UNIT

UNDERSTANDING GENDER By Efiritha Chauraya and Tenson Mugodzwa

1. 1 Introduction Although women have made important gains in terms of accessing vital resources useful for social mobility in Zimbabwe and the world over, they are still socially disadvantaged as men continue to hold positions of relative privilege. This inequality is often thought to reflect innate differences between the sexes but it is actually a creation of society itself. Research has revealed that sex is a pervasive element in the structure of society and in the lives of people. It shapes other peoples views of us as well as our own self- concepts. This module is an introduction to gender studies hence an understanding of the term gender is important. In gender studies we are neither interested in women as a group nor with men as a group but in the social relations between them. In this unit we make you have an understanding of gender as a concept. We also clarify some selected concepts central to the study of gender. The explanations offered are neither comprehensive nor definitive. They are only intended to help you explore key ideas about the concepts. You will develop a deeper understanding when you read about them in the subsequent chapters. The unit also covers how gender is socially constructed through the family, the school, the peer group and the mass media. Although there are many types of gender socialisation, in this unit we focus on Oakleys types of gender socialisation. 1.2 Unit Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to: Define and explain gender Differentiate between gender and sex Define and explain some key concepts in relation to gender Discuss how gender is socially constructed, maintained and perpetuated Examine the various types of gender socialisation

1.3 Gender and related concepts. To best understand the term gender it is essential to first understand the term sex as these two terms are often confused and sometimes used interchangeably. Sex According to Macionis (1989), sex refers to the division of humanity into biological categories of male and female. As a biological distinction, sex is determined at the moment a child is conceived. Sex is also defined as the biological differences between men and women, that is, their physical characteristics: external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads (the organs which produce sex cells), hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004: 94). Sex is therefore a fact of biology, which is the physiological distinctiveness or state of being male or female. Gender Gender refers to human traits linked by culture to each sex (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004).Within a society; males are socialized to be masculine as females are taught to be feminine. Walter and Manion (1996) maintain that gender is the difference that sex makes within a society, guiding how we are to think of ourselves, how we interact with others, the social opportunities, occupations, family roles and prestige allowed males and females. Gender can also be defined as a set of characteristics, roles and behaviour patterns that distinguish women from men which are constructed not biologically but socially and culturally (Gita Sen in Towards Earth Summit 2002:1). Like the variable concepts of class, race, ethnicity, culture and economics, gender is an analytical tool for understanding social processes that affect human beings. The following table1.1 helps you differentiate between gender and sex. Table 1.1 Differentiating gender from sex. Sex Is in born Gender Starts the moment the sex is known.

Is biologically determined Is exclusive to a particular sex and is fixed. It does not change over time, once born male always male and once born female always female. Is universal, that is, the organs that determine a male or a female are uniform the world over for example the penis for the males and the vagina for the females.

Is socially constructed. Varies within and among cultures. Different individuals and societies give different meanings to maleness and femaleness. The attributes, expected roles, expected behaviours and expected responsibilities that go with maleness and femaleness differ from society to society, community to community and from individual to individual. Is learnt

Is natural.

Activity 1.1 What is your understanding of gender? Why do you think gender is a contemporary issue in your country today? Sex roles Sex roles are duties, activities, tasks or responsibilities that males and females perform or undertake that are an inevitable product of ones biology, for example, breastfeeding for females and impregnating for the males. Like sex, these assignments are biologically determined, fixed, universal and exclusive to a particular sex. Gender roles Gender roles are duties, chores, tasks, responsibilities or assignments that a particular cultural group consider appropriate for its males and females on the basis of the meaning attached to their sexual identity. These roles are not a direct or an inevitable product of males or females biology e.g. caring for children by females and mending a puncture for males. They are learnt, vary within and among cultures, dynamic, interchangeable and can be affected by factors like class, religion, age, race, education, geographical location and ethnicity.

Gender Equality When we say 2+2=4, we mean that the value of 2+2 and the value of 4 are the same. In gender equality, we are interested in the same valuation of men and women and sameness of enjoyment of rights, power, opportunities, treatment and control of resources between males and females in society. We are also interested in the sameness in enjoying of the benefits from resources. Gender equality is therefore not only the absence of discrimination and bias, but the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and differences between women and men and the varying roles that they play (Gender Equality Analysis Policy-Status of Women Canada page 5).It does not mean that men and women will become the same. No. But they will have same opportunities in life. An example of practicing gender equality is according men and women enjoyment of same voting rights. Gender equality, therefore, denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for women and men, recognizing their different needs and interests and requiring a redistribution of power and resources (Bridge Report No. 55:10). Gender Equity Gender equity is a process of achieving fairness and justice among men and women. The fairness and justice is in relation to distribution of opportunities, responsibilities and resources as well as in accessing and controlling the benefits from the resources. To ensure fairness, measures must often be made available to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating on a level playing field (Gender Equality Analysis Policy- Status of Women Canada page 5). Gender equity also entails proportional distribution of social resources and services, as well as proportional representation of men and women in the development process, that is, the composition of males and females at all levels should closely represent the general population. What we mean here is that, if we are practicing gender equity, say in our enrolment of male and females into university then the ratio of males to females should be commensurate with the national population ratio of 48:52. Gender equity leads to gender equality. Gender bias Gender bias is the tendency to be in favour of, or against males and females on the basis of their gender rather than on anything else, like what some teachers do when they take only females for fashion and fabrics because of their stereotypical belief that women are better at sewing than men.

Gender Discrimination Gender discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group on the basis of their gender which denies them rights, opportunities or resources. When universities lower entry points for only female students, (whatever the reasons may be) they will be discriminating against the male students. Gender discrimination can be positive or negative and whether positive or negative, differential treatment is given to males and females on basis of their gender. Gender Neutrality This is the claim that one is indifferent to issues of gender as he/she has no ultimate gender practice. It assumes that all people are affected by programmes or polices in the same way. It is premised on the theory that all people are already equal, therefore treating all people the same way is fair, (Womens Policy Office, Government of Newfound land and Labrador (undated) Facilitators Guide, Gender Inclusive Analysis.An Overview St Johns, NF, p.14) like what most universities do when they give one tissue roll to every student in residence for a specified period of time. Female students, by virtue of their biology require more tissue paper. It thus may not allow for sensitivity to disadvantages, hence it replicates stereotypes and restrictive views of males and females. Gender Blindness When one is blind one cannot see. Gender blindness is total failure, out of sheer gender ignorance, to recognize the differences between males and females and subsequently leads to failure to provide or cater for the differences. Gender blind people fail to realize that policies, programmes and activities can have different effects on men and women and this often leads to rigidity and unchanging attitudes. It is a characteristics feature of conservative societies, where gender bias and discrimination is orchestrated on ill knowledge and innocence. A good example is what happened at a certain school which had been originally a boys only school and then decided to become co-educational. The school administration made girls stay in hostels that were previously boys. The toilets in these hostels had urinals and the administration did not see anything wrong with that. This is gender blindness. Gender Sensitivity

Imagine entering a bus which is ferrying students from your university home and you find that 90% of the bus load is males and the majority of those that failed to enter the bus are females. You will obviously sense a gap of something between male students as a group and female students as a group. What is it that you are sensing? You are right!-that, whatever the reason, there is a gender gep between men and women. You see, you are becoming gender sensitive. Gender sensitivity is the mere ability to perceive existing gender inequalities. It is gender perceptiveness or gender consciousness, which is, looking at an issue with a gender eye. It is the beginning of gender awareness. Gender Awareness In the example of the bus situation given immediately above, what do you think is the cause of the problem given that the passengers in the bus were self drawn from a population of equal numbers between males and females? You are now searching for the possible gender problems. You are now becoming gender-aware. Gender awareness is, therefore, the ability to identify problems arising from gender discrimination and bias which affect mens and womens ability to access and control resources and /or even access and control of benefits from the resources is gender awareness. It is still gender awareness even when and where the problems are disguised and defended as culture and tradition. Gender Responsiveness What solutions would you offer in the transport problem above so that females are not discriminated against? You are now becoming gender responsive. Gender responsiveness mainly constitutes responding to gender issues with a view to eradicate the bias and discrimination in order to ensure equality and equity (FAWE, 2004).It is the ability to visualise and practicalise gender equity and gender equality. You see, it starts from gender sensitivity to gender awareness then to gender responsiveness. For detail we refer you to Unit 7. Feminism Feminism is a social and political movement aimed at defending and expanding the rights of women. It is both a cause and a result of the changing positions of women in society. It is also an ideology, which recognizes the systematic discrimination against women on the grounds of their gender. Feminism gives commitment to work towards correcting the

undesirable situation of women. It challenges the idea that gender like sex is natural. For detail we refer you to Unit 2. Patriarchy Patriarchy is a social system that propagates male superiority, power and control over women as natural. It oppresses exploits and subordinates women. In patriarchal societies leadership roles, control of valuable resources and decision making is a male preserve. Patriarchy draws a clear demarcation line between males and female. It also creates a social stratification with males always on top. Meena (1992) says that, in patriarchy, even the weakest man has a woman to oppress and exploit. In patriarchy women are perceived as perpetual minors who cannot take independent decisions. It is in short, systematic societal structures that institutionalize male physical social and economic power over women (Bridge Report No. 55:29). For detail we refer you to Unit 2. Gender Mainstreaming ..is the process of assessing the implication for women and men of any planned action; including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the policies and programmes in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. (Towards Earth Summit, 2002: 2).It is a strategy to achieve gender equality that was universally adopted at the fourth world conference on women in 1995, at Beijing- a means to the bigger end of attaining gender equality. For detail you go to Unit 7. Gender Empowerment This is one of the words that are difficulty to define because of taking different forms in different people and different contexts. Babikwa (2004:72) says empowerment does not mean individual self assertion, upward social mobility or increased disposable income or when psychological experience of feeling self realized.it means....an understanding of the causes of powerlessness, recognizing systematically oppressive forces and acting individually and collectively to change the conditions of life Basically, then, it is to do with ones participation in decisions and processes affecting ones life. It is a process about people, taking control over their own lives, setting their own agendas, building self

confidence, solving problems [Kabeer, (1994) in March et al 1999:25] Empowerment cannot be given, it must be self generated because such change must be believed in, initiated, and directed by those whose interests it is meant to serve. What other external forces like education can do is to provide those who need empowerment with an enabling environment and resources which will allow them to take greater control of their lives; determine what relations they would want to live within and devise strategies to help them get there (Naila Kabeer, in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay, 1999:.25).For detail you go to Unit 9. Gender Affirmative Action Gender affirmative action is a corrective or compensatory measure for past injustices or gaps and an accelerator for the process of equitable development. It is an intended justice measure through deliberately according the previously excluded or disadvantaged sex group preferential treatment to increase the groups representation in areas of education, employment, business and politics among others. It entails gender discrimination because it gives unfair, though justifiable, advantage to the once discriminated sex group. It is therefore positive or reverse discrimination. Gender affirmative action is meant to redress the effects of past discriminations rather than discriminate. An example of gender affirmative action is the practice done by most universities when these institutions lower their entry points for female students only. For detail you go to Unit 7. Gender Stereotypes Gender stereotypes are socially constructed ideas or beliefs about men and women which are not necessarily true but taken as truth by society. They are maintained, perpetuated and transmitted from generation to generation by social institutions like the family, the school, the media, religion, the culture among others. Most common gender stereotypes are based on: Sex, for example, males are aggressive while females are affectionate Personality, for example men are cheerful while women are nervous Age, for example, young men are rebellious while older women are conservative Ethnicity, for example, Ndebele women are good home managers while Shona women are good fieldworkers Class for example upper class men are playful while lower class men are ambitious Occupations, for example male nurses are kind and loving while female nurses are rude and short hearted with women in labour. 8

Stereotypes can be positive or negative. Gender Identity .it is how an individual adapts the prescribed sex role to his or her individual identity. (Http: // www.gender.org.uk about gender definitions.htm page 2) Gender Relations These are the range of gendered practices, such as the division of labour and resources and the gendered ideologies such as ideas of acceptable behaviour for men and women (Bridge Report No. 55:18.).They are simply the social relationships between men as a sex group and women as a sex group. They determine what is socially accepted and what is socially inappropriate. They work in most cases to subordinate and discriminate against women. Gender practical needs These are the concrete, immediate and often essential needs/wants for human survival. The men and women survive better in their socially accepted roles, within their gendered power structures. Practical gender needs include food and shelter among other things. Gender strategic needs These are human requirements which when met challenge and change power relations between men and women. They are often less visible than the practical ones and are long term, one example being access to decision making positions. Gender Socialisation Gender socialisation refers to the means whereby social expectations regarding genderappropriate characteristics are conveyed to the child. These expectations are often based on stereotyped beliefs. It has a dual significance for these children, that is, it provides them with models for present behaviour and it prepares them for adult life (Dekker and Lemmer, 1993:9).

Activity 1.2

In your own words define and explain, using examples where necessary, each of the terms given above. Differentiate between: a) gender equity and gender equality b) gender blindness and gender neutrality c) gender sensitivity and gender awareness d) gender roles and sex roles e) feminism and patriarchy f) gender affirmative action and gender empowerment g) gender mainstreaming and gender empowerment.

1.4 Social Construction of Gender To construct is to build or to make. The social construction of gender is the social making of gender. Gender is constructed by society through the process of gender socialization. The social institutions that are responsible for gender construction are called socialisation forces like the family, the school, the media, the language, music religion among others. The people who carry out the socialization are socialisation agents like the parents, the teachers, pastors, peers and many others. Some institutions like the family are primary in the sense that they are the first that any child comes into contact with. Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn (2004), says the family is the childs first window to the world and no other gender socialisation institution rivals it in gender socialisation. Such prime gender socialisation institutions are called primary socialisation forces, while those institutions that the child comes in contact with after primary socialisation are called secondary socialisation forces like the school, the peer group, and others. Both the primary and secondary forces create, reinforce, maintain and perpetuate gender but the primary forces are the chief creators, while the secondary forces are the chief maintainers, reinforcers and perpetuators. The family, the school, the peer group and the mass media are going to be discussed briefly here though other agents of gender socialisation are just as important. The Family The family constructs gender through the way family members: interact with and treat the child talk to the child dress the child, give the toys and types toys they give to the child assign roles and the roles they give

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accord the child benefits and opportunities and the type of benefits and opportunities they accord position the child within the family give the child the name and the name given and even the other pseudo names given among other things. The School The school is a secondary socializing force and the teachers are the chief socialising agents. The school operates on two levels, that is, the intentional and official and the unintentional and none examined both of which gender differentiated (Dekker and Lemmer 2003.)Gordon (1995) says that teachers dont explicitly teach gender, but gender emerges on its own in the curriculum. What the school pupils eyes see, what their ears hear and what their minds in turn believe in through: the school management structure the ways teachers talk ,organize and treat the pupils the portrayal of men and women in the texts and reading books the learning media the subject allocations the teachers teaching methodologies the teachers attitudes and expectations the extra curricula activities the sort of carrier guidance offered among other things, discerns a gender social code on the pupils. Therefore you see that, the exclamations it s a boy! Or its a girl! upon delivery sets a course of action that from that moment on, influences multiple facets of a persons life. The answer boy or girl carries significance in the childs entire life in terms of the individuals: opportunities associations and relationships benefits societal roles and responsibilities value in society social identity expected behaviour

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The Peer Group On reaching school age, children begin to interact more intensively outside the family, especially with others of their age (the peer group).Within the peer group, the blue and pink worlds are further developed. Childrens games provide important cultural lessons. Lever cited in Macionis (1989) concluded that the peer group activities of boys and girls differ considerably, providing in each case a distinctive type of socialization. Lever found out that boys engage in team sports that involve many roles and complex rules, and clear objectives like scoring a goal. These games are almost always competitive, producing winners and losers. Such activity among boys reinforce s the characteristics of masculinity, notably aggression, competition, and remaining in control. Girls on the other hand, tend to play games such as jump rope in small groups, or simply sing or dance together. Such activity tends to be spontaneous, involving few simple rules. Just as important, since these games rarely have victory as their ultimate goal, girls rarely oppose one another. However, female peer groups do serve to teach the interpersonal skills of communication and cooperation that are the basis for life within the family. Gilligan cited in Giddens (2004), noted that boys and girls learn to use distinctive patterns of moral reasoning. Boys tend to reason according to rules and principles, that rightness is largely a matter of playing by the rules. Girls however, understand morality more in terms of responsibility to other human beings, so that rightness lies in maintaining close relationships with others. Clearly then, these distinctive patterns of moral reasoning are encouraged by the different kinds of peer group activity common to boys and girls. ACTIVITY 1.2 1. Which games do young boys and girls in your community play? 11. How do the different games reinforce the traditional gender stereotypes?

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The Mass Media Mass media are channels of communication directed to vast audiences within a society (Macionis, 1989).The mass media include both electronic and print media such as the television, radio newspapers, and magazines. All of these constantly present us with information of all kinds and, as a result, have an enormous effect on our attitudes and behaviour. The mass media are a powerful force in the socialization process. Films, magazines, literature and especially the television, have a significant effect on the ways we think and act. ACTIVITY 1.3 1. Think of a novel you have read. 11. Identify the main actors, their sex, their roles in driving the play towards its climax. 111. Identify the gender issues in your chosen novel. 1v. How can literature be turned into a gender responsive environment?

From the above activity, we may note that beyond the inclusion of both sexes in the mass media, the issue is how they are portrayed. In most instances, males play the brilliant detectives, fearless explorers, skilled surgeons, and interesting conversationalists. Males take charge; they give orders and are portrayed as competent and capable. Females on the other hand, are mostly portrayed as reliant on males, less competent and more often the targets of comedy (Busby, cited in Haralambos and Horlborn, 2004). Women have also long been portrayed as sex objects important for little other than their physical attractiveness (Macionis, 1989). These negative stereotypes continue to persist in modern day programs, although admittedly there is more programming with interesting and responsible women in major roles.

ACTIVITY 1.4 Choose a current television program. Identify the gender stereotypes in the program. Discuss giving examples, how the mass media can be turned into a gender responsive environment.

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Although gender stereotypes in the mass media have lessened recently, commercial advertising has changed less. This is because advertising sells the most products by conforming to widely established cultural patterns. Haralambos and Horlborn (2004) maintain that television and magazine advertising presents women in the home far more often than in occupational role. In most cases, women are found primarily in adverts for household items such as cleaning products, foods, clothing, and domestic appliances, while men predominate in adverts for cars, travel, banking and finance, industrial appliances, and alcoholic beverages. Goffman, cited in Macionis (19890, similarly concluded that advertising conveys cultural ideals of each sex. In his study of advertising in magazines newspapers, Goffman found that men were typically placed in photographs to appear taller than females, implying social superiority. In addition, women were far more likely than men to be shown lying down on sofas and beds, or, like children, seated on the floor. The music industry is also no exception in portraying females as sex objects .Good examples are productions by the late Dr Love Paul Matavire, the Lonely Lover Gregory Isaacs, and in some cases the late Simon Chopper Chimbetu, Dr Thomas Tafirenyika Mapfumo and many others. ACTIVITY 1.5 Compile a list of some musicians of your choice and their songs where females are portrayed as sex objects. Suggest measures that may be adopted in the music industry to create a gender responsive environment.

TYPES OF GENDER SOCIALISATION There are many types of gender socialisation. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) talks about the types discussed below.

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Canalisation Canalisation is gender socialization through interaction with toys and objects. Toys align children play to behavior expected of them when they graduate to be men and women and again through interacting with these toys children develop different sets of aptitudes and attitudes. Verbal Appellations These are the differential use of descriptions and labels among boys and girls like, what a good boy! or nice girl! or reprimands like, oh! Boys dont cry. This makes the children want to keep up gender appearances as the children internalize the label(s) and start to act and operate according to it. Manipulation Manipulation is the differential attention and valuing given boys and girls like, mothers paying attention to girls hair. Soon boys and girls learn that different things are expected of them through the different treatment accorded them and engrave a deep sense of what it is to be a boy or girl (that is, a deep sense of their self concept.) Imitation Imitation is when children observe their parents or other elders within and try to be like them. They, thus, learn how local governance operates through observing its officers at work. N.B However, though the argument here is that gender is PURELY a social construct, other scholars explain gender differences as partly products of Brain lateralization and hormonal variations, (Haralambos and Holborn 2004). For detail on both the socio-generic and the bio-generic sources of gender turn to Unit 2. Activity 1.6 Critically discuss the notion that gender is a social construct. Illustrate your response with concrete examples.

CONCLUSION

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This part of the unit has tried to show that gender is a product of gender socialization. This is largely achieved through social institutions such as the family, the school, the peer group and the mass media. Other important socializing agents are religion, culture and the work place. These will be discussed in unit 5.

References Babikwa D, J (2004) Tensions, Contradictions and Inconsistencies in Community-Based Environmental Education Programmes: The role of defective educational theories. in Southern African Journal of Environmental Education VOL.21 (2004) pp 61-80 (Bem, 1981 Chalfant and LaBeff, 1988). Giddens, A. ( 2004) Modernity and Self Identity Cambridge: Polity Press. Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: Collins Educational. Kohlberg, 1966) Macionis (1989 Walter and Manion, 1996),

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Gender Equality Analysis Policy-Status of Women Canada. Womens Policy Office Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (undated) Facilitators Guide, Gender Inclusive Analysis An overview St Johns NF March C, Smyth I; Mukhopadhyay M. 1999 A Guide to Gender Analysis Frameworks. Oxfam. Oxford. Meena, R. 1992 Gender in Southern Africa; Conceptual and Theoretical Issues. Sapes Books, Harare. Towards Earth Summit 2002 Social Briefing Paper number 2. UNESCO (2004) Guidelines for Implementing, Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Responsive EFA Plans Van Scotter D, R (1991) Social Foundations of Education, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

UNIT 2 THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES By Winfridah Matsa 2.1 Introduction In unit 1 we defined and explained gender concepts. Unit 2 deals with theories of gender inequalities. Theories of Gender Inequalities do not only offer explanations of gender differences but also help to clarify differences between gender and sex as well as gender

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and feminism which are often misconstrued and confused. This unit discusses first, biological theories that explain gender differences in terms of natural biology and innate abilities which were dominant theories before the rise of gender and feminism. Gender theories view and locate differences between males and females in social constructs (created by society.) This chapter covers both macro and micro theories of gender inequalities. Macro theories tend to be comprehensive and include a variety of factors while micro theories centre explanations on individual aspects like environment, biology, culture or ecology. Origins, major expositions and applicability of each theory are discussed in this chapter. Also activities are provided at the end of each theory to enhance your understanding of it through interaction. 2.2 Unit Objectives By the end of the unit you should be able to: 1. Differentiate: a. Gender from sex b. Gender from feminism 2. Outline origins and major expositions of each theory 3. Evaluate the applicability of each theory especially to your country situation. 4. Explain limitations of each theory. 5. Answer questions that relate to the activities at the end of each theory. 2.3 What is a theory? Henslin (1999) defines a theory as a general statement that explains how two or more facts are related to one another. Haralambos and Holborn (1990:8) define a theory as a set of ideas which claim to explain how something works: it provides a logical explanation for why things happen the way they do. A theory therefore defines the causal factors of a relationship and explains the nature of that relationship. 2.4 What is Feminism? According to Magezis (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which allows different points of view that work for women rights. It is the organizational movement which promotes equality for both men and women in political, economic and social spheres of life (Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). Feminists focus on why and how women are oppressed in different spheres of life and work for their liberation. Feminism can be viewed in the following three ways:

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1. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and their equality with men in all spheres of life. 2. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive relations of men and women using womens perspectives. 3. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at transforming them (Mannathoko in Meena, 1992). To Henslin (1999:292) Feminism is the view that; Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is wrong and should be resisted, met with strong opposition both by men who have privileges to lose and by women who accepted their status as normally correct. 2.4.1 Rise of Feminism It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual division of labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the stability of society. It was also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the position of women as natural. Feminism also questioned the dominant views or philosophies that viewed women as les human than males. Examples of these philosophies are: The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities( Aristotle) A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas). The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can attainwhether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses and hands( Charles Darwin). (Sandi, 1997; 1) The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of theories that focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and strategies of womens liberation. 2.4.2 Common aspects shared by Feminists 1. Gender is not natural but a social construct. 2. They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life. 3. Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.

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2.4.3 Feminist Differences 1. Explanations of womens oppression. 2. Areas of focus e.g. cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc. 3. Direction of change or what constitute womens liberation. 2.5. What is Gender? Sifuniso et al (2000:2) define gender as: The social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a given society and the expectations held as to the character, attitude and likely behaviour of men and women. Gender, unlike sex which is biological, is socially constructed. Gender influences the different behaviours, roles, responsibilities, identities and treatment of males and females in society. Gender depends on the culture and history of a particular society and differs from culture to culture (Refer to unit 1). Though gender theories do not differ much from feminist theories, they focus on both males and females, while feminist theories centre on women. Table 2.1 Differences between Feminist and Gender Theories Feminist Theories Are women centered Focus on experiences of women View issues from womens social world Seek to produce a better world for women Gender Theories Men and Women centered Focus on experiences of women and men View issues from a gender perspective Seek to produce a better world for both Are about peaceful co-existence of males Are about fighting back (revenge) and females not fighting back View males as enemies and to blame for Males are viewed as victims of sociosubordinate position of women cultural institutions created by society Reject assistance by males in their Accept assistance by gender sensitive struggles males The question is: What about men and Ask questions like: What about women? women? 2.6 Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:

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* Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed. * Gender differences can be deconstructed * Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations * Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures such as: a) capitalism b) sexism or patriarchy c) racism d) social and cultural institutions 2.7 Biological Theories Biological theories view differences between men and women as natural and God given hence cannot be changed. Some of the theories are:

Table 2.2 Biological Theories Theory Brain Laterisation Theory Theorists John Nicholson Gray J.A. Buffery A.W.H. Sigmund Freud E.O.Wilson David Barash G.P. Murdock Talcott Parsons

Psychoanalytic Theory Socio-biology

Biology and Practicality Biology: Expressive & Instrumental Roles

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Biology has been the most widely accepted explanation for inequalities between men and women for a long time. Scientists observe natural differences ranging from hormones, chromosomes, brain size and genetics as responsible for innate differences in behaviour of women and men (Giddens, 2001). Even stereotypical behaviours like mens physical strength, superior intelligence aggression womens softness, care, passivity and love are all attributed to biological determinism. Biologists argue that the above characteristics are evident across cultures. However, critics of biological theories reveal that the level, for example of passivity of women and aggression of males vary depending on cultures. They argue that, if a trait is not universal, then it cannot be natural. Giddens (2001) notes that such theories neglect the vital role of social interaction in shaping human behaviour. 2.7.1 Brain Laterisation and Hormonal Explanations Scientists believe that behaviour, personality and emotional disposition are controlled by hormones in males and females. Studies by Nicholson showed that there is correlation between levels of testosterone and male aggression. Girls with high levels of oestrogen exhibit tomboy characteristics. John Nicholson cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) argue that the Right and left wings of the brain specialize in different tasks because of hormones which have effects on the brain. The right specializes in visiospatial abilities while the left specializes in verbal and language skills. This is supported by Gray and Buffery (Ibid) who pointed out that the left is dominant in girls hence girls have verbal ability, while boys perform better in mathematical texts. However, not all boys score higher in maths and lower in languages. Similarly not all girls score low marks in maths and higher in language. There are also differences in ability at infant stage where girls score higher in all subjects. This shows that there are other factors that influence ability. 2.7.2 Psycho-analytic theory (by Sigmund Freud) Freud in Giddens (2001) argues that gender differences at infant are centred on the presence or absence of the penis. Having a penis is equivalent to being a boy while being a girl means one lacks a penis. The boy views the father as a rival in the affection of the

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mother. The boy suppresses feelings for the mother and identifies with the father in fear of threats, discipline and demand for autonomy by the father. Girls suffer from penis envy and devalue the mother who does not have one. She identifies with the mother and takes dependency and submissive attitudes. The above theory assumes that the penis is superior to the vagina and that gender learning is concentrated at the age of 4-5years. There are more factors and processes that contribute to gender learning, genetic factors are not enough. 2.7.3 Sociobiology The theory was propounded by William (1975) and applied to gender by David Barash (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Barash argues that genetics are governed by instructions to maximize the chances of passion on the genes to future generations from breeding. Males produce more sperms hence have interest in making many females pregnant. As a result males are likely to be promiscuous than females. Men compete for scarce reproductive capacities of females. Females invest more time and energy in one off-spring and gestate the foetus in her womb. Women are sure that children are genetically theirs hence devote time to child care. It is assumed that women can tolerate mens infidelity more readily than men. The theory falls short of the realization that human behaviour is governed by the environment not instincts. It is conservative and views human behaviour as natural, inevitable and universal. 2.7.4 Biology and Practicality George Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) views males and females differences in physical strength, as leading to differences in roles. Sexual division of labour is taken to be the most efficient way of organizing society. He points out that a survey of 224 societies showed that mens tasks were those demanding physical strength eg, mining, hunting, quarrying etc. Women were limited to less strenuous tasks like fetching water, cooking, gathering firewood, preparing clothes. Women were tied to the home, child bearing and care. To Murdock, physical strength and child bearing are biological and determine roles and spheres of operation in the home and public place. The findings from the survey of 224 societies are not enough to conclude that sexual division of labour is biological. Societies construct roles but these roles are not universal. What would be the biological explanation in these societies which do not stick to the roles given above?

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2.7.5 Biology: Expressive and Instrumental Roles (Talcott Parsons) Though a sociologist, Parsons starting point in explaining sexual division of labour was in biology. He argues out that childbearing and early nursing is linked to biology. The male is achievement oriented; playing instrumental role that has stress and anxiety. The womans role is expressive, that is providing warmth, emotional support and stabilizing adult personalities. She relieves stress by providing the breadwinner with love, consideration and understanding. Clear sexual division of labour is for efficiency as a social system. Expressive and instrumental roles complement each other and promote family solidarity. Each sex is biologically suited for these tasks. Parsons did not foresee the future of the modern industrial society where women also perform instrumental roles that are stressful. Mothers can have substitutes in childcare for love and affection (ODonnell, 1992). This is because although child bearing is biological, child rearing is not. In a modern industrial society even the type of work has changed and sexual division of labour is not universal. 2.7.6 Summary Biological theories assume that nature is more significant than ones social experiences. They focus on sex hence are heavily criticized by sociologists and feminists who are interested in gender instead. Sociologists and feminists feel that the differences between men and women are socially rather than biologically produced. Feminist theories were a reaction to the shortfalls of biological theories. There has been a shift from biological explanations to psychosocial patterns of socialization. Biology alone is not enough to explain social, economic, political and religious differences between men and women. 2.8 MACRO-THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES 2.8.1 Liberal theory 2.8.1.1 Origin

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It is the first documented form of feminism. According to Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992), liberal feminism dates back to the 18th Century Britain. The proponent, Mary Wollerstone Craft questioned views about women which were damaging and discriminatory. The theory rose as a result of the following; Industrial Revolution in Europe especially Britain that created structural changes in the methods of production and social relations. For example, women joined wage labour but were not treated as their male counter parts; Democratic political ideas in capitalist USA that emphasized Equality, Liberty and Fraternity; Ideas of Scholars of Enlightment for example , Rousseau,Aristotle among others; Influence of the modernization theory and Women in Development (WID) approach to Development which emphasized borrowing of Western ideas and did not revamp economic and social structures of society; Philosophy of liberalism with the belief in individual rights eg. Right to freedom and autonomy.

The second wave of feminism was widespread in the 1950s. The 1960s ushered in new rights in many countries that were gaining independence, especially third world countries (Tandon, 1996). These included rights to independence, vote, work, protection, dignity and freedom. Liberal feminism was based on the belief that women possess reason and as such are entitled to full human rights and are free to choose their role in life, explore their potential and compete with men. 2.8.1.2 Major Exposition Giddens (2001:692) defines liberal theory as a: Feminist theory that believes gender inequality is produced by reduced access for women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education and employment. Liberal feminists believe: In individual rights for women.

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That womens discrimination is based on prejudice, sexism and socialization (Magezis, 1996). Those women have mental capacities as their male counterparts and should be given the same opportunities in political, economic and social spheres. Those women are constrained by social legal and cultural institutions. That there should be fairness, justice, equal opportunities and equal participation in the management of society. That attitudes, stereotypes and biases against females constrain women Confinement of women to the private sphere and dependency on men . Disadvantage women

2.8.1.3 Solutions Liberals propose the following as solutions to womens problems: Give women equal rights, opportunities to jobs, education to challenge directly the ideology of patriarchy. Proportional representation and equal access of males and females in education, employment, health, resources, political organs, training etc. Sought womens liberation through legal reforms. Advocate for gender mainstreaming in education and training. Education is viewed as a liberating force hence both boys and girls should be educated. Focus on changing attitudes, stereotypes and biases in language, textbooks and the media. Call for diversification of the curriculum. Call for catering for special needs of girls to improve their social status, self esteem and confidence. Advocate for womens participation in the public sphere. Reorient women into crucial decision making positions of executives, directors, ministers, presidency and so on.. Empower women through education, training, workshops and projects. End discrimination of build positive role models for women and girls. 2.8.1.4 Applicability of the Liberal Theory

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Achievements In SADC countries, liberal feminists are responsible for many important Acts of legislation that have greatly improved the situation of women. In Zimbabwe, these include reform in welfare, education and health. Education In Zimbabwe, the 1980 Education act declared Education for all despite class, gender religion, and ethnicity. The liberals have fought for a gender sensitive curriculum and removal of stereotypes in texts, and any teaching material. This has seen subjects and sports in the school curriculum being open for both boys and girls. There have been changes in stereotypical language in the school e.g. : Headmaster School Head Choirmaster Choir Director Sportsmaster Sports Director Senior Master/mistress Senior Teachers. Liberals have called for gender sensitive teaching methods to afford pupils equal treatment. There has been proportional representation in enrolments of males and females at primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. Proportional representative has also been applied in promotion of women to positions of authority eg. School heads, Education officers etc. There has also been equal access to bursaries and scholarships. Workplaces In Britain equal pay and sex discrimination acts came into being in the 1970s. In Zimbabwe the 1985 Labour Relations Act was introduced. It had the following provisions: Equal pay for males and females; Minimum wages for everyone Equal treatment and access to male dominated occupations. Maternity leave benefits and recently paternity leave No discrimination on the grounds of sex, not even on adverts in the media.

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 Politics

Access to top positions of executives, directors and ministers.

The SADC declaration on gender led to the consideration of women participation in politics. This led to the introduction of the quota system where one third of parliamentarians have to be women. Women now have access to top positions and participate in electoral and legal reform processes. Legal sphere Internationally equal rights for men and women were included in the United Nations (UN) Charter of 1947. Trafficking in human beings who were mostly females was stopped in 1948. In Zimbabwe Acts were passed to protect and improve the social status of women, for example: Legal Age of majority Act (1982) which lifted women from a state of being perpetual minors. Women above 18years are now viewed as adults who can consent on their own, make contracts and own property like land, cattle, bank accounts houses among others.; Matrimonial causes Act which allows sharing of property at death or divorce. Sexual offences Act that protects both males and females from sexual harassment. There has also been conscientisation of women on marriage Acts and their provisions. Pensions Acts have been amended also. These and many unmentioned Acts including the recent domestic Act are all in a bid to bring gender equality.

For a detailed treatment of each of these acts refer to Unit 9 of this module. 2.8.1.5 Limitations of the Theory. The liberal Theory is mainly criticized by socialist and radical feminists who argue that liberals: .Do not addresses underlying causes of womens oppression (Bryson, 1992). .Ignore power relations (structural inequalities) prevailing in society 28

.Do not goes deeper into explaining causes of womens subordination hence cannot offer solutions for an unknown cause. Do not offer strategy to counter traditional norms and values that constrain women. Is reformist in nature moving in a gradual process to influence the government to pass laws (Magezis, 1996). No major structural changes are made in the socioeconomic arrangement of the society. View women as a homogeneous category ignoring class, race and ethnicity. Its calls for access to education, health, employment, legal instruments leave out lower class women. Its blending well with the WID approach to development; its welfare and antipoverty approaches compromise women rights, access and control of resources.

Activity 2.1 Discussion Questions. a) What are the characteristics of liberalism as an ideology? b) After a close reflection of the solutions offered by liberal feminists, what would you consider to be their weaknesses? c) To what extent have the following been effective in redressing gender imbalances between males and females? i. ii. legal instruments access to Education

d) In view of the political changes that have taken place in your country, complete the table below. POSITIONS Presidency Ministers Provincial. Governors Parliamentarians MALES FEMALES % FEMALES

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Chiefs

2.8.2 Marxist- Feminist Theory 2.8.2.1 Origin Marxist Feminists are a variety of scholars who were applying the Marxist theory of economic determinism in explaining the oppression of women. These were drawing from Karl Max and Fredrick Engels writings, for example: The origin of the family, private property and the State. (ODonnell 1992). The theory rose in the 1970s owing to the Women and Development (WAD) approach to development and as a critic of the liberal feminist theory, modernization theory and Women in development approach. Women and Development (WAD) approach had been influenced by the critics of the modernization theory, which were dependency theorists and Under-development scholars of the Third World especially Latin America. These were the likes of Walter Rodney, Dos Antos and Gunder Frank. The proponents of the Marxist Feminists are Sue Sharpe, Juliet Mitchel and Marynard among others. 2.8.2.2 Marxist Terms Economic Base- I t consists of the means of production including land, capital, labour and time. Forces of production - which include tools/implements or technology. Relations of production-which define who owns, controls, dominates, profits as well as who has power. The ownership of the means of production and productive forces determine the relations of production. Superstructure-Is made of ideologies that monitor, maintain, reproduce and legitimize the status quo (Relations of production at the base). The ideologies are; patriarchy capitalism cultural beliefs

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religion State institutions e.g. schools, legislation and repressive state apparatus.

Economic determinism states that ownership of the economy greatly determines how the two classes (owners and non-owners of the means of production) relate in a capitalist system. Subordinate and dominant class-Those who own the means of production are the dominant class while those who do not own them constitute the subordinate class. Exploitation and Oppression-Those who do not own the means of production are exploited of their labour by being given low wages. The powerful owning class oppresses the subordinate class. 2.8.2.3 Marxist Feminist Expositions Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of private property (Bryson, 1992). They challenge attempt to isolate gender from social class. Men are powerful because they own the means of production (dominant class) Women do not own the means of production hence are a subordinate class that is oppressed, exploited just like the proletariats. The base determines relations between men and women. Womens position in a capitalist society is economically determined Capitalism divides work into private (home) and public sphere (workplace). Capitalism values mens labour and devalue that of women by giving low wages. Women enter wage labour from a subordinate position. Women are a reserve army of labour, that is, they can be recruited any time to replace males at a low cost.

Sharpe in ODonnell (1992; 172) argues that; Employers . Frequently regard women as mere temporary labour, and consider that they should be thought lucky to have the opportunity to earn some money for themselves. They can

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be used as surplus labour force, to be employed or laid off at will. Men are viewed as bread winners hence higher wages while women are viewed as appendages of men (Bryson, 1992). Women suffer double exploitation, for example, they produce in factories and produce future labourers at no cost. Domestic work in the private sphere is not remunerated. Women are alienated (separated) from their production, reproduction and sexuality. This means women do not own and control what they produce in the public sphere, at home and even that which relates to their sexuality (children and their bodies). Mitchel in O Donnell ( ibid.) argues that oppression in the family produces: A tendency to small-mindedness, petty, jealousy, irrational emotionally and random violence, dependency competitive selfishness, possessiveness, passivity, a lack of vision and conservativism. These characteristics are embedded in womens objective conditions and a sexist society. Women serve the interest of capitalism through the management of the family. They provide productive, psychological and social needs.

2.8.2.4 Solutions Marxist-Feminists propose the following as some of the solutions to womens problems; Marxist Feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic system. They call for a socialist Revolution that would change the structure and ownership of the means of production. There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of both sexes. (Pilcher and Whelehan,2004) Females should free themselves from dependence and traditional gender roles that confine them to the private sphere. Participation of women in the public sphere is key to their liberation. Men and women should struggle against capitalist oppressors. Class and gender struggles should take place at the same time.

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Abolition of private property and setting up of a communally owned means of production in a communist society. Household work should be paid for.

2.8.2.5 Applicability of the Marxist-Feminist Theory. In SADC countries as patriarchal societies, men own private property more than women e.g. land, capital, houses, machinery and labour. Most of the productive forces are registered on male names. As a result men become powerful, oppress and dominate women. The one who owns decides and has final judgement over resources. Domestic work in the home is either not paid for or low wages are given to maids. Women employed in the public sphere mostly do domestic work which has been transferred from the private sphere to the public sphere for example nursing (caring), teaching (socializing), and catering (servicing) and being secretaries for bosses who are mostly males. Women are employed in large numbers in export processing as well as textile industries for low wages. These careers are characterized by low wages. The children produced belong to the father in a traditional family and what the woman produces from her labour is controlled by the husband. Patriarchy, culture and religion are ideologies that legitimate inequalities making them appear normal, natural and unchangeable. State institutions e.g. education, reproduces patriarchal values. Ownership of the means of production does determine ones (womens) position and power in a capitalist society. Schools in a capitalist society re-enforce social inequalities by producing a workforce divided by class. Schools in Zimbabwe, for example, can be classified into private, former group A, former group B, mission schools and what used to be called upper-tops. Products from these schools still exhibit glaring class and gender differences. 2.8.2.6 Limitations Marxist-Feminist criticism is based on the following: Society has changed from the classes and conditions observed by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels. Some women these days own private property. Some SADC countries have come up with national gender policies and legal instruments that enable women to access property, capital, loans and land. Entry into wage labour by women from the 18th Century to today does not prove to be key to their liberation. It has instead increased womens labour burdens.

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Experiences in Socialist countries, for example, Soviet Union, Cuba, China and the former Eastern Block, did not show that womens positions in these societies were any better. These societies are still male dominated with powerful posts in male hands. In countries like Zimbabwe, most women find themselves in the informal sector with low unreliable income. They are not part of the proletariat working in public places. The majority of women are in rural areas. The theory did not look at majority of women in Third World countries. Marxist- feminists are gender blind. They failed to focus on power relations of males and females as independent from social class. They did not explain why men exploit and oppress women even in socialist societies. They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before the advent of Capitalism. Marxist-Feminists ignore patriarchy and male control of womens sexuality, culture, violence, race and ethnicity. The economic factor is not enough to explain gender inequalities; other sources of inequalities are ignored.

ACTIVITY 2. 2 i) ii) Discuss men and women ownership of the means of production and the productive forces in your country.. How do the above elements of the Superstructure maintain male dominance and legitimize the ownership of the means of production in your country? Explain giving examples.

2.8.3 Radical theory 2.8.3.1 Origin Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s 80s as a breakaway of Marxists who were frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analyzing gender oppression. 34

It also emerged as a reaction to the liberal theory (Meena, 1992: Bryson, 1992). Its impetus came from womens experiences in the Civil Rights, anti war, new-left and student movements in North America, Europe and Australia. The first radical group was influenced by the Maoist ideas and the need to develop political strategies for womens liberation. Their slogan was the Personal is political (Bryson, 1992) meaning that no aspect of life lacked a political dimension (power relations). Political struggles can take many new forms. It was important to break the silence through consciousness raising. The theory is radical in nature, that is it is violent, fast, uncompromising and strongly oppose patriarchal systems. Some of the proponents are Kate Millet, Shulamith Firestone and Ortner. These demand radical transformation of oppressive gender relations. Mannathoko in Meena (1192:75) cites that radicals: Launched a wholesale onslaught against male dominated society and consider men as the enemy. 2.8.3.2 Major Expositions Radical Feminists have come up with the following factors as explanations of gender inequalities: 1. 2. 3. Patriarchy; Gender Socialisation; biology (sexuality)

2.8.3.2.1 Patriarchy According to Bazili (1991:9) Patriarchy is an ideology of male supremacy that results from social construction of gender which in turn justifies the social, economic and political distinction between men and women. Walby in Smelser (1994:320) defines patriarchy As a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate oppression and exploit women.

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Patriarchy stretches back to the time of creation in Genesis, where a woman was made from Adams rib. (Acker, 1987) argues that it appears as if the women came as an after thought. Genesis 3 v16 Thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee. (The Holy Bible; King James Version, 2007) Genesis 3 V18 It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a help meet for him. (ibid.) The word patriarchy is derived from the Greek word patriarchs meaning head, of the tribe. Patriarchy is viewed as universal, oldest and worst kind of oppression in the world. (Byrson, 1992; Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). It cuts across time, cultures, races, classes and ethnicities. It is a belief in society dominated and ruled by men. It is viewed as natural, universal, unchangeable and unquestionable. (For a broader definition, refer to Unit 1). To radicals like Kate Millet politics means power and men derive their power from the patriarchal system that supports and favour males. Patriarchy as an ideology is sustained by early socialization in the family, secondary socialization in schools, churches and workplaces. It also rests upon the economic exploitation and use of threat and force (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Patriarchy benefits from the oppression of women. Women as a group have interests opposed to those of men. These interests unite them into sisterhood across classes and cultures. Male power is not confined to the public worlds of political and paid employment but extends into private life (sphere). 2.8.3.2.2 Gender Socialization Gender inequalities are learnt through primary socialization and reinforced later by every other institution, for example, School, media, community, church among others. In a patriarchal society children are socialized to be different. Being male or female is emphasized. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) points out that this is done

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through processes like manipulation, canalization, verbal appellations and exposure to different activities. (See unit 1). 2.8.3.2.3 Biology/Sexuality Subordination of women has origins in biology, the fact that women give birth (firestone in Marcus and Ducklin, 1998). The core of power and female domination is male control of females roles in reproduction and child rearing (Firestone in ODonnell 1992). Women become dependent on men for material necessities of life and protection especially in the nuclear family. Men control womens production, reproduction, child rearing and sexuality. It is for this reason that other radicals like Kate Millet view the family as a central site of womens oppression. Ortner in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) cites that women are viewed as closer to biology (nature) while men are closer to culture (social construct). This has led to the belief that what relates to women cannot be changed while that, which relates to males can be changed. Biology is seen as the inevitable form of sexual division of labour. Rape and violence against women is used by m ales to secure and maintain power. The New York Restocking Manifesto of 1969 Read:Women are an oppressed class. Our oppression is total, affecting every facet of our lives. We are exploited as sex objects, breeder, domestic servants and cheap labour. We are considered inferior beings whose only purpose is to enhance mens lives (Bryson, 1992:183-184). 2.8.3.3. Solutions Radicals prescribe the following solutions for the liberation of women: Women are to struggle on their own for their own liberation against their oppressors (males). This is evidenced by the quotationRadicals reject assistance by males because men are viewed as enemies of the liberation. They are blamed for being responsible for all the other problems of women, for example, Conflict, war, destruction of the environment, and abuse. A war should be raged against men. Reject gender roles and call for child care facilities.

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Radicals are of the view that gender differences can be reduced by taking desirable characteristics of males and females because these are socially constructed. However, cultural feminists (Extremists) celebrate feminine characteristics like interdependence and sharing: It is better to be feminine than to be masculine. Thus women should not try to be like men. (Tong in Haralambos and Holborn, 2004:103). (Refer to micro theories, Unit 2).

Call for total restructuring of society. To them doing away with male domination is a means of eliminating womens oppression. Demand womens empowerment in education, politics and sexuality. Focus on violence against women, for example, rape, sexual harassment, incest, pornography and domestic violence. Challenge also mens control and monopoly over the production and use of knowledge, for example, in the mass media.

2.8.3.4 Applicability of the Radical Feminist Theory Unlike the liberals who fight for equal educational opportunities, radicals have challenged both the quality and quantity of education being offered to women. Their ideas have significantly influenced changes in the curriculum which has resulted in the eliminating of gender stereotyping that impact negatively on womens academic achievement. This gender stereotyping is evident in subjects as sciences, maths, commercials and social studies that were male dominated. These have been made available to women. Women are also empowered health wise e.g. use of birth control measures of their choices, use of protection (female condom), There are womens pressure groups, for example, Womens Action Group (WAG), Affirmative Action Group(AAG) and Women Of Zimbabwe Arise(WOZA) fight for rights of women and girls. Other women facilities include the Girl Child Network, scholarships for girl children and victim friendly courts for abused children. The passing of the sexual 38

offences Act, HIV AIDS Act, Domestic Violence Act and stiffer penalties for rape perpetrators are all efforts of radical feminists. Organizations like Msasa Project have protected women experiencing gender domestic violence of any kind in Zimbabwe. A shelter for such women was set up in Harare. Single sex schools, womens University and womens Institute of Governance are all products of radical feminists. Women have been made to access legal instruments that allow them to abort under special circumstances like rape, incest, mental health or anything that endangers the womans health. Radical feminists have also influenced the setting up of childcare institutions, and introduction of new reproductive technologies like donation of sperms, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood and making choices of family planning methods. All these enable women to control their bodies. 2.8.3.5 Limitations The following can be cited as limitations of the Radical Feminist Theory: It is criticized as Western, for example, in Africa, abortion is male dominated (males decide) and it touches religious and moral issues. As a result the theory is heavily criticized and opposed. It emphasizes differences between men and women making peaceful coexistence and co-operation impossible. It is hostile towards the man who is also victims of socialization. Separatists and their rejection of marriage and relationships with males can lead to the end of the human race. Views women as passive victims and assumes that all women are good and all males are bad. That all males are able to oppress all women, ignoring the fact that some men are oppressed by women or by both The theory fails to explain the origins of patriarchy and its power. It leaves out other factors like race, class and ethnicity.

ACTIVITY 2.3 1. Discuss how biology is a constraint to men and womens equality in the following areas with reference to your country a) education 39

b) workplace 2 What reproductive changes have taken place in your country as a result of radical theorists influence? 3 How does patriarchy interfere with womens participation in a) Politics b) Decision making in the home c) Community

2.8.4 Socialist Feminist Theory Socialist Feminism is not a theory on its own, but a critique of the Marxist and radical feminist theories. Bryson (1992:234) argues that: It refers to recent attempts to synthesize the insights of Marxists and radical feminism to build a new theory combining the best of both. It rose in the 1960s. Some of the proponents are Heidi, Jaggar and Ann Ferguson. The socialist- Feminists differ from Marxist- Feminists in that their explanation for gender inequalities extend from capitalism to patriarchy. Unlike Marxists, they looked at women in both the public and the private spheres. Marxists focused more at the workplace. 2.8.4.1 Major Expositions The modern society is viewed as both capitalist and patriarchal. Socialistfeminists believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the two evils of capitalism and patriarchy: The theory is dualistic in nature with two evils mutually reinforcing. Sometimes the two systems conflict for example,. Capitalist demand for labour is opposed by patriarchal demand for personal services in the home. However, both capitalist and patriarchal men benefit from the above arrangement that subordinate women. Marxists are criticized for focusing only on capital ignoring relations of men and women.

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To socialist feminists, womens subordinates go beyond capitalism to patriarchy that pre-dates capitalism. Patriarchy is based on mens control over womens labour and this is part of the productive process. Capitalism is based on the capitalist control of labour in the productive process. Ferguson feels that patriarchy is semi-autonomous, while Young views patriarchy and capitalism as not dual but unified systems (Bryson, 1992). To support the above, Jaggar says the two are inseparable. For both, oppression of women touches issues of reproduction and production, for example, patriarchy controls reproduction of women and their labour in the production process. Patriarchy benefits from the control of the produce from reproduction (children) and womens labour (products). Capitalism like patriarchy benefits from reproduction of future workers and produce from womens labour. Vogel says maintenance and production of the working class are essential requirements of capitalism. Hence, the two systems of domination are inextricably entangled (Bryson, 1992:247). Socialist- feminist argue that entry into wage labour by women cannot be key to their liberation as Marxists suggested. Women entered wage labour during the industrial revolutions in Europe, for example, Britain (1800) France (1830), Germany (1850) but the position of women did not change in homes and workplace. Again, during world wars (WWI 1914- 1918) and (WW II 1939-1945) women participated in industries but this did not usher the fruits they expected. Class analysis by Marxists is not enough. They ignore patriarchy and over estimate the power of capital. Socialist Feminists focus on womens question and make demands as both workers and women. Men have vested interest in the subordination of women because they benefit socially and materially. Women produce, reproduce, socialize and service families at no cost. Women reproduce workers for capitalists. They also reproduce heirs as well as workers for their husbands.

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Education is seen as reproducing both class and gender inequalities. (Stromquist1989; Sanderson, 1988). Schools through socialization reproduce capitalists and patriarchal values, habits of passivity, conformity among girls as well as children from lower class background. Capitalism and patriarchy legitimizes class and gender inequalities. Capitalism and patriarchy work hand in hand in the exploitation of women. Male supremacy is embedded in economic structures. These are strengthened by patriarchal relations.

2.8.4.2 Solutions The following are solutions suggested by Socialist- Feminists: A revolution that challenges the two ideologies leading to uprooting of both capitalism and patriarchy; Women struggle should focus on conditions of production, reproduction, reproductive rights, sexuality, and new forms of family organization. Women should be united by their experiences, disputes, race, class, ethnicity or religion. All class and cultural forces of oppression should be ended in order to liberate women. Women should work side by side with men. 2.8.4.3 Applicability of the Socialist- Feminist Theory The Socialist- Feminist Theory has led to Gender and Development (GAD) Approach where men and women work side by side with men in political, economic and social development. (Refer to Unit 3). It has made development agencies or governments to focus on inequalities in the private and public spheres. Economic ownership, reproduction, family organization and reproductive rights are now areas of focus in some SADC countries. This has led to introduction of laws that enable women to access property, health care, and reproductive rights and to choose marriage types (forms of family organization). Some governments in the SADC like Zimbabwe have crafted national gender policies for development. These policies look at men and womens access to land, education and training, housing, water, health, political decision making, natural resources. The policies encourage participation of women and men in al spheres of life.

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2.8.4.4 Limitations The following have been identified as weaknesses of the Socialist- Feminist Theory: It focuses on working middle class women leaving out peasants.. Socialist- Feminists do not explain the origins of patriarchy and give no suggestions of how it can be uprooted. Socialist- Feminists do not offer a theory of their own but only critique existing theories. Patriarchy can work in other modes of production besides capitalism, for example, pre-capitalist and socialist modes of production. Patriarchy can be strengthened and supported by other ideologies beside capitalism, for example, culture, religion and socialization. Activity 2.4 1. Discuss the similarities between patriarchy and capitalism. Enter these in the table below:PATRIARCHY a) b) c) d) e) CAPITALISM

2. a) b) c) d)

Show how patriarchy subordinates women in the following institutions:Home School Workplace Church.

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Third World Countries Political Economy Approach (Post Modernism) Origins It is important for us to note that the traditional feminist theories (liberal, Marxist, radical and socialist feminist) focused on the concerns of middle class women. They also viewed women as a homogeneous group. Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992) refer to these theories as bourgeoisie theories. Womens concerns did not transcend class and race. Wollenstone crafts liberal feminism belonged to the bourgeoisie class concerned with bourgeoisie women. Women of the other creeds, religion, age, class and ethnicity were excluded. The proponents of third world economy approach are third world feminists who offer a critique of the (traditional dominant) feminist theories. Third world political approach is part of post modernist theories. Post modernism is a reaction to modernist theories failure to account for different changes in society. Post modernists argue that: 1. It is not possible to study society and develop unified conclusions. 2. Human behavior is characterized by heterogeneity rather than homogeneity 3. Positivism and generalizations are not accurate in human behavior The Third World Political approach looks at the following factors as explanations for the subordinate position of women especially in Third World Countries: Location on the Globe ( first, second and third world) International/ Global economy History of colonization Race Class Patriarchy Ethnicity Religion Age Gender among others. Major Tenants The theory focuses on the 3rd world minorities of women previously ignored. These are unrepresented black, rural, disabled, and younger and lower class women among others. 44

Women are viewed as fragmented or heterogeneous because of ethnicity, race, religion, age, disability, class, nationality, marital status, history and multiple identities. As a result women do not have shared experiences as suggested by traditional feminist theories. Marcus and Duckling (1998:59) argues that social theory can not offer general and inclusive views of the social world. A feminist theory is not possible especially in 3rd world countries like Africa where women are divided by a lot of factors listed above. Subordination of 3rd world women should be situated in their histories and their location within neo-colonial nations. It looks at multicultural or global feminism where all other differences are recognized not just gender. It also looks at intersection of gender with race, class and issues of colonization and exploitation of women in the developing world According to the 3rd world feminist writers, women in the 3rd world countries are subordinated in many ways: they are subordinated and oppressed as: 1. Third World women The relationship that exists between the first world (developed industrial nations) and the 3rd world (underdeveloped nations) is in such away that the first world exploits third world resources and labour. The periphery (satellites that is third world countries supply the metropolis (core), the first world with resources and labour (Gunder Frank and Dos Santos in Anderson (1995). Zimbabwe is a third world country and women are subordinated as third world women. 2. Globalization of Economy Third world economies, Zimbabwe included are incorporated into capitalist economies of the developed world. Transnational capitalists who are mostly the patriarchs control world economy through trade. A system of dependency of 3rd world countries on the economies of the first world has been created. There is dependency .when the first society (economy is organized by persons in the foreign society so as to benefit primarily the foreign economy (Sanderson, 1995:217). Developed nations extracted raw materials from third world countries, exported them to be manufactured in Europe and brought back as finished goods expensive to the Africans. The third world people become depended on the west for manufactured goods, technology and technological know how. New 45

dependency arose after the Second World War that is financial dependency with multinational corporations that invested in 3 rd world countries. Only a third is reinvested. The profits are repatriated. Peripheral market conditions of the developed nations dictate the terms of trade (Dos Santos in Sanderson 1995). Zimbabwean women are part of this dependency and exploitation by the first worlds multinational companies and trade. 3. Class Women in a capitalist global economy like men are part of the proletariats. Their labour is exploited for low wages. In this global oppression, peasants farmers and urban workers are the most exploited. Women are the producers of raw materials in the periphery but are alienated from what they produce. They are exploited by both global capitalists and capitalist elites in their nations. In Zimbabwe women belong to a lower class that has no power or control of the means of production. 4. Race Women especially in third world Africa Zimbabwe included are further subordinated as a black race. White w omen in the first world are the capitalists and consumers of what the black race produces. The voices of the black women are not heard. The concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist theories did not take into account issues of race. White women and black women do not have same experiences hence cannot speak with one voice. Black women are subordinated by both white males and females of the first and 3rd world. The situation of women during the colonial and post colonial has not changed much in relation to racial issues in most African countries. 5. Gender Women in third world countries are also subordinated and exploited as women by males. In patriarchal societies where males dominate, ownership of property, movable and immovable is largely in the hands of males. Such resources are land, livestock, cars, tractors, capital, and homesteads among others. Studies conducted by Women and Law in Zimbabwe (2000) reveal that women have access to the resources but do not have control over them. Women are exploited as labourers and child bearers. Most African cultures legitimize this male dominance. 6. By other women

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Women are further subordinated by other women depending on age, position of power and relationships (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003) Generally, elderly women subordinate younger women. They dictate to them and subject them to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms and values that trap younger women in their subordination. Other women assume cultural and patriarchal power that enables them to oppress other women. Examples of such women are mothers in law and sisters in law. Senior women in polygamous and non polygamous families enjoy a higher status as grandmothers, sisters and sisters in law (gogo, sisi, maiguru and tete).They make sure their commands are carried by junior women. They impart to them traditions and norms that support male dominance and female subordination. In pre-colonial Zimbabwe, Lozikheyi Dlodlo, Lobengulas senior wife kept younger women under her Nabuiza, the first wife of the Mutapa in the seventeenth century lived in the palace and served by personal servants like (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003). 7. Ethnicity Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over. Different ethnic groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who belongs to the lowest ethnic group is the most subordinated. She is subordinated by males and females of other superior ethnic groups and her husband. She is looked down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a Nguni woman would always be the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula(NdlovuGatsheni,2003).Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband had many wives and sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in the fields but had other women working for them while they participated in public affairs 8. As rural women The majority of women in third world countries are in rural areas. These make the majority of illiterate women who lack access to information, technology, technological know-how, training, health etc (Welshenman, et al, 1997 and McFadden, 1992).Most such women do not own the means of production e.g. land , machinery and capital despite changes in legal instruments. Historically, these women were affected by colonial peasantisation. They made up 90% of agricultural workers ( ). However, they had no access to and control of land, seeds, credit facilities etc. These were registered in male names. Males took

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produce of single crops like maize, cotton, palms and tobacco to marketing boards (Marcus and Dunklin 1998) Money became a medium of exchange in the colonial era, but women were not part of that money economy. Women produced for commercial purposes but only controlled crops that had to do with subsistence (consumption) 9. Religion Almost all religions in the world subordinate women. In an Islamic religion, a devout Muslim would stop praying when a strange women or a donkey appears (Acker, 1997). A prayer by devout Jewish reads; I thank God that I am a Jew and not a gentile, am a man and not a woman. In Christianity, it is believed that a woman was not created from the dist of the earth but from Adams independent person. Adam was given dominion over creation and a man is the head of the family as Christ is head of the church. In traditional religion women do not speak to the ancestral spirit (midzimu) but can talk to stray spirits (mashavi). Ancestral spirits from the mothers side are not important as those of the fathers side. Women do not make important religious decisions in the families. They can not appease angry ancestral spirits. This is done by fathers, brothers or brothers children Applicability of the Theory Indeed Third World women, like men are trapped in the global capitalist system of dependency and exploitation. Women like man are producers but do not benefit from what they produce. They are exploited as a class of workers and women. The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other races. During the colonial period, most whites had black women as their maids and nannies. This has not changed much in the post colonial period. In patriarchal societies, majority of women do not own immovable property like houses and land for homesteads especially in rural areas. They also do not own movable properties like cars, scotch carts, cattle especially the married ones. Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and Ndebele cultures of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take without

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questioning instructions from the husbands mother (vamwene/umamazala) and from the husbands sister (vatete/ubabakazi). These decide on muroora/umalukazanas fate in marriage and the custody of children. Elderly women in these cultures dictate and subject younger women to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms that trap younger women in their subordination. For example: 1. Women should be quite whatever happens in her marriage she should allow the husband to access what he paid bride price (lobola) for (sexuality) at whatever cost and circumstances. 2. A women should endure (persevere) in marriage to avoid breaking up of the marriage (kuputsa imba yake/ ukudiliza umuzi). In Zimbabwe, for example, most rural women are engaged in agriculture. They produce for both subsistence and commercial agriculture. However, few women have access to credit facilities, technology, technological know how and marketing facilities. Culture and patriarchy continue to maintain the status quo despite introduction of legal instruments and policies on access to resources and opportunities

Limitations 1. Third world political approach tends to focus on capitalism and post colonialism. 2. It does not focus on patriarchal and cultural constraints before capitalism. 3. It ignores biological or reproductive constraints. 4. It divides women weakening their struggles because of emphasis of women diversity. 5. Argue that homogenizing women is colonizing women denying them their histories, cultures, identities and nationalities. Activity 2.5 Explain, giving examples, how each of the following factors subordinate women in your country? * * * * Religion, Christianity and Traditional religion Rural Environment Other women Class

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* Ethnicity Why is it difficult for third world women to develop a unified feminist theory?

Micro-Theories of gender inequalities Post modernism has seen a shift from large scale theories with universal explanations of gender relations, that is, patriarchy, capitalism, socialism and biology to issues of age, class, race, and ethnicity among others. Black Feminism The Third world political approach focuses on heterogeneity of women. It is a theory of third world women by third world women dissatisfied with other types of feminisms. Black feminism looks at women affected by race especially the black women in the western world who are excluded by macro theories. These are black women who are in industrialized nations as a result of slavery, employment, studies, and refugee status. Black feminists argue that versions of other feminists do not apply equally to white and non-white women. Black women have particular problems of segregation or exclusion in civil rights movements in industrialized nations. Race is viewed as the most/only relevant label for identification. Womanhood is less than race. As a result black women have not been central in womens liberation movement .Where characteristics of women are measured, those of white women are used as a yardstick (Hooks in Giddens, 2001) Solutions Theories of feminism should take into account issues of racism. Concentration should not be on experiences and ideas of white women. Applicability Black women, the world over, are subordinated by the race issue. However, their situation is worse in the western world. Their voices are unheard because of race, class and gender.

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Activity 2.6 Describe giving examples, the problems of Black women living in developed countries.

Eco-feminism Eco-feminism was propounded by the likes of Vandana Shiva, Susan Griffin and Carolyn Merchant. It emerged in western scholarship in the 1970s as a result of realization of connection between women, human rights and the exploitation of nature. Eco-feminists believe that male domination is harmful to both women and environment earth. Men desire to control both women and the environment in order to have complete power. An attempt to control women and the environment leads to the destruction of the environment Women like nature are viewed as objects to control, manipulate and plunder(Shiva,1999) Power of patriarchy and colonialism depends on the exploitation and control of nature, animals and human beings especially women. (Plumwood, 1994). Eco-feminists believe that there is a deep connection between earth and women hence the terms mother nature or mother earth (Shiva, 1999). Solutions Merchant (1995) feels that women have a central role in preserving and understanding nature. They are called to lead an ecological revolution to save the planet. However, this can be done if womens role in the construction of environmental knowledge is recognised (Shiva, 1998). It is unfortunate that patriarchal power has made women to turn against the environment instead of living in harmony with it.

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Women have little access and control of environmental knowledge and the natural environments e.g. wild vegetation, plantations, wild life, resort areas among others(Macgregor in Morse and Stocking,1995) Women do not participate actively in the conservation and management of resources. For example natural forests are viewed by women as fire hood land, wild animals as danger or game meat, physical features like mountains as sources of rocks for bricks, grinding stones or refuge places in terms of war. It is also unfortunate that womens knowledge of the environment is not considered scientific by western scientific standards (Momsen, 2004). Their indigenous knowledge of farming, forests and trees is viewed as linked to intuition or supernatural, therefore excluded despite environmentalists movements of the late 20th century (Njiro,1999).Womens projects fail because they are either based on western model or because they lack females (Fortman,1986). For sustainable development to be achieved, women should be involved in the conservation of the natural environment just as they are involved in the tapping of the resources.

Applicability Women in Africa are left out in development projects (Macgregor, 1991). It is for this reason that the ZNGP, (2004) has called for the involvement of women in environmental issues and RM structures. Women also need to take studies that relate to environmental issues. The ZNGP also promotes equitable access to control and ownership of productive resources including the natural resources. Dissemination of environmental information to both males and females is crucial if our environments are to be preserved .I t can be concluded therefore that eco-feminism unifies gender and environmental issues. The purpose of the unity is for conservation of nature for sustainable development. In Africa women constitute the majority and annihilate the environment as they search for fire wood, nuts , mushroom, vegetables 52

,fibres, fruits and soils hence they need to understand processes of the landscape degradation(Morse and Stocking,19950). Zimbabwes rate of deforestation, partly caused by women has been estimated at 2% a year with fuel deficit in 5 out of 9 provinces including Matebeleland North and South, Midlands, Masvingo and parts of Mashonaland East (Jackson,1995). With the current land reform and resettlement programme, the figure is likely to be much higher. Activity 2.7 What are the implications of womens lack of access to environmental information? What practical strategies can be affected to ensure participation of women in environmental and natural resource management?

Cultural Cultural feminism has origins in the feminist theory by extremists or separatists (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004).Among these are Card Gilligars and Mary Daly. Cultural feminism believes in the superiority of the feminine (Momsen, 2004).According to them, the fundamental differences between men and women should be celebrated. Their argument is that, women are inherently kind and gentle .If women were to rule the world, there would be no war but peace. The womens way is viewed as the right way and that women

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Can live on their own in a society made of women. Men on the other hand are vied negatively even their values. It is believed men value ideas of independence, hierarchy, competition and dominating. These lead to conflict, wars and chaos, while females value dependence, cooperation, relationships community, sharing, trust and peace. These also encourage Peaceful co-existence. Womens reproduction is seen as a source of power which men are jealous of Men want to control womens reproduction as technology through the use of technology.

Applicability In Zimbabwe women are vied as reproductive technology for child bearing .They are also a source of labour and they reproduce future labourers. This is a source of power for women and who ever controls them controls reproduction and labour.

Activity 2.8 What are the disadvantages of believing in the superiority of the feminine? List similarities between cultural and radical theory?

Multicultural Feminism

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Multicultural feminism arose as a result of dissatisfaction with global feminism in a multicultural society. It has roots in the third world feminists theories and other post modernist theories. Third world feminists argue that there must be a multicultural theory that recognises all other differences within which gender is contextualised. Gender inequalities manifest themselves differently in different cultures. Cultural differences like class, ethnicity, religion, age and disability shape gender differences in different societies. A multicultural theory should focus on inclusion of other oppressions and consider intersection of gender with race, colonisation and exploitation of women in the developing world (Momsen, 2004).

Applicability Zimbabwe is a multicultural society made of the following ethnic groups Venda,Ndau,Ndebele,Kalanga,Karanga,Tonga,Shangani,Sotho,Korekore, Zezuru and Manyika among others. Zimbabwe also has different religions, for example Christianity with its different denomination. Christian Churches are grouped into Pentecostal, missionary established , African Independent Churches. Parallel to these is traditional religion, Islam etc. A multicultural theory should take these differences into consideration, even solutions to womens problems. Women are treated differently in each religion, denomination and ethnic group. Zimbabwe again is made of different classes, the upper class, middle class and lower class that can be divided further into formal workers, informal workers, and house wives.

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Activity 2.9 * Choose two ethnic groups or two denominations in Zimbabwe and show how women are subordinated differently in the chosen societies. * What are the limitations of the multicultural feminist theory?

Conclusion

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References Acker, S. (1987) Feminist theory and the study of gender education in International review of education, Vol. 33 no 9. Bazili, S. (1991) Putting women on the agenda. Johannesburg, Rowan press. Bryson, V. (1992) Feminist political theory. Basington, The MacMillan press. Giddens, A. (2001) Sociology. Oxford, Polity Press. Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology; Themes and perspectives. London, Harper and Collins. Henslin, J.M. (1999) Sociology; down to earth approach. Boston, Allen and Unwin. Legal Age of Majority Act (1982) Legal Resources Foundation, Harare Marcus, M. and Ducklin, A. (1998) Success in sociology. London, John Murray publishers. McFadden. ( 1982) Southern Africa in transition; a gendered perspective Meena, R. (19920 Gender in southern Africa: conceptual and theoretical issues. Harare, SAPES. Menzis, K. (1982) Sociological theory in use. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. Merchant. (1995) Earth care; women and the environment. New York, Routledge. Momsen, J.H. (1998) Gender roles in Caribbean agricultural labour. Basingtoke, MacMmillan. Momsen, J.H. (2004) Gender and development. London, Routledge.

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Morse, S. and Stocking. (1995) People and the environment. London, University college press. Ncube,W.,Steward,J.E.,Dengu-Zvobgo,K.C.,Donzwa,B.R.,Gwaunza,E.G.,Kazembe,J.L. And Nzira, T.G. (1997) Paradigm of exclusion: womens access to resources in Zimbabwe. Harare, WLSA research institute. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2003) Patriarchy and domestication of women in Zimbabwe; critique of female to female relations of oppression in Zambezia Vol. 30 No.II Njiro, E.I. (1999)Womens empowerment and the anthropology of participatory development. The feminization of the development process in Africa.Westport, Connecticut; p31-50. Pilcher, J. and Wheleham, I. (2004) Fifty key concepts in gender studies. London, SAGE Publishers. Sanderson, S.K. (1998) Macro-sociology; an introduction to human societies. New-York, Harper and Row publishers. Sandi, A.M. (1997)Preparing a new history for future generations in Beyond literacy; Preparing gender equity for future generation, Bucharest, School of education. Sexual and Criminal Codification Act (2001) Legal Resources Foundation, Harare Shiva. (1998) Staying alive, women, ecology and development..London, ZED bks Sifuniso,M.,Kasonde,C.,Kimani,E.N.,Maimbolwa-Sinyangwa,I.,Kimani,W. and Nalunmango, M.(2000) Gender sensitivity editing. London, Working group on books on learning materials. Smelser, W.J. (1994) Sociology. Cambridge, Blackwell publishers. Stromquist, N. P. (Ed) (1989) Determinants of educational participation and achievement of women in the third world; A review of the evidence and theoretical critique in Review of educational research, Vol. 59, 2, pp143-183.

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Stromquist, N. P. (1990) Gender inequality in education; Accounting for womens subordination in British journal of sociology of education, Vol. ii no. 2 Tandon, R.K. (1996) Women, nature, teaching and rights. New Delhi, Commonwealth publishers. Tong, R. (1998) Feminist thought; a comprehensive introduction. .London, Unwin Hyman. Zimbabwe Education Act (1982) Government Printers, Harare Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2004) Government Printers, Harare Zimbabwe Labour Relations Act (1982) Government Printers, Harare Inheritance Act (customary and civil)(2007) Legal Resource Foundation, Harare

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UNIT 3 Historical Development of Gender by Daniel Mawere 3.1 Introduction In Unit 2 we introduced you to theories of gender inequality. In this unit you are introduced to the historical development of gender through four approaches. The approaches are Women in Development, Women and Development, Gender and Development and Third World Political Economy. We feel that these approaches are important in tracing the historical development of gender from focus on womens exclusion from development activities to focusing on development as it takes on board both women and men. The approaches also seek to explain how development affects women and why women and men are affected by development differently. We hope the approaches will make you appreciate the many views that have come up as societies endeavour to grapple with issues of equality and equity between women and men in the development of nations and societies the world over. The intention is to enable you to critically examine gender and development as they relate to the Zimbabwean experience in particular and the world in general. 3.2 Unit Objectives By the end of this unit you should be able to: Define and explain the concept development as it relates to gender and development. Trace the historical development of gender. Discuss the main features of each of the four approaches to development of gender. Critically examine achievements and challenges of each of the four approaches to the development of gender.

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Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender 3.3 The concept Development The concept development has various sheds of meaning to different people. Generally development is about: change for the better; continuing processes; collectivities of people; growth and prosperity; and interrelationships. Among other theories, Modernization and Dependency theories view development differently as is shown below. Modernization theories, originating from west-centric institutions, view development as economic growth and industrialization. Industrialization therefore is a major indicator of development. One of the most influential modernization theorists is W.W.Rostow of the United States. His 1960 book (The Stages of Economic Growth) traces the economic growth of countries through five stages using the analogy of aerodynamics. Stage 1 Traditional Stage or Handcrafting Stage: - in which primitive societies depend upon human and animal power for production. Primitive tools are used and production is mainly for local consumption. Stage 2 Pre-take off Stage: - in which the necessary infrastructure for development is created. Transport and communication is improved. Electricity and light machines will be used in agriculture and industry. Modern institutions, such as elected bodies, codification of laws, banking and transport systems take root. Stage 3 Take-off Stage: - in which the economy is poised for growth, becomes self sufficient and self reliant in many aspects. The economy enters the international market. Population growth is checked and national income increases. Stage 4 Drive to Maturity: - in which the economy goes in for machine building, space research, eradication of poverty and sophisticated machinery. Society becomes affluent, socio-economic institutions are modernized and a high standard of living is achieved. Stage 5 High Mass Consumption: - in which there is abundance of everything to everyone. People enjoy all material comforts, and luxuries are for asking. As these countries prepare to develop, they need assistance in the form of funds, technology and new markets.

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Dependency is the perpetuation of underdevelopment. It is historical. Dependency of the Third World countries is related and linked to the colonial economy of the periphery to the centre. Dependency theories therefore criticize the modernization concept of development. These theories argue that the origins of persistent global poverty can not be understood without reference to the entire international economic system. They argue that underdevelopment is not a condition: it is an active process of impoverishment linked to development. That is, some parts of the world are underdeveloped because others are developed. They are not separate processes but two aspects of the same process. In other words, economic growth in developed countries created Third World poverty in its wake. The word dependency comes from this link: some say the exploitation of various regions for their raw materials and labour impoverished them and made them depend on the West. Others point out that in fact it is the other way round: that the West has been dependent on the Third World in order to grow and prosper. All in all, modernization theory sees capitalism as a creative force, causing growth and progress. Dependency theory sees international capitalism as the ruin of the Third World. Modernization theory sees rich countries as helpers of poor countries; dependency theory sees them as the main obstacles to the well-being of the poorer countries. These models of development are heavily male based: development planners assumed that men are the most productive workers. Womens productive role was ignored because it was often not directly linked t the market or the formal economy. Brandt et al, (1980) explain why gender was not noticed in development in the past when they say that; no political system assumed the equal status of women; production-oriented societies tended to undervalue their contribution; statistical methods largely ignored the contribution of women as it was concentrated in the informal sector. Fagerlind and Saha (1989) in Bown (1999) commented that women provided more health care than all health services combined and yet outnumber men among the worlds illiterate. Chinery-Hesse et al (1990) in Bown (1999) commented on womens contribution to development thus; Womens distinctiveness lies in the multiplicity of their roles. Whilst men can confine themselves mainly to being producers, most women, in addition to being heavily involved in economic production, take prime responsibility as home managers, child bearers and careers of children, the sick and

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the elderly. As a result women work more hours than men, usually with smaller resources, fewer opportunities and lower rewards. By and large inequalities exist between men and women. These inequalities typify gender differences and contribute to disparities in development between them. Development, argues anthropologist Arturo Escobar, not only ignored women, but in fact had and continues to have, in different cases extremely detrimental effects on womens economic position. From the 1970s, the assumption of women as actors mainly in the reproductive sphere began to be questioned. Over the decades since distinctive approaches have emerged related to gender and development (WID, WAD and GAD, among others). These frameworks guide development policies, research and practice. 3.4 Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender 3.4.1 Women in Development (WID) Origins In the early 1970s, researchers on development began to focus on the division of labour based on sex, and the impact of development and modernization strategies on women. The concept, Women in Development (WID), came into use during the United Nations Decade for Women (1975 to 1985). It is closely related to western liberal feminism which emphasizes on gender equity and equal rights. The approach viewed women as passive beneficiaries of development. In fact there is a growing realization that women are being left out of economic development or are not benefiting significantly from it (Moyoyeta, 2004). The approach stands for concern with the disadvantaged position of women, and discrimination against them. Research based on this concept recognizes that the impact of development and social change on women differs from its impact on men. The main objective of the WID approach, therefore, is to design actions and policies to integrate women fully into development. Main Features The WID approach views womens lack of participation as the main problem. As pointed out earlier on, WID approach focuses on women. The exclusion of women (half of the productive resource) from the development process is viewed

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as the main problem under focus. Womens subordination, therefore, is seen in terms of their exclusion from the market sphere, and limited access to and control over resources. More efficient and effective development that includes women is the main goal of the approach. Integration of women into existing structures of development is viewed as the solution to the problem. The approach seeks to integrate women into economic development through legal and administrative support. WID advances a number of strategies aimed at addressing the problem under focus. Through WID, projects such as transfer of technology, extension services, credit facilities, and other interventions that have a welfare orientation especially projects on hygiene, literacy or childcare are implemented. WID also focuses on advocacy strategies for more equal participation of women in education, employment and other spheres of society. The other strategy is to increase womens ability to manage the household (family planning). All these strategies are aimed at increasing womens productivity and income. The approach also examines the sexual division of labour and the differential impact of gender in development. Furthermore it recognizes that women and mens experience of development and societal changes are different. Achievements The WID approach has enhanced peoples understanding of womens development needs, particularly the need to improve statistical measures of womens work and to provide women with more opportunities for education and employment (Overholt, et al. 1984). The approach has provided a checklist for ensuring womens status in societies, a checklist that is helpful and accessible to development technocrats. Programmes informed by the WID approach address womens practical needs by; creating wage employment, income-generating opportunities, and improving access to credit and to education. Its presence at the UN helped to push for social legislation that enhanced womens civil and political rights in some countries. It has also been successful in helping secure a prominent place for womens issues at the United Nations (UN).

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The UN declared 1975 to 1985, the Decade for Women. A major achievement of the decade has been the establishment of women in development structures. WID has helped to mainstream gender issues in many development agencies and policies as well as increase womens visibility. WID highlights the fact that women need to be integrated into development processes as active agents if efficient and effective development is to be achieved. It has also encouraged research and debate on women issues.

Limitations Limitations of the approach noted later were that: The benefits of modernization do not, in fact, trickle down automatically or equally. Furthermore the approach focuses on integration of women into ongoing development strategies. This often entails the acceptance of existing social structures that perpetuate inequalities. The approach tends to focus heavily on the productive aspects of womens work, overlooking the burden of social and reproductive functions. It should also be noted that womens issues tend to be increasingly relegated to marginal programmes and isolated projects (Gender! A Partnership of Equals, 2000). The approach does not challenge gender relations and assumes that these will change, as women become economic partners in development. WID views women as being outside the mainstream of development and yet women are already playing a crucial part in development, for example, in the domestic and agriculture spheres. By exclusively targeting women, WID creates tension, suspicion and hostility. The approach tends to perpetuate gender inequalities as it focuses on practical needs to the exclusion of strategic gender needs. The approach calls for womens inclusion in development but it does not call for changes in the social, cultural and legal structures that give rise to inequalities in society. Because the approach relies heavily on modernization theory, it generally assumes that western institutions hold most of the answers and it often ignores the possible contribution of indigenous knowledge.

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Critics see the WID initiative as add-on approach that, instead of integrating women into the mainstream of development, marginalizes them even further (Chiriga, 1998). For finer details on WID approaches study Table 3.1 below:

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Table 3.1 Different policy approaches to Third World women: Moser (1993: pp 56-57)

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Issues

Welfare

Equity

Anti-Poverty

Origins

Earliest approach: -Residual model of social welfare under colonial administration. -Modernization / accelerated growth economic development model.
Period Most Popu !950-1970 but still lar widely used.

Original WID approach: -Failure of modernisation development policy -Influence of Boserup and First World Feminists on Percy amendment of UN decade for women

Second WID approach: -toned down equity because of criticism. -linked to redistribution with growth and basic needs.

!975-1985: attempts to adopt it during the women s decade. To gain equity for women in the development process: women seen as active participants in development

1970s onward: still limited popularity

Purpose

To bring women into development as better mothers: this is seen as their most important role in development.

To ensure poor women increase their productivity: women s poverty seen as a problem of underdevelopment, not of subordination. To meet PGN in productive role, to earn an income, particularly in small-scale income generating projects.

Needs of women To meet PGN in remet and roles rec- productive role, relatognized

To meet SGN in terms of triple role directly ing particularly to food through state top-down aid, malnutrition and intervention, giving politifamily planning cal and economic autonomy by reducing inequality. Women seen as passive beneficiaries of development with focus on their reproductive role; nonchallenging, therefore widely popular especially with government and traditional NGOs. In identifying subordinate position of women in terms of relationship to men, challenging, criticized as Western feminism, considered threatening and not popular with government.

Comment

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Poor women isolated as separate category with tendency only to recognize productive role; reluctance of government to give limited aid to women means popularity still at smallscale NGO level.

Issues

Efficiency

Empowerment

Origins

Period Most Popu lar

Third and now predominant WID approach: - deterioration in the world economy - policies of economic stabilization and adjustment rely on womens economic contribution to development. Post 1980s: now most popular approach

.Most recent approach: -arose out of failure of equity approach -Third World women s feminist writing and grassroots organization

1975 onward: accelerated during 1980s, still limited popularity To empower women through greater selfreliance: womens subordination seen not only as problem of men but also of colonial and neo-colonial oppression To reach SGN in terms of triple role indirectly through bottom-up mobilization around PGN as a means to confront oppression

Purpose

To ensure development is more efficient and more effective: womens economic participation seen as associated with equity

Needs of To met PGN in conwomen met and text of declining social roles recogservices by relying on nized

all three roles of women and elasticity of women s time

Comment

Women seen entirely in terms of delivery capacity and ability to extend working day; most popular approach

Potentially challenging with emphasis on Third 69 and women s selfWorld reliance; largely unsupported by governments and

Activity 3.1 Discuss with a friend on the limitations of the WID approach. Are the above limitations a fair criticism of the approach? Assess the contribution of WID to the visibility of women in development activities in Zimbabwe.

Women and Development (WAD) Origins The seeds of the WAD concept were planted during the 1950s and 1960s when about 50 countries were freed from colonialism. Women who had participated in independent movements felt that they must join with men in building these new nations. The approach is Marxist in content as it drew on dependency theory. WAD actually arose in the latter part of the 1970s. Its main basis was critiquing the earlier approach of WID. Its origins are in the argument that there should be a development approach to women that recognizes the dangers of integrating women into a patriarchal world. The approach seeks instead to create women-only projects, carefully constructed to protect womens interests from patriarchal domination (Rathbeger, 1990). WAD therefore is an inclusive term meant to signify a concept and a movement whose long-range goal is well being of society. Main Features The central point of the WAD approach is that women must be lifted from poverty and contribute to and benefit from development efforts. The approach stresses the distinctiveness of womens knowledge, womens work and womens goals and responsibilities. It argues for recognition of this distinctiveness and for the acknowledgement of the special role that women have always played in the development process. The work they do both inside and outside the household is crucial to the maintenance of society. The WAD perspective gave rise to a persistent call to recognize that women are the mainstay of agricultural production in many areas of Africa, although their contribution has been systematically overlooked and marginalized in national and donor development plans (Connelly et al, 2005).

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The main focus of WAD is on the interaction between women and development processes rather than purely on strategies to integrate women into development. WAD sees both women and men as not benefiting from the global economic structures because of disadvantages due to class and the way wealth is distributed (Moyoyeta, 2004).

Global inequalities have been viewed by WAD as the main problem facing poor countries and their citizens. The approach contents that economic growth and the industrialization of the west has been based upon the exploitation of nations that have been subjected to colonial rule. WAD has been very persuasive in raising the debate that women have a role not only in reproduction but in production as well. It focuses on womens economic roles and class decisions. For development to be meaningful for women both these roles have to be acknowledged. In other words the approach recognizes that women have always been part of development. The approach focuses on the relations between developed and developing nations, particularly their impact on the lives of women and men in developing countries. It maintains that womens position will improve once needed structural and institutional reforms are installed at the local and international levels. Women therefore must have both the legal right and access to existing means for their improvement and that of society. Achievements Gains have been made through the approach in: Raising consciousness, Publicizing womens concerns, and Bringing them into the policy arena. In other words WAD significantly extends the WID critique of mainstream development approach by bringing in a broader analysis.

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Limitations Although the WAD approach has offered an important corrective to WIDs assumption that male dominated states can be used to alter gender inequalities, it also has a number of weaknesses: Marginalization and smallness of scale have limited the transformative potential of women-only organizations. The approach also sees women as a class, downplaying differences among women, particularly along racial and ethnic lines. It focuses on production and income generating projects at the expense of womens reproduction work. The approach has been criticized for assuming that the position of women will improve if and when international structures become more equitable. In doing so it sees womens positions as primarily within the structure of international and class inequalities. It therefore underplays the role of patriarchy in undermining womens development and does not adequately address the question of social relations between men and women and their impact on development (Moyoyeta, 2004).

Activity 3.2 Examine the role played by WAD in highlighting the contribution of women to development. What shortcomings are evident in this approach?

Gender and Development (GAD) Origins The GAD approach emerged in the early 1980s. GAD originated from the experiences and analysis of Western socialist feminists interested in development issues. It overlaps with WAD but the socialist feminists in this approach combine lessons from the limitations of both WID and WAD. It also emerges from the grass-roots organizational experiences and writings of Third World feminists. It is born out of frustration with the lack of progress of WID policy, in changing womens lives and in influencing the broader development agenda. Its objective therefore, is to remove disparities in social, economic and political equality between women and men in development.

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Main Features The GAD approach argues that womens status in society is deeply affected by their material conditions of life and their position in the national, regional, and global economies. GAD also recognizes that women are deeply affected by the nature of patriarchal power in their societies at the national, community, and household levels. Moreover, womens material conditions and patriarchal authority are both defined and maintained by the accepted norms and values that define womens and mens roles and duties in a particular society (Sen and Grown 1987 in Connelly et al, 2005). GAD focuses not just on women but also on the social relations between women and men, be it in the workplace or in other settings. It therefore seeks to address issues of access and control over resources and power. Gender relations are seen as the key determinant of womens position in society, not as immutable reflections of the natural order but as socially constructed patterns of behaviourthe social construction of gender-which can be changed if this is desired. The GAD approach focuses on the interconnection of gender, class, colonial history, culture, and position in the international economic order (Moser, 1993). The approach sees the gender division of labour as the root cause of inequality, especially since it undervalues the work done by women in the household. It recognizes women as agents of development, not merely as passive recipients of development assistance. The need for women to organize themselves and participate in political processes is stressed. Current social, economic and political structures are questioned by the approach. It promotes interventions and affirmative action programmes that integrate women into ongoing development efforts (Gender Mainstreaming, 2005). Given that women are usually in a disadvantaged position in the work place as compared to men, promotion of gender equality implies explicit attention to womens needs, interests and perspectives. The objective then is the advantage of the status of women in society, with gender equality as the ultimate goal (Gender! A Partnership of Equals, 2000). GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and men. It seeks to ensure that both women and men participate in and benefit from development and so emphasizes equality of benefit and control. It recognizes that women may be involved in development, but not necessarily benefit from it (Moyoyeta, 2004). 73

The GAD approach also plays particular attention to the oppression of women in the family or the private sphere of womens lives. As a result we have seen projects develop addressing issues such as domestic violence and violence against women. GAD brought about a gender perspective, thereby bringing under scrutiny the whole gamut of difference in power, legal rights, roles, constraints, opportunities and needs of women compared to men. The argument being that to bring women into the center stage of development, the existing gender relations need to be reexamined and wherever needed to be restructured (Mainstreaming Gender Equity, 2005). Achievements The biggest contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach. It does not exclusively emphasize the solidarity of women. The approach acknowledges that women spend a lot of time; - bearing, raising children, cooking, washing, and fetching water, caring for the sick and elderly, attending to the fields and small stock. It also observes that women have no control over their fertility and over productive resources. The GAD approach has also helped us to understand that the gender division of labour gives triple roles (reproductive, productive and community) to women in society. It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that the social and mental well being of a person is important. Arising from the GAD analysis is the need for women to organize themselves into a more effective political voice in order to strengthen their legal right and increase the number of women in decision making. The approach therefore: liberates, empowers, and promotes partnership and equitable distribution of resources and benefits. It transforms unequal relationships; challenges and changes gender insensitive traditions, institutions, policies and structures. Above all it also humanizes. WID and GAD approaches are summarized in Table 3.2 below:

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Table 3.2 Comparison of WID and GAD Women in Development (WID) An approach which views womens lack of participation as the problem. Women The exclusion of women (half of the productive resource) from the development process Gender and Development (GAD) An approach development to people centered

The Approach The Focus The Problem

Relations between women and men Inequitable relations (between women and men, rich and poor) that prevents equitable development and womens full participation More efficient, effective Equitable, sustainable development The Goal development with men and women sharing decisions making and power The Solution Integrate women into existing Empower the disadvantaged and structures women Women only projects Identify/address practical needs The determined by women and men to strategies Womens components improve their condition Integrated projects Increase womens productivity Increase womens income Increase womens ability to manage the household Source: Connelly et al, (2005) Address strategic needs of the poor through people centered development At the same time address strategic gender needs of women and men

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Activity 3.3 What is the difference between Practical Gender Needs (PGN) and Strategic Gender Needs (SGN)? Which approaches stress the need to meet PGN and SGN needs if development has to take on board both women and men? Gender and Development approach focuses on the socially constructed basis of differences between men and women and emphasizes the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations. To what extent is this statement a true characterization of GAD?

Third World Political Economy Approach Origins Proponents of this approach are Third World Feminist Writers. Main Features It is a critique of the three approaches discussed above. It locates the oppressive social systems within the traditional patriarchy systems, colonial, neo-colonial, and the globalization processes which impact on women and men differently. The approach blames the earlier approaches for focusing on white and middle class women and generalizing explanations for the subordinate positions of all women. Historical context is ignored women have had different experiences at different periods in history. The approach analyses and traces the situation of women from pre-capitalist, capitalist/colonial and post- colonial periods. Though patriarchy is central, it does not explain changes and diversity in gender neutrality. Questions of race, class, and ethnicity should not be ignored. Experiences of western women are different from those of third world women. The approach looks at globalization of economy and its impact on men and women. Third World women are exploited; as Third world women, as the African race, as working class, and within each class. Not all men are able to oppress all women. Young women are the most oppressed and exploited, for example, daughter-inlaw (muroora) versus Mother-in-law (Vamwene) and Daughter-in-law versus her 76

husbands sister/ aunt (Vatete). Elderly women and aunts use patriarchal values to oppress other women. The lowest class or ethnic group is the most exploited. Advent of capitalism and colonialism worsened the problems of third world women. Women had double burdens, for example, subsistence agriculture, childbearing, work outside the home, among other burdens. Money became the medium of exchange but women were not party of the money economy. Women produced food and became totally dependent on men for cash goods, for example, school fees, farming implements, furniture and loans among others. Peasant economy marginalized women and made them powerless. Traditional structures were modified to fit into the capitalist system. Before independence in third world countries, the state reproduced gender, class and race. After independence it reproduced class and gender. Women produced and continue to produce for use value. The proponents of the approach see third world women as producers whilst western women are consumers. Due to the diversities indicated above, women cannot speak with one voice even in post modernism because of race and class. The neo-colonial period has not improved womens position, as they have no access to technology and technological know-how. Third world women are therefore alienated from technology and knowledge. Cultural constraints in the family further subordinate women. Capitalism and patriarchy therefore combine to exploit third world women.

Limitations The approach does not focus much on cultural constraints. Focus is mainly on capitalism and post-modernism. It does not explain subordinate position of women before the advent of capitalism. The approach ignores sexuality and reproduction (biology). It does not go deeper into the root causes of subordination of women.

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Activity 3.4 In what ways do you think the Third World Political Economy approach is a critique of WID, WAD and GAD approaches? Does the approach, in your own opinion, sufficiently address the situation of women and men in the developing world?

Conclusion In this unit we have shown how focus initially was on women only as evidenced by the WID and WAD approaches. The WID approach hoped to bring women into development through providing them with opportunities for employment or engaging them in income generating projects. This would, as it were, remove them from the private sphere into the public sphere. The WAD approach was arguing for publicizing womens concerns, and bringing them into the policy arena. Criticisms of these approaches resulted in the Gender and Development approach with its focus being mainly on the inequality in relations between men and women. It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that the social and mental well being of a person is important. The GAD approach goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that the social and mental well being of a person is important. It should also be noted that the biggest contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach. The Third World Economic Approach comes in as a critique of the first three approaches which tended to focus on women in the developed world without articulating the concerns of women in the third world. The approach brings in the part played by some women in perpetuating gender inequality when these women connive with patriarchy to exploit, subordinate and oppress young women in the third world.

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References Chiriga, J.S. (1998) Perspectives on the Beijing Policy Process in SADC in Southern Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective. Harare; Sapes Books. Connelly, M.P., Murray, L.T., Macdonald, M. and Parpart, J.L. Feminism and Development: Theoretical Perspectives. International Development Research Centre. Accessed online 2005. Gender! A Partnership of Equals, (2000) International Labour Office Moser, C.O.N. (1993) Gender Planning and Development Theory, Practice and Training. London; Routledge. Moyoyeta, L. (2004) Women, Gender and Development. Lusaka; Women for Change. Overholt, C., Anderson, M., Cloud, K., and Austin, J., Eds. (1984). Gender roles in development. West Hartford, Kumarian Press. Rathgeber, E. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: trends in research and practice. Journal of Developing Areas, 24 (4), 489-502. Rostow, W.W. (1960) The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

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UNIT 4 GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS AND TOOLS by Nogget Matope 4.0 Introduction Gender analysis provides a basis for robust analysis of the differences between women and mens lives and this removes the possibility of analysis being based on incorrect assumptions and stereotypes. In this unit we present a discussion on what is gender analysis, why do gender analysis and the tools for gender analysis. The tools we will look at are the Harvard Analytical framework, Moser Gender Planning framework and Women Empowerment framework. Our approach in this unit will impress upon you to adopt an appropriate and effective interpretation of gender issues from a gender perspective as you tackle the various activities in the unit and continually relate the issues to your own experiences in education, the workplace and the community. 4.1 Unit Objectives By the end of this unit you should be able to: Explain the meaning of the term gender analysis and explain its purpose Define and describe some gender analysis tools Use and apply different gender analysis tools to conduct a gender analysis to various case studies and situations. 4.2 What is Gender Analysis?

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Gender analysis: Examines the differences in womens and mens lives, including those which lead to social and economic inequity for women and applies this understanding to policy development and service delivery. (gender/framework: 2006). Is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities. Aims to achieve positive change for women and men. Is a tool to better understand the realities of women and men, boys and girls whose lives are impacted by planned development. Is used to understand the culture, expressed in construction of gender identities and inequities. Aims to uncover dynamics of gender differences across a variety of issues. Includes gender issues with respect to social relations, activities, access and control over resources, services, institutions of decision making and network of power and authority. Identifies specifically how public policy affects women and men differently. It also brings to the fore these differences and to the attention of those who can make a difference. It also provides an understanding of gender relations which include experiences of women as distinct from mens, how women are contributors and producers to the community under review and ways in which women are subordinate to men (http//www.snvword.org/cds/rgGEND 2006). Aims to achieve equity rather than equality. Recognizes that womens and mens lives, experiences, needs, issues and priorities are different. These vary according to various factors such as marital status, ethnicity, income levels, and age among others. This entails adopting different strategies to achieve equitable outcomes for women and men and different groups of women (gdrc.org.gender/framework:2006)

4. 3 Why do gender analysis? * Information is essential for mainstreaming of gender at all levels from formulation of national legislation and policy to planning and monitoring of specific interventions.

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* Gender based analysis should be a common thread woven from beginning to end throughout entire policy not merely an additional heading or section in briefing notes. * It gives information on who performs what activities and at what levelshousehold, community or national. * It is important to correct unfairness- who owns what resources, who uses what resources for what? Who has ultimate control of resources at different levels. * To determine the different ways in which women and men do or do not benefit from particular livelihoods interventions. * Both qualitative and quantitative gender analytical research can be used to raise awareness of gender issues, to inform policy makers, to provide material for gender training and to monitor the differential impact of policy, project and budget commitments on women and men. * To highlight different responsibilities of women and men that might constrain their participation in a project. Activity 4.1 Gender based analysis Identify an issue that affects you as student at a university. What is the issue? Who says it is an issue? Why has it become an issue? How does your personal or professional background affect understanding of the issue? How are the root causes perpetuated? What factors are influencing this issue? Does this issue require policy analysis or development?

You have successfully carried out gender based analysis by answering the above questions which are often asked to identify or define policy issues. Your responses to the above will assist you to identify different needs of women and men, their ability to understand different stakeholders capacity to participate in any given intervention. It will also assist you to identify major environmental factors (culture, religion, politics) which have critical influence and maybe responsible for maintaining the system of gender differentiation and equity.

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Activity 4.2 Compare your responses to activity 4.1 with fellow student/s. How different or similar are your responses? What does that tell you about the needs/issues of women and of men? (dependent on age, ethnicity, disability, marital status, sexual orientation and whether they have dependents) 4.6 Tools for gender analysis Several development workers have come up with strategies of carrying out gender analysis in development work or interventions. There are a number of gender analysis tools available but this unit will focus only on three namely the Harvard Analytical Framework, the Gender and Development (Moser) approach and the Women Empowerment approach (Longwe). . However, other approaches such as the ABC of Gender Analysis Framework (FAWE), Socio Economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA), Social Relations and Life Cycle approaches will not be looked at in this particular unit. The Harvard Analytical Framework The Harvard Analytical Framework also referred to as Gender Roles Framework or Gender analysis framework was developed by the Harvard Institute for International Development in 1985 in collaboration with the WID office of USAID. This approach is based on the WID efficiency approach.( Remember you looked at his approach in the preceding unit). It is one of the earliest gender analysis and planning frameworks. The framework is a useful data gathering tool that charts and organizes information and can be adapted to many situations. Features The framework is originally outlined in Overholt, Anderson, Cloud and Austin (1984).The framework consist of a matrix for collecting data at the micro (community and household) level. It has four interrelated components which are explained as follows: Tool 1: the Activity Profile

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The activity profile answers the question who does what and identifies all relevant productive and reproductive tasks. For example a daily activity profile analyses different roles and responsibilities of women and men based on description of their daily tasks according to gender and age. You may also specify the percentage of time allocated to each activity, whether it is carried out seasonally or daily and the location of the activity. The following activity will assist you to use the activity profile in the table below: Activity 4.3 Choose a household in a particular location. List the main activities of the female and male members of the family. Draw up a 24 hour chart time schedule for the activities you have identified allocating a specific amount of time to each activity. Guiding questions for discussion: What is the significance of who does what in your household profile? How do perceptions of women and men differ towards each others activities, roles and responsibilities? How do the schedules and workloads of women and men differ in a typical rural household? How do they differ in an urban setting? Example of Harvard tool: The activity profile( adapted from March et al 1999) Activities Productive Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Activity 4 Reproductive Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Activity 4 Community linked role Activity 1 Activity 2 84 Female Women, girls Male Men, boys Time

Activity 3 Activity 4 Tool 2: Access and Control Resources and Benefits The access and control profile allows for detailed listing of the resources available to people to carry out the tasks identified in the activity profile. It identifies whether it is women or men who have access to resources, who control their use and who controls the benefits that arise from their use (household or community level). March et al (1999:34) say access simply means that you are able to use a resource, but this says nothing about whether you have control over it. For example, women may have access to land but little influence or control over which issues to do with the land are discussed. The person who controls a resource is the one ultimately able to make decisions about its use and whether it can be sold. For example, in rural patriarchal Zimbabwe the land is controlled by the males and most women only have access to it. Access to income does not always lead to increased control of assets within the household, or to greater say in decision making in the household or wider society. Below is a table showing access and control of resources and benefits by women and men. Example of Harvard tool 2: access & control profile

Control women Resources Land/ property (include all significant types of assets) Employment (formal & informal)l Money & credit Skills & technology (access to &control over acquired skills

Control men

Access women

Access Men

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&technical facilities) Education & training Benefits

Activity 4.4 Use the above table and place a tick or a cross if women and men have control and access in the indicated resources. What does it tell you about access and control of resources? Who benefits more in terms of access and control of resources? Why? Tool 3: influencing Factors The influencing factors allow you to chart the differences in the gender division of labor, access and control as listed in tools 1 and 2. By identifying constraints you will be able to look for opportunities which will facilitate a more equal sharing of resources and more involvement of women in development, projects and programs. It also helps to identify past and present influences and can give an indication of future trends. The identification of external constraints and opportunities assist you to anticipate what inputs you would need to make the intervention successful. The following table identifies some of the influencing factors, possible constraints and opportunities: Table 4. Influencing factors Influencing factors Cultural Constraints Opportunities Early marriage, Lobbying womens polygamy, poverty groups, legal parameters Institutional structures, Legal interventions poverty, stereotypes, and acts, sponsorship lack of mobility and and aid from agencies, access, discrimination government priorities Lack of political will, Financial assistance, lack of funding, world external funding, recession political will 86

Educational

Economic

Environmental

Religious beliefs Other

Institutional structures, legal parameters, lack of mobility, community norms Stereotypes, discrimination

Lobbying groups, funding

womens external

Change in mindset

Tool 4: The Project Cycle Analysis The project cycle is the fourth tool of the analysis framework. This consists of a series of questions which are designed to assist you to examine a project proposal or an area of intervention from a gender perspective, using gender disaggregated data and capturing the different effects of social change on women and men (March et al, 1999). A number of key questions are asked at each stage of the project cycle: identification, design, implementation and evaluation. Uses of the framework It is best suited for project planning rather than program or policy planning. As a gender neutral entry point when raising gender issues with constituents resistant to considering gender relations and power dynamics. For baseline data collection. In conjunction with Mosers framework drawn on the idea of strategic gender needs. Strengths of the Harvard framework It is practical and hands on. Once data have been collected, it gives a clear picture of who does what, when and with what resources. It makes womens role and work visible. It distinguishes between access and control over resources. It can easily be adapted to a variety of situations and settings. It is relatively non-threatening as it relies on facts only. Potential Limitations 87

It does not delineate power relations or decision making processes. It offers little guidance on changing existing gender inequalities. It tends to result in genderneutral or gender specific interventions, rather than those that can transform existing gender relations. It tends to oversimplify, based on the tick the boxes approach to data collection and ignores complexities in the community which includes networks and kinships. You only need to look at the dynamics of the Shona kinship ties. It is basically top- down planning tool and excludes women and men own analysis of their situation It ignores underlying inequalities such as class, ethnicity and race, encouraging an erroneous view of women and men as homogeneous categories. It emphasizes separation of activities and resources based on age, sex ignoring connections and cooperative relations across these categories. The profile yields a somewhat static view of the community, makes no reference to changes over time in gender relations.(adapted from Training Workshop and trainers in Women, Gender and Development, June 9-21, 19996) It can encourage a simplistic yes/no approach by asking whether or not women have access and control to resources. However, womens experiences are a more complex reality, for example, a womens may have access to some village land, and have partial control in that they can decide what crops to grow and how. It may be left to elders to decide which plot to give the women. Looking simply at access and control can also hide the bargaining processes which take place in accessing the pieces of land (March et al 1999).

Activity 4.5 Use the picture code of Mr. and Mrs. Moyo to carry out gender analysis using the Harvard Analytical Framework Answer the questions on the picture code. Mosers Gender Planning Framework (the GAD approach) Origins This approach challenged traditional assumptions towards development work which encouraged treating womens issues as separate concerns, GAD approach argued for an integrated gender- planning perspective. It was developed in the early 1980s at

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University of London, UK by Caroline Moser with Caren Levy. Moser (1993: 87) distinguishes gender planning from traditional planning methods and says, First, (gender planning) is both political and technical in nature. Second, it assumes conflict in the planning process. Third, it characterizes planning debate

According to Moser, women as a group have their own particular needs that differ from those of men as a whole. These needs are determined by the gender roles they perform. GAD brought women to deliberate on womens issues and allows for discussion by both men and women about their relations and calls for transformation of relationships and structure which promote gender inequity. As a result it makes visible differences due to class, race, age, ethnicity, disability and sexual orientation. Features The framework has three concepts: Women s triple role Practical and strategic gender needs Categories of WID/GAD policy approaches. Moser tool 1: Gender Roles Identification This tool includes making visible the gender visible the gender division of labor. It can be carried out by mapping all the activities of women and men in the household over a 24 hour period. A triple role for low income women is identified by Moser, productive, reproductive and community management roles: Reproductive work These are activities and tasks that involve the care for the household and community. These include the care and education of children, fuel and water collection, food processing and preparation, healthcare, housing and housekeeping. For most low income or rural communities these activities are labor intensive, time consuming and is usually the responsibility of girls and women. Productive work These are activities and tasks which involve the production of goods and services for consumption or for sale on the market for example, crop and livestock production, formal employment, self employment and marketing. Women and men can be engaged in

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productive but their functions and responsibilities differ in most cases (March et al 1999). Women carry visible and less valued than that of men. Community management roles These are activities and tasks that involve the collective organization of services and social events for example ceremonies, community development activities, church services, funerals, local political activities and resources used by everyone such as water, heath care and education. Most of this work is carried out on a voluntary basis and is an important aspect for the communitys spiritual and cultural development. Both women and men engage in community activities, though a gender division of labor prevails here. Moser divides community into work into two different categories namely, unpaid and monetary rewards for work done. For the community roles and activities women are unpaid and such work is carried out during womens free time (March, 1999). On the other hand, mens involvement in such activities like politics brings in monetary rewards and benefits through improved status and power. Mosers framework recognizes that women perform reproductive, community management activities alongside productive, it makes visible work that tends to be invisible (March, 1999:57). It is therefore necessary to use the triple role analysis in a planning framework as any development intervention in one area of work will affect activities performed in the other two areas. For example, womens reproductive workload can prevent them from participating in development projects or if they do participate they may spend less time on other tasks. Moser tool 2: gender needs assessment Moser distinguishes two types of gender needs practical gender needs and strategic gender interests. Women and men can easily identify these as they often relate to living conditions. Women may identify safe drinking water, food, healthcare, cash income as immediate interests/ needs that they must meet. These needs are not specifically womens needs but the whole familys needs, yet often women identify them as theirs because it is their responsibility to families needs. Addressing practical gender needs improve womens lives but do not challenge the prevailing forms of subordination. For Moser strategic gender interests are the needs that would enable women to transform the existing imbalances of power between women and men. A strategic gender interest begins with the assumption that women are subordinate to men as a consequence of

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social and institutional discrimination against women. Addressing womens strategic position has to do with dismantling the whole spectrum of which womens subordination is rooted. Strategic gender needs vary in particular contexts and dismantling these may entail delving into such issues as legal rights, discrimination, demanding equality in political, cultural and economic spheres, domestic violence and equal pay. According to March et al (1999:58) meeting strategic gender needs helps women to achieve greater equality and challenges their subordinate position, including their role in society. Moser tool 3: disaggregating control of resources and decision making within the household This tool asks the questions: who controls what? Who decides what? How? The Harvard access and control profile enables you to note who is likely to benefit from implementation of a project. The Moser framework looks at who has access and control over resources (political, social, economic etc) although most women have access to the fields as mentioned earlier, they do not have control over produce and income. Several other factors are responsible for shaping and changing gender relations. Moser tool 4: balancing of roles This relates to how women manage the balance between their productive, reproductive and community tasks. It asks whether planned intervention will increase a womans workload in one role with consequences for her other roles. Moser tool 5: WID/GAD policy matrix. The WID/GAD policy matrix provides a framework for identifying or evaluating the approaches that have been (or can) be used to address the triple role, and the practical and strategic gender needs of women in programs projects. This therefore examines interventions in light of WID/GAD approaches. This examines interventions in light of WID/ GAD approaches. Moser tool 6: involving women and gender aware organizations and planners in planning. The aim of this tool is to ensure that practical and strategic gender needs are identified by women ensuring that real needs as opposed to perceived needs are incorporated into the planning process.

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Uses of the framework For planning at all levels from policies to projects. In conjunction with Harvard framework Training in gender issues to raise awareness of womens subordination. Strengths

Limitations

It moves beyond technical elements of planning It is easily applicable and accessible. It makes all the work visible and valuable to planners through concept of triple roles. Distinguish between types of gender needs: those that relate to womens daily lives but maintain existing gender relations (practical gender needs) and those potentially transform existing gender subordination ( strategic gender needs). It challenges inequality and alerts to the possibility that not all development projects to do with women do this. Moser framework helps you to think through the main policy assumptions which are driving a particular project (Moser, 1993, March, 1999).

It does not mention other forms of inequality such as class, race or ethnicity and does not examine change over time as variable. It is static like the Harvard framework. Idea of gender roles obscures the notion of gender relationships and can give a false impression of natural order and equity.(http/www.gdrc.org/gender framework) Like Harvard, Moser framework emphasizes what women and men do and resources available to them rather than focus on their relationships, connectedness and not separateness. For some people the division between strategic and practical is artificial as they argue that there is a continuum. Others argue that all practical interventions affect womens power and status even when this is not factored into the planning process or recognized by those involved in the project (Longwe, 1994).

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It is criticized for focusing on womens strategic gender needs at the expense of men who need to be taken on board.

Activity 4.6 Study the picture code of the lie of the land Using the Moser framework, identify the needs of women and men in your community. Identify the differences between the needs of women and men and categorize them under practical and strategic needs. Discuss why do women do the women in the picture code say no we do not work and show how the community can be sensitized to appreciate the roles of women.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT FRAMEWORK Sara Longwe and Robert Clarke in 1994, in Zambia developed women empowerment framework as a response to the development workers perceived inability to understand the issues and concerns of women in the Third World. Longwe argues that most of the development work has concentrated on ensuring equality between women and men in various sectors like education and employment. This has tended to leave women out of the development process. For Longwe, development means enabling people to take charge of their own lives, and escape from poverty (March, 1999:92). The male domination of government is preserved by women to serve male interests, where women are given most of the work and men collect the rewards. Where men have vested interests to continue to subordinate women its folly to expect them to realize the value of gender equality and give women an equal share of the cake. Features

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The framework identifies five hierarchical levels in the empowering process. The extent to which these are evident in any area of social or economic life determines the level of womens empowerment. Gender and development workers use the framework to analyse development organizations degree of commitment to empowerment and equality of women as they address/ look at the various levels of equality addressed by a particular intervention. The levels illustrate how discussion of inequality at one level leads into discussion of inequality at other levels. The levels are interconnected illustrating that empowerment is found in the movement from one level to another. The process of empowerment maybe better understood in terms of the following five levels of women empowerment framework. Welfare Welfare is the lowest level and looks at womens material welfare relative to men. At this level one looks at whether omen have access to resources like food, income, medical care. If an intervention is confined to this level we are talking about women being given these benefits rather than producing / acquiring such benefits for themselves. This is zero level as most of the interventions focus on meeting the basic needs without the wherewithal for enlightenment and empowering process. Access Access has been defined as womens access to factors of production on an equal footing with male counterparts: equal access to land, labor, credit, training, marketing facilities, public service and benefits (March, 1995). For example female farmers may improve their production and general welfare by increased access to water, land, market, skills and information. Women maybe given information by higher authorities or increase their own access. If it is the latter, then there is beginning of conscientisation, of recognizing and analyzing their own problems and taking action to solve them. For Longwe, equality of access can be obtained by applying the principle of equality of opportunity which calls for reforms in laws and administrative practices to rid of all forms of discrimination. Conscientisation

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Conscientisation is the next level where there is conscious understanding of the difference between sex and gender and an awareness that gender roles are cultural and can be changed. Empowerment means sensitizing to beliefs of traditional division of labor as God given and recognizing that womens subordination is not part of natural order of things but is imposed by discrimination. According to Paulo Freire conscientisation calls for women becoming subjects and not objects of their own lives coupled with the belief or brief that sexual division of labor should be fair and agreeable to both, not overtly or covertly entail the domination of one sex by another. It is here we see the potential and strategies of improved information as enabling process of consciousness driven by women own need to understand underlying causes of their problems and to identify strategies for action. Participation /Mobilisation Longwe defines this as womens equal participation in decision making process, policy making, planning and administration (March, 1995). Mobilization complements conscientisation as women come together for recognition and analyzing problems, identification of strategies to overcome discriminatory practices and collective action to remove these practices. They may connect with larger womens groups to learn about their successes of women in similar situations.. At this level leadership is important in the mobilization process. It is not a scenario where tokenism is at play but full involvement and representation of the women constituency. Reflect on some of the projects in Zimbabwe where it has been lauded that women are full participants- how have the womens participation been shortchanged? Control/ Empowerment This calls for womens control over the decision making process through conscientisation and moblilization to achieve equality of control over the factors of production and distribution of benefits. Equality of control means a balance of control between women and men so that neither side dominates. Women have taken action so that there is gender equality in decision making over access to resources- women have direct access to resources no longer wait indefinitely to be given resources at mens discretion for example, a widows struggle to retain her property after husbands death.

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Women empowerment tool2: level of recognition of womens issues According to Longwe women issues are all issues concerned with womens equality in any social or economic role and involving any of the levels. An issue becomes a womens issue when it looks at the relationship between women and men rather than simply women traditional and subordinate sex- stereotyped gender roles. Women empowerment must be the concern of both women and men and the degree which a project is defined as potentially empowering women is defined by the extent to which it addresses womens issues. Longwe postulates three different levels of recognition of womens issues in project design: Negative level: at this level, the project objectives make no mention of womens issues. In some instances, women are more likely than not left worse off than before by such a project. Neutral level: project objectives recognize womens issues, but concerns remain that the project intervention does not leave women worse off than before. Positive level: project objectives are positively concerned with womens issues and with improving the position of women relative to men. Uses of the framework It is used or planning, monitoring and evaluation, allowing users to question whether their interventions have transformatory potential. Strengths of the framework It shows that development interventions as containing both practical and strategic elements. It places emphasis on empowerment It is useful to identify the gap between rhetoric and reality in interventions. It permits an assessment of where women already have equality, and what still remains to be done. Limitations

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It is static and takes no account of how situations change over time. It does not include other forms of inequality. It does not examine the institutions and organizations involved. It does not examine the macro-environment. It looks at the relationship between women and men only in terms of equality- rather than at the complicated system of rights, claims and responsibilities which exist between them. Activity 4.6 Read this case study and answer the questions that follow: An engineering firm is given a contract to build a bridge in a small community and a new road leading to a larger town kilometers away. This community is part of a group of communities linked together by a network of markets. Women are the vendors and buyers in these markets. They travel by foot with their wares on their heads and babies on their backs, from market to market. the terrain is dangerous and precarious. Bridges are often washed away during heavy rains. The engineers from the firm are told that they must discuss the project with the community to make sure it fulfills their needs. The engineers are also encouraged to employ local people and train them in various skills. The firm meets with local officials and, much negotiation, they agree on the number of people to be trained in the construction of the bridge and bridge maintenance skills. The engineers and local officials are especially proud that they have selected two young women to be included in the training. The training is held and the bridge is finally built. It is connected to the new road leading to the far away town. Soon, however, it is noticed that most women are not using the new road. They are still taking the dangerous footpath to cross the ravine and go to the market. Also, the women trained in bridge maintenance seem after some months to lose interest in working on the project. Questions guiding the discussion Use the Women Empowerment Framework to conduct gender analysis of the situation in the case study. Make assumptions /educated guesses if necessary. List things that might have gone wrong with this project. Based on your analysis, make recommendations on how to revise the project for

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more positive, gender- equitable outcomes. Conclusion In this unit we have looked at what is gender analysis and why we carry out gender analysis. We have looked at three of the tools and frameworks for gender analysis. The activities and tasks we have tackled have helped us to understand the gender differences and inequalities that permeate most of the societies in which we live and how these differences impact on womens and mens lives differently. Gender based analysis has also helped us to analyse the division of labor between women, access and control over resources and benefits as well as the different but significant needs and interests of women and men among other issues. Gender analysis provides information which is qualitative and quantitative on gender relations, creates understanding and awareness of existing gender issues at the level of development workers, community researchers and planners. The following unit on gender issues will further assist you in understanding the implications of different issues on women and men.

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References Kabeer , N. 1994 Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought, Verso. London Kabira, W. M. & Smyth, I and Mukhopadhyay, M. 1999 A Guide to Gender Analysis Frameworks. Oxfam. Molyneux, M. 1981 Womens Emancipation Under Socialism a Model for the Third World. IDS Discussion paper DP157 Sussex Institute of Development Studies Moser, C. 1993 Gender Planning and Development:: Theory, Practice and Training. Routledge. London http: www.gdrc.org/gender/framework/ what is (11/29/2006) ILO/ SEAPATs Online Gender Learning and Information module (12/1/2006)

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UNIT FIVE GENDER ISSUES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA. By Tenson Tawanda Mugodzwa Introduction This unit focuses on culture, religion and poverty as inter related concepts in the social construction of gender inequality. Each concept is defined, followed by an exploration of how the concept plays a role in creating gender inequality. Objectives

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By the end of the unit you should be able to: Define and explain the concepts culture, religion and poverty Show the extent to which each of the concepts creates gender inequality Suggest intervention strategies that could be instituted to mitigate gender inequalities caused by the three gender issues. Culture and Gender Inequality Culture may be defined as the beliefs, values, behaviour, and material objects shared by a particular group (Macionis, 1989). In its broadest sense, culture may be viewed as everything that is socially learned and shared by a group of people in society. Religion and Gender Inequality In this section we look at religion and how it perpetuates gender inequality. From the onset, we need to point out that religion as a concept is not only complex, but very controversial. This is because of the nature of the subject itself and the current isms and schisms emanating from the current trends in the heated debate about religion. We also need to appreciate that the world in general and countries in SADC in particular, are made of different societies with diverse societies, beliefs and religions. ACTIVITY 5.1 1. What is your religion? What influenced you to believe in this religion? 2. What other religions do you know? 3. If there is one God, why do we have different religions 4. Why do people believe in different religions?

From the task above, we can note that the debate on religion is indeed controversial. In real practice, it is enormously difficult to separate religion from culture as the two are intertwined social institutions serving the same purpose in society, that of indoctrination, mental colonization, and the creation of a docile, passive and loyal member of a given society (Rodney, 1981)

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In modern day Zimbabwe, it is difficult to discuss the issue of religion without making reference to Christianity. This is because Zimbabwe is made up of people of diverse background with different cultural beliefs, and the majority of them is Christians or claim to be Christians in one way or another. This makes the discussion very controversial, for both the reader and the writer are bound to be regarded as blasphemous, for people are going to ask who are we to undo what God the Almighty has put in place. We need to also acknowledge that it is written in the Bible that the fear of God[and what He has put in place ] is the beginning of wisdom.[Proverbs 1;7].It is against this background that the discussion shall largely draw examples from the Christian perspective, although not ignoring the traditional perspective and its controversies per se. Haralambos and Holborn [1995] noted that, in the Bible, Original Sin in the Garden of Eden was womans. She tasted the forbidden fruit [alone, we assume], tempted Adam [in his great God-given wisdom, we assume], and has been paying for it ever since. In Genesis 3; 16 the Lord said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children [alone, we assume], and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee. Such is the way females are subordinated through religion in most Zimbabwean societies and the world over. ACTIVITY 5.9. Explain, giving examples how the above quotation leads to the subordination of females by males in the church, the family and the society in general. What can be done to liberate women from this dominant position in society?

From the activity above, you may have noticed that the quotation is a mythological justification for the subordinate position of women in society [Haralambos and Holborn, 2004; 92]. Most people might see the reality it contains of their relationship with their spouse[s] as an accurate description of their status, that is; 1. Females are child-bearers[child-bearing machines, child-breeders, or are they?] 2 Females are mothers and housewives 3 Females do the cooking, cleaning, sewing, and washing[domestic/household chores]

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4 Females take care of males and are subordinate to male authority 5 Females are largely excluded from high-status occupations and from positions of power. The above generalizations about females have applied, and continue to be applied to most known societies. Research in Zimbabwe and the world over has revealed that there is not, and never has been, a society in which females do not have an inferior status to that of males. From the discussion, it is evident that religion is one social institution, which leads to women inferiority and the general subordination of females. ACTIVITY 5 1. Which sex makes up the majority of church- goers? What could be the reason? 2. Who occupies positions of leadership in most churches between males or females? 3. What measurers may be put in place to ensure that females also participate in decision-making in churches?

RELIGION AND THE SOCIAL REPRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY The role of religion as a pacifier to social injustices has been hotly debated. For example, the gap between the so-called developed and underdeveloped countries has increased by at least twenty times over the last 150 years [Rodney, 1981]. To explain this disparity, one bourgeois economist deliberately ignored the historical context and made everything appear God-given about the situation and put forward the following Biblical explanation; For unto everyone that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance [when others are starving], but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which hath[Mathew 25;29, cited in Rodney;1981;29]. The above illustrates one way in which religion may be used to reproduce and justify social inequality. From the discussion, it may be observed that religion, like any other social institution, serves the interests of those in power and must be seen as a mechanism to maintain order, harmony, stability and the status quo. This scenario is clearly portrayed in Rodneys [1981] assertion that the churchs role is primarily to preserve discrimination and social inequality by stressing humility, docility and acceptance. Rodney [1981]

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argues that during the days of slavery, the church was brought in on condition that it would not excite African slaves with doctrines of equality before God. In those days slaves were taught to sing All things were bright and beautiful, and that the slave master was to be accepted as Gods work just like the slave living in a miserable hovel and working 20 hours a day under the whip. Similarly, in colonial Africa churches could be relied upon to preach turning the other cheek in the face of exploitation, and they drove home the message that everything would be right in the next world, what Lenin implied when he commented that religion is the opium of the poor. All this is evidence that religion may be used to maintain social inequality. Commenting on the status of females during the height of colonial rule in Africa, Rodney [1981] noted that, what happened to African women under colonialism is that the social, religious, and political privileges and rights disappeared, while the economic exploitation continued and was often intensified. It was intensified because the division of labour according to sex was frequently disrupted. Traditionally, African men did the heavy labour of felling trees, clearing land, etc. When they were required to leave their farms to seek employment, women remained over-burdened with every task necessary for the survival of themselves,the children and even the man as far as foodstuffs were concerned. Since men entered the money sector more easily and in large numbers than women, womens work became greatly inferior to that of men with the new value system of colonialism: mens work was modern and womens work traditional and Backward (Rodney, 1981). The above discussion has tried to put religion in the gender analysis perspective. Next lets try to explore how religion serves to maintain and perpetuate gender inequality. First the definition of religion shall be given.

What is religion? Like the family, the religious institution is exceedingly complex. Chalfant and Labeff (1988) view religion as a social institution concerned with the ultimate meaning of life with the answers to questions that are unanswerable by natural means, such as death, illness tragedy, or the feeling of powerlessness. In other words religious beliefs and practices provide seem to answers and consolation when we encounter experiences we do not recognize and questions we cannot answer. You can imagine the prayers we have

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made (of course in privacy) before a dreaded examination or job interview or upon the death of a loved one. Religion and Gender Inequality Macionis (1989), Chalfant and Labeff (1988) have all observed that religion plays a significant part in the perpetuation of gender inequality. Christianity in particular has been a major force in the support of the traditional female roles. It has been noted that the Old and New Testament both reveal support for the traditional, subservient role of women (Rodney 1981). In the Old Testament, for example women are frequently defined as the property of males (Driver cited in Chalfant and Labeff 1988). One of the Ten Commandments forbids coveting the wife of a neighbour in the same way that it forbids coveting the other property of a neighbour.In this particular case, women are viewed as the private property of men. ACTIVITY 5.11 1. Why do men marry? 11. Why do women get married? 111. Are married people properties of their spouses? Explain giving reasons.

The subordinate position of women in society is evident in passages from many of the sacred writings of major world religious. Macionis (1989) observed that the Koran- the sacred text of Islam- asserts that males are to have social dominance over women. Men are in charge of womenhence good women are obedient .As for those rebelliousness you fear, admonish them, banish them from your bed, and scourage them (Kaufman, cited in Macionis, 1989: 432).

Christianity, which is the dominant religion in Zimbabwe, also supports patriarchy. Although Mary the mother of Jesus is highly revered within Christianity, the New Testament contains the following passages. A manis the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but

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woman for man ( 1 Corinthians 11: 7-9) This clearly illustrates that religion portrays females as not only subordinate to males but rather as sex objects meant whose sole purpose is to satiate the appetite and pleasure of males. Females therefore are view

ed as second class citizens, not only to be dominated by males, but to please them as well.. This is further evidenced by the following passage: As in all churches of the saints, the women should keep silence in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as even the law says. If there is anything they desire to know let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church.(1 Corinthians 14:33-35). It can be noted from the above passage that the public sphere is for males, while females are destined for the private sphere, and religious sympathizers are quick to subtly justify patriarchy by arguing that Gods word should not be questioned. Such thinking subsequently maintains the status-quo as females are confined to their traditional feminine roles. This is further elaborated in the following passage: Wives, be subject to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the churchas the church is subject to Christ, so let wives also be subject in everything to their husbands (Ephesians 5: 22-24). It is evident from the ongoing discussion that religion is an integral social institution in the construction and perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities. This is revealed in the following passage: A capable wife who can find? She is far more precious than jewels. The heart of her husband trusts in her She does him good, and not harm, all the days of her life and works with willing hands She brings food she rises while it is still night and provide food for her household (Proverbs 31:10-15).

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The above passage clearly illustrates females subordinate position and the reproductive roles they undertake in the home and the wider society. .Maybe this explains why females at whatever age wake up earlier than their male counterparts, especially in the Zimbabwean context. By the time males and other children wake up , they are certain to find their bathing water warm and their food ready on the table. And to justify that the public sphere is for males, consider the following passage: Her husband is known in the city gates, taking his seat among the elders of the land (Proverbs 31:23). Such is the situation in most Zimbabwean families house holds w here the females are confined to their traditional reproductive roles in the private sphere, and males are under perpetual societal pressure to participate in the public sphere

CONCLUSION This part of the unit has attempted to highlight the role played by religion in not only constructing but maintaining gender inequality. GENDER AND THE WORK PLACE INTRODUCTION

Sex stratification has had mostly negative effects for women, the work world remains designed for men and tends to benefit men (LaBeff, 1988).Henceforth, in this section we look at gender inequality at the workplace. Although women have moved into the paid labour force in large numbers in Zimbabwe, they continue to experience a wide range of discriminatory practices. Activity 5. (1) Enumerate the various ways in which women are discriminated against at the

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work place in your country. (2) Suggest some long-lasting solutions to these discriminatory practices

From the activity above, you may have realized that in spite of the major strides made to bring about gender harmony at the work place in Zimbabwe, women still experience various prejudices. These range from income inequality to employers unwillingness to hire them or unable to believe that they are capable. Women continue to shoulder the overload of performing demanding jobs on top of being wives and mothers. They continue to struggle to provide adequate economic support as single parents, and they face sexual harassment on the job. Of these problems, the issue of income inequality has received greater attention. Because women predominate in low-paying clerical and service jobs and men in the higher-paying positions in business and professions, men continue to earn much more than women. Even within the same occupation, the average salary of women is always lower than the average salary for men (Macionis,1989).

ACTIVITY 5.21 Identify factors responsible for the income disparity between males and females in Zimbabwe. For each identified factor, suggest a possible remedy.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCOME DISPARITY BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES From the activity, it maybe observed that several factors are responsible for the income disparity between the two sexes. As you may have established, males and females tend to 108

hold different occupations, and this fact strongly benefits men. Most women work in low-paying , dead-end service jobs ,such as waitressing and clerical positions. Men on the other hand , dominate high-paying managerial jobs such as Company Secretary, Executive, or Director. Less than one-forth of all professional, managerial, and technical jobs are held by women, and most of these are in school-teaching (Richardson,1981). Women in traditionally masculine professionals are often referred to in terms of their gender: for example, lady lawyer, female physician- just as men in traditionally feminine jobs are referred to in terms of their gender-E.G.: male nurse. It has also been noted that women are rarely found in higher paying blue-collar jobs such as carpentry, masonry, and other crafts. The majority of women in Zimbabwe are employed in traditionally feminine occupations such as secretary (not Permanent Secretary), nurse, receptionist, typist, and office orderly. The salaries for such jobs are pathetically low in Zimbabwe and are far much lower than masculine jobs of doctor, dentist, and professor.etc. A critical analysis of the situation reveals that even in the same occupation, women on average do not make as much as men. ACTIVITY 5.23 What reasons could be used to explain the above situation? Suggest some solutions to alleviate the identified factors?

One major reason to this scenario is that male workers have somewhat better educational qualifications than their female counterparts. In short, the higher the educational qualifications, the closer women come to making as much as men. But despite this observation, the gap still remains in every occupational field. Activity 5.24 (1) Suggest reasons to explain this gap. (2) Also put forward solutions to each identified reason.

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As you may have observed, this income gap may be partially explained by several factors. First, women tend to be newer entrants into fields such as law, medicine and lecturing, and have yet to reach positions of seniority and better pay. Second, some women work on an intermittent basis, shaping their jobs or careers to fit with their husbands jobs and with bearing and rearing children. Some women drop out of the labour force while their children are young: when they go back to work, they will have lost several months or years that would have gone towards advancement and have lost seniority to others younger than them. Third, men are more likely than women to have jobs that permit overtime and part- time work, which further increases their income. Finally, the issue of discrimination on the part of employers and institutions cannot be over- looked. Women may be discriminated against in the hiring phase by being offered lower level jobs than equally qualified men are offered. Moreover, women maybe passed over for promotion a number of times in favour of men who may better suit the traditional image of the business or occupation. Employers may feel that women are less able and therefore are not willing to pay them higher salaries. Although laws have been passed to make such forms of discrimination illegal, those laws are often not rigorously enforced. In most cases, the women involved must take the time and spend money for a lawsuit before a company is forced to change informal practices of sex discrimination. As women move into traditionally masculine jobs, they also face potential resentment for upsetting the status-quo, or for contradicting accepted notions regarding gender role stereotypes. In the ZRP\ZNA EG; men may react to women entering patrol with resentment and hostility. The man may fear that they are in more physical danger when working with a female partner or when a female partner responds as a back-up to a crisis situation. Martin (1980) found that women police/ army officers are pressured into feeling a sense of inferiority by a variety of verbal and non-verbal cues, including phrases used to describe them, joking, gossip, traditional gender role etiquette, and sexual harassment. Such negative male reactions act as barriers to full acceptance and cooperation, and are perhaps the most serious problems faced by female officers in particular and female workers in general. Conclusion

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The experience of women in the paid labour force is but one instance of our societys overall devaluation of women. Schur (1984) suggests that women experience systematic inferiorisation in society, which then becomes self-fulfilling and self-perpetuating. However, despite the obstacles created by sex stereotypes at the work place, women have made considerable gains in the Zimbabwean society. Of late we have seen the first woman in the Zimbabwean Presidium, the first women officer cadets , the first women Vice Chancellors, Permanent Secretaries, ministers,etc, but still, more needs to be done to see w omen in decision- making positions in companies, organizations and professions. 5.5.0 GENDER AND HIV/AIDS

5.5.1 INTRODUCTION AIDS/HIV has , in a period of just one and a half decades, reached unprecedented crisis levels in Zimbabwe. It is estimated that up to 25% of people aged between 15 and 49 years are infected with HIV in Zimbabwe(GOZ,1999). This section therefore examines the issue of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe with particular reference to women and children , as they are the most vulnerable in the Zimbabwean society due to a number of reasons some of which are the subject of this discussion. Gender analysis suggests that slightly more males than females are infected with HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe(UNICEF,1994). However , the current situation shows that women and girls are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe(UNICEF,2003). According to UNIAIDS(2004), nearly 50% of the 38 million people living with HIV /AIDS globally are females. On average, there are 13 women living with HIV/AIDS for every 10 men(UNICEF,1994), and the gap continues to grow. In most countries, women are being infected with HIV/AIDS at earlier ages than men. Recent studies show that there are on average 36 young women living with HIV/AIDS for every 10 young men(UNAIDS,2004).

. Activity 5.25 (1)What makes women more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection in your country? (11) What measures may be put in place to alleviate the problem?

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5.5.2. WHY WOMEN ARE MORE VULNERABLE HIV/AIDS 5.5.2.1 Biological vulnerability According to UNICEF (1994), women can far more easily become infected through penetrative sex than men, and vaginal and/or anal sex is much more risky than other modes. To explain this situation, Gender links and the AIDS Law Project (2004) came up with the following reasons; The vagina and anus have larger areas of exposed and sensitive skin The virus can survive for longer in the vagina and the anus than on the surface of the penis There is a higher viral load of HIV/AIDS in the semen than there is in the fluids of the vagina or anus The vaginal and anal walls are much more likely to be ruptured during vaginal or anal sex, especially if the sex is violent or coercive or when a woman is very young and the cervix is not yet fully developed. Cuts, scrapes, and bruises allow easy access for the HIV/AIDS VIRUS into the blood stream. 5.2.2.2 Socio-Economic Status In Zimbabwe, AIDS appears to be present among the professional elite and could result in severe disruption in administrative and economic activities. At the same time , as a virus that thrives on poverty ( UNICEF,1994 ), HIV/AIDS is likely to advance to its terminal stage fastest among the most disadvantaged economic groups who have a poor nutritional status and little access to social services such as health and education . With fewer opportunities in the formal and informal sectors, more and more women may resort to selling sex for an income, putting them at greater risk of infection. This situation is particularly rampant among female university students in Zimbabwe.

ACTIVITY 5.18 (1)Who is more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS male or female students in Zimbabwean universities? (11) What could be done to reduce their vulnerability?

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UNAIDS(2004) FOUND OUT THAT; Women may be unable to negotiate safer sex or the use of condoms. Marriage does not protect women from HIV/AIDS infection because more than four-fifth s of new infections in women result from their husbands or primary partners. Women in Zimbabwe are mostly economically dependent on their husbands or partners and fear rejection and/or violence if they insist on condom use Poverty undermines womens opportunities to seek the knowledge , power or time to be concerned about safer sex Women are expected to bear children to demonstrate their fertility and fulfill their roles as mothers Because women are traditionally perceived as care-givers the burden of care that the HIV/AIDS epidemic has created more frequently falls to women than men Women and young girls may use sex as a commodity in exchange of goods , services , money, accommodation or even status. This situation is rampant in Zimbabwean universities and tertiary colleges , more often than not with older men.

ACTIVITY 5.19 (1) What measures may be adopted by the Zimbabwean Government to curb the rise of HIV/AIDS infection in general, and among female students in tertiary colleges? CONCLUSION

The issue of HIV/AIDS vis-a- vis gender equality needs serious consideration from all stake- holders and the Government if gender equality is to be a reality rather than an elusive myth in Zimbabwe. This calls for focused attention on developmental policies

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and processes with a human face if we are to achieve the objectives of the Zimbabwe National Gender Policy and curb the increasing rise of HIV/AIDS infection .

POVERTY AND GENDER INTRODUCTION This part of the unit looks at poverty in relation to gender issues in Zimbabwe. We begin by looking at the various dimensions of poverty. WHAT IS POVERTY? Defining poverty is not an easy task. With the constantly changing features of the modern economy as well as the conceptions of what is necessary and what is not in modern life, it is difficult to establish who is considered poor. Although poverty always signifies deprivation(Brym,1995), the concept is commonly used in two different ways, relative poverty and absolute poverty. According to Haralambos and Holborn (2004), relative poverty refers to a state of deprivation of social resources in relation to some standard of greater privilege. ACTIVITY 5.12 (1) In Zimbabwe, is there equal access to social resources such as land, capital and technology? (2) What can be done to ensure that equal access to resources is achieved? (3) Do men and women access resources equally in Zimbabwe? (4) What measures may be implemented to achieve equal access to resources between the two sexes in Zimbabwe? From the exercise above it may be noted that there are disparities in accessing social resources in Zimbabwe based on race, ethnicity, social class and gender. This implies deprivation of vital resources useful for social mobility. A much more serious matter is absolute poverty, which means a state of deprivation of social resources that is life-

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threatening (Haralambos and Holborn,2004). Being in a state of absolute poverty is not a matter of comparing oneself with others, rather, it means that survival itself is in doubt. Judging by the current Zimbabwean situation, most families , both urban and rural fall into this category of poverty, where they survive on either two meals, or worse still on one , that is ,if it is there at all. ACTIVITY 5.13 (1) What constitutes poverty in Zimbabwe? (2) How can levels of poverty be reduced in Zimbabwe

POVERTY AND GENDER Poverty does not affect males and females equally. Consequently, growing attention has been directed towards the ferminisation of poverty which means a trend by which females represent an increasing proportion of the poor (Macionis,1989:273). ACTIVITY 5.14. (1) Is the above quotation a true reflection of the situation in Zimbabwe? (2) What could be the possible reasons for this situation? (3) Suggest possible solutions to alleviate the situation. From the activity above, we may notice that the majority of poor Zimbabweans are females. The problem of poverty is most serious for women who are the heads of house holds (UNICEF,1994). They often have the financial burden of raising children, and if working, the majority typically hold low-paying jobs. This leaves them vulnerable to prostitution as they struggle to make ends meet. ACTIVITY 5.15 (3)

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(1) What are the major causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe/ (2) Who is more vulnerable to prostitution in Zimbabwe ,males or females? (3) What could be the possible reasons for this?

Zimbabwe has experienced serious macro-economies instability with limited foreign exchange, rising inflation and negative growth since 2000 (UNICEF 2003). This scenario has led to increased poverty among many Zimbabwean households increasing poverty continues to seriously undermine the countrys ability to ensure adequate access to quality basic services that include health and education. This has resulted in the increased vulnerability of children and females as they find themselves excluded fro growth and development. Consequently because of poverty, some females married or not, find themselves as small houses as they struggle for survival. The most hard hit are children of the poor particularly the girl child. These depend on the resource allocation decisions of adults who often cannot properly feed and clothe themselves in the current Zimbabwean context. According to UNICEF 2003, children of unmarried mothers especially unmarried adolescent mothers may be particularly disadvantaged because of their mothers immaturity, poor social position and educational deficiencies. Poor children especially girls are disadvantaged by the lack of continuity as they often assume the adult roles of caring for younger siblings and working including engaging in child labour and commercial sex thereby exposing themselves to HIV/AIDS.

The Impact of Poverty Poverty has had negative effects on the Zimbabwean society, with a profound impact on women who must see that their families are fed. The inflationary pressures and high cost of basic commodities has torn many families apart. Stunting chronic under- nutrition has been on the increase. A deficiency and anaemia have remained a perennial problem with about 31% of women of child-bearing age affected (UNICEF, 2003). The rise in hospital and medical fees has affected access to health-seeking status for children and women in Zimbabwe. The effects of HIV/AIDS and the related demands on the health sector have compounded the situation. The effects of poor or inadequate access to quality basic social services are wide-ranging. Indications are that school enrolment and retention of teachers and medical experts have

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declined over the last couple of years, particularly because of the increase in poverty and effects of fees and other related costs. Such a situation makes the poor females vulnerable to abuse. CONCLUSION Unequal access to socio-economic resources is a major cause of poverty in Zimbabwe. Inequality has continued to be severe particularly in relation to income, access to credit, land and other vital productive assets (UNICEF, 2003).Equally significant as a cause of poverty has been the HIV/AIDS pandemic. HIV/AIDS has undermined most families ability to secure stable incomes and expand their asset bases. The relationship between poverty and HIV/AIDS is controversial and debatable, but poverty causes people, especially young women to engage in sexual activities to alleviate their financial problems. Poverty remains a serious impediment to gender equity and equality, and it remains the greatest challenge the Government and stake holders need to address if equality between the two sexes is to be achieved in Zimbabwe.

References Brym,1995 Chalfant and Labeff (1988 Haralambos and Holborn[1995] [Haralambos and Holborn, 2004; LaBeff,1988 Macionis (1989

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Martin (1980 Richardson,1981 Rodney, 1981 Schur(1984 UNAIDS,2004 UNICEF,1994 UNICEF 2003)

UNIT 6

: GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE

Tenson Tawanda Mugodzwa Discussion Questions

1. Critically examine the part played by schooling in the socialization of young girls and thus in determining their occupational choices and eventual level of achievements (Mahoney: 1985:11)

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Particular attention should be given to aspects of the hidden curriculum, e.g. the portrayal of women in textbooks, the classroom/school climate/environment, curricular vis--vis teacher attitudes and expectations, and career choice.

2. Schools are partriarchal institutions, which have served, and continue to save to perpetuate womens subordinate position in society (Lemmer; 1993;7) . Critically assess the validity of this statement. 3. Assess the role played by the hidden curriculum in the creation and perpetuation of gender stereotypes and gender inequality, in Zimbabwe educational institutions.

6.o

ITNRODUCTION In all societies and at all times the education of girls and women has been considered less important and has assumed a different form from the education of boys and men (Gilbert and Taylor, 1994). Social scientists have of late begun to reappraise the role played by the school in determining the status and life outcomes of women. It has now become pertinent to analyse the way in which educational practices and processes shape womens social and educational inequality. This involves examining the process of education and activities in schools rather than the outcome of that education. In this unit, we look at gender issues in education in

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Zimbabwe ,focusing on how females are discriminated in the various subtle ways in the school system. 6.1 OBJECTIVES BY THE END OF THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO: Explain giving examples, the various ways in which the girl child is discriminated against in the school system. Discuss the role played by the hidden curriculum in the social reproduction of gender inequality in Zimbabwe. Examine the part played by schooling in socializing the girl child and thus determine her occupational choices and eventual achievement. Suggest some recommendations towards a gender responsive environment in schools in Zimbabwe

6.2

The school as an agent of socialization

The school is seen as a formal agent of gender role socialization (Dekker and Lemmer,1993). Gender role socialization refers to the means whereby social expectations regarding gender appropriate characteristics are conveyed to the child. These expectations are usually based on stereotyped beliefs. Gilbert and

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Taylor (1994) conclude that gender role socialization has a dual significance for children ;

i. ii.

It provides them with a model for present behaviour , and It prepares them for adult life.

Gilbert and Taylor (1994) also noted that differential gender role socialization for boys and girls occurs largely through the processes of formal schooling and the effects thereof are best discerned in,;

i. ii.

unequal educational outcomes e.g. the different patterns of achievement aspiration and self evaluation shown by males and females.

ACTIVITY 6.1 What reasons may be used to explain the usually unequal educational outcomes between boys and girls in Zimbabwe? Suggest solutions to alleviate the unequal outcomes.

The Curriculum

The school transmits culture to its learners in the form of knowledge and skills which together with aims of the school and education system as a whole, are detailed in the official curriculum.

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 The school curriculum operates on two levels,

i. ii.

intentional and official and unintentional and unexamined, which is called the hidden curriculum.

While it is possible that the transmission of culture which takes place in schools via the curriculum can improve the life chances of the disadvantaged, it can also perpetuate existing class, racial and gender divisions in society (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). In this respect the hidden curriculum is recognized as a potent agent in communicating gender appropriate behaviour

Toys

Toys are an important means of informal learning, particularly during the pre-primary phase of schooling. Research findings show that masculine toys were found to be more varied, complex, active and social and encouraged spatial, mathematical and scientific skills whereas feminine toys were simpler, and focused on passive and solitary activity (Lemmer; 1993;10). Kelly (1981:1981) and Samuel (1981) similarly found that toys which orientate a child to mathematics and science are marketed virtually exclusively for boys.

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Learning and Resource materials

A major source of unintentional teaching and learning about gender roles takes place through educational materials and media. According to Gilbert and Taylor (1991) textbooks present limited portrayals of women and girls and although attempts have since been made to reverse this trend, more recently published school textbooks are still narrow in their representation of gender roles.

Textbooks

Preschool and primary school textbooks especially basic reading books, provide children with models against which they measure their own parents and also provide models of acceptable behaviour. Mostly males are portrayed in a variety of occupations whereas female occupations are confined either to FANTASY ROLES, such as witch and princess, or to a narrow list of traditional female roles, such as housewife, mother and nurse. A more recent publishing date does not necessarily signify an end to gender stereotyping.

Secondary school textbooks have also been criticized for their unbalanced portrayal of women. The main charge against history books is that women, their social history and their achievements are conspicuous by their absence (Lemmer, 1987).

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Although Mathematics and Science are traditionally considered to be impersonal and even neutral subjects, analyses of textbooks used in schools have shown a qualitative and quantitative difference in their portrayal of men and women. Women are associated with stereotyped occupations, illustrations favour males, books frequently refer to the students exclusively as he and texts suggest that Science and Mathematics represent a male preserve (Killy, 1981). Moreover, according to Bazler and Simonis (1992), editions of science texts published in the 1980s show no significant improvement in the portrayal of women.

Teachers

Teacher attitudes, teacher expectations and the positions occupied by male and female teachers within the school hierarchy are important components of the hidden curriculum and contribute to the way in which children perceive themselves.

Teacher Expectations

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Teacher expectations of pupils performance and abilities can operate as a self fulfilling prophecy within the classroom, i.e. there is a tendency for the performance of the pupil to conform with the expectations prescribed by the teacher. Unspoken assumptions about gender roles and the attitudes towards women maintained by teachers have a potent influence on the gender role socialization of male and female pupils. Research suggests that in spite of the professed egalitarian ideals of some teachers, educators often act according to sub-conscious prejudices in the classroom (Stanworth, 1983). Consider the following aspects as illustration; Behaviour

Teachers generally consider girls to be appreciative, calm, cooperative and sensitive but less independent, creative and autonomous than boys in the classroom. Pupils who do not measure up to the teachers gender expectations are considered deviant. Teachers also cherish implicit expectations about the social roles that males and females should play both in the classroom and in adult life e.g. teachers expect girls to enter subordinate occupations and to have their careers disrupted by marriage and they communicate these expectations to pupils. Achievements

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Teachers believe boys to be more logical and quicker to grasp concepts; girls to be neater and more precise at written work. This is clearly illustrated by Spenders (1982) study in which teachers on five occasions and in three countries were issued report cards which sometimes featured the name of a boy and sometimes featured the name of a boy and sometimes the name of a girl. Teachers were asked to make recommendations about the future of the children on the basis of identical information on the reports. In all cases teacher expectations of boys wee more varied, challenging and prestigious and more financially rewarding.

Teacher - Pupil interaction

It has been noted that teachers treat children according to expected gender roles in the classroom e.g. Talk teachers spend about two thirds more time talking to boys, who are in turn allowed about two thirds of pupil talk (Spender, 1982). Boys receive significantly more assistance from teachers as a result of this increased verbal communication. Waiting teachers encourage girls to seek attention by conventional methods e.g. raising of hands whereas boys are more likely to make verbal requests which usually result in more immediate to response. Teachers ignore girls for longer, periods of time, boys obtain attention by rowdy a social behaviour, girls are addressed collectively, boys by individual names (Mahoney, 1982).

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 Identity Teachers tend to know more personal detail about the boys they teach than about the girls. Girls are an anonymous group, faceless bunch about when little personal detail is known (Stanworth; 1983:45) Reward and Punishment childrens self esteem is not only shaped by the quantity of teacher attention they get but also by the quality of that attention. Rewards and punishment meted out within the classroom differ for boys and girls and thus also reinforce gender role expectations. Boys are regarded as aggressive unruly but essentially intelligent and are given more attention in the form of rewards and even punishment. Boys failures are seen as the result of a lack of effort rather than lack of skill (Safilios Rothschild, 1982). Girls are more often rewarded for conforming behaviour and are encouraged to be compliant but not autonomous.

Effects of biased interaction

The overall effect of biased interaction in the classroom is that girls experience the inferior status afforded to them within the intimate sphere of the classroom daily. It can be concluded that this does not constitute the kind of climate in which confidence and a sense of personal worth is inspired. Sadker and Sadker concluded that day to day life in classrooms has remained fundamentally unchanged with boys receiving overall preferential treatment during formal education, despite the implementation of various equity programmes.

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Teachers as Models

Measor and Sikes (1992) have observed that teachers provide important role models for children, in this regard, concern has been expressed by educators about the underrepresentation of women in positions of leadership in the education system and the identification of male and female teachers with specific age groups. Most school teachers worldwide are female, with the greatest concentration of women in pre-primary and primary school teaching. In contrast, women are under represented in headships and other positions of leadership. This reinforces the perception that women teach and men control. The employment of women teachers is accompanied by overt and covert discrimination in terms of promotion and tenure practices. Global patterns also show that women teachers tend to be under represented in certain subjects such as Mathematics and Science and concentrated in stereotyped womens fields, i.e. the care of young children and teaching so called girls subjects such as Home Economics, Languages and the Humanities. Occupational choices are made from primary school onwards and the school assists directly and indirectly in this process. Literature on the pattern of job selection and career choice of adolescent girls suggests that the majority indeed drift into a career or job (Dobie, 1993:149) with parents and teachers taking a far more passive role when advising girls than when advising boys. The career choice of girls is further complicated by issues concerning the formation of the

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personal, social and sexual identity which reaches a crucial phase during adolescence.

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References Gordon, R. (1995) Can Sex of Girls Academic Under Achievement: The Influence of Teachers Attitudes and Expectations on the Academic Performance of Secondary School Girls, in Occassional Paper Number 8, ZJER, UZ, Harare

Gordon, R

(1994) National Policies for the Education of Girls and Women in Zimbabwe in Sutherland, M. R. and Bardoux, C. (Ed) Feminines et Education Politiques Nationales et Variation International, University of Laval, LABRAPS, Quebec

Williams, T

(1975) Social Inequalities, Teacher Expectations and Sub Fulfilling Prophecies; in Journal of Education Research and Perspectives, Volume 2 No. 1 University of Western Australia

Gordon, R and Chimedza (1995) Access and Equity

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The Rationale Education is a basic human right. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child re-affirmed the right of every child to education irrespective of colour, race, creed, sex, ability, disability and socio economic status (Gordon and Chimedza (1995). Unfortunately groups such as these are often denied both the right of access to education, and equal treatment in educational institutions, which leads to unequal educational outcomes and life chances for these groups. Article 3 of the World Declaration of Human Rights is concerned with universalizing access to, and promoting equity in education emphasizing that Education For All means ensuring that particular attention is directed to the education of the under served (Gordon and Chimedza, 1995).

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 As well as being a basic human right, education is a necessary condition for the upward social mobility of disadvantaged members of society. Knowledge gained through education is a means by which they can improve the quality of their lives. Equity of access to education and equal treatment in the school are essential conditions for all forms of social equity (Gordon, 1994). Equal educational opportunities for all maximizes the possibility of equal educational outcomes, and thus equal opportunities for all members of society to secure employment. Equality of educational opportunity is necessary if women, are to become self sufficient producers of wealth, charity, the goodwill of individuals, organizations and the state.

National Policies For The Education of Girls and Women in Zimbabwe Its not possible to isolate national policies for the education of girls and women in Zimbabwe, from socio economic policies and the economic, legal and political statuses of women. Educational policies both prior to and since independence have been an integral part of overall government policies, all operating within the context of a patriarchal society. Since independence the stated policy of the government has been based on the policy of the rising party, ZANU (PF). Of the fundamental human rights and freedoms recognized by ZANU (PF), one is gender specific, i.e. the right of women to equality which men in all spheres of political, economic, cultural and

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family life. Men and women will enjoy equal pay for equal work. (ZANU (PF) Manifesto, 2015). Education is seen as a human right and necessity and an important instrument for the achievement of equity.

Girls and Education since Independence Despite the tremendous increases in educational provision countrywide and the introduction of non gee paying primary education, fewer girls than boys attend primary school (Gordon, 1994) and worse still only 41% of secondary school pupils are girls (Gordon, 1994).

Constraints to the Education of Girls

The issue of sexual equality of educational opportunity has of late received some attention in Zimbabwe. In particular, emphasis to schooling for girls, and more recently, upon the higher drop out rates for girls. Little attention has however been given to what happens to girls in the schools, i.e. the treatment experienced by girls within the schools. Equality of educational opportunity involves not only equal access to schooling, but also equal treatment of boys and girls within the school itself (Gordon, 1995).

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1. To what extent and in what ways do teacher attitudes and expectations affect the academic and social self concepts of girls, and thus their aspirations and academic motivation? 2. How do teachers explain the poor performance of girls? 3. Do they perceive themselves and the school as contributing to the problem?

Equality of Educational Opportunity At Independence in 1980 the government embarked on a programme of educational reconstruction and expansion in an effort to make access to education a reality for all Zimbabwean children. Equality of educational opportunity for all was a stated aim of the government and education was perceived not only as a human right but also as an important means by which deponents and the redress of social inequalities inherited from the colonial period could be attained. Yet the girl child remains disadvantaged in the Zimbabwean education system. Dropout rates in every cohort in Zimbabwe since 1980, as elsewhere in the sub region (Duncan, 1989; Hyde, 1991), have been higher for girls than for boys (Gordon, 1995). The drop out rate for girls increased particularly in the upper levels of primary and secondary school. In Zimbabwean secondary schools the ratio of male to female pupils is 3:1 (Gordon, 1995).

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 It has also been noted that girls perform more poorly than boys in all public examinations up to form IV. The under achievement of girls is a critical factor for their further education and training and employment opportunities. Girls in Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in the world, particularly under achieve in mathematics and science. As a result girls and women are under represented in the sciences at A level and in tertiary education. Arguments that schools are failing to provide the equality of opportunity that is part of their mandate could be the basis for explaining the disadvantaged position of girls in education. Schools are actually accused of perpetuating social inequalities from one generation to another (Bowles, 1972). One particular component to this argument is the notion that teachers engage in subtle forms of discrimination within classrooms, and thereby, set in motion self-fulfilling prophesies. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) examined in depth the alleged processes of the self-fulfilling prophecy. They found that teachers get just what they expect from students in the way of performance in schools. If teachers expect post performance from certain children, these children will perform poorly in school. The linkage of this argument to the broader issues of opportunity and the maintenance of social un equalities across generations is fairly straightforward. Social class and sex differences in achievement, self esteem, aspirations and so on, are explained in terms of the relative degree of fit between the child and the school.

How do girls (primary and secondary) socialization fit into the school culture and the education system as a whole? 135

Unit 6 Redressing Gender Imbalances By Daniel Mawere, Winfrida Matsa and Efritha Chauraya 6.0 Introduction In this unit we are looking at redressing of gender imbalances. Let us start by getting the meaning of the word redress. What do you think is meant by this word: redressing? You are correct! To redress is to put right a wrong or an injustice. An imbalance is a lack of evenness; therefore a gender imbalance is a lack of evenness in treatment of males and females. Redressing gender imbalances therefore looks at ways in which treatment of males and females can be created, so that equality between the two sexes is achieved. This equality does not mean that women and men are going to be the same in the sense of the word sameness. It is equality in the sense that their enjoyment of rights, opportunities and life chances are not governed or limited by whether they we born female or male. There are many ways in which gender imbalances can be redressed. In this unit we are going to look at the following key ways: enactment of gender responsive policies and laws; creation of gender responsive environments, carrying out gender research and gender analysis; education and empowerment programmes as well as engagements of gender projects. Following is a brief exposition of each of these ways.

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6.1 Objectives By the end of this module you should be able to: 6.1.1 Identify and explain gender responsive policies and laws. 6.1.2 Highlight the interrelationship between physical, social and academic environments in creation of gender responsive environments. 6.1.3 Assess the extent to which gender research and gender analysis contribute to redressing gender imbalances. Examine the extent to which education and empowerment programmes contribute to redressing gender imbalances. Evaluate the role of gender projects in bringing about a gender equal society.

Enactment of gender responsive policies Kabeer (1992) quoted in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay (1999:20-21) makes a gender classification of policies as follows: Gender blind policies which recognize no distinction between the sexes. Such policies make assumptions, which lead to a bias in favour of existing gender relations. In view of this therefore such policies tend to exclude women. Gender-aware policies recognize that both women and men are development actors. How ever the nature of womens involvement is determined by gender relations which make their involvement different and unequal. As a result women may have different needs, interests and priorities which may conflict with those of men at times. Within gender- aware policies, Kabeer further distinguishes between gender-neutral, gender-specific and gender redistributive policies.

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* Gender-neutral policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a given society to overcome bias in development interventions, in order to ensure that interventions target and benefit both sexes effectively to meet their practical needs. Gender-neutral policies work within the existing gender division of resources and responsibilities. * Gender-specific policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a given context to respond to the practical needs of women or men; they work within the existing gender division of resources and responsibilities. * Gender-redistributive policies are intended to transform existing distributions of power and resources to create a more balanced relationship between women and men, touching on strategic gender interests. They may target both sexes, or women or men separately. In the context of Zimbabwe, a National Gender Policy (NGP) was introduced to show the countrys commitment to promote gender equality and equity. The policy provides guidelines and institutional framework to engender all sectoral policies, programmes, projects and activities at all levels of society and economy. Affirmative Action Policies are made to allow females to enter or qualify for certain jobs or education opportunities with lower qualifications. Affirmative Action means positive steps taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment, education and business from which they have been historically excluded. Affirmative Action involves preferential selection on the basis of race, gender or ethnicity. An example is when a university guides the recruitment procedures by stating that at least 50% of the admitted students should be female. Another Affirmative Action Policy is the Midlands State University Bridging Programme for girls aspiring to embark on Mathematics and Science related degree programmes. Activity 6.1 1. Make a survey of gender specific policies that have been introduced in your country. 2. Give explanations to each of the policies and discuss the extent to which each of the policies attempt to redress gender imbalances in your country.

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Gender imbalances and legal redress: This section is linked to UNIT 8 especially section 8.5. Here we are looking at how the law can help to redress gender imbalances. We are turning to the law for removal of barriers that put men and women in differential positions. The law is also being looked at using the gender lens to see if it has biases that lead to differential treatment of men and women. The major aim of doing this is to enable women and men to exercise and enjoy their rights to the full. The legal redress of gender imbalances involves the following: Enactment of gender equality act. Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and responsive. Gender training for state administrators and law enforcing agents Legal literacy. Legal education and sensitization. Community gender and human rights training.

For a successful legal redress of gender imbalances there is need for a thorough gender analysis of the law and of the issues concerned. This analysis will show where the problem lies. The problem may be on the implementation and meaning of the law, knowledge of the law among other issues. When these factors are addressed it is hoped that the law will be doing its best to promote gender equality. This analysis will also enable us to group laws as either progressive or retrogressive. Retrogressive Laws are against gender equality. They do not promote equal treatment of men and women before the law. At times they even worsen the condition of the disadvantaged sex in a particular context. For more information on retrogressive laws see unit 8 (8.2 and 8.3).

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Progressive Laws promote gender equality. They promote the rights of all sexes, regardless of race colour, sex, or belief. Activity 6. 2 How is legal education and sensitization done in your community? To what extent are these programmes changing gender relations in your community? Make a gender analysis of progressive and retrogressive laws obtaining in your country.

Creation of gender responsive environments Gender responsive environments respect human rights and ensure that issues of gender equality and equity are promoted. A gender responsive environment is one in which both males and females are empowered to achieve their highest possible potential. The Forum for African Women Educationists has referred to these environments as Centres of Excellence (COE). The focus in creating gender responsive environments is on physical, academic and social environments in the context of the school. The Physical Environment refers to the infrastructure , for example, in a school setting, this includes , school buildings, fences, toilets, hostels, health facilities, library, laboratories, amenities for sports, water, electricity and sanitation. Adequate, secure and gender appropriate infrastructure is emphasized. This is achievable when parents, the community, students and teachers mobilize adequate resources. The Academic Environment refers to:

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* Students who are empowered, good academic performance, bursaries for needy students, access to carrier guidance and students who are well grounded in democratic practice. * Teachers who are gender responsive, empowered, innovative and creative, adhering to the teachers code of conduct and ethics. * Adequate and gender responsive teaching and learning materials. * School Management which is gender responsive and championing the transformation of gender responsiveness. * The Social Environment refers to teacher- student, student-student, teacherteacher, boy-girl, girl-boy, boy-boy, girl-girl, school management-teacher relationships which should be gender responsive. Activity 6.3 Suggest how you can make your institution an environment in which both males and females are empowered to achieve their highest possible potential? What challenges, do you think, are likely to be faced in striving to achieve this goal? Gender Analysis We looked at gender analysis in unit 4 where we learnt that gender analysis examines the relationships between women and men. It examines their roles, their access to and control of resources and the constraints they face relative to each other. As a strategy to redress gender imbalances, gender analysis should be integrated in carrying out needs assessment or situational analysis to ensure that gender-based injustices and inequalities are not exacerbated by likelihood interventions. Gender analysis starts with the smallest unit, that is, the household to understand how each family member participates, what role they play and what they need in order to improve their well being, for example, one could ask what factors affect access to services. Who obtains resources? Who decides on the use of resources? Through gender analysis we get an insight into cultural understanding of the different roles of men and women. For example a widow or single mother as head of household has serious implications in terms of access and control to goods and services. The analysis of relations and roles can help us to identify vulnerabilities, potentials for

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backlash and also solutions to critical issues in a bid to promote greater equality and justice in gender relations. Gender Research Gender Research is another way of redressing gender imbalance, intended to empower students with skills and knowledge of investigating gender related problems, issues and concerns in society. Gender responsive research probes into the gender dimension of constraints at all levels of the educational process (policy, community, household, school and classroom levels). Gender research explores problems that are researchable such as: Causes of poor performance, school drop out, classroom participation, teachers, attitudes and skills in handling gender related issues and problems in the classroom. The knowledge so gained will enable students to use gender responsive research as a strategy to solve gender related problems they come across in their own endeavours. In addition it will enable them to recommend strategies that will address the constraints which hinder girls and some boys from enrolling, performing, staying and transiting to higher levels of learning. Activity 6.4 Carry out a mini-gender research on any one of the following areas: a) Causes of poor performance amongst female students in your institution. b) High school drop out rate among girls/boys c) Low class participation among boys/girls. d) Teacher/Lecturer attitudes and skills in handling gender related issues and problems in the classroom/lecture room. From your findings make recommendations to solve the gender related problem you have researched on. Education and Empowerment programmes Education and empowerment programmes go a long way into redressing gender imbalances. Most obstacles in girls social and academic development are rooted in the culture of silence that is instilled in girls socialization process. Hence these

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disempowered girls see those obstacles as God given and they can not be challenged. However, boys also need to be empowered in order to accept gender equality and be able to cope with empowered girls. In most circumstances, it is taken for granted that boys are born empowered but the truth is the opposite. For a detailed understanding of how education and empowerment programmes bring about gender balance we refer you to Unit 7. Engagements of gender projects Gender projects are support programmes for the disadvantaged males and females. They normally offer economic support in the form of special tuition, legal support as well as socio-political support. How ever they may also be in the form of general support, for example, food schemes. These projects normally target groups rather than individuals, as beneficiaries, note they are of interest to gender because, through benefitting say all orphans, they will be benefitting say the girl child orphan who has been the object of discrimination historically. With most care-taker families, in times of shortages and a choice is made on who between the girl child and the boy child to pull out of school, research has shown that it is the girl child who normally enters the school last and is the first to leave school. In other cultures, girls feed after boys have fed. In this way the education of and general welfare of girls and women has always been compromised. These projects therefore protect human rights and promote equality through provision of assistance to the vulnerable groups. Following are a few examples of gender projects: The Zimbabwe Basic Assistance Module(BEAM) which offers financial support to orphans; The Zimbabwe legal Foundation which offers free legal support to males and females who do not have the capacity to hire a lawyer to represent them in times of need; The Musasa Project Centre which offers free socio-political support to the males and females through offering gender education, gender empowerment and free counseling services to affected males and females especially when it concerns domestic violence and other forms of gender based violence.

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Mens Forum for Gender (MFG) (Padare) which is a gender organisation formed by a group of men to campaign against Domestic Violence. In Zimbabwe it is known as Padare. It has challenged fellow men to contribute towards national development by getting involved in gender issues. The group, the first of its kind in Zimbabwe and perhaps in the sub-region has embarked on activities to promote gender sensitive attitudes and behaviour. The organization is concerned with the problem of gender inequality as a moral and political challenge. Society is viewed as continuing to promote a culture and attitudes based on domination and exploitation of women by men. These need to be constructed. Source: Lopi, B. (1998) for SARDC in Beyond Inequalities : Women in Zimbabwe ZWRCN. Other gender projects include; Forum for Gender, Zimbabwe National Platform for Action, Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre and Network, National Aids Council, Women Leadership and Governance Institute, SHAPE Zimbabwe, Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA), Young Women Christian Organisation (YWCO), Young Men Christian Organisation and Girl-Child Network, among others.

Activity 6.5 What gender related projects are being carried out in your country? To what extent do these projects help in redressing gender balances in your country?

Conclusion Redressing gender imbalances should be conceptualized as a process and not an end in itself. Although efforts are being made to address the issue, resistance, negative attitudes, poor funding, inadequate resources, misconceptions of gender issues and many other factors hamper progress. If the intention is to achieve gender equity and equality, then there is need to seriously consider alternative ways of solving the problem. All

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stakeholders and interested parties should continuously review their approaches to the problem.

References March, C., Smyth, I. and Mukhopadhyay, M. (1999). A Guide T o Gender Analysis Frameworks. Oxford, Oxfam. Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe Forum for African Women Educationalists (2005). Introduction to Gender Studies: A Teaching Module for Student Teachers. Gweru. Midlands State University. Lopi, B. (1998) for SARDC in Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe ZWRCN. Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2004) Government Printers, Harare

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UNIT 7 Gender Empowerment By Manuku Mukoni and Charles Chikunda

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7.0 Introduction In Unit 6 we learnt about gender issues that act as constraints to gender equality. In this unit we will explore in detail the concept of gender empowerment which is one of the strategies that can be used to redress the imbalances caused by these issues. For details see Unit 8. In this unit focus will be on the various types of empowerment, models of empowerment as well as strategies of empowerment. 7.1 Unit Objectives By the end of this unit you should be able to Define empowerment as it applies to men and women Identify the various types of empowerment Describe the models/ frameworks of empowerment Examine the various approaches to collective empowerment Recognize an empowered man and an empowered woman. 7.2 Understanding Power To understand the term empowerment we need to analyze the idea of Power which is the root of the term empowerment. For this purpose we need to understand the various forms in which power is interpreted, because power means different things to different people. Therefore it is important for us to explore the perceptions of power Albert (1985 :12) define power as the capability of human beings to organize or manipulate their environment ( including other human beings, their thoughts, motivation, needs and desires as well as their creations and artefacts) for human end. Adair and Howl (1989:20) define power as the ability to do what one chooses. Power is the ability to make others do what we want regardless of their own wishes or interests ( Weber in Czuba 2003 : 2) Traditional social sciences emphasize power as influence and control often treating power as a commodity or a structure divorced from human action (Lipps, 1991). Conceived in this way power can be viewed as unchangeable or unchanging. If we look at Albert (1985), Adair and Howl (1989) as well as Webers definition of power. -They give us a key word beyond this limitation by recognizing that power exists within the context of relationship between people or things. They show that power does

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not exist in isolation nor is it inherent in an individual. By implication this shows us that since power is created in relationships then power and power relationships can change making empowerment as a process of change possible. A brief activity makes the importance of this discussion clear

Activity 7.1 1. List three words that immediately come to your mind when you hear the word power? 2. Have you ever felt powerful? Was it at someones expense? Was it with someone else? 3. How can you tell you have power? 4. What are the characteristics of lack of power? 5. How is power exercised, maintained, perpetuated and distributed? For most people words that come to mind when we think about power often revolve around control and domination. Focusing on these aspects of power limit our ability to understand and define empowerment while to other people power is a zero sum it is something you get at the expense of others. Such an understanding of power cuts most of us off from power. A zero sum conception of power means that power will remain in the hands of the powerful unless they give it up, for example men will not voluntarily relinquish that patriarchal power which gives them privilege over women and which give them less work than women but a larger share of the rewards. Although this is certainly one way that power is experienced, it neglects the way power is experienced in most interactions, power can be understood as operating in a number of different ways. 7.2.1 Forms of Power There are various forms of power. Do activity 7.2 below to brainstorm on forms of power

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Activity 7.2 1. What do you understand by (a) Economic power (b) Political power (c) Social power (d) Inter-person The activity above on power and the definition of power by Weber (1946), Albert (1985), Adair and Howl (1989) in section 7.2, shows that power exists within the context of a relationship between people or things. Hence we have various forms of power as discussed below: Power over- this form of power involves an either/ or relationship of domination / subordination. This is whereby an individual or a group in authority uses their power to make decision and control others .It is when one uses power to get another person or group of people to do what they do not want. This form of power is based on socially sanctioned threats of violence and intimidation It requires constant vigilance to remain and it invites active and passive resistance. .In this case power is finite the more power one has the less the others have .It is coercive E.g. most man has power over woman. If a woman makes more money or attaints a position of power, violence can result. Power with relates to the collective strength of people working together. Some researchers and practitioners call this aspect of power relational power (Loppe and Du Bois 1994) generative power (Korten, 1987), Integrative power (Kreisberg .1992) This is the type of power that is characterized by collaboration, sharing and mutuality (Kreisberg, 1992) It involves people organizing with a common purpose or common understanding to achieve collective goals

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It is by coming together and sharing each other mutual support that we are in a position to challenge the zero type of power. It acknowledges the fact that power multiples with individual talents and knowledge It is the form of power that lies behind the common sayings such as united we stand divided we fall one for all and all for one This form of power means that gaining power actually strengthens the power of others rather than diminishing it such as occurs with domination power.

Power to This form of power relates to having decision making authority, power to solve problems and being creative and enabling It refers to the potential in every human being to take action in their own life and the world It is based on authority and mutual support and, it opens possibilities for joint action It refers to potentially transformative power which is in every person which enables him/ her to take control of his / her life. Power within- refers to self confidence, self awareness and assertiveness It relates to how an individual can recognize through analyzing own experience, how power operates in ones life and gain the confidence to act, to influence and change this (Williams et al 1994) It refers to creative, spiritual and emotional strength that resides within each person It comes from self esteem, self acceptance, self knowledge and self respect. It stems from the belief that I am a human being and I am worthy Activity 7.3 1. What form of power do you think the following people have (a) Conservative bosses (b) Abusive husbands (c) Men over women 2 What is the source of their power?

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Kreisberg (1992: 57) suggests that power defined as the capacity to implement is broad enough to allow power to mean domination, authority influence and shared power or power with. It is this definition of power as it occurs in relationship that gives us the possibility of empowerment. Empowerment therefore involves the redistribution of power and this power cannot be given it has to be taken (Longwe, 2001, Kabeer in March et al 1997) 7.3 Understanding empowerment Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arenas: community development psychology, education, economics and studies of social movements and organizations among other. As a multidimensional concept it had wide variations and how it is understood varies among these perspectives. To demystify the concept we need to understand the term broadly: Empowerment refers to the creation and expansion of ones knowledge, skills, decision making and other power bases giving them the capacity and capability to exercise influence and leadership on their own ( Zimbabwe National Gender policy 2004: 12) Empowerment is a process whereby individuals who are marginalized individually or collectively become aware of how power structures, processes and relations operate in their lives and gain the confidence and strength to challenge the resulting gender inequalities ( Hannan ,2003) McWhirter (1991) in Eade (1999) defines empowerment as a process by which people organization or groups who are powerless. (a) Become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life contexts and them (b) Develop the skills and capacity for gaining some reasonable control over their lives. (c) Exercise this control without infringing upon the rights of others and (d) Support the empowerment of others. From these broad definitions of empowerment we can deduce that empowerment is essentially a process which covers the following basic aspects: Actions involved in confronting and changing unequal power relations Acquiring the capacity (psychological readiness, social analysis, organizational skills) and need to take action. It has both individual and collective dimensions.

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Table: 1 What is empowerment then? -In brief empowerment is about Bringing people who are outside the decision making process into it Individuals being able to maximize the opportunities available to them without or despite constraints of structure and state Access to intangible decision making process Having power to exercise control over all aspects of your life, being in a position to determine or decide their own destiny. Having freedom of conscience, expression, independent judgment and self reliance Being able to maximize the opportunities available to one without constraints Having the right to make choices Having education, information, authority and power in decision making on issues affecting one and others. Undoing negative social constructions so that one can come to see self as having the capacity and the right to act and influence decisions. Acting collectively in order to change or control Challenging the basic assumption about power, helping achieving and succeeding

An activity on empowerment below will help elucidate the concept of empowerment further

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Activity 7.4 Which statements below define empowerment? 1. Being able to engage in decisions on budget allocations 2. Womens improved socio- economic status 3. Womens improved levels of literacy or education 4. Taking account of gender differentials 5. Being consulted during the preparation of the poverty reduction support project 6. Giving a fair hearing to a women in a public meeting comprising of men and women 7. Elimination of discriminatory legislation 8. Equality in the gender division of labor 9. Womens increased ownership of capital 10. Formation of unions for immigrant workers which allow them to negotiate working conditions with employees 11. A battered woman is freed from the threat of violence and becomes able to make decisions about her life

Statement 2, 3,4,7,8 and 9 above may contribute to the process of empowerment or may result from the process of empowerment they cannot define what is empowerment for example womens increased levels of literacy or education provided by an intervention does not address the underlying patterns of discrimination which generally prevent woman from obtaining education and which generally maintains their subordination and oppression. The forms of power in section 7.2.1 revealed that power must be understood as working at different levels including institutional household and individual, thus giving rise to three dimension of empowerment as illustrated below. 7.4 The three dimensions of empowerment Empowerment has three dimensions as shown below

Personal

Close relations

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Collective

Adapted from Rowlands, 1997 7.4.1 Personal empowerment Is where empowerment is about developing a sense of self and individual confidence and capacity, undoing the effects of internalized oppression It is based on the assumptions that (i) People have inherent ability and power to evolve and progress (ii) True power cannot be best owned but it comes from within It involves developing confidence in oneself, self esteem and a sense of agency It is all about realising the potential in oneself to perform and increase output It is being an individual who can interact with own surrounding and obtain results It is all about undoing the effects of internalized oppression and subordination It leads to positive self concept, high self esteem, confidence, and self- development, decision making ability to interact outside the home, breaking criticism and developing communication skills Sources of personal disempowerment Lack of exposure and encouragement Dependency an external motivation Self put downs, negative inner dialogue Lack of confidence Failure to take criticism Procrastination Not choosing ones battles Steps to self personal empowerment

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Build self confidence Attitudinal tune up think of the positive do not always put yourself down Develop communication skills seek to understand and be understood. Increase the ability to formulate and express opinions Teach and practice forgiveness, however begin with forgiving yourself for all the mistakes you have done Allow yourself and others to say NO Break the criticism pattern, focus only on the criticism that builds you up Understand the situation and get the power through other systems Acquiring certain skills that you lack so that you become more efficient Increase your ability to interact outside the home Participate in and influence areas of activity

Table 2 key elements in personal empowerment __ in brief, the key elements to personal empowerment includes Self awareness (who are you?) Making decisions about issues that affect you, being in control Ability to share power as opposed to wielding power over others Personal development Independence Developing a positive self image Having self esteem and confidence

7.4.2 Close Relationship This type of empowerment entails the ability to negotiate and influence the nature of a relationship and decisions made within it. For example husband/ wife relationship, parents / child and boyfriend/ girlfriend etc individuals work together to achieve a more positive impact.

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7.4.3 Collective Empowerment Individuals abilities to negotiate communicate and defend their rights It builds on individual empowerment. To achieve collective empowerment individuals must have personal empowerment individual should be able to work together to achieve greater impact in locality or surrounding than what one person could have achieved for example pressure groups such as trade unions, workers committees, Affirmative Action Group (AAG) in Zimbabwe, Women and Gender (WAG) in Zimbabwe It involves groups because it is through involvement in groups that people most often begin to develop their awareness. Thus empowerment occurs in a chain. 7.5 Chain of Empowerment Empowerment occurs at various levels such as individual, group and community ,hence to achieve group or community empowerment, empowerment should start at the personal level since without empowerment at personal level it is very hard for individuals to be active collectively. Because to have a sense of empowerment in relation to other people is associated with and to a large extent, dependent upon self confidence, self esteem and sense of agency. It also depends on the individuals ability to negotiate, communicate and defend his or her rights.

Personal Empowerment

Relational empowerment

Collective empowerment

7.6 Understanding Gender Empowerment Society instills a culture of silence in women during the socialization process hence these disempowered woman see these obstacles as God given and they cannot be challenged. Empowerment programmes hence think only women need to be empowered to challenge these internalized views. However men need also need to be empowered in order to

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accept gender equality and be able to cope with empowered women. In most situations it is taken for granted that men are born empowered hence they are always deprived opportunities to acquire gender responsive empowerment skills 7.6.1 Sources of disempowerment of women Culture, social and physical conditions in which women live and the gender role to which they are expected to conform. Myths, proverbs, stories , stereotypes and language Economic most women do not have access and control over resources Political- few woman participate in decision making yet it is within the public space that decision that affect them are made. Elements of oppression under which women live both as female and as poor people Culture of machismo, alcohol consumption and other vices and the among culture of violence Legislation e.g. in Zimbabwe customary law is given precedence in some areas

6.2 Effects of lack of empowerment Women Men

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Not speaking out Being harassed including sexual harassment Risk of being HIV infected Lack of self confidence Low self esteem Negative self concept Dependent Passive Shy Inferiority Confusion Unwanted pregnancy

Uses force instead of negotiating Shout out instead of speaking out or communicating Being sexual harassed by other men/ older women Become violent and aggressive Failure to share their problems and feelings Harassing women Risk of being infected with HIV Dependent Low self esteem ( inferiority) Dominance / superiority Confusion Alcoholism Clumsiness Alienation/isolation

From the effects of lack of empowerment in man and women discussed above. It becomes clear that both man and women need empowerment hence we talk of gender empowerment.

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Table 3 What is gender empowerment then? Is the process of enabling women and men to take an equal place and to participate equally in the development process It entails recognizing ones strength and exploding sexist misconception, challenging socialization ideas that breed the feeling of inferiority and superiority attitudes among women and men respectively It is a process through which men and women increase their capacity to shape their own lives and environment It also calls for the transformation of the structures and practices in the institutes to those that does not reinforce or perpetuate gender discrimination and social inequality It is an evolvement in men and womens self awareness, stratus and efficiency in social interaction giving them increased opportunity to control their lives It gives men and women the power 1. To make decision 2. Have their voices heard 3. Put things on the agenda 4. Negotiate on something that is not negotiable 5. Challenge past customs

7.6.3 Understanding womens empowerment Womens empowerment is enabling women to take an equal place with men and to participate equally in the development process in order to achieve control over the factors of production on an equal basis with men (Longwe, 2001) * Women Empowerment means Having control or gaining further control Being able to define and create from a womens perspective Being able to influence social choices and decisions affecting the whole society Being recognized and accepted as equal citizens

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 Being able to make a contribution at all levels of society and not just in the home It is having ones contribution recognized and valued Having a say and being listened to Thus empowerment for women brings to the process of empowerment an existing experience and history, as women bring to the process of empowerment societal values stereotype, myths and beliefs which for a long time have made women accept inferiority. Women empowerment involves the undoing of internalized oppression and the rejection of the definition of femininity 7.6.4 Understanding mens empowerment Mens empowerment is the ability to understand and accept gender equality. It is the liberation of men from false value systems and ideologies of oppression leading to a situation where men become wholly regardless of gender and use their fullest potential to construct a more human society for all. From the above definition of gender empowerment and our previous discussions it s evident that the idea of power is at the core of empowerment.(Hannan,2003,Williams,1994,Kabeer,2003) According to Czuba (2003) the possibility of empowerment depends on two things first empowerment requires that power can change. If power cannot change. If it is inherent in positions or people then empowerment is not possible nor is empowerment conceivable in any meaningful way. In other words if power can change then empowerment is possible. Secondly the concept of empowerment depends upon the idea that power can expand. Thus empowerment is more than simply opening up access to decision making it must also include the process that lead people to perceive themselves as able and entitled to occupy that decision making space and so overlaps with the categories of power to and power within Empowerment therefore comes from within. It involves individuals themselves setting the agenda and managing the pace of change. Outsiders such as development cooperation agencies non governmental agencies can only play an important facilitating role through use of established frameworks or models.(Kabeer,2003) 7.7 Model / Framework of Empowerment A framework is a system of ideas or conceptual structures that help us see the social world, understand it, explain it and change it (Wallace and March 1991)

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When applied to empowerment an empowerment framework or model therefore is a systematic way of examining how the empowerment process can be achieved in this section the Sarah Longwe empowerment framework and the Tuseme model of empowerment will be discussed

7.7.1 Sarah Longwe empowerment framework It is also known as the women empowerment framework. Though a feminist model it can be applied to empowerment. For details see unit 4 The framework is used as an empowerment model as well as a gender analysis framework see unit 4. It comprises of two tools 1. womens empowerment tool 1: levels of equality 2. womens empowerment tool 2: levels of recognition This framework / model is based on the notion of five different levels of equality. as discussed in unit 4 The extent to which these are present in any area of social or economic life determine the level of empowerment as illustrated in the diagram below Control Participation Conscientisation Access empowerment Welfare

Increased equality

increased

These levels of equality are hierarchal. If a development intervention focuses on the higher levels, there is greater likelihood that women and mens empowerment will be increased by the intervention than if a project focuses on lower levels If the intervention concentrator only on welfare, it is unlikely that women and men will find it empowering. For example equal participation in decision making process about certain resources is more important in achieving women and mens empowerment than equal access to resources. We need to note that although the levels, of empowerment are hierarchal, they are not really a linear progression as discussed in unit 4 but rather circular. The Empowerment Cycle

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Welfare

Control Empowerment Access

Mobilization

Conscientisation Adapted from Longwe (2001) The achievement of womens increased control leads into better access to resources and therefore improves socio- economic status. The process of empowerment is also self propelling and self reinforcing that is issues at one level provides a better basis for success at other levels. It is therefore a synergic process The levels of the framework are therefore not intended to be interpreted as steps in a linear sequence but rather as interrelated elements in a cycle or spiral of self reinforcing process Do activity 7.5 below to enhance your understanding of this model

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Activity 7 .5 Recent attempts by women activists to pass legislation on granting married women a large share of their husbands household property in Uganda has met with open objection from president Museveni, and woman activists threatened for the first time to lobby women against voting for the president in the next election. Women activists argued that if women did gain these rights this would not only significantly promote their own opportunities for action, it would also limit mens opportunities to acquire several wives and to exercise control over them. How would Ugandan women use the Sara Longwe empowerment framework to solve this problem?

7.7.2 Tuseme Model of empowerment Tuseme is a Swahili word that means let us speak out Origins The model was initiated in Tanzania in 1996 by FAWE to empower boys and girls Applicability The model can be used in an academic institution to empower boys and girls so that they can overcome problems that hinder their academic and social development The Tuseme model of empowerment is carried out in nine stages. It involves the entire school community (teachers, workers and students) as participants in the activities of the difference stages (FAWE, 2004) Stage 1 Preliminaries Facilitators discuss with the school authority about the intention to carry out a Tuseme process. They inform the school community about the intention and dates This is done to ensure that the school authority and community are ready for process Stage 2: Familiarization The purpose of this stage is to have a better understanding of the working environment and to get preliminary information on the subject matter. To achieve this facilitators introduce Tuseme to the relevant authorities in order to familiarize with the social set up of the school community- these are major groups that constitute the school community, relationship with the neighborhood.

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The physical set up of the school- boundaries, library, facilities, Sports ground to determine whether they are adequate or not. The academic performance of the school in general and the cohort groups in particular. Stage 3: Data Collection This is done to get information on the issue of concern that impedes social and academic development of boys and girls. Participant are divided into small research teams and assigned to carry out interviews with a certain number of community members about issues related to the goals and objectives of Tuseme, its strengths and constraints. The teams are asked to submit their findings in writing.

Stage 4 Data Analysis This is done to get a deeper understanding of issues as well as to acquire skills in analyzing issues. It is also done to get a better understanding of the communitys potential in solving some of the issues. Data analysis process is undertaken as follows. 1 List all the findings 2 Cluster / group the findings leaving out the findings / issues that are not related to the topic. 3 Verify the authenticity of the findings 4 Prioritize the finding in the order of urgency 5 Classify the findings according to their similarities and differences (clustering and collapsing) 6 Find out root causes of the findings 7 Find possible solutions to the problem 8 Identify responsible people or parties to help solve different problems. Stage 5 Theatre Creation Discuss in groups which issues from the data analysis you want to include in your performance. Select forms of arts which you are competent and comfortable to use. Create you performance in such a way that it can provoke discussion. Prepare a Joker (one, who leads the post performance discussion). Organize the performances for the

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stage presentation. Ensure that costumes, pups and scenery are designed and are available NB all cohort members should participate in theatre creation Stage 6 Performance Discuss with the participants and the school administration about the possible day and time to do the performance .Make sure that the entire community is invited to the performance Stage 7 Post Performance Discussions Make sure the Joker involves all stakeholders in the discussion Joker should avoid answering but challenging the audience to answer the questions. The joker should make sure that all issues are discussed thoroughly Stage 8 Action Plan Carry out this exercise either immediately after the performance or the following day. It usually involves the Tuseme cohort group although it is also possible to do it with the entire school community. Whatever the case the action plan should be endorsed by the school administration for it to be effected. The exercise is done on a chart which indicates the following. 1. The problem 2. Root causes 3. Solution 4. Activities 5. Time frame 6. Responsible person /part 7. Resources / budget 8. Indicator Stage 9 Creation of Tuseme Club These are a functioning student based management system formed in the school They are established in order to encourage students to speak out as a way of empowering them. Elections should be held to nominate office, bearers. They provide a forum for students to discuss their academic and social problems critically. The main functions of the Tuseme club is to.

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Help each other in academic matters through group discussion, debates, individual consultations and sharing learning material Link students ( Tuseme club members) with teachers and the school administration Reinforce discipline amongst club members Speak out about day to day problems arising in the schools Provide peer support, guidance and counseling. Access role models Share experience with students from other school Produce material for use in the Tuseme club e.g. newsletters , magazines Design annual action plans at the school level Use theatre for development as a tool for research, empowerment and participatory planning Develop leadership qualities among Tuseme students

Strengths of the Model It uses theatre for development approach, an approach that makes sure that as many stakeholders as possible are involved as central participants in the process It always guarantees democratic and active participation of all the stakeholders at the school Provides life skills through out its implementation that empower girls and boys at the individual level e.g. it provides skills for speaking out, assertiveness, leadership, decision making and so on Limitations of the model Only applicable to a learning / academic environment Lets do activity 7.6 below to enhance our understanding of this model

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Activity 7.6 1. What do you consider to be the schools (a) Academic Environment? (b) Physical Environment? (c) Social Environment/ 2. In what ways does the above environment hinder the social and academic development of boys and girls? 3. Conduct a Tuseme process in your institute to identify the academic, physical and social constraints that impede your academic and social development in the institute

The physical environment generally refers to the infrastructure of the school which includes such things as building, the compound of the school, toilets, water, power supply boarding facilities, first aid and medical facilities, amenities for games and sports, laboratory and library. Research has demonstrated that inadequate or poor physical facilities adversely affect the quality of education. It has also been proven that in such environments the girl child always comes off the worse because of the tendency has been that the poorer the physical facilities the less gender responsive they are. The special needs of the girl child especially at puberty tend to get ignored Academic environment refers to the curriculum content and its relevance, the teachers and their attitudes, the school management system, teaching methodologies and approaches, teacher/ student interaction, the students and their attitudes, the teaching and learning material. The teaching environment if not gender responsive can lead to poor academic performance and output The social environment refers mainly to the community and cultural surroundings of the school. It normally includes parents and other relatives of the girls, the district commissioner, village leader the chiefs and assistant chiefs, local religious leaders, local educational leaders, other stakeholders as well as other residents of the area near and around the school, Research has shown that cultural practices such as the female genital cutting, early marriages, improper attitudes and the economic status of the

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community are factors that influence girls enrolment and retention in school. On a more global scale, the countrys gender polices are an important part of the social environment 7.8 General strategies of empowerment According to Homelink (1994: 33) empowerment can be the outcome of an intentional strategy which is either initiated externally by empowerment agents or solicited by disempowerment people. Whilst its acknowledges that empowerment is a personal thing since true power cannot be bestowed it should be noted that some people can act as agents of empowerment by providing access to a new body of ideas and information that can not only change a persons consciousness and self image but also motivates one to act. Empowerment by external agents will therefore involve: * Awareness-raising * Building of self confidence * Expansion of choices * Involvement in decision making * Increased access and control (Hannan, 2003) Thus in the long term empowerment will result in : Changing consciousness and attitudes Identification of areas needing change. Developing strategies and actions to be taken Monitoring these actions and outcomes To achieve all these outcomes the following strategies of empowerment can be employed see also unit 9 Education- It helps to expand human capability such as being able to read and write and gain knowledge and skills Networking See unit 4 Participation See unit 4 Mobilization -This involves coming together as a group and demand space as well as change. e.g. womens support groups in Zimbabwe for details see unit 4 Capacity building see unit 9 169

Sensitization see unit 9 Public awareness campaigns see unit 9 Legal instruments See unit 8 and 9 Aid related projects e.g. income generating projects see unit 9 Policies See unit 9 Affirmative action to increase participation See unit 9

7.9 manifestations of empowered women and men 7.9.1 Making the modern women The disempowered women The rational mind without a plan Ignorant Emotional Fatalistic Caught up in own emotions Does what she has always done Dreamer The autonomous self Insecure Self effacing Relies on others Externally driven Recipient of decisions Lack of shame Dependent Childish Cant stand up for herself Does not know what to say Low self esteem Only looks pretty in public Empowerment process The empowered women

organized knowledgeable analytical vision for the future able to solve problems innovative realistic self confident self aware autonomous self determined decision maker sense of dignity independent responsible assertive strong negotiating skills high self esteem involved with public life

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The disciplined self No control over own body Accept drinking / drinks herself Dirty Bad mother / wife Victim of diseases Control over time and space future orientate Static Lazy Squanders resources/ consumes No particular effort to educate children Doesnt know how to talk Universalism Stuck in traditional peer group Doesnt vote Doesnt feel entitled to anything Transactions medicated by personal ties Passive

plans family size objects to alcoholism hygienic / clean good mother / wife healthy family

mobile hardworking investor sends children to school articulate

group member involved with public life aware of her rights transact successfully using money active

Adapted from Fiedrich and Jellema, 2003 7.9. 2 Making the Modern Man

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Disempowered man Uses force / he is aggressive and violent shout instead of speaking out dependent alienation / isolation dominance/ superiority low self- esteem

Empowerment process

Empowered man Does not use force but negotiates. communicates instead of shouting out independent group member accept gender equality high self esteem

Men display these qualities in addition to the qualities displayed by women. 7.11 Conclusion This unit focused on gender empowerment trying to answer the following questions: what is gender empowerment? How can we recognize it? Evaluate it? It also showed that gender empowerment is a bottom up process and cannot be bestowed from the top down. Although the outside professional can facilitate empowerment, he or she cannot expect to control the out comes of authentic empowerment

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References Adair, M and Howell, S, (1989) The subjective side of power, in healing the wounds. The promise of ecofeminism .New Society Publication Philadelphia Albert, D.H (1985) People Power applying non-violence theory New Society publishers, Philadelphia Czuba, C.E (2003) Empowerment: what is it @ http: / www. Cczuba @carn/cag.uconn.edu accessed 19/09/09 Eade, D (Ed) (1999) Development with women Oxfam publication Great Britain FAWE 2004 Tuseme speak out Tanzania best practices in girls education Africa Nairobi Fiedrich, M and Jellema, A (2003) Literacy gender and social agency: Adventures in empowerment action aid London Hannan.(2003)Trans Homelink, C.J (1994) Trends in world communication on disempowerment and self empowerment Southbound Third World network, Penang, Malaysia Korten D.E (1987) Community Management kumarian press West Hartford, C.T

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Kreisberg, S (1992) Transforming Power Domination, Empowerment and Education New York State University Press Albany NY Lipps, H (1991) Women, Men and Power, Mayfield Mountain View, CA Longwe, S (2001) Gender, Equality and woman empowerment @ http:/www.quets.kwinnoforum.se/measuring/ Namibia report .htm accessed 31/07/09 Loppe, FM and Du Bois P.M (1994) The Quickening of America: Rebuilding our nation remaking our lives jossey- Bass, and Publisher.San Francisco Wallace T and March C (1991) Changing Perceptions: Writings on Gender and Development Oxfam Ireland. Willam, S (1994) Oxfam Gender training manual Oxfam (UK and Ireland) Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2000)

Unit 8 Gender Law and Human Rights By Nyevero Maruzani and Doreen Mazambani CONTENTS 8.0 Introduction 8:1Objectives 8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law 8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality 8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation 8.5 Gender analysis of laws 8.6 Legal redress of gender imbalances 8.7 Gender and human rights

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8.8 Linking gender and human rights 8.9 Conclusion 8.0 Introduction

In the previous units an attempt has been made to define the term gender. Various concepts have been looked at in an attempt to clarify the fact that gender is a social construct. From that foundation, this chapter seeks to unveil how the law acts both as a legitimiser and regulator of asymmetrical gender relations. The critical role that the law plays in maintaining sexual stratification and shaping the inferior social and economic position of women in society will be discussed. It is also the aim of this chapter to show how the law reflects and shapes fundamental social values. Considering that gender is a variable that operates in a social context the interrelationship of gender and human rights will also be discussed 8.1 Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Highlight the interrelationship between gender, law and human rights Highlight progressive and retrogressive laws on gender issues Highlight the interrelationship between gender and human rights Assess knowledge of gender ,law and human rights through tasks

8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law The law reflects and shapes fundamental social values as postulated by legal sociologists Nadder and Todd: Law has many functions. It serves to educate to punish and to protect private and public interests, to maintain the status quo, to maintain class systems and to cut across them, to integrate and to disintegrate societies, all these things in different places at different times with different weightings (1978:1) This evidences the fact that there are legal contradictions at work in society and that the law is not a finished product of historical social processes. Thus the law can be both an instrument of social change and an obstacle to it. 175

What is the law? It is important that you understand what we mean by the term law. For this reason you need to be clear in your mind about the various divisions within the body of the law. An understanding of these divisions of the law will enable you to correctly classify the wrongful act thereby enabling the parties concerned to determine their rights. The law according to David and Colin (2002) may be defined as a rule of human conduct, imposed upon and enforced among the members of a given state. Rules or laws are therefore drawn up to ensure that members of a society ,that is you and me ,may live and work together in an orderly and peaceable manner. ACTIVITY 8. 1 Do you think that the laws in your society are making men and women work together in a peace able and orderly manner? Do these laws protect one sex at the expense of the other sex? Is the punishment for law breaking satisfactory? Why do you say so?

The law is the official rule that people must obey. It refers to the collection of rules imposed by authority. Laws have often been described as gender neutral and others as gender specific. Gender neutral laws are those that apply equally to everybody regardless of one is a man or woman. Most laws generally fall into this category. At least on paper such laws apply equally to everyone without discrimination even though in reality their effect on men and women maybe different. Although most countries today have laws which give equal rights to men and women the fact is that such laws tend to affect men and women differently because of the different roles and paths in life that each follow. This is often referred to as the difference between law in the book and law in reality. Gender specific laws on the other hand are laws that apply specifically to either men or women. This is mainly because men and women are different biologically so there maybe instances where women require special laws when the reality of their biological

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differences is taken into account. Laws on breast feeding and maternity leave are gender specific in that they apply to women because they are the ones directly affected by pregnancy and childbirth. In pursuit of gender equality especially in the caring of children paternity leave has been introduced to allow fathers to take time off to look after their newly born children. The law as given by Reynolds and Russell (1981) can be divided into two major categories that is the public and the private law as follows: Public-law Private Law: deals with relationships between the state and individuals e.g. criminal law, administrative law and constitutional law. deals with relationships between individuals amongst themselves e.g. law of delict, law of contract, law of property, law of succession, law of obligations and family law. deals with how the rules governing state and individual relationships are administered and enforced e.g. criminal procedure, civil procedure and law of evidence. This type of law falls under public and private laws(Reynolds and Russsel 1981:39)

Procedural Law:

Public/private dichotomy The public sphere (work and politics) and private dichotomy (domestic life home and family is deeply ingrained in the law. Regardless of the operative legal system or cultural context laws concerning the public area e.g labour law have been modernized and brought in line with more enlightened thinking while family and personal matters in the private sphere have for the most part left untouched by the state e.g Section 23 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe which permits discrimination in issues of customary family and personal law.

ACTIVITY 8. 2 State any public law and the procedural law that is used in trying to bring peace between the two parties concerned.

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Applying the concept of gender to the law means that we must seek to understand how each law affects men and women differently. If a law is gender neutral it does not mean that it affects men and women in a similar way. A gender analysis of the law requires that we appreciate sameness as well as differences between men and women. In any society laws we also need laws that recognize the differences between men and women. A gender analysis of the law is also important because simply changing the law does not mean the end of discrimination. Often even after a law is changed there is need to understand the different factors that prevent that law from being effective. There are many reasons why the law may not be effective. Administratively those who apply the law may not be doing the best they can to make sure that it works effectively. Equally important is that societys attitudes and beliefs may also prevent the law from being effective. If we understand what these attitudes are, then we can work effectively towards changing them. 8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality Four mechanisms are key to this process: Unjust formal law that are discriminatory and limit the scope of women. Prejudicial enforcement of laws favourable to women by administrative and state enforcement agents such as police, courts and prisons. Lacunae/gaps in the law. In some instances womens inferior status results prejudicial social practices not changed by the law. Remoteness of the law. There is general ignorance of the law despite the prescription of awareness which makes ignorance of the law not a defense ignorance of the law and law making processes especially by women who tend to be unaware of their status of the rights they posses, of the effect laws have on than, or the role they might play in changing the law.

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Societies regulate the acquisition and control of land, jobs credit and other goods and services through their legal systems and adjudicative processes. Womens subordination based on unequal gender relations is manifest in the law in several key areas particularly labour law, criminal law and civil law which governs legal capacity, rights and obligations in marriage, guardianship, inheritance income, land rights and participation in public affairs. Laws reinforce womens oppression by legitimizing hierarchical gender relations, proprietary relations of men over women unequal division of labour and power over the allocation of resources. 8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation Examples of retrogressive legislation a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23 Companies Act Section 171(3) (b) Communal Lands Act and land reform programme Customary marriages Act Guardianship of minors Act Land Acquisition Act Mining Act

Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23 Section 23 of the constitution of Zimbabwe is the non-discrimination clause. It makes discrimination on the grounds of among other things race, colour, creed, tribe, and religion, sex impermissible. This section was amended in 1996 by Amendment 14 to add gender as another impermissible basis for discrimination. This same section excludes discrimination in matters relating to adoption, marriage, divorce, and devolution of property on death or other matters of personal law. What this means is that while the constitution purports to protect women against gender-based discrimination, it excludes from constitutional regulation, family, personal and customary law yet these are the areas of law in which gender discrimination is mostly entrenched.

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Section 173(1) (b) Companies Act The section reads: Disqualification for appointment as director: (1) (a) a minor or any other person under legal disability (!) (b) provided that a woman married in community of property may be director if her husband gives his written consent and that consent is lodged with the Registrar of Companies. What this means is that only a woman requires the husbands consent for her to become a director but the womans consent is not required for the husband to become a director. This stems from the issue of power where the husband as head of family and home decision-maker should sanction any actions of other members of the household including the wife especially where such actions can result in legal and financial liability to the matrimonial estate. Communal Lands Act (1982) In communal areas land should be apportioned in accordance with the customs and practices of the people of the area in consultation with traditional leaders and the district administrator. There is no enabling legal framework to ensure equality in the redistribution of land. Colonial land tenure arrangements that discriminated against women have been perpetuated in the present day through the Communal Lands Act. Under this law, women in communal areas, where most rural Zimbabweans live, are still expected to depend on men for land, denying them land tenure rights. Even though section 16 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe stipulates that every citizen has an equal right to ownership of property, another constitutional provision, section 23 has permitted discrimination against women under customary law. Given the fact that customary law places heavy emphasis on land rights being enjoyed by the head of the household who in the context of Zimbabwean customary law is generally considered to be male, womens land rights are not adequately protected. The fact that women lack access to and control over land makes them unable to acquire credit, marketing facilities and excludes them from decision making powers over agricultural production activities and benefits.

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Land reform programme In October 2000, the Government of Zimbabwe undertook to allocate at least 20% of all land identified for resettlement to women. It was discrimination in itself to allocate only 20% to women when they make up 52% of the population. Despite this, by August 2002 when the President announced that the fast Track Land Reform Programme had been officially completed, the land quota for women had not been put into law and the number of females allocated land was very low countrywide. According to the 2003 Utete land Audit Report, female-headed households who benefited under model A1 (peasant farmers) constituted only 18% of the total number of household while female beneficiaries under the Model A2 (commercial farmers) constituted only 12%. Guardianship of Minors Act Guardianship involves having the capacity to make decisions on behalf of a minor in both contractual and judicial matters and pertaining to the childs welfare. This law makes the father of a child born in wedlock (in marriage) the natural guardian so entitled to make decisions pertaining to the childs welfare and his consent is required un juridical acts like acquisition of birth certificates, passports and performance of surgical processes. There is no joint guardianship with the mother. This emanates from the social norm that children belong to the father whose name they take after. The woman is just a medium reproduction of that which does not belong to her. For children born out of wedlock (out of marriage) the mother of the child is the sole guardian. The father does not have any rights towards the child except for purposes of maintenance if the mother so wishes to claim it. Mining Act The Act does not permit women from working underground in mines it seems to be based on the notion of womens fragility and irrationality hence the need to prevent harm to themselves and others since mining is considered a hazardous occupation. Examples of progressive legislation

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a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97 Deeds Registries Amendment Act Income tax Amendment Act Labour Relations Amendment Act Matrimonial causes Act Minimum Wages Regulations Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence Bill h) Sexual Discrimination Removal Act

Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97 The amendment now allows women to inherit from their husbands, although there is still discrimination in polygamous marriages where senior wife gets a bigger portion in spite of contributions by junior wives. The Act also: - Abolished concept of male heirship and male beneficiary in own personal capacity and replaced it executorship where an executor usually surviving spouse is tasked by the court to oversee distribution of estate and benefits from estate together with other beneficiaries including surviving children both male and female. - Surviving spouse (male or female) and children (male and female) now prime beneficiaries of deceased estate. Magaya V Magaya This case involved inheritance rights. The Supreme Court of Zimbabwe made a landmark decision that gave precedence to customary law over the constitution. The ruling that women cannot be considered equal to men before the law in issues of inheritance because of African cultural norms and the nature of African society was in itself discrimination on the basis of sex.

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A female eldest child was denied the right to inherit in preference of a younger brother. The judge in the lower court held that: The claimant is a lady and therefore cannot be appointed heir to her fathers estate when there is a man The judiciary backed up its decision by referring to Section 23 of the constitution of Zimbabwe. The Constitution prohibits discrimination in Article 23(1) but in Article 23(3) recognizes exceptions to this general prohibition against discrimination in issues relating to among others adoption, marriage, divorce, burial, devotion of property on death or other matters of personal law as well as the application of African customary law. Essentially, by making this judgement, the Supreme Court elevated customary law beyond constitutional scrutiny Outcry after the decision led to Amendment 6/97 as discussed above. Deeds Registries Act Women can now register immovable property in their own name (applies to urban and rural commercial land where title deeds are obtainable. Equal Pay Regulations (1980) s The Regulations provide for equal pay for work of equal value. Income Tax Amendment Act The Income Tax Act was amended in favour of women, in 1990. Prior to the amendment; married womens income was taxed as part of the husbands income. Now spouses are taxed separately. This resulted in women ending up with little money, because allowances such as childrens allowances were credited to men. Labour Relations Amendment Act (2004) Non-discrimination in the workplace on the basis of sex or gender in recruitment, promotion, training, retrenchment and other benefits. 98 days fully paid maternity leave for both public and private sector employed women

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Prohibition of sexual harassment

Legal Age of Majority Act (LAMA) (1982) In 1982, the Legal Age of Majority Act conferred on all persons of both sexes full legal capacity on reaching 18 years of age. - Section 3 thereof bestowed majority status on African women who were previously considered perpetual minors upon attainment of the age of 18. - Bestowed legal capacity on African women who previously lacked it so women can now perform legal and juristic acts such as entering into contracts without the assistance of male guardians and control over their sexuality. Women of 18 years or above, not their guardians cannot sue for seduction damages. - Reduced age of majority from 21-18 for both males and females.

Chihowa V Mangwende SC 84/87 The then Chief Justice held: The legislature by enacting LAMA made women who in African law and custom were perpetual minors majors and therefore equal to men who are majors. Concern has been raised over the Acts failure to pronounce the legality or otherwise of the payment of lobola. Some women believe that their oppression is rooted in this system and recommend that it be made illegal. However there are dissenting voices on the issue. Maintenance Act Provides for maintenance claims for spouse and children or for children born out of wedlock against spouse of childs parent who is obliged to materially support dependents and has been failing to fulfill the obligation and is financially capable of doing so. Matrimonial Causes Act (1985) The Act allows for equitable distribution of property between spouses on divorce in a registered marriage. The Act empowered the courts to override customary law and to effect a more equitable re-distribution of matrimonial property upon dissolution of a

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marriage. The law takes into account a womans economic or domestic contribution to the well being of her family and thus ensures equitable distribution of matrimonial property between the spouses. Unfortunately the Act does not apply to unregistered customary marriages, which are legally not recognized as valid marriages except for purposed of African law and custom relating to the status, guardianship, custody and rights of succession in the children.

Minimum Wages (1980) Minimum wages for various unskilled occupations the majority of whom are women were set. Seasonal workers (tobacco, tea and cotton pickers) were categorized as permanent for purposes of pension benefits. Sexual Offences Act (2001) Provides protection from sexual abuse to all children not only the girl child as was previously the case. Both men and women are deemed capable of performing sexual offences including rape. Protection of women from non-consensual sexual intercourse within marriage (marital rape protection) Spousal liability for willful transmission of HIV

Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence Bill Seeks to eliminate violence be it physical, verbal or economic in relationships of a domestic nature e.g. husband/wife boyfriend/girlfriend, child/parent etc Both males and females can be perpetrators or victims of domestic violence Social, religious and cultural practices such as virginity testing, chiramu (in-law flirtation), kuzvarira (pledging) chimutsamapfihwa (substitute wifing) etc are outlawed as constituting domestic violence.

Matrimonial Causes Act (1985)

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Recognises a married womans right to matrimonial property upon divorce. Introduced equitable distribution of matrimonial property upon divorce, which takes into consideration domestic work input.

8.5 Gender Analysis of Laws Case law is a body of available writings explaining the verdict in a case(Oran,1983: 5). It is most created by judges in their rulings when they write their decisions and give the reasoning behind them as well as citing precedents in other cases and statutes that had a bearing on their decisions case law is often referred to as common-law in many regions of the world. Oran(1983) also referred to it as judge made law. The term judge made law is derived form the fact that while legislation is technically passed in most countries by a legislative branch, courts are able to exercise moderate amount of quasi-legislative power through the use of precedent case-law. Case law allows courts to transform decisions that may have taken a great deal of time and energy to arrive at into a de-facto law, making future cases much easier to decide. Curzon(2002) concurs with Oran(1983) on the view that statutory or statute law is written law set down by a legislative body. Statutes are enacted in response to a perceived need to clarify the function of government, improve civil order, to codify existing law or for an individual or company to obtain special treatment. Statute law refers to the law that has been created by parliament in the form of legislation. It can also be described as an act of parliament. ACTIVITY 8. 3 What is the advantage of doing gender analysis of laws? Who benefits from that analysis?

With the given explanations of case and statutory law we are going to look at the gender analysis of certain laws. The idea of gender analysis will not be discussed here as it has been looked at in detail in a previous chapter. Examples of gender dimensions in Zimbabwes Law

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Table 8.1 Law Gender Analysis S23 of the Constitution The constitution grants equal right to everyone and of Zimbabwe protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinions, color, creed or gender. However, its protection of customary law in matters such as adoption, marriage, divorce, burial, devolution of property, on death or other matters of personal including rights relating to communal land impact on men and women differently since customary laws in these areas tends to disadvantage women. The constitutional provisions relating to non discrimination can be said to be worded in a gender neutral manner but they impact on men and women in a very gender specific way. The Legal Age of The legal age of majority Act is a gender-neutral piece of Majority Act (Now part legislation in that it gives equal rights to everyone at the of the general laws age of 18. however, it impacts more on women because of Amendment Act how society has tended to regard their status as being Chapter 8:07) inferior. Matrimonial causes Act contains guidelines on distribution of property on divorce. It is largely gender neutral but also contains some provisions, which can be looked at from a gender specific viewpoint. Of importance is the recognition amongst other things f contributions made to the family by looking after the home, and caring for the family as well as any other domestic duties. It is mainly, though not exclusively, women who are involved in this kind of work and therefore stand to benefit more from a direct recognition of housework. The Labour Relations It contains some gender specific provisions particularly Act those relating to maternity leave and breastfeeding rights. The Deceased Persons It is a gender-neutral piece of legislation, which allows a Family Maintenance Act person who was being maintained by the deceased to claim support from the estate. It also protects the estate from property grabbers. In reality when we look at the effects of this Act, it is again quite clear that because of

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the social realities that exist on the ground it tends to have a different meaning for men and women. Administration of Puts emphasis on the surviving spouse(s) and children as Estates Amendment Act the primary beneficiaries of the estate. It can be descried as being both gender neutral and gender specific at the same time. It is gender specific in that it treats the distribution of the estate of a polygamous man differently from the death of one of his spouses. While widows can expect to share 1/3 from the estate of each of his wives should they die before him. Infanticide Act Allows the court to examine the special circumstances of women who kill their babies. Since it is women who give birth, the Act is largely gender specific although it also contains some provisions relating to the father of the child. Customary Marriages This is an example of a law that is seemingly gender Act neutral but favours men. It allows polygamy as a practice for men only in that they can take on more than one wife. 8.6 Way Forward legal redress of gender imbalances - Enactment of Gender equality Act - Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and responsive - Gender training for state administrators and law enforcement agents - Legal literacy - Legal education or sensitization - Community gender and human rights training 8.7 Gender and Human Rights What are Human rights? Human rights refer to basic rights or legal claims to which all humans are entitled by virtue of them being human(English and Stapleton,1997:7). Professor Jack Donnely in Chiweshe et al (2003) define human rights as the rights that one has simply because one is human. He goes on to say:

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Human rights, because they rest on nothing more than being human are universal, equal and inalienable. They are held up by all beings universally. One either is or is not human and thus has or does not have rights equally.And can no more lose these rights than one can stop being a human being .No matter how inhumane the treatment one may suffer. One is entitled to human rights and is empowered by them(page 9) To put it in simpler terms, human rights can be given as those freedoms or claims that every human being is automatically entitled to, just because you are born a human being Examples of rights and freedoms which are often classified as human rights include right to life and to liberty, freedom of expression and equality before the law, economic, social and cultural rights, the right to participate in culture, right to food, right to work and the right to education. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Human rights are rights which people are entitled to simply because they are human beings regardless of their nationality, race, ethnicity, gender or religion. These are rights that every human being automatically qualities for at birth. No personal factors can lead one being denied these rights. Central to the concept of human rights is the protection of human dignity. The gendered nature of human Rights The promotion of gender equality remains one of the greatest challenges of our times, globally and locally. At a global level there are many international human rights instruments that on the face of it grant equal rights to men and women. Some of the major instruments include the Universal Declaration of human rights as well as the Covenant on Social and Economic rights. From a gender perspective it is also important to understand how the different human rights instruments deal or do not deal with issues of gender. Human rights have often been spoken of in terms of different generation of rights depending on what they deal with. - First generation of rights - Second generation of rights - Third generation of rights Civil and political rights Social economic and cultural rights Collective/solidarity or group rights 189

The analysis below discusses briefly some of the criticisms that have been made against each of this generation of rights in terms of how they deal with the gender issues. First Generation of Rights: Civil and Political Rights The major criticism against this generation of rights is that they are mainly founded on the experiences of men in public as opposed to highlighting the experiences of both men and women. Women tend to experience violations of their rights in the private sphere. In other words, what has come to concern us under this generation of rights has largely excluded the experiences of women as illustrated more fully in the examples below. For example, the right to life which is a granted to all in Article 6 of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is criticized for being interpreted in a manner which treats the threat to the right to life as coming from state actors only. The global interpretation is criticized for excluding important spheres that also threaten the right to life for women when compared to men such as: - Abortion - Infanticide (eg killing of girl children in cultures that favour male children) - Malnutrition (e.g from feeding men first in some cultures) - Less access to health care compared to men (death from pregnancy and lack of access to health care) - Violence against women, which can result in death Freedom from torture is also criticized for being interpreted in a manner which assumes that most torture takes place at the hands of public officials when for most women when compared to men the greatest level of torture takes place in the home, the private sphere as opposed to the public sphere. The interpretation of the right to liberty and security of the person is also criticized for being interpreted in manner which addresses actions of the state only and does not address violations to liberty and security of the person that result from sexual violence against women.

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The right to privacy, another major civil political right is also criticized from a gender view point for protecting the home and the family as private sites when they can be very dangerous places for women because of the violence which often takes place inside them. Second Generation Rights: Social Economic and Cultural Rights The criticism of social and economic rights is that like civil and political rights, they have tended to be interpreted in a manner, which takes mens experiences more into account compared to the experiences of women. For example, Article 7 of the Covenant talks of the right to work, equal remuneration of workers, favourable working conditions, equal opportunities for promotion and so on. The bulk of women, when compared to men are confined to work in the private sphere, yet the article is more concerned with work in the public sphere. Cultural and religious rights which are also guaranteed by this covenant are areas that often present problems for women. Another criticism is that state parties are regarded as central in achieving social and economic rights when for most women, their rights are often negotiated through individual men or groups of men. Third Generation Rights: Collective or group rights The right to development and the right to self-determination constitute some of the major collective or group rights. They tend to emphasize the rights of groups and collectives as opposed to the rights of individuals. From a gender perspective, these rights are regarded as problematic for several reasons. The right to development for instance has often been interpreted to suit male economic needs. An example is land distribution that has tended to favour men at the expense of women. The right to self-determination has also often been interpreted in a manner that masks the oppression of women. Women are often neglected in nationalists movements.

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The major criticism from a gender perspective of third generation rights is that they have generally addressed male interests in political life rather than taking care of the interests of both men and women.

Summary of criticism of mainstream human rights from a gender perspective The process through which the rights were formulated did not include women and therefore it is largely the experiences of what human rights are. The priority given to civil and political rights marginalizes social and economic rights. Many issues of concern to women such as underdevelopment, illiteracy, gender segregation, lack of reproductive choice, have either not been defined as human rights in main stream instruments or are not binding in terms of enforcement. Governments, in the name of culture often justify violations of human rights. Women as compared to men are also seriously underrepresented in human rights bodies.

ACTIVITY8. 4 What is your definition of human rights? What are the characteristics of human rights? In Zimbabwe how do laws impact on human rights?

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Are Womens Rights Human Rights? One may wonder why this section asks about the rights of women only. You may be very correct to wonder that way, may be you see the need for an address of the rights of women or you are thinking otherwise but after reading this section I am sure together you and i can justify our standpoints. Womens rights are human rights. Why? Women are human beings! Womens equal dignity and human rights as full human beings are enshrined in the basic instruments of todays international community. From the Charter of the United Nations endorsement of the equal rights of men and women (1945) to the universal declaration of human rights (1948) and the subsequent international treaties and declarations. The rights of women are central to our democratic society. These declarations and treaties and even the Vienna Declaration of (1993) and the Declaration of Beijing (1995) stand in sharp contrast to the daily realities for millions of women, of the 1.3 billion people living in poverty 70% are women, the majority of the worlds refugees are women, female illiteracy. Women and girls are treated as commodities in cross boarder prostitution rackets and in the pornography industry. Millions of girls are still subject to genital mutilations while women in every country are regular victims of domestic violence, in many countries women lack access to reproductive health care and everyday women are targeted in armed conflict. Womens economic, social and cultural rights continue to be neglected. There can be no peace, security or sustainable economic development in societies which deny human rights including the human rights of women. Fighting for women rights is a positive struggle, which recognizes the quality of womens contribution in every aspect of the community, in politics, industry commerce, education, academic, agriculture and home. Womens rights are human rights and the United Nations High Commissioner for human rights is committed to work in partnership with UN agencies and programmes, governments, regional organisations, academic institutions, the NGO community and women throughout the world to promote and protect womens rights and to translate these rights to a better quality of the life for all. Hillary Clinton at the fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing China presented a speech in which he strongly pronounced that womens rights are human rights. Consider an important quote, which says:

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The human rights of women and the girl child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of the universal human rights. The fall and equal participation of women in political, civil economic, social and cultural life at the national regional and international levels and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on the grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community (Vienna Declaration and Platform of Action Part 1 Paragraph 18). S I am sure our discussion on the issue of women s rights as human rights has been justifiedAs you can see women are denied their rights due too a number of reasons .These reasons may be big or small,economic,cultural and many others ,the point remains; some rights are granted or denied due to ones sex .The next section highlights this aspect.

8:8 Linking Gender and Human Rights Analysis of content and nature of human rights as well as measures to ensure their enjoyment should be informed by gender based considerations. There are many processes at the domestic and international levels through which the content of human rights is clarified and their implementations occurs. The systematic integration of gender factors into these processes, into measures for implementation and into domestic and international monitoring is a global challenge. In the enjoyment of rights women face constraints and vulnerabilities which differ from those that affect men and which are of significant relevance to the enjoyment of these rights. This variable mean that women maybe affected by violations of rights in ways that are different from men. Women are disappropriately affected by poverty and social marginalization. They suffer systematic and unsystematic discrimination which results in deep patterns of inequality and disadvantage. The overall level of development and of resources available to countries, womens literacy levels and womens access to information and to legal remedies also have an impact on womens enjoyment of their rights. The gender based division of labour with women being primarily responsible for

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reproductive work and work related the family and men for productive work, also contributes to the perpetration of gender inequalities. Many women experience multiple barriers in gaining access to rights such as employment, housing, land, food and social security. These barriers include the disproportionate burden of reproductive and care-giving work performed by women, the sexual division of labour and segregated employment practices, discriminatory traditional and cultural laws and practices, unequal representation by women in political and other decision making structures at all levels and the widespread violence perpetuated against women. Womens social position, marital status class or membership in particular vulnerable groups such as refugees or migrant women rural or urban poor women are often linked to discrimination. When laws, customs, traditional roles family responsibilities or attitudes and stereotypes provide women with fewer opportunities or place them at a disadvantage as they seek to access opportunities remedial measures are needed to eliminate such disadvantages to prevent them from recurring. When policies are designed in the context of respect for promotion and protection of human rights then unequal outcomes for women in the economic and social spheres oblige governments to design procedures in a way that reduces inequality. Human Rights Instruments and Gender Over the last decade the concept of gender has increasingly informed policy programming and treaty interpretation both within and outside the UN system. The principle of equal rights of women and men was recognized in the UN Charter and is contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and all subsequent international human rights instruments. The need for womens participation in all spheres of society both in the public and private domains and the recognition of inequality and discrimination in the private domain led to the creation of specific standards for the protection of womens rights. In (1979) the United Nations adopted the convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). CEDAW establishes womens right to nondiscrimination on the basis of sex and affirms equality in international law. It provides that women and men are entitled to equal enjoyment and exercise of human rights and

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fundamental freedoms in civil, cultural, economic, political and social fields. The (1993) Vienna Conference of Human Rights the (1994) Cairo Conference on Population and Development and the (1995) Beijing Womens World Conference recognized the need to build on these principles to assert womens rights. These global conferences promoted the review of policies and programmes from the perspective of their impact on women and men that is the re-evaluation of policies and programmes from a gender perspective. This has led to gender mainstreaming (discussed in Unit 1), which aimed at correcting disparities in different policy sectors and ensuring their enjoyment of civil, cultural, economic political and social rights. Gender mainstreaming also requires action to identify areas where gender constitute a risk factor for violation or abuse of human rights for example gender based violence. All in all gender mainstreaming is an organizational imperative so as to reinforce the principle of non-discrimination on the basis of sex for the achievement of gender equality and the enjoyment of human rights. Major human rights instruments which have been adopted within the UN framework include the following: ICCPRThe International Covenant On Civil and Political Rights (1966) ICESCR---The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) ICERD-----The International Convention on the Elimination Of All Forms Of Racial Discrimination1965 CEDAW--------The Convention on the Elimination Discrimination Against Women(1979) CRC-----The Convention On The Rights of The Child(1989) CAT-----The Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984) (Chiweshe et al 2003:12) of All Form Of

Implementation of human rights instruments on gender equality The Womens Convention: A Search for Gender equality?

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Because of the limitations of the major human rights instruments in addressing gender issues, women successfully lobbied for a major international human rights instrument dealing with women issues. It came into force on the 3rd of September 1981. Its approach is to seek to improve the lives of women by making them equal with men. Among its provisions, the Womens Convention calls for the ending of discrimination against women through constitutional and legal reforms. It also seeks for womens equality in political and civil life. It also calls for equality in marriage and family life and specifically addresses the rights of rural women. The African Charter on Human and Peoples rights Regional Instruments are an important frame of reference for human rights in addition to international instruments. In our case the Africa Charter on Human and Peoples Rights plays as a crucial role in defining human rights from an African viewpoint. While the Charter is largely gender neutral in its approach it contains some Articles that speak directly to women. For example, Article 18 requires states to eliminate discrimination against women and ensure the protection of women and children as required by international instruments. From a gender analysis viewpoint, the African Charter talks of preserving positive African cultural values. Cultural values that are preserved should not be the ones that seek to oppress women. Within the African context talk of cultural values raises important questions about practices such as lobola, female circumcision and widow inheritance, to mention a few. The Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women Because of the limitations of the African Charter as a largely gender neutral document in bringing gender equality particularly for women, the heads of state adopted an additional instrument in 2002 called the Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of women. Like the CEDAW, it seeks to address key areas where women need to be uplifted. It singles out practices that need to be done away with if women and men are to achieve equality, such as circumcision and widow inheritance and polygamous marriages.

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While it is a progressive instrument the problem is that it can only come into force when at least 16 African countries have adopted it at the country level. So far only four countries have. The SADC Declaration on gender and development Another instrument which is of use in understanding gender issues is the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development. It was adopted by the heads of state of the Southern African Development Community in 1997. It is informed by the understanding of gender equality as a fundamental human right and more significantly by the appreciation of the role of gender equality in the sustainable development of the SADC region. It also acknowledges the significant point that most SADC member countries have ratified CEDAW or are in the process of doing so. As such, the SADC Declaration, as is the case with the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, has to be in line with the letter and the spirit of CEDAW. Also emphasized are the gains to be made from closer cooperation and collective action on gender issues within the region. Areas identified as needing particular attention are the gender disparities in decision-making, power sharing access and control over reproductive resources, education, health and legal rights. Especially noteworthy is the undertaking to repeal and reform all laws, amend constitutions and change social practices that continue to subject women to discrimination.

National Efforts

Zimbabwe is party to the major international human rights such as the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Covenant on Social and Economic Rights the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women. It is also a party to the African Charter on Human and Peoples rights. However, it has not yet adopted the Protocol to the African Charter on the rights of women. While a lot of progress has been made at the country level in terms of changing laws and adopting new ones that seek to

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equalize the rights of men and women, the biggest challenge in Zimbabwe remains in the implementation of these laws both administratively and at societal level. A significant limitation from a gender viewpoint is that our Constitution as the highest law of the land still contains provisions, which tend to protect customary law from the non-discriminatory provisions. The constitution as the highest law of the land needs to be an instrument that fosters equality without fear or favour.

8:9 Conclusion From the foregoing it is evident that Zimbabwean society is relatively unequal in terms of gender. This inequality between men and women is negatively impacting on income distribution, political participation, power relations, access to, control and ownership of economic and productive resources leading to impediment of human development efforts aimed at addressing issues of equity, social justice and human rights. Various pieces of legislation are in place to maintain the status quo. It can also be concluded that despite the fact that 52% of the Zimbabwean population are women, men continue to have a higher human development index as compared to females in terms of political participation, decision-making and education. However, the government is making strides in attempting to promote gender equality in both the public and private sphere but section 23 of the constitution seems to be a provision carved on stone and has remained etched in the supreme law of the land.

REFERENCES

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Armstrong A., (1998), Culture and Choice Lessons from Survivors of Gender Violence in Zimbabwe (Harare: Violence Against Women in Zimbabwe Research Project Chiweshe,F.G.,Moyo,L,Mupita,H, Ncube,K, Ngulube,P .and Sibanda,B.K.Human Rights And The Media (2003)Human Rights Trust Of Southern Africa Harare Cook, R (ed) Human Rights of Women National and International Perspectives (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994) Critical Reviews and Annotated Bibliographies Series(2001) Gender ,Society and Development. Gender ,Perspectives on property and Inheritance .A Global Sourcebook Oxfam, Great Britain Curzon, L.B.(2002) Dictionary of Law (6thedition) Longman England David, B. and Colin Padfield (2002) Law Made Simple London, Made Simple English ,K. and Stapleton,A.(1997) The Human Rights Handbook.APractical Guide To Monitoring Human Rights.Juta Cape Town Nader L & Todd H.F (Jr) The Disputing Process-Law in Ten Societies, New York, Columbia University Press Oran,D(1993) Orans Dictionary of the Law.(2nd edition)New York,West Publishing Reynolds,D.A. and Russel J.A.Officers of the ministry of justice(1983) An Introduction To Law Ministry of justice ,Harare

Southern African Research and Documentation Centre & Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre and Network (1998) Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe, Harare, Southern African Research and Documentation Centre & Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre and Network. Schuler, M., ed, (1992) Freedom From Violence: Womens Strategies From Around The World (Washington, OEF International)

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Stang Dahl, Tove, Why Womens Law in An Introduction to Feminist Jurisprudence (Oslo, Norwegian University Press, 1987) Tsanga, A.S. (2003), Taking Law to the People: Gender Law Reform and Community Legal Education in Zimbabwe (Harare, Weaver Press) List of legislations cited Matrimonial Causes Act Minimum wages Act Mining Act Prevention of Domestic violence and Protection of victims of Domestic violence Bill Sexual Offences Act Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence Bill Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97 Communal Lands Act and land reform programme Companies Act Section 171(3) (b) Constitution of Zimbabwe section 23 Customary marriages Act Guardianship of minors Act Intepretation Act

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Labour Relations Amendment Act Land Acquisition Act Legal Age of Majority Act Case law cited Chihowa v Mangwende SC 84/87 Magaya v Magaya SC 101/99

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