are chosen in direct, secret ballot elections.
15. C

16. C - China, like the U.S.S.R., recruits its leaders through nomenklatura, a system of choosing cadres from lower levels of the party hierarchy for advancement based on their loyalty and contributions to the well-being of the party. However, Chinese leaders communicate with one another through a patron-client network called guanxr. These linkages are similar to "good old boys networks" in the West, and they underscore the importance of personal career ties among individuals as they rise in bureaucratic or political structures. Besides bureaucratic and personal ties, guanxi is based on ideological differences and similarities, and as a result, has been the source of factions within the party. Guanxi is also pervasive at the local level, where ordinary people link up with village leaders and lower party officials.

17. B - Many of China's new leaders come from the "princeling" class, an aristocracy of families with revolutionary credentials from the days of Mao Zedong. Their policy preferences are not always clear: some have been big beneficiaries of China's economic reforms, using their political connections and Western education to build lucrative business careers. Other princelings are critical of China's stark inequality and call for a return to socialist principles. President Hu Jintao's son, Hu Haifeng, who headed a big provider of airport scanners, is a prominent princeling, as is Vice-President Xi Jinping, who many believe will take over as party chief in 2012 and as president in 2013. Another princeling is Wen Yunsong, a flnancier who is the son of Wen Jiabao, the prime minister.

-.

-t

The combination of guanxi and the economic boom of the past few decades have brought about rampant corruption within the Chinese economic and political system. Bribes are common, and coruption is widely regarded as a major problem. President JiangZemin acknowledgedin 1997, "The fight against corruption is a grave political struggle vital to the very existence of the party and the state...If corruption cannot be punished effectively, our Party will lose the support and confidence of the people." Ln2004 the Communist Party's Central Committee published a policy paper that warned its members that corruption and incompetence could threaten its hold on power. The anti-corruption statement bears the mark of President Hu Jintao, who has responded to popular perception of widespread corruption among party members. Under his watch, thousands of officials have recently been punished for comrption, although the problem continues to plague the regime.

18. D

19.

A-

In China, interest groups and the state's relationship with them reflect state corporatism

as

well

as the

logic of

Lenin's democratic centralism. Most organizations are created, or at least approved, by the state, and many have government officials as their leaders. In yet another demonstration of corporatism, the state only allows one organization for any given profession or activity. In cases where two groups with similar interests exist in a community, local officials will force them to merge or will disband one in favor of the other. This practice prevents competition between the associations and limits how many associations are allowed to exist, making it easier for the state to monitor and control them. In Russia under Putin's leadership, state corporatism has become well established. The Russian government has established vast, state-owned holding companies in automobile and aircraft manufacturing, shipbuilding, nuclear power, diamonds, titanium, and other industries. If companies appear to be too independent or too rich the government has not forced owners to sell, but has cited legal infractions (such as with Yukos) to force sales. Either government-controlled companies, or companies run by men seen as loyal to Mr. Putin, are the beneficiaries. Another term for such an alrangement is insider privatization.

20. A

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS_ CHINA 3T The government structure of the People's Republic of China has three branches - a legislature, an executive, and ajudiciary. But all branches are controlled by the party, so they are not independent, nor does a system of checks and balances exist. All top government positions are held by party members, as are many on the lower levels. The relationship between the party and the government is controlled by the principle of dual role-vertical supervision of the next higher level of government and horizonlal supervision of the Communist Party at the same level.

positions are held by party members, as are many on the lower levels, and the CCP determines who fiIl them. The president and vice president serve five-year terms, are limited to two terms, and must be at least 45 years old. The positions are largely ceremonial, though senior party leaders have always held them. In contrast, Russian voters directly elect the president for a four-year (six-year starting in2012) term, with a limit of two terms. The Russian president has substantial powers as head of state.

2l.B - ln China, all top government

had little place under Mao, but aftet 1978 Chinese leaders began to develop new legal ideas and institutions that included this important concept. The Chinese political system now

22.8 -Except for a brief period during the 1950s, rule of law

acknowledges rule of law, and interprets it to mean that laws bind behavior and all are equally subject to them. Even though the judicial system does not always apply these principles, it is important that rule of law has been established in the People's Republic of China. The military has never held formal politicalpower in the People's Republic of China, but it has been an important influence on politics and policy. All of the early political leaders were also military leaders. For example, Mao and the other members of the "Old Guard", led the Long March of the 1930s primarily by military moves. The second half of Mao's famous quote above is less often quoted: "Our principle is that the party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the patty." Clearly, the military has never threatened to dominate the party. It is represented in the government by the Central Military Commission, which has been led by many prominent party leaders, including Deng Xiaoping.
23.

A-

Deng Xiaoping's carefully balanced blend of socialist central planning with a capitalist market economy has not been without its critics. The tensions within the system - both economic and political - are evidenced in fang-shou, a letting go, tightening-up cycle evidenced even under Mao in his reaction to the Hundred Flowers Movement. The cycle consists of three types of actions/policies - economic reform, political movements (letting go), and a tightening-up by the CCP. With each new reform that reflects economic liberalization, liberal factions react with a demand for political liberalization, which the Party responds to with force. The cycle is characterized by a lack of transparency, with policymakers meeting behind closed doors and only revealing their plans when the government takes action.
24. C

25.D -The 1982 Constitution, theoretically at least, commits the party to the authority of law. Today the Chinese state is more constrained by law and Chinese citizens freer by law from political whim than ever before. However, this trend does not change the fact that Chinese justice is harsh by the standards of most other nations, and the death penalty is often enforced for smuggling, rape, theft, bribery, trafficking in women and children, and official corruption. It is also true that no independent judiciary has ever existed in the People's Republic of China, but remains under the tight control of the CCP. 26.D Census figures from 2010 indicate that demographics in China have changed rapidly in recent years. Not only is the ratio of baby boys to baby girls out of proportion, but China's population is dramatically aging. People above the age of 60 now represent 13.3% of the total, up from 10.3% in 2000, and those under the age of l4 declined from23oh to l7oh. An increasingly vocalgroup of academic demographers has called for a relaxation of the one-child policy, and

in 2011, one Chinese official in Guangdong - China's most populous province - joined in the criticism by advocating a "two-child" policy. Already, many exceptions exist, such as the allowance of two children for couples in which both partners are single children. Minorities - such as Tibetans and Uyghurs l are permitted a second child, whatever the sex of the first born, and the regulations are most relaxed in rural areas, where population pressures are minimal.

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27.

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS_ CHINA

From 1949 to 1978, China followed a communist political economic model: a command economy directed by a central government based on democratic centralism. Mao Zedong called this policy the "iron rice bowl," or cradleto-grave health care, work, and retirement security. The state set production quotas and distributed basic goods to consumers. When this model failed, Deng Xiaoping began a series of economic reforms tlrat make up the socialist market
economy - gradual infusion of capitalism while still retaining state control. Deng's reforms included the household responsibility system, "private business," townslrip arrd village enterprises, and special economic zones.

A-

* Over the years the state-owned sector of the economy lras gradually declined so that today almost three-fourtlrs of industrialproduction is privately owned. The state sector is still large, however, and it is plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and too many workers. Without state subsidies these industries would almost surely fail, bringing about even higher unemployment rates, so the government has continued to support thern.
28. C

29.D - Whereas the British economy has struggled in recent years to grow, the Clrinese economy has grown at a very rapid rate. When the global economic crisis occurred in September 2008, rnany observers believed that China's economy would suffer more than most, especially since its prosperity was solidly based on exports to westem nations, especially the United States. Since many Chinese products were sold to Americans, the decline in American consumption struck at the heart of the Chinese economy, with the country's GDP dropping sharply during the last months of 2008. However. China and many other Asian nations rebounded impressively in 2009, and its economy expanded by more than I 0% in 2010. Although this increase in GDP is smaller than increases in recent years, it is still far better than the figures for most westem nations, with forecasters predicting continued economic contractions for them.
ceded control of Hong Kong to mainland China under a ooone country, two systems" agreement signed by Britain and China in 1984. Under this policy, Hong Kong is subject to Chinese rule, but continues to enjoy "a high degree of autonomy," meaning that it maintains its capitalist system, legal system, and ways of life. Since the handover, Beijing authorities have been less heavy-handed than feared, and Hong Kong today enjoys the same civil liberties as under British rule. Even though many Hong Kongers fear that the situation might change, their city is still one where people can openly talk politics, speak against the government, and choose a legislature in rnulti-parly elections. Irr Hong Kong's case, the central Chinese government has devolved considerable powers to local officials. 30. B

- ln 1997 the British

RUBRIC FOR COUNTRY-CONTEXT FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION

China and Russia have both experienced economic liberalization. (a) Define economic liberalization. (b) Describe two economic liberalization policies pursued in China since 1979. (c) Describe two economic liberalization policies pursued in Russia since 1991. (d) Compare one consequence of economic liberalization on China's political system with one consequence economic liberalization on Russia's political system.
6 Points

of

Part (a):

I point

One point is earned for a correct definition of economic liberalization as tlre process of lirniting tlre power of tlre state over private property and market forces.

Part (b): 2 points

One point is earned for an accurate description of an economic liberalization policy pursued in Clrina since 1979. One point is earned for an accurate description of a second economic liberalization policy pursued in China since 1979.
Some possible policies include:

: , '

. o .

township and village enterprises

preneurs

rural factories and businesses that are run by local government and private entre-

household responsibility system - individual families take full charge of the production and marketing of crops "private business" - urban co-ops, service organizatiorrs, and rural industries that largely operate as capitalist enterPrises

i* . I i' . - . .

- government spending to rescue a faltering capitalistic economy special economic zotles - regions where foreign investors are given preferential tax rates and other incentives seeking and gaining membership in the WTO
pump-priming participating in fonnation of BRIC

Part (c): 2 points

One point is earned for an accurate description of an economic liberalization policy pursued in Russia since 1979. One point is earned for an accurate description of a second economic liberalization policy pursued in Russia since 1979.
Some possible policies irrclude:

. . . . . . . . .

"shock therapy"

privatized industries - allowing private individuals to take over formerly state-run businesses diversification of the econorny through private irrdustry erlcouragement of entrepreneurship by allowing private ownerslrip and marketization encouragement of foreign investment in Russia enterprises marketization seeking membership in the G-8 seeking memberslrip in the WTO

sudden infusion of capitalism during the 1990s

participation in fonration of BRIC

Part (b): 1 point

One point is earned for an accurate comparison of one consequence of economic liberalization on China's political system and one impact on Russia's.
Some possible comparisons:

. . . .

ln both countries, economic liberalization has encouraged political corruption. ln both countries, economic liberalization lras put pressure on for political liberalization. In China, almost no political liberalization have taken place; Russia experimented with political liberalization during the 1990s, but has since backed off political refonns. In both countries, economic liberalization has put pressure on the government to devolve powers to sub-governments, with China devolving some powers but Russia recentralizing power under Putin.