Water Quality Control

Learning Objectives Evaluate the effectiveness of water quality regulation Describe the mechanisms within current statutes set forth to ensure water quality Compare the structures of water quality and air quality control programs

Water Quality Control

Major Water Pollutants Some Significant Water Quality Problems Protecting Water Through Government Actions

Major Water Pollutants Pathogens Conventional Organics Toxic Trace Organics Nutrients Heavy Metals Ionizing Radiation Other Measures

Pathogens
Developing world 1.1 Billion people with no access to improved water supply 2.6 Billion with no access to improved water sanitation 4% of all deaths worldwide 90% people dying are children 1/3 in Africa, 1/3 in SE Asia 200 million infected with Schistosomiasis Infection through skin exposure Most important hemalinth problem in the world Life cycle includes 2 hosts, human and worm 300-500 million infected by diseases vectored by mosquitoes US 2005-2006 78 disease outbreaks, 4412 people from 31 states were reported last large scale outbreak in US was in Milwaukee 1993 Cryptosoridium (protozoan) 400,000 infections 100 deaths fecal coliform bacteria used as indicators in recreational waters

Conventional Organics
organic chemicals carbon based cause artificial eutrophication contamination quantified by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD); or can also measure total organic carbon (TOC) not a perfect predictor of oxygen demand oil and grease levels can also be measured

Nutrients
artificial eutrophication, ecosystem disruption run-off from agriculture, municipal wastewater, industrial run-off human health effects Methemoglobemia one of the blue baby diseases excessive blood nitrate reduces the capacity of blood to transport oxygen, so blood is blue, very young babies lack the enzyme necessary to fight nitrate buildup, disrupts development, can be lethal

Toxic Trace Organics

toxic and trace levels no significant effect of BOD or COD direct impact on human health and ecosystems not naturally occurring products of chemical synthesis Polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins, solvents, pesticides, pharmaceutical drugs Many are persistent and stable Some bioaccumulate and biomagnify Complicated relationship between exposure and human health based on persistence and stability Human health effects are also complicated Carcinogenic, mutagenic, terratogenic, nervous system damage, endocrine system disruption, kidney and liver damage Ecological effects can be difficult to definitively demonstrate Well known example = DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and eggshells

Heavy Metals
e.g. mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic, manganese Can be toxic at low concentrations Bioaccumulate and biomagnify Most are NOT natural sources, product of industrial discharge, mining etc, or part of infrastructure for disseminating water

Ionizing radiation
concerns with radon from groundwater are likely to be most likely due to exposure in the air associated with showering, rather than direct consumption development of low-level radioactive waste disposal sites makes this especially of interest

Other measures
Hardness Alkalinity Total dissolved solids can be an indicator of the load of pollutants Suspended solids can act as substrates for pollutants and pathogens turbitity measure of water clarity pH temperature

Water Quality Control

Major Water Pollutants Some Significant Water Quality Issues Protecting Water Through Government Actions

Some Significant Water Quality Issues Contaminated Sediments

Not always clear whether or not to remove sediments

CAFOs
Concerns about run-off to surface and ground water Water consumption by the operations can be quite large

Disinfection byproducts
formed when disinfectants used in water treatment plants react with bromide and/or natural organic matter (i.e., decaying vegetation) present in the source water. Different disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection byproducts. Disinfection byproducts for which regulations have been established have been identified in drinking water, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) Shallow disposal systems

Water Quality Control

Major Water Pollutants Some Significant Water Quality Issues Protecting Water Through Government Actions

Federal Water Quality Legislation

1899 Rivers and Harbors Act section 13 prohibits obstruction to navigation 1948 Federal Water Pollution Control Act 1965 Water Quality Act 1970 Water Quality Improvement Act 1970-72 Administrative Enforcement of Refuse Act 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act 1977 Clean Water Act Amendments 1987 Water Quality Act Amendments 1990 Oil Pollution Control Act

Water Quality Control

Protecting Water Through Government Actions Two major regulations Clean Water Act Safe Drinking Water Act

Clean Water Act

Major statutory provisions Title I - Research and Related Programs Title II - Grants for Construction of Treatment Works Title III - Standards and enforcement Discharge permits required Technology-Based Standards Program Water Quality Standards Program National Water Quality Inventory Enforcement Federal facilities Thermal pollution Nonpoint Source Management Program Title IV - Permits and licenses State certification of compliance NPDES permits for point sources Dredge and Fill Exemptions Dredge and fill permits (wetlands) POTW Biosolids Management Program Title V - General Provisions Citizen suits Employee protection Title VI - State Water Pollution Control Revolving Funds

See also:

http://www.blm.gov/nstc/WaterLaws/CleanWaterAct.html

Clean Water Act

GOALS: The objective of the Act is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. In order to achieve this objective, the Act sets two goals. The first national goal is the elimination of the discharge of all pollutants into the navigable waters of the United States by 1985. The second national goal is an interim level of water quality that provides for the protection of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation by July 1, 1983. In this framework, Congress gave the Administrator the legal tools necessary to make inroads into the problems of water pollution control, while continuing to recognize the primary rights and responsibilities of the States to prevent, reduce, and eliminate pollution.

Waters of the United States - As defined in the CWA, "waters of the United States" applies only to surface waters, rivers, lakes, estuaries, coastal waters, and wetlands. Not all surface waters are legally "waters of the United States." Generally, those waters include the following: All interstate waters; Intrastate waters used in interstate and/or foreign commerce; Tributaries of the above; Territorial seas at the cyclical high tide mark; and Wetlands adjacent to all the above. The exact dividing line between "waters of the United States" according to the CWA and other waters can be hard to determine, especially with regard to smaller streams, ephemeral waterbodies, and wetlands not adjacent to other "waters of the United States." In fact, the delineation changes from time to time, as new court rulings are handed down, new regulations are issued, or the Act itself is modified. e.g. Migratory bird rule controversy

Wetlands - Lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface. Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local differences in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, including human disturbance. Indeed, wetlands are found from the tundra to the tropics and on every continent except Antarctica. For regulatory purposes under the Clean Water Act, the term wetlands means "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas."

http://cfpub.epa.gov/watertrain/modulePopup.cfm?object_id=1977

Clean Water Act

ESTABLISH WATER QUALITY STANDARDS (WQS)

CONDUCT MONITORING

DOES WATERBODY MEET WQS?

NO

YES

303d: THREATENED AND IMPAIRED WATERS LIST

APPLY ANTIDEGRADATION

DEVELOP STRATEGIES AND CONTROLS (TMDLS)

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

Clean Water Act

ESTABLISH WATER QUALITY STANDARDS (WQS)

CONDUCT MONITORING

DOES WATERBODY MEET WQS?

Water Quality Standards - Includes three major components: designated uses, water quality criteria, and antidegradation provisions. Designated Uses - Uses that society, through state and federal governments, determines should be attained in the waterbody. Examples include warmwater aquatic ecosystems, public water supply, and recreational fishing.
Water Quality Criteria - levels of individual pollutants or water quality characteristics, or descriptions of conditions of a waterbody that, if met, will generally protect the designated use of the water. Antidegradation - A policy designed to prevent deterioration of existing levels of good water quality.

NO

YES

303d: THREATENED AND IMPAIRED WATERS LIST

APPLY ANTIDEGRADATION

DEVELOP STRATEGIES AND CONTROLS (TMDLS)

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

Clean Water Act

ESTABLISH WATER QUALITY STANDARDS (WQS)

CONDUCT MONITORING (DOES WATERBODY MEET WQS?)

NO

YES

303d: THREATENED AND IMPAIRED WATERS LIST

APPLY ANTIDEGRADATION

DEVELOP STRATEGIES AND CONTROLS (TMDLS)

MONITORING Ambient Monitoring Monitoring program with fixed station networks and intensive surveys and producing chemical, physical, and biological analyses. Ambient monitoring deals with conditions in the aquatic environment--streams, lakes, bays, estuaries, and oceans. Effluent (discharge) monitoring Monitoring that involves sampling and analysis of wastewater.

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

THREE TYPES OF POLLUTANTS Toxic pollutant 65 classes of toxic pollutants (40CFR 122.2) EPA has identified 126 priority toxic pollutants (40 CFR 423 Appendix A)

Conventional pollutant- water pollutant that is amenable to treatment by a municipal sewage treatment plant. A basic list of conventional pollutants is defined in the U.S. Clean Water Act. The list has been amended in regulations issued by the Environmental Protection Agency: * biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) * fecal coliform bacteria * oil and grease * pH (exceeding regulatory limits) * total suspended solids
Non-conventional pollutant neither toxic or conventional (e.g. chlorine and ammonia)

Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution - Pollution that , unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and manmade pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water. Loadings of pollutants from NPS enter waterbodies via sheet flow, rather than through a pipe, ditch or other conveyance. There is no federal enforcement program for control of nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source controls are primarily implemented through State/Tribal and local nonpoint source management programs. Some of these State/Tribal or local programs have regulatory enforcement authority. Point Source Pollution Pollution derived from discrete conveyances, such as pipes or man made ditches that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States. This includes not only discharges from municipal sewage plants and industrial facilities, but also collected storm drainage from larger urban areas, certain animal feedlots and fish farms, some types of ships, tank trucks, offshore oil platforms, and collected runoff from many construction sites. Allocations to point sources get implemented through permits that are consistent with the TMDL. These permits are enforceable under the Clean Water Act through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Permits are issued by EPA or States/Tribes with delegated authority.

303(d): Threatened and Impaired Waters List

If monitoring and assessment indicate that for some uses and/or parameters, a waterbody or segment is not meeting WQS, then that water is considered "impaired" and goes on a special list called the "303(d) list," named after the section of the CWA that calls upon states, approved tribes, and territories to create such lists. The 303(d) list should include not only currently impaired waterbodies but also waters believed to be threatened that are likely to become impaired (i.e., not meet WQS) by the time the next 303(d) list is due.
EPA guidance documents mention a number of different types of data and information that are considered "existing and readily available." EPA has stated that such data include: (1) evidence of excedance of a numeric WQC (2) direct evidence of beneficial use impairment (3) evidence that narrative standards are not being met (4) results of computer modeling of the waterbodies. EPA also requires that data from sources other than the state agency itself -- federal agencies, universities, volunteer monitoring groups -- must be considered if they meet the state's requirements for data quality.

http://cfpub.epa.gov/watertrain/moduleFrame.cfm?parent_object_id=2059

Clean Water Act

ESTABLISH WATER QUALITY STANDARDS (WQS)

CONDUCT MONITORING (DOES WATERBODY MEET WQS?)

NO

YES

303d: THREATENED AND IMPAIRED WATERS LIST

APPLY ANTIDEGRADATION

DEVELOP STRATEGIES AND CONTROLS (TMDLS)

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) - A calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a waterbody can receive and still meet water quality standards, and an allocation of that amount to the pollutant's sources.

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

NPDES

319: Nonpoint Source (NPS) Program

401:Certification

404:Permits for Dredge and Fill Material

State Revolving Loan Funds

NPDES Program The CWA makes it illegal to discharge pollutants from a point source to the waters of the United States. Section 402 of the Act creates the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) regulatory program. Point sources must obtain a discharge permit from the proper authority (usually a state, sometimes EPA, a tribe, or a territory). Though the CWA does contain a long-range goal of zero discharge of pollutants, these permits do not, as the name of this program might suggest, simply say "no discharge." Rather, they set limits on the amount of various pollutants that a source can discharge in a given time. Dischargers must follow specifications of the NPDES permit

NPDES

Effluent Limits

Best Management Practices

Compliance Schedules

Monitoring Requirements

Reporting Requirements

POTWs: Pretreatment and Sludge Management

POTWs Publicly Owned Treatment Works

Technology Based Effluent Limits

Water Quality Based Effluent Limits

The Clean Water Act requires EPA to specifically develop TECHNOLOGY BASED effluent guidelines that represent the following: Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) The first level of technology-based standards established by the CWA to control pollutants discharged to waters of the U.S. BPT effluent limitations guidelines are generally based on the average of the best existing performance by plants within an industrial category or subcategory. (conventional, non-conventional and toxic) "average of the best existing performance by well-operated plants within each industrial category or sub category." Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology (BCT) Technology-based standard for the discharge from existing industrial point sources of conventional pollutants including BOD, TSS, fecal coliform, pH, oil and grease. The BCT is established in light of a two-part "cost reasonableness" test which compares the cost for an industry to reduce its pollutant discharge with the cost to a POTW for similar levels of reduction of a pollutant loading. The second test examines the cost-effectiveness of additional industrial treatment beyond BPT. EPA must find limits which are reasonable under both tests before establishing them as BCT. (conventional pollutants) based on a consideration of the reasonableness of the relationship between the cost of attaining a reduction in effluents and the effluent reduction benefits that will result.

Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) Technology-based standard established by the Clean Water Act (CWA) as the most appropriate means available on a national basis for controlling the direct discharge of toxic and nonconventional pollutants to navigable waters. BAT effluent limitations guidelines, in general, represent the best existing performance of treatment technologies that are economically achievable within an industrial point source category or subcategory. (toxic, non-conventional) "very best control and treatment measures that have been or are capable of being achieved."
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) Technology-based standards for facilities that qualify as new sources under 40 CFR 122.2 and 40 CFR 122.29. Standards consider that the new source facility has an opportunity to design operations to more effectively control pollutant discharges. (conventional, non-conventional and toxic) To date, EPA has established guidelines and standards for more than 50 different industrial categories (e.g., metal finishing facilities, steam electric power plants, iron and steel manufacturing facilities).. All effluent guidelines applicable to a facility must be included in an NPDES permit. The Clean Water Act limits the length of NPDES permits to five years. NPDES permits can be renewed (reissued) at any time after the permit holder applies. In addition, NPDES permits can be administratively extended if the facility reapplies more than 180 days before the permit expires, and EPA or the state regulatory agency, which ever issued the original permit, agrees to extend the permit.

Water Quality-Based Effluent Limit (WQBEL) A value determined by selecting the most stringent of the effluent limits calculated using all applicable water quality criteria (e.g., aquatic life, human health, and wildlife) for a specific point source to a specific receiving water for a given pollutant.
Water quality-based effluent limitations are needed where technology-based effluent limitations are not stringent enough to meet applicable water quality standards.

Best Management Practices (BMPs) are defined as a Permit condition used in place of or in conjunction with effluent limitations to prevent or control the discharge of pollutants. BMPs may include a schedule of activities, prohibition of practices, maintenance procedure, or other management practice.

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

NPDES

319: Nonpoint Source (NPS) Program

401:Certification

404:Permits for Dredge and Fill Material

State Revolving Loan Funds

Section 319: Nonpoint Source Program Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) represents the most significant source of pollution overall in the country. The most recent set of 303(d) reports indicated that more than 40 percent of all impaired waters were affected solely by nonpoint sources, while only 10 percent of impairments were caused by point source discharges alone.

The CWA does not provide a detailed definition of nonpoint sources. Rather, they are defined by exclusion -- anything not considered a "point source" according to the Act and EPA regulations. All nonpoint sources of pollution are caused by runoff of precipitation (rain and/or snow) over or through the ground. However, numerous types of precipitation-induced runoff are treated as point sources rather than as nonpoint sources under the CWA -- including stormwater associated with industrial activity, construction-related runoff, and discharges from municipal separate storm sewer systems.
Atmospheric deposition is also a form of nonpoint source: pollutants discharged into the air and returned directly or indirectly to surface waters in rainfall and snow, as well as so-called dry deposition between precipitation events. (Of course, "smokestack industries" such as fossilfueled electric generating plants could be considered "point sources of air pollution". But the diffuse deposition of pollutants emitted by such facilities is a form of nonpoint source in the context of water pollution.) Pollutants commonly associated with NPS include nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), pathogens, clean sediments, oil and grease, salt, and pesticides.

401: WQS Certification Section 401(a) of the CWA requires that before issuing a license or permit that may result in any discharge to waters of the United States, a federal agency must obtain from the state in which the proposed project is located, a certification that the discharge is consistent with the CWA, including attainment of applicable state ambient water quality standards. (The CWA also provides a mechanism whereby downstream states whose water quality may be affected by a federally-permitted or licensed project can engage in the 401 process.) CWA provisions to which Section 401 certification applies include 404 permits from the Corps of Engineers and EPA-issued NPDES permits. Section 401 certification has been a key issue in the relicensing of private hydropower dams by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC.) In a number of cases, states have convinced FERC to include conditions in the new licenses for dams, requiring changes in dam management designed to prevent impairment of uses designated for affected waters in state water quality standards.

Section 404 Program Although most commonly associated with activities that involve filling of wetlands, Section 404 actually deals with one broad type of pollution -- placement of dredged or fill material into "waters of the United States". Wetlands are one component of "waters of the United States;" however, there are numerous other types -- intermittent streams, small perennial streams, rivers, lakes, bays, estuaries, and portions of the oceans. One of the controversial aspects of Section 404 is exactly what is and isn't a wetland. Federal regulations define wetlands as: "Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil." [33CFR328.3(b)]

For an area to be declared a wetland, it should exhibit all three of the key features -- hydrology, wetland-dependent vegetation, and soil types associated with water-saturated conditions. However, some kinds of wetlands, such as bottomland hardwood swamps, are dry during some periods. The absence of water or saturated soil at any given moment does not render a plot "not a wetland," if the vegetation and soils indicate that wet conditions often do occur and hydrological data support this conclusion.

IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES

NPDES

319: Nonpoint Source (NPS) Program

401:Certification

404:Permits for Dredge and Fill Material

State Revolving Loan Funds

State Revolving Loan Funds In 1987, Congress voted to phase out the old construction grants program for funding of municipal sewer and wastewater treatment plant upgrades, replacing it with the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). Under the CWSRF, EPA provides annual capitalization grants to states, who in turn provide low interest loans for a wide variety of water quality projects. States must match the federal funds with $1 for every $5 (20 percent match). As a result of federal capitalization grants, state match, loan repayments, and leverage bonds, the total amount of assets in all the CWSRFs is approaching $40 billion. Between $3 and $4 billion is loaned annually from CWSRFs nationwide. Some funds are also provided to territories and tribes to be used as grants for municipal wastewater treatment projects. Territories must match the federal funds with a 20 percent match, while the tribes are not required to provide a match.

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) mandates that EPA establish regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water. The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water standards and to create a joint federal-state/tribal system to ensure compliance with these standards. The SDWA also directs EPA to protect underground sources of drinking water through the control of underground injection of liquid wastes. SDWA was originally passed by Congress in 1974 to protect public health by regulating the nation's public drinking water supply. The law was amended in 1986 and 1996 and requires many actions to protect drinking water and its sources: rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and ground water wells. (SDWA does not regulate private wells which serve fewer than 25 individuals.) The objective of the Safe Drinking Water Act is to protect public health by establishing safe limits (based on the quality of water at the tap) for contaminants that may have an adverse effect on human health, and to prevent contamination of surface and ground sources of drinking water.

Risks to Sources of Drinking Water

Point Sources Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs) Industrial Discharges Septic Systems Polluted Runoff Urban Agriculture Forestry Mining Air Pollutant Deposition Changing Landscapes/Changing Climate Projecting impacts in difficult due to climatic and non-climatic factors Changes in quality and availability of water Projected impacts on North America increased competition for water strain on ground water systems increase in waterborne disease

Evolution of Drinking Water Quality Oversight

Pre-SWDA Enforceable standards for Interstate Carriers Unenforceable Public Health service Service Guidelines 1974: Safe Drinking Water Act enacted Authorized EPA to establish national enforceable standards and require monitoring Established 3 programs: Public Water Supply Supervision (PWSS) Underground Injection Control (UIC) Sole Source Aquifer (SSA) 1986 Amendments Accelerated pace of drinking water standards (83 by 1989 and 25 new every 3 years) Require filtration and disinfection for surface water and established wellhead protection programs for ground water 1996 Amendments (emphasized comprehensive (holistic) public health protection from the source of drinking water to the tap) Contamination prevention and source protection Risk based standard setting and treatment Increased funding and emphasis on capacity Strengthened enforcement Public participation and right-to-know 2002 Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Response Act

Roles and Responsibilities under Safe Drinking Water Act EPA sets health-based drinking water standards States implement standards Public Water Systems (PWSs) are the regulated entity Costs of compliance are passed through to consumer

Public Water Systems (PWSs) are the regulated entity (156,000 PWSs)
public water system as an entity that provides water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances to at least 15 service connections or serves an average of at least 25 people for at least 60 days a year. (85 -90% of US households are served by PWSs)
EPA has defined four types of public water systems: Community Water System (CWS): A public water system that supplies water to the same population year-round. (286 million US citizens served) Non-community water systems (20 million people served) Non-Transient Non-Community Water System (NTNCWS): A public water system that regularly supplies water to at least 25 of the same people at least six months per year, but not yearround. Some examples are schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals which have their own water systems. Transient Non-Community Water System (TNCWS): A public water system that provides water in a place such as a gas station or campground where people do not remain for long periods of time. The EPA also classifies water systems according to the number of people they serve: Very Small water systems serve 25-500 people Small water systems serve 501-3,300 people Medium water systems serve 3,301-10,000 people Large water systems serve 10,001-100,000 people Very Large water systems serve 100,001+ people Water systems may be categorized by their source of water: Groundwater, generally from wells Surface water and groundwater "under the influence" of surface water Purchase of water from another Public Water System

SDWA

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

STATE IMPLEMENTATION

CONTAMINATION PREVENTION PROGRAMS

WATER SECURITY

STATE REVOLVING FUNDS

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

Drinking Water Standards EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards under its SDWA authority. EPA and authorized states/tribes enforce the primary drinking water standards, which are contaminant-specific concentration limits that apply to certain public drinking water supplies. Primary drinking water standards consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are non-enforceable health-based goals, and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible, considering cost and feasibility of attainment. Secondary standards are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking water. EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not require systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards. List of both are available: http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm

The Drinking Water State Revolving Fund Many public water systems find it difficult to obtain affordable financing for infrastructure improvements which would enable systems to comply with national primary drinking water standards and protect public health. Recognizing this fact, Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) as part of the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments. The goal of the program is to provide States with a financing mechanism for ensuring safe drinking water to the public. States can use federal capitalization grant money awarded to them to set up an infrastructure funding account from which assistance is made available to public water systems.
Loans made under the program can have interest rates between 0 percent and market rate and repayment terms of up to 20 years. Loan repayments to the State will provide a continuing source of infrastructure financing into the next century. The program also places an emphasis on small and disadvantaged communities and on programs that emphasize prevention as a tool for ensuring safe drinking water.