China

Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world. Napoleon Bonaparte Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun. Mao Zedong

Country Bio: China

Population:
1,307.56 million 3,705,386 sq. miles 1949 1982 Hu Jintao Wen Jiabao

Language:
Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect) Yue (Cantonese) Wu (Shanghaiese) Minbei (Fuzhou) Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese) Xiang Gan Hakka dialects Minority languages

Territory: Year of PRC Inauguration: Year of Current Constitution: Head of Party and State: Head of Government:

Religion:
Daoism (Taoism), Buddhist, Muslim 23% Christian 1% (estimated) Nota Bene: officially atheist

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT
Four influences: Geographical Influences

Historical Influences before 1949

Historical Influences of the PRC The Political Culture

Geographical influence
China means middle kingdom or zhongguothey are at the center of political and cultural world. Some of its important geographical features include access to oceans/ice free ports many large navigable rivers major geographical/climate splits between north and south geographic isolation of the western part of the country mountain ranges, deserts, and oceans that separate China from other countries These geographic features have shaped Chinese political development for centuries.

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

until 20th century, Chinese history characterized by dynastic cycles family rule mandate of heaven centuries of highly centralized power Emperor and bureaucracy

 chaotic beginning to 20th century

1949: Mao Zedong took over China, introduced new regime whose values often conflicted with traditional concepts of power Chinas political structure: shaped by tradition as well as modern influences

Legitimacy
Dynastic period: legitimacy established through mandate hereditary succession

1911 Revolution the Chinese Republic and Sun Yat-sen

1949: Peoples republic of China Mao

Maoism
idealistic, egalitarian

centralized power exercised through top party leaders but

the mass line: maintain connection to peasants: legitimacy required leaders to listen to/communicate with the people 2-way teaching and learning organizing principle for both Leninism and Maoism was democratic centralism role of the military in China

Historical Traditions

last Chinese Dynasty (Qing) fell in early 20th century, but several traditions have continuing influence:
(1) authoritarian power Chinese people: subjects, not participants competes with tendency toward decentralization

 (2) Confucianism philosophical influence on Chinese political system since 6th century B.C. emphasized order and harmony submission to authority of emperor Emperors responsibility to rule conscientiously

 (3) bureaucratic hierarchy based on scholarship Emperors surrounded by highly organized bureaucratic elite based on Confucian scholarship highly competitive examination system major social divide: uneducated peasantry

 (4) the Middle Kingdom zhongguo China as the center of civilization foreigners as barbarians
(5) Communist ideologies intersection between Confucianism and Maoism Deng Xioaping theory: perestroika without glasnost

Confucianism and Maoism

CONFUCIANISM Mandate of Heaven (responsibility of ruler to the people) MAOISM democratic centralism (responsibility of ruler to people)

vision of an ideal society based on vision of ideal society based on harmony and obedience self-reliance and struggle hierarchical social and political organization; rulers and subjects necessarily have unequal positions egalitarian social structure; mass line between rulers and subjects

emphasis on loyalty to family: filial piety

emphasis on loyalty to the state (Mao)

Geographic Factors
largest population, third largest land mass access to oceans and ice-free ports many large navigable rivers

major geographic/climate differences between north and south

western part of country geographically isolated

separated from other countries by natural boundaries: mountain ranges, deserts, oceans

Historical Eras
(1) dynastic rule
Confucian values scholarship bureaucracy isolationcultural identity expansion/invasion ethnic/cultural tension with other Asian people

(2) resistance to imperialism

clash between Chinese nationalism and foreign imperialism century of humiliation Revolution of 1911 ouster of foreign devils

 (3) Maoism
Marxism/Leninism tailored to suit China
rejected inequality implied by vanguard of the proletariat focused on strength of the peasant and core values: collectivism struggle/activism mass line egalitarianism self-reliance Deng Xiaoping Theory: practical leadership dramatic turn-around of Chinese economy socialist planning + capitalist free market social views continued strict alignment with Communist tradition

 Chinese Nationalism: HAN Chinese: predominant ethnic group in China occupied the Middle Kingdom force behind ouster of foreign powers, establishment of Republic of China

changing views of involvement with outside world

Mao vs. Deng nationalism on the rise: 08 Olympics. 10 World Expo, Chinas rising economic star

Political and economic change

compare to Russia long, relatively stable societies which experience massive upheaval during 20th century, leading to regime changes after centuries of dynastic rule and foreign invasions, the last Chinese dynasty (the Qing) collapsed under European pressure in early 20th century initiated a period of radical, violent chaotic regime change

Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals

19th century, weakened Qing Dynasty victimized by imperialist nations Carved China into spheres of influence 2 major revolutions 1911 and 1949

revolutionary era dominated by 3 themes:

nationalism: re-establish China as an independent, sovereign nation new political community: competition between Nationalist Party [Chiang Kai-shek] [Guomindang] and The CCP {Mao] socioeconomic development: followed Soviet model until split in 1928, CCP driven underground

The Peoples Republic of China

Expulsion of Japanese after WWII followed by civil war between Mao and Chiang CCP prevailed, Nationalists fled to Taiwan, PRC established 2 phases (1) The Soviet Model (1949-1957) Land redistribution Civil reform 5-year plans (2) The Great Leap Forward (1958-1966) radical egalitarianism economic development mass mobilization political unanimity decentralization

Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals

19th century, weakened Qing Dynasty victimized by imperialist nations Carved China into spheres of influence 2 major revolutions 1911 and 1949

revolutionary era dominated by 3 themes:

nationalism: re-establish China as an independent, sovereign nation new political community: competition between Nationalist Party [Chiang Kai-shek] [Kuomintang] and The CCP [Mao] socioeconomic development: followed Soviet model until split in 1928, CCP driven underground

 failed revolution: Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) multiple military coup attempts 1905, KMT established 10/10/11: rebellion in Wuhan spread peacefully throughout the country, establishment of PRC central government nominally under control of KMT, but country run by warlords 1919: Treaty of Versailles: German concessions transferred to other Allied powers, not to China May Fourth Movement student run politicized but disorganized

 1921: formation of CCP headed by Chen Duxiu, composed of intellectuals, quickly dominated by Moscow KMT also sought approval of Soviets KMT and CCP briefly merged united front growing conflict erupted in violence in Shanghai, 1927 massacre of thousands of CCP members by Nationalist troops

Kuomintang Party
Sun Yat-sen was the main leader of the 1911 Revolution and the Nationalist Party (KMT). He died in 1925 and was succeeded as leader by Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang cooperated with the Communists for a time, but then massacred them in 1927.

 Mao: revolution could only be based on mass mobilization Chinas population overwhelmingly rural KMT controlled most cities only path was guerilla war from the countryside, not spontaneous uprising in cities it would take years to organize a peasant revolution Autumn Harvest Uprising: Mao launched attacks on Changsa KMT campaign to exterminate the communist bandits

 The Long March

for almost a year, CCP fought daily against KMT or local warlords
costly but lasting success for CCP party used time to organize built relationships with peasants

January, 1936: Mao elected Chairman of CCP

 The Mass Line

Mao and CCP rejected: urban proletariat vanguard of the revolution all correct leadership is from the masses, to the masses turned Marxism into a philosophy that could appeal to millions of peasants in Asia, Africa, and Latin America

 resistance to Japanese imperialist aggression invasion of Manchuria, 1931 control of northern China by 1935 Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the south, while CCP fought the invaders resistance expanded its base of support message: nationalism, anti-imperialism, social justice

Land Reform
Mao discovered even in the 1920s that the Communists could win the support of the peasants by taking away land from the rich and sharing this with the poor. Mao learned how to get the vast majority of peasants on his side by concentrating the confiscations on a small minority of wealthy farmers.

Yanan, 1935-1948
For over a decade, Mao and the Chinese Communist leadership operated from Yanan in the north of China. Land reform was carried out in Yanan. During most of this time, the Communists were fighting against both the KMT and the Japanese. The Communists and the KMT competed in terms of which best represented the national interests of China against the Japanese.

Yanan, 2
At the end of the Second World War, the Russians moved into Manchuria against the Japanese and were able to share some weapons with the Chinese Communists. Stalin urged Mao to ally with Chiang Kai-shek rather than to fight him.

Communist Victory, 1949

Due to corruption and inefficiency among the KMT leadership, the Communists took power in mainland China in October, 1949. The KMT leaders retreated to the island of Taiwan.
Two Chinas

Now Mao was in charge of the whole country.

 initial superiority of KMT forces eventually overcome by CCP

CCP army regained control of Manchuria, moved south, forced KMT to flee to Taiwan 1949: creation of Peoples Republic of China

Mao: Chinas weakness due to oppression and exploitation by foreign imperialism reactionary domestic government
China has stood up.

Trials of landlords
During 1949-1951, the Communists held mass trials of landlords and KMT leaders all over the country. Peasants were urged to denounce crimes committed by the former rulers. Hundreds of thousands of members of the former elite were put to death in the mass trials of 1949-1951. Their land was then distributed among the poorer peasants. This was the most important revolutionary act in the rural villages of China.

Factionalism
PRC: 30 years to establish stability and continuity

interim conflict between radicals and moderates

struggle for ideological dominance involved attacks on party and state institutions personalization of power eventual predominance of moderates put China on a lasting path to reform

 world communist movement: North Korean conflict: Chinese had no choice but to support fellow communists in North Korea relied on Soviet military aid to repel UN forces

 Sino-Soviet Split
divergence from Soviet model and philosophy CCP depended on cult of personality Mao criticized SUs movement away from Marxist goals

SU eventually withdrew its advisers and cut off economic and military aid split gave CCP autonomy to develop in its own way

The Peoples Republic of China

2 phases (1) The Soviet Model (1949-1957) land redistribution civil reform 5-year plans (2) The Great Leap Forward (1958-1966) radical egalitarianism economic development mass mobilization political unanimity decentralization

 factionalism: Maoists vs. Marxists campaigns: organized efforts to mobilize the masses to attain various goals

Hundred Flowers Campaign, 1956 : encouraged expression of ideas success of campaign required immediate end Great Leap Forward: opposite direction sought rapid transition to socialism and communism required full commitment of all Chinese people red-vs.-expert conflict : ideology vs. technology
a disaster mass starvation

 failure of Great Leap forward undermined Maos authority forced from chair of PRC challenge to his authority precipitated the Cultural Revolution why?

Mao had been the architect of the popular revolution CCP becoming increasingly bureaucratized, rigid and elite new generation had not experienced the revolution- self-satisfied and flabby

The Cultural Revolution

1963: with support of the PLA, Mao launched the Socialist Education Movement ideology and mobilization once again center stage launched frontal attack on Party leadership and bureaucracy Red Guards: student groups turned into revolutionaries/vigilantes seizures of power throughout the country

The Cultural Revolution

Maos goal: purify the party and the state remove all vestiges of old China (bureaucratic, hierarchical)
scholars sent to the fields, universities/libraries destroyed Extremely disruptive and regressive

Maos death, 1976, left factions

the Gang of Four the military the Moderates: Zhou Enlai

process of fang-shou: cycle of tightening up, loosening up

Modernization, 1978-1997: Deng Xiaoping

Four Modernizations industry, agriculture, science, military Have continues at heart of Chinas official policy ever since

economic liberalization open door trade policy educational reform institutionalization of the Revolution
Deng did not support political liberalization

The political development of the PRC

Phases:
The Soviet Model (1949-1957) Land Reform. Civil Reform
Worked to eliminate opium addiction and prostitution, ending arranged marriages which increased legitimacy

Five-Year Plans
nationalize collectivize socialize

Industrialization
Between 1949 and 1960, China followed the Russian strategy of industrialization. They built large factories in the cities. Many Russian engineers came to China to assist in this effort. Many of the largest factories in China today were built during this period.

Hundred Flowers Movement 1956

Mao was alarmed at growth of government, so encouraged openness among the people to air their opinions The idea was allow for more participation in policy making, instead it led to industrial strikes and public criticism of Communist policies

Anti-Rightest Campaign 1957

100,000s of people were accused of enemies of the Revolution and demoted, fired, or sent to labor camps

Struggle against the anti-rightest resolutely

The Great Leap Forward (19581960)

In 1958, Mao decided that the Russian strategy of industrial development was not suitable for China because it was not helping countryside. The Great Leap Forward was a utopian effort to transform China into a radical egalitarian society. It's emphasis was mainly economic, and it was based on four principles: All-around development Mass mobilization Political unanimity and zeal Decentralization The Great Leap Forward was a big flop

Misreporting common and starvation occurred on mass scale

Great Leap Forward, 2

The most mocked aspect of the Great Leap Forward was the backyard steel furnaces. Mao thought that peasants could learn to make steel on a broadly decentralized basis. Most areas of China, however, lacked the ore and fuel for this and it took men from the farms and the harvest to make steel (and steel was subpar).

Great Leap Forward, 3

Millions of peasants were pulled away from their agricultural tasks in order to engage in industrialization or water conservancy projects. This lack of attention to the crops added to the problem of a serious drought and up to 30 million people died in China during this period.

Great Leap Forward, 4

Small villages were done away with, and the peasants were moved to larger towns. Mao attempted to have the peasants live in dormitories with the separation of husbands and wives. Communal kitchens and nurseries were established. These measures failed.

Great Leap Forward, 5

The Russians were insulted that the Chinese were no longer following their advice and pulled out their engineers. Many factories that were being built could not be finished because the Russians had the plans and because the Russians provided the machinery.

 Maos main goal was to purify the party and the country through radical transformation. Remove all vestiges of the old China and its hierarchical bureaucracy and emphasis on inequality. Included self-criticism session in the xiaozus People would admit their shortcomings and promise to change Included attacks on elites/capitalists; students would attack those who harmed them and they were sent to farms and not school Mao died in 1976, leaving his followers divided into factions: Radicals The Military The Moderates

The Cultural Revolution (19661978) Political, social and economic change:

Cultural Revolution, 2
Cultural Revolution followed the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957) which encouraged open criticism, but actually helped government locate those against government who were later imprisoned Any Communist leader who was not strongly for equality were condemned in this movement. The Cultural Revolution started among students (Red Guards), but it began to affect other sectors of society. Eventually, the military stepped in and sent the students off to work as peasants. Reactionary teachers and officials were common targets, who were often killed or committed suicide

Cultural Revolution

Publicly criticized

Deng Xiaoping's Modernizations (1978-Present)

1978, the new leader was Deng Xiaoping. New policies "Open door" trade policy Special Economic Zones Reforms in education Institutionalization of the Revolution

After Mao
From 1975 to 1997, China was led by Deng Xiaoping who welcomed economic reforms in the direction of capitalism (socialism with chinese characteristics). Peasants were allowed to farm on their own and to leave the collective farms. Local governments were permitted to establish industrial companies that functioned like capitalist firms.

After Mao
Mao would be turning over in his grave at the foreign investment and the consumer culture that is spreading in China today. However, Maos efforts did create a strong, united Chinese state that after Maos death was able to make serious reforms to compete in a global economy. Political legitimacy rests on economic growth and a rising standard of living.

Deng Xiaoping Theory

- "It doesn't matter whether a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice." The result of his leadership was a dramatic turnaround of the Chinese economy through a combination of socialist planning and the capitalist free market. True to Communist Party

Citizens, Society and the State

Profound changes in relationship of citizen to Chinese state as leadership has changed since Mao For most citizens, communist ideology no longer central to their lives CCP now emphasizes nationalism, patriotism, pride in Chinese identity

cleavages
minority populations within China: 8% of population, 60% of territory general government policy: encourage economic development, suppress dissent

5 autonomous regions: Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Tibet and Xinjiang

Tibet: failed uprising 1959, continuing tension Xinjiang: Uyghur militants seek to create a separate Islamic state

 cleavages, cont.
linguistic: CCP has always tried to make Mandarin the official language of government and education, but dialects remain embedded in Chinese society urban-rural: most economic growth has been concentrated in cities new meaning to 2 Chinas talk of new programs to lift the lagging rural economy

political participation
CCP: largest political party in the world

party membership and leadership has changed along with modernization

Maoist era: revolutionary cadres peasants and factory workers, not intellectuals or professionals post-Deng, increasing role of technocrats party now includes capitalists entrepreneurs and other business interests

Political Institutions
basics: authoritarian regime, leadership from within party or military - decisions made by elites, little citizen input challenge: market economy and decentralization/devolution heart of the Chinese political system: CCP

legitimacy: democratic centralism elite vanguard leads based on superior understanding of Chinese people and their needs

 hierarchical party organization: village -> county -> province -> nation
headed by general secretary 1982 Constitution: 3 central bodies: National Party Congress Central Committee Politburo/Standing Committee limited role/participation by non-communist parties: the loyal opposition PRC holds tightly-controlled elections

Political factions
3-way split: radicals [Mao], the military Lin Biao], the reformers [Zhou Enlai] all part of the Long March Old Guard all dead by 1976 leadership assumed by Deng, but factions remained (1) conservatives (2) reformers/open door (3) liberals

fang-shou: economic reform -> political movement/liberalization (letting go) -> retraction by Party

 rampant corruption product of economic boom and guanxi under Hus leadership, thousands of officials have been punished, but problem is still widespread international publicity about tainted food, health products and drugs on the world market

institutions
parallel hierarchies:
the Communist Party the state (government) the Peoples Liberation Army

organizations are separate but all are dominated by the party

dual role: vertical supervision by the next higher level of government and horizontal supervision by the CCP at the same level

The Structure of Government

3 branches: Legislature Executive Judiciary

all 3 controlled by the party, no check and balances all top positions held by party members

 Legislative: The Peoples Congresses

hierarchical system: Peoples National Congress at top, followed by provincial, city and local congresses in reality, subject to party authority in theory, the peoples legislatures

Executive/Bureaucracy
President and Vice President: 2 5-year terms Positions held by senior party leaders Bureaucracy at all levels, staffed by cadres

 Judiciary:
4-tiered, hierarchical peoples court system rule of law officially established in PRC swift and harsh criminal justice system

Peoples Liberation Army (PLA)

parallel development: army and party huge in absolute terms, modest in population and spending terms No formal political power, but an important influence on politics and policy

Policy issues
democracy and human rights
Tiananmen crisis, 1989: student/intellectual grief demonstration following death of Hu Yaobang turned into democratic protest joined yby hundreds of thousands shut down by PLA, unofficial estimates of 700 to several thousand killed pressure from international human rights organizations

suppression of Falun Gong tenuous position of rule of law in communist societies

 population policy
Mao: population control policies were imperialist tools designed to weaken developing countries post-Mao: two-child family campaign 1979: Deng instituted one child policy incentives and penalties relaxation of policy in rural areas in 1984, reinstated in 2002 other consequences: female infanticide, gender imbalance, elder care

 Economic policy: 1949-1978: China followed a communist political economic model:

command economy directed by central government based on democratic centralism

replaced by Deng with socialist market economy : gradual infusion of capitalism while retaining state control Agricultural policy:
1949 era: peoples communes: farms merged, several thousand families one of Maos greatest failures 1980s: replaced by Household Responsibility System: dismantled communes, individual families take full charge of production and marketing

 private business
new category under control of the party urban co-ops, service organizations, rural industries all acting as capitalist enterprises private industry remains heavily regulated by the government, but
price controls lifted private businesses far more profitable than state-owned

Township and Village Enterprises (TVEs): rural factories and businesses, run by local government and private entrepreneurs slowing the migration of peasants to the cities

 economic problems (a) unemployment and inequality (b) inefficiency of the state sector (c) pollution (d) product safety

Chinas vulnerability to world economic crisis of 2008 rapid rebound, return to growth

 foreign policy and international trade:

late 20th century, profound changes in Chinese foreign policy closer to mainstream of international politics, yet resistant to pressure from outside quickly replacing Japan as Asias most powerful economy global trade is an integral part of Chinas economic growth

 USA/China relations:
no contact until early 1970s 1972 visit, Zhou Enlai, Nixon, Kissinger Deng initiated open door policy currently, major USA/China issues: trade imbalances, currency valuation, debt

Chinas international ambitions now openly revealed no more lectures China now a member of WT1997, Hong Kong returned to China by British Taiwan: lost Security Council seat to China in 1971