P

ROJECT #1 PROPELLER SHAFT [WATER COOLED]

The transmission system on a ship transmits power from the engine to the propeller .it is made up of shaft, bearings & finally the propeller itself. Also the thrust from the propeller is transferred to the ship through the transmission system. The different items in the system include the thrust shaft, one or more intermediate shafts and the tail shaft. These shafts are supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings & the stern tube bearing. A sealing arrangement is provided at the inboard end of the tail shaft with the propeller & cone completing the arrangement. There may be one or more sections of intermediate shafting between the thrust shaft & the tail shaft depending upon the machinery space location. All shafting is manufactured from solid forged ingot steel with the integral flanged coupling. The shaft sections are joined together by solid forged steel bolts. The intermediate shafting has flanges at each end and maybe increased in diameter where it is supported by bearings. The propeller shaft (or tail shaft) has a flanged face where it joins the intermediate shafting. The other end will also be threaded to take a nut which holds the propeller in place. Basically bearings are of 2 types, shaft bearings & stern tube bearings. Shaft bearings are further classified into 2 types, the aftermost tunnel bearing (the aftermost bearing placed forward of the aft peak bulkhead in the shaft tunnel) and all other bearings. The aftermost tunnel bearing has top & bottom bearing shell. All the other shaft bearings have only the lower half bearing shell. A stern tube forms the aft bearing for the propeller shaft. This bearing is also a part of the shaft support system. The stern tube bearing being at the end of the shaft is affected by the overhanging weight of the propeller. The load pulls the outboard end of the shaft downwards so that there is tendency of edge loading of the stern tube bearing. Thus the stern tube bearings support the overhanging weight of the propeller and the tail shaft .the load on these bearings is transferred onto the stern tube which is supported by the stern frame & the internal part of the ship structure around the aft peak bulkhead. Two forms of stern tubes are in use, the most commonly fitted having water lubricated bearings with the aft end open to the sea. In this type, the bearings were traditionally lignum vitae strips and the tail shaft had a brass liner shrunk fit on it. Nowadays phenolic resin materials like tufnol are fitted in lieu of lignum vitae in water lubricated stern tube bearings.

The other type of stern tube bearing is the oil lubricated type used for oil cooled tail shaft, which shall be dealt with in the next design

Let us proceed to design project on hand

PROPELLER SHAFT

The following particulars refer to a general cargo vessel of 14900GRT having single screw: 1. Main Engine: 6 cylinder 2 stroke single acting in line reversible diesel engine developing 9900 BHP at 150RPM and directly coupled to propeller shaft through thrust Block and intermediate shaft.

2. Stern tube to be cooled and lubricated by sea water and stern tube bearing to be lined with Lignum vitae. Any portion of the shaft which is likely to come in contact with sea water to be protected with suitable liner shrunk on the shaft. 3. Shaft and coupling bolts to be made from forged steel SF 44 as approved by Classification Society having the following specifications: a) Allowable shear stress 27 MN/m2 b) Specified minimum tensile strength 44 Kg/cm2 4. Vessel should conform to LR ICE class 3 which requires 5% increase to the Rule diameter for propeller shaft.

Calculate:1) (a) Intermediate shaft diameter

(D 1) = 89 ( (/)|60/( + 16)| mm
Where C=a constant to be determined from the table supplied (Table H 2.5) H= B.H.P R= R.P.M of the shaft T= Specified minimum tensile stress in Kg/cm2 (b) Propeller shaft diameter D s = 1.236 D 1

D s to be increased as per rules of Ice class 3 vessel

2) (a) Diameter of the propeller shaft at the coupling flange

D st = 1.05 D 1 And to be increased as per rules of Ice class 3 vessels. (b) Diameter of coupling bolts

(0) = (106. b). . |/|

Where B= 4.0 for crankshaft and thrust shaft/ crankshaft coupling B= 3.0 for other shaft couplings C= a constant to be found from Table H 2.5 H= B.H.P R= R.P.M of the propeller shaft No. of bolts n= 9 for coupling bolts between thrust and intermediate shaft = 10 for coupling bolts between intermediate and prop. Shaft R= Pitch circle radius of bolts in mm (assume suitable value) T b = minimum specified tensile strength for bolt material in Kg/cm2

3) Thickness of coupling flange: Find out suitable flange thickness from following rule requirements. (i)Thickness should be more than coupling bolt diameter (ii)Thickness should not be less than 25% of intermediate shaft diameter 4) Length of the stern tube bush(lignum vitae) considering the following: (i)Allowable bearing pressure- 2 Kg /cm2 (ii)Mass of propeller and cap nut= 10860 Kg (iii) a) Thickness of liner (shrunk fit) =5.7 meter (approx)

b) Thickness of liner as per classification rules= (D s +230)/32 c) Density of liner material=8800 Kg/m3 (iv)Density of steel shaft material= 7800Kg/m3 Length of steel shaft to be determined from drawing. Length of lignum vitae should not be less than 4 times the prop. Shaft diameter. 5) Using Guests maximum shear stress theory, show that the diameter (D) determined from L.R.S specification is acceptable. Attached graph may be used for required information. Equivalent torque to be increased by 20% to take care of stress concentration. 6) Coupling bolt diameter considering average torque only and compare the value obtained from L.R.S specification and accept the greater value. 7) Shrink fit allowance of the liner considering the following i) Interface of elasticity of shaft material= 11.7 GN/m2 ii) Modulus of elasticity of shaft material= 210 GN/m2 Modulus of elasticity of liner material= 85 GN/m2 iii) Poissons ration for both materials=0.25

B. Drawings must be freehand lined sketched. 8) Draw the sectional elevation with free hand fairly dimensional. 9) Draw the cross sectional view at XX. C.

10) Enumerate briefly what are the steps required to be taken for withdrawal of Tail shaft of this kind. What are the parts needed to be examined on Tail shaft and its attachments and why?

Solution:Calculate (A)
INTERMEDIATE SHAFT DIAMETER

D 1 = 89 [

Where

C = A constant to be determined from table supplied H = B.H.P R = R.P.M. of the shaft T = Specified minimum tensile stress in kg/cm2 This formula for the diameter of intermediate shaft is given as per the rules of the classification society. C = 1.28 [For 6 cylinder, 2 stroke inline diesel engine from table] H = 9900 BHP R = 150 RPM T b = specified minimum tensile strength as per classification society rules = 44 kg/cm2 Thereby putting the values in the L.R.S. specified formulae, the diameter of intermediate shaft is found out

D 1 = 89 [

D 1 = 89 1.28

D 1 = 390.518 mm
Now allowing a tolerance limit of 1% for machining, the diameter of the intermediate shaft is found out as

D 1 = 390.518 + 1% of 390.518 = 394.423 mm

NOTE: - 1] The shaft diameter needs to be increased by 1% with consideration for machining tolerances. This increased diameter is the diameter with which the shaft is manufactured .The 1% excess compensates the reduction in diameter of the shaft due to machining and surface finishing processes to which the shaft is subjected. For manufacturing considerations, the dimensions are mostly rounded up to the next higher multiple of 10 or sometimes next higher multiple of 5.

D 1 = 394.4 mm 400 mm
NOTE: - 2] The sizes of shafting are governed by the formulae adopted by various ship classification societies. The factors used take into account the strength of the steel used; the quality of steel is controlled by the upper and lower specified limits of the tensile strength. The horsepower being transmitted together with the rotational speed of the shaft, the maximum torque & the respective mass moment of the inertia of the propeller & the flywheel are used in the formula to evaluate intermediate shaft diameter. The mass moment of inertia of the propeller includes the entrained water. NOTE: - 3] To ensure that the ships are properly built, equipped and maintained, a number of CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES have been formed and have drawn up rules governing the construction of ships .the rules of different societies vary somewhat in detail but are mainly very similar; they are not arbitrary and other forms of construction are allowed if they give equivalent strength. Rules of Lloyds Register of Shipping (L.R.S) a British Classification society have been followed throughout this design project. NOTE :- 4]Once the diameter of the intermediate shafting has been found, the diameter of the screw shaft is found by increasing the diameter of the intermediate shaft by some percentage, to which is added a further amount which takes into account of propeller diameter and the method

by which the shaft is protected from the corrosive action sea water. In practice, the screw shaft is approximately 15% to 17% larger in diameter than the intermediate shaft. The larger % is associated with large propeller diameter.

CALCULATE (B)
PROPELLER SHAFT DIAMETER As per the classification rules; the diameter of the propeller shaft is given by 1.236 times the diameter of the intermediate shaft i.e.

D S = 1.236 D1 D 1 = 390.518 mm D s = 482.68+ (5/100X482.68)

Here

This value is increased as per rules of ICE CLASS 3 vessel of LRS by 5% Thus

D s = 506.814 mm
NOTE :- 5]Ships which are specially strengthened for navigating in ice may be given ICE CLASS NOTATION .There are 4 ICE CLASSES based on Baltic Ice conditions-Class 1*,Class 1,Class 2,Class 3 NOTE: - 6] ICE CLASS 3 ships are those which are intended to navigate in light ship condition. There are also some extra classes (1A to 1C) for vessels with special strengthening, intended to trade in the Northern Baltic. Allowing a tolerance limit of 1% for machining, the diameter of the propeller shaft is given by

Ds = =

506.814 + (1/100x506.814) => [NOTE 1] 511.882 mm 520 mm

This value of Ds looks very odd from the design point of view, thus it can be rounded off to a nearest possible value. The propeller shaft diameter is equal to 520 mm

CALCULATE (C)
DIAMETER OF COUPLING FLANGE OF PROPELLER SHAFT As per classification society rules, the diameter of the propeller shaft, at coupling flange is given by 1.05 times the diameter of the intermediate shaft. NOTE: - 7] The coupling arrangement can either have a flange forged integral with the shaft or loose, depending on requirements. Flanges that are forged integral with the shaft have their thickness, determined by classification society rules, at least equal to the diameter of the flange coupling bolts measured, at the coupling flange. By using this ruling the possibility of using tapered or stepped bolts can be accommodated. The flange thickness should not be less than 0.2 times the diameter of the shaft. The forging of the flange with the shaft must be provided with a fillet radius which is machined in and must not be less than 0.08 times the diameter of the shaft .these fillets must have a smooth finish Loose couplings arte usually fitted to the last line of intermediate shafting connecting it to the tail shaft .this method of coupling permits the removal of the tail shaft out through the stern bearing with common practice to fit them in twin screw vessels. There are 2 types of loose coupling in common use in current practice. a) Muff coupling b) keyed and flanged couplings

COUPLING BOLT HOLES The bolt holes are usually drilled to an approximate size in the workshops. The final dimension is reamed out when the coupling flanges are brought together. The final fit between the bolt and the hole.

D st =1.05 D 1
where D 1 =390.518
THUS THE DIAMETER Dst IS CALCULATED AS

D st =1.05 X 390.518 = 410.044 mm

The value of the propeller shaft diameter at coupling flange is to be increased by 5% as per L.R.S. rules for ICE CLASS 3 vessel.

D st = 410.044+ (5/100X 410.044) => [NOTE 5 & 6]

=430.546 mm
Allowing the tolerance of 1% for machining, the d st is given by

D st =430.546 + (1/100x430.546) D st = 434.851 mm 440mm

This value looks odd from the design point of view, thus it can be rounded off to the nearest value. Thus the diameter of the propeller at the coupling flange is 440 mm

CALCULATE (D)
DIAMETER OF THE COUPLING BOLT IS GIVEN BY

do = B

( )

B= 3 for shaft couplings other than crank shaft C= 1.28 from table R= 150 r.p.m N= 10 for coupling bolts between intermediate and propeller shaft T b = minimum specified tensile strength= 44 kg/cm2 r= pitch circle radius of bolts P.C.D. =1.6 x Dst =1.6 x 410.044 = 656.070 mm r= P.C.D/2 = 328.035 mm NOTE 8:- There are various types of coupling bolts, the diameter of which must comply with the classification requirements .the material used should have a tensile strength at least equal to that of the shaft material. There are 3 types of bolts. PARALLEL NON STANDARD BOLTS

This type of bolt has parallel shank and is in common practice .the surface finish is to a higher standard, giving a good fit in the hole. STEPPED BOLTS These are rarely used and they limit the interference distance over which it is necessary to drive the bolt home when fitting. The cost of machining limits their use. SPECIAL TYPE BOLTS Used in high powered installations .each bolt has an accurately bored hole over its full length. The bolt has an arrangement to take a hydraulic attachment. on fitting the bolt, a high tensile steel rod is inserted into the bolt and using the hydraulic attachment, pressure is exerted, stretching the bolt within its elastic limit .this reduced the diameter of the bolt by 0.5 m per mm of bolt diameter. The bolt diameter is inserted into the hole in the stretched condition. On releasing the pressure the bolt returns to its original duiameter, so exerting radial grip. the nut is fitted before releasing the hydraulic pressure, thereby transferring the compressive force to the coupling bolt

do = B do = 3

( )
)

. (

d o = 72.579 mm 80mm

Diameter of the coupling bolt may be approximately taken as 80 mm

CALCULATE (E)
THICKNESS OF THE COUPLING FLANGE (t) It has to follow the following conditions. (i) thickness should be more than coupling bolt diameter

t > 75 mm
(ii) thickness should not be less than 25% of intermediate shaft diameter

t >25/100 x D1

t >25/100 x 390.518 t >97.629 mm

The value of coupling flange thickness is taken as 100 mm

CALCULATE (F)
LENGTH OF STERN TUBE BUSH Allowable bearing pressure Total load acting on bush = 2 kg/cm2 = propeller load + shaft load + liner load

Mass of propeller and capnut = 10860 kg Mass of liner = density of the liner material x length x cross sectional area

= 8800 x 5.7 x x [D o 2 D i 2]

Thickness of the liner

= (D S +230) / 32 = (482.68 +230) / 32 = 22.271 mm

Inner diameter of the liner = Diameter of the shaft

D i = 506.814 mm
Liner outer diameter

= 506.814 + (22.271 x 2) = 551.356 mm

Mass of liner

= 8800 x 5.7 x = 1856.832 kg

x [551.3562 -506.8142] x 10-6

Load on shaft = Density x Area x Length

= 7800 x ( / 4 x 506.814 x 10-3)2 x 7.2

= 11329.589 kg
Total load = Propeller load +Shaft load+ Liner load

= 10860 + 11329.589 + 1856.832 = 24046.421 kg

Load = Pressure x Area

24046.421 = 2 x 104 x 552.864 x 10-3 x L L = 2.174 m

Length shall not be less than 4 times the propeller shaft diameter

i.e. 4 x 482.68 mm = 1.93 m l = 2.174 m > 1.93 m

length of the stern tube bush is taken as 2.174 m

CALCULATE (G)
Engine power

= 9900 B.H.P. = 746 x 9900 /1000 = 7385.4 kW

Power

= (2 x

x N X T)/60 X 150) = 470.169 kNm

T = (60 X 7385.4) / (2 X
Bending moment

= 100 kN-m => [from graph]

Equivalent torque is given by

T eq = + = 100 + 470.169

= 480.686 kN-m
Increase by 20% to take care of stress concentration

T eq = 480.686 + (20% of 480.686) = 576.823 kN-m

Using torsion equation to find diameter

( )

d = 0.4774 m = 477 mm

480 mm
Using guests maximum shear stress theory ,the minimum allowed diameter of shaft at which failure will not occur is 477 mm. the value obtained from LRS specification was 482.68 mm .the value being higher the propeller diameter is taken as 482 mm .final value can be approximated as 490 mm.

CALCULATE (H)
average torque is the equivalent torque itself and is 470.169 kN-m

Torque = force X pitch circle radius

= F X 0.328
Force

. .

= 1443.447 kN

Load on each bolt

= 1433.447 kN

Shear stress

() =
R

()

db X n X
.

db2 =

= 82.2 mm 85mm
The diameter of the bolt is 85 mm

Shrink fit allowance

(i) Shrink fitting The liner is firmly fitted to the shaft by boring it out to a diameter slightly less than that of the shaft, and after expanding it by heat placing it in a position on the shaft which it grips as it cools. The shrinking on the brass liner is not an easy operation, as not only must the liner be bored out to a size and heated to a temperature that will ensure its slipping easily over the shaft, but if bored out to too great diameter, it will not grip the shaft sufficiently and if heated too high to a temperature, the properties of the material would be adversely affected. The liner should cool out evenly. Should the ends cool down more rapidly then the middle portion, the metal may be overstressed and crack circumferentially as it contracts in length. Some cool the middle portion by compressed air to prevent this, but if the liner is allowed to cool down evenly there is no rick of metal bring overstressed. The usual shrinkage allowance is 1/1000 inch per inch diameter. It is not a good practice to pin the liners to the shaft as apart from the possibility of water leakage past the pins and reaching the shaft, holes drilled into the shaft are liable to start fracture.

Let r 3 be the radius of junction when shrinking.r 3 is the difference between the radius of the outer part of inner tube and junction.

r 3 =r 1 + r 2
GIVEN

P = 11.7 MN/m2 = 11.7 N/mm2 E S = 210 GN/m2 = 210 x 103 N/mm2 E L = 85 GN/m2

= 85 x 103 N/mm2

= 0.25

By applying Lamis theorem Radial stress hoop stress

Px =

fx =

( x is the radius)

For outer tube i.e. liner

Px =

fx = r = 276.5 mm

At the outer surface of the liner i.e. 1

0 =

1 . (1)

At the junction of liner and shaft, P x =11.7 N/mm2

Px =

11.7 =

1 . (2)

From (1) & (2)

a 1 = 60.18 ,

b 2 = 4601329.65

Circumferential strain for outer tube (liner)

+ 1 +

] . (3)

At the outer surface of the shaft,

P X = 11.7 N/mm2

r 2 = 253 mm Px =

2 2 . (4)

11.7=

Hoop stress at the junction

fx =

+ 2 . ( 5 )

From (4) & (5)

a2 = 7.65, b 2 = 1238574.15
Circumferential stress for the shaft

+ 2 +

](6)

Subtracting (6) from (3)

[ [

+ 1 +

]-

+ 2 +

] -

= [

. .

+ 60.18 +

11.7 0.25]

+ 7.65 + 11.7 0.25]

= 1.3048 X 10-3 (r is the radius of the shaft)

= 1.3048 10

3 = 1.3048 10 X 253 3 = 0.338 3 0.4

Shrink fit Allowance

=2Xr = 2 X 0.4 =0.8 mm

Shrink fit allowance is 0.8 mm

(C).Enumerate briefly the steps required to be taken for withdrawal of tail shaft of this kind. What are the parts needed to be examined on tail shaft and its attachments and why? Line shafting is examined once every 5 years for classification purposes and unless something has gone wrong, this is the only time the shafting is looked at. When examined for the classification survey it is usual to open up the main bearings, but it is not necessary to remove coupling bolts if everything has been operating satisfactorily. As well as examination of the bearing, the holding down arrangement should be looked at. Sometimes the holdings down bolts have slackened back. At the dry docking of a vessel, the tail shaft wear down reading is recorded. For a tail shaft with a continuous liner (TCSL), the reading should be less than 6mm. If the reading approaches this figure, tail shaft should be with drawn for the bush to be removed. During dry dock inspection, bearing wear down is measured by poker gauge. Examination, after removal of the propeller and inward withdrawal of the propeller shaft may reveal various defects. A keyway milled in the shaft tape acts as a weakening factor which allows some deformation of the surface. Transmission of torque from the shaft via the key, to the propeller hub causes a deformation which tends to open the keyway. Grip of the propeller along the side of the keyway does this as well. Cracks having been a problem are reduced by the employment of sled type keys, radiused corners and spooning. The first place to examine is around the forward end of the keyway to see If any fractures have started; usually they are found to run in a circumferential direction from the forward end of the keyway. If the keyway is of the older type, the lower corners of the keyway must be carefully examined from the forward end on one side round the radius of the end of the keyway and along the forward end of the other side. To assist with the examination, it is normal to use magnetic particle crack detection equipment. In order to find cracks at the corners of the bottom of the keyway dye-penetrators can be used as they usually show up cracks better in this location. If the shaft is of older design it will not be eased at the ends of the liner. Cracks have been found running in a circumferential direction in older shafts just under the end of the liner in these circumstances

2-3 millimetres is machined of the ends to expose the steel shaft underneath. When this operation is carried out it is usual also to machine a semi-circular groove in each end of the liner. This relieves the herd edge which covers from the shrink fir and prevent it from acting as a stress-raiser. [ MC GEORGE] The rubber seal sandwiched by the propeller hub and protective bronze liner, prevents ingress of sea water which could act as an electrolyte to promote galvanic corrosion of the exposed part of the shaft. Wastage from corrosion or fretting of the steel shaft beneath the forward end of the hub or locally under the liner could weaken the shaft surface at the hub Liner notch to cause shaft failure through fatigue or corrosion fatigue. Shaft droop from over changing weight of the propeller stretches the upper surface and compress the lower, giving conditions when the shaft is rotating, which are likely to cause failure. The imposed alternating effect is of low frequency and high stress. The shrunk or bronze liner, fitter to protect the steel shaft against black corrosion may itself be damaged by working conditions. Shaft whirl can lead to patched marked by cavitation erosion, scoring occurs in way of the stern gland packing and liner cracking has sometimes penetrated through to cause corrosion cracking in the shaft. The parts of the shaft exposed after machining the ends of the liner are checked for cracks using the magnetic particle r dye penetrator. The forward end of the shaft, where it is reduced from the large diameter down to the radius which is swept into the back of the flange is also a location to be examined. The critical region is at the smallest diameter. Old shafts which may have had the coupling bolt holes enlarged, should also have the thinnest section of material examined for cracks running radially outwards from the hole to the outer circumference of the flange. The aft end of the shaft at the reduced section from the end of the thread to the face meeting the smaller end of the cone should also be examined though this area rarely gives trouble. If the shaft liner Is made up of 2 pieces, the joint between the 2 sections should be carefully examined. Dye penetrated tests would be carried out on the joint.

Common mistakes
v 1]Neglecting 1% of machining tolerance v 2] Adding of 1% machining tolerance before 5% LR ICE Class 3 Rounding up values in multiples of 10 v 3] Not taking initial value of D1 without machining tolerance for further calculations. v 4] r = pitch circle diameter /2. v 5] Convert B.H.P. into Kw.

Concept review questions

What are parts of the shafting system? what are the bearings in the shafting system? What is aftermost tunnel bearing? Why aftermost tunnel bearing has has top and bottom bearing shell? Why the other shaft bearings have only lower half bearing shells? ANS-

The transmission system on a ship transmits power from the engine to the propeller. It is made up of shaft, bearings and finally the propeller itself. The thrust from the propeller is also transferred to the ship through the transmission system. The different items in the system include the thrust shaft, one or more intermediate shafts and the tail shaft. These shafts are supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings and the stern tube bearing. A sealing arrangement is provided at either end of the tail shaft with the propeller and cone completing the arrangement. Shaft bearings are of 2 types, the after most tunnel bearing and all others. The aftermost tunnel bearing has a top and bottom bearing shell because it must counter act the propeller mass and take a vertical upward thrust at the forward end of the tail shaft. The other shaft bearings only support shaft weight and thus have only lower half bearing shells.
What is edge loading of stern tube bearing?

ANS- The stern tube bearing is also part of the shaft support system. In some of the later designs, the bearing is accessible from the machinery space. The stern tube bearing being at the end of the shaft is affected by the overhanging weight of the propeller. The load pulls the outer end of the shaft down so that there is a tendency for edge loading of stern tube bearings. The forward part of the tail or propeller shaft is tilted upwards. Wear down tends to make the alignment worse and whirl may give an additional problem.

Is there any substitute for lignum vitae?

ANS--The traditional lignum vitae staves are fitted with end grain vertical beneath the shaft for better wear resistance. Staves in the upper part are cut with grain in the axial direction for economy. The staves are shaped with V or U grooves between them at the surface, to allow access for the water. The grooves alsoi accommodate any debris. They are held in place, in the bronze bush by bronze keys, attached to the bush by the

counter sunk screws. Bearing length is equal to four times shaft diameter.
Why are lignum vitae strips dove tailed?

ANS--Strips of lignum vitae about 2 inch wide and thick are dove tailed into the bush, water ways being left at 4 or more points to allow sea water to have free access to the rubbing surfaces. The lignum vitae is prevented by rotating with the shaft by 4 projecting longitudinal strips cast on the inside of the bush, while the forward movement is prevented by the lip on the inner end of the bush. To prevent lignum vitae from working outboard, a check ring secured by means of tap bolts to the flange of the brass bush is provided.
What is rewooding and when is it required?

ANS--Excessive wear down of bearing materials due to vibration or whirl, poor quality of work when re wooding, inferior materials, presence of sand/ sediments in the water or propeller damage, could necessitate early re wooding. Bearing life for vessels with engines aft and particularly tankers and ore carriers which spend long periods in the ballast has been shot with re wooding being needed in perhaps 18 months.
What are radial face seals?

ANS--Radial face seals can be used for sea water lubricated stern tubes. These are fitted at the inboard end of the tube with the outboard end open. However sea water is supplied from the sea water circulating system and runs out through the after end of the tube. The amount of any sand in water would tend to be less after passing through the pipe system.

What are the types of seals?

Special seals are fitted at the outboard and inboard ends of the tail shaft; they are arranged to prevent the entry of sea water. Older designs, usually associated with sea water lubricated stern bearings, made use of a conventional stuffing box and gland at the after bulkhead

What is black corrosion?

The shrunk on the bronze liner, fitted to protect the steel shaft against black corrosion may itself be damaged by working conditions. Shaft whirl can lead to patches marked by cavitation erosion, screwing occurs in the way of stern gland packing and liner cracking has sometimes penetrated through to cause corrosion cracking of the shaft.

PROJECT # 2 HOLLOW TAIL SHAFT (OIL COOLED)

As we have discussed about water cooled propeller shaft earlier, our next project is about hollow oil cooled propeller shaft. This type of propeller shaft is supported by a stern tube closed at both ends and having metal bearing surfaces lubricated by oil. Oil cooled propeller stern tube is preferred in many ships with machinery aft, where the short shaft is to be relatively stiff and only small deflections are to be tolerated. Where this patent oil lubricated stern tube is fitted, glands are provided at both ends to retain oil and to prevent the ingress of water. Besides, white metal (high lead content) bearing surfaces are also provided and oil for cooling and lubrication is supplied from a reservoir. Progress from sea water to early oil lubricated stern tubes involved an exchange of the wooden bearing (LIGNUM VITAE) in its bronze sleeve with a white metal lined cast iron (or sometimes bronze) bush. Oil retention and exclusion of sea water necessitated the fitting of an external face type seal. The stuffing box was retained in many early oil lubricated stern tubes, at the inboard end. In oil lubricated bearings the shaft does not require a full length protective bronze sleeve. This is the conventional type of arrangement

Now, without much ado let us proceed to the design project and learn the intricacies and challenges involved in design, operation and maintenance of this propeller shaft. HOLLOW PROPELLER SHAFT

The following information relates to a steel propeller shaft for a single screw bulk carrier. The propeller shaft is hollow and connected to a solid intermediate shaft. The propeller is fastened to the shaft by 16 pre-stressed internal bolts on P.C.D. of 1m fitted with hollow dowel pins around them. The hollow dowel pins can be regarded to carry the complete torsion load while the bolts take all other loads. Additional load due to vibrations may be assumed to be acting downwards through the C.G. of propeller and is given by LOAD =

x 0.75

Additional B.M. due to thrust may be taken as a product of Propeller Thrust x Propeller Dia. (in m) x 0.15 where Propeller Thrust = Shaft RPM = 75 Shaft power = 22400 KW Propeller dia = 9 m Propeller mass = 51000 kg Propeller buoyancy = 80 KN Max. Shear Stress allowed For solid shafting and coupling bolts 50 MN/m2 For hollow shaft due to welding involved 25 MN/m2 For hollow dowel pins 50 MN/m2 Neglecting mass of shafting Calculate Dia. D of intermediate shaft considering torsion only. Dia. of intermediate shaft coupling bolts. Outside dia. of hollow dowels. The total thrust given that the propeller efficiency 60% and the speed of advance 10 knots. The total B.M. on the shaft. Show that the equivalent torque on the shaft may be rounded to 5680 kN-m and hence, determine the outside dia. of the hollow shaft. Based on dia. so evaluated on hollow shaft, calculate a suitable flange diameter and size of coupling bolts placed on possible pitch circle. Mention suitable materials used for each component in design and manufacture, also describe in brief how welding carried out during assembly. Describe the purpose of chrome liner fitted with the shaft seals. What bearing material is used in stern bush bearing of this type?

What is the normal periodicity of tail shaft (OG) survey? What are the specific areas need to be inspected? Under what conditions this survey may be allowed with extended period? Solution: Calculate 1) Diameter of Intermediate Shaft Mass of the shafting is neglected Power, P = 22400KW (given), N=75 rpm P= Torque, T=

T = 2.85 MN-m

We can determine the diameter of the shaft by applying the torsion equation:

D = 0.6623m

D = 662.3mm

Considering 1% machining tolerance D = 662.3 + (0.01662.3)

D = 668.923

D670mm

2) Diameter of intermediate shaft coupling bolts Torque acting on each bolt (For 12 bolts)

= 237.671 KN-m

Force =

. .

= 306.672 KN

Force = Max. Shear stress Area

306.672103 = 50106

d = 88.37mm

d90mm

(Boltsconnectingintermediateshaftandthrustshaft)

The value is rounded off to 90mm

(THIS DIAGRAM IS ONLY FOR PROPER UNDERSTANDING)

Torque acting on each bolt (for 16 bolts)

= 178.25 KN-m

Force =

= ..

= 336.42 KN To find the diameter of the coupling bolts

Force = Max. Shear stress Area

336.42103 = 50106

d = 92.557mm
P

d95mm (Bolts connecting intermediate shaft and tail shaft) The value is rounded off to 95mm.

Note: There is a twist (to baffle students) in the design question (iii) Outside diameter of the hollow dowel pin (d o ), here we need to use the equivalent torque which can be found in question (vi) and hence (iii) follows (vi)

5) Total B.M. on shaft

Total B.M. = Additional B.M. due to thrust + B.M. due to mass of propeller + B.M. through C.G. of propeller - B.M. due to Buoyancy. Additional B.M. due to thrust, M = Propeller thrust Propeller diameter 0.15

= 2612.752 103 9 0.15

= 3527.216 KN-m.

B.M. due to mass of propeller,

M = 57000 9.81 (

+ 0.6 +1.05)

= 500.31 103 2.1

= 1050.651 KN-m.

Load due to vibrations =

0.75

0.75

= 237.5 KN As it acts through C.G. of propeller B.M. M = 237.5 103 2.1

= 498.75 KN-m.

B.M. due to buoyancy, M = 80 2.1

M = 168 KN-m. Total BM, M = 3527.216 + 1050.651 + 498.75 168

M = 4908.617 KN-m. 6)

Equivalent Torque is given by,

T e = +

= (4908.617 10 ) + (2.85 10 )

T e = 5678.6039 KN-m.

T e5680KNm.

The value of equivalent torque can be rounded off to 5680 KN-m. To get the tail shaft we apply the torsion and substitute the value of T e in place of T. Applying torsion equation
=
P

= ( . )

We already know that the internal diameter (bore) of the hollow tail shaft is 1.22m. 1.1563 =
.

Do4 = 3.627

 Do = 1.38m

Do 1.4m 3) Outside Diameter of hollow dowel pin (do) Force on each hollow dowel = Force =
.

(here equivalent torque is taken)

= 710 KN

d i = 0.08 m (From diagram ) Force = Max. Shear stress Area

710 103 = 50 106 (d o 2 0.082)

+ 0.082 = d o 2

d o = 0.156 m d o = 156 mm d o160mm. The outer diameter hollow dowel pin is rounded off to 160mm. Equivalent torque is taken because dowel pins are subjected to both torsion as well as bending. 4) Total Thrust Propeller thrust = =
. .

(GIVEN)

Propeller thrust = 2612.752 KW.

7) Flange diameter is given by 2.2 times shaft diameter (here no. of bolts, n = 16)

Flange diameter, d f = 2.2 D o d f = 2.2 1.4 d f = 3.08m. PCD = 1.6 D o =1.6 1.4 = 2.24 m. Torque = Force PCR 5680 103 = Force
.

Force = 5.071 MN

= 316.96 KN.

To find diameter of coupling bolts, Force = Max. Shear stress Area

316.96 103 = 50 106 d B

d B = 0.0898 m d B = 89.8mm d B90mm The coupling bolt diameter can be rounded off to 90mm.

8) Materials used for tail shaft are: Tail shaft -- The tail shaft in this type of oil cooled arrangement is made of mild steel with high carbon content. The tail shaft is subjected to shock and fatigue. High carbon content strengthens it against such loads. Hollow Dowel Hollow dowels used in this type of tail shaft are subjected to torsional loads. To ensure that these dowels work properly they are made up of high carbon content steel for durability, ductility, and strength.

9) Purpose of Chrome Liner Chrome lines are fitted in order to safeguard the tail shaft against grooving action of lip seal. Lip seals are provided in order to prevent the ingress of sea water to the engine room and also prevent the lube oil used for tail shaft lubrication from leaking. Hence, chrome liners are fitted on the tail shaft where the lip seal rubs the material by push fit on slide fit.

10) Periodicity of tail shaft (OG) survey and areas to be inspected: Tail shaft surveyis done within a period of normally every 5 yrs. Extension is allowed and survey is done in a period up to 7 to 10 yrs, depending on the type of seals fitted under hydraulic jacking.

This could be the condition of tail shaft if not surveyed within the specified period
Condition During every possible drydocking of the vessel : 1) Circulating oil sample from stern tube is tested. 2) Propeller drop is checked. When withdrawn, normally seals are changed along with chrome liners. Crack testing is done on shaft, meeting dowels, bolts, nuts, etc.

Now let us take a brief glance at Directorate General of SHIPPING (D.G.S.) requirements of items to be inspected during a tail shaft survey

EIGHT SCHEDULE [See rule 73(2) (h) and (i)] EXAMINATION OF PROPELLER SHAFTS Part 1

The examination required to extend the interval between surveys as permitted shall include.(1) An inspection of the bearing oil to establish that it is not contaminated by water or debris. (2) Measurement of the clearance between the shaft bearing and the shaft to ascertain that the wear is negligible. (3) Removal of the propeller from the shaft to the extent that a full visual and non-destructive crack detection inspection of the shaft by the forward end of the keyway can be made, and (4) An inspection of the shaft sealing arrangements to establish that they will remain efficient for the extended period.

Part 2

The examination required to extend the interval between surveys as permitted shall include.(1)An inspection of the bearing oil to establish that it is not contaminated by water or debris.

(2) Measurements of the clearance between the shaft bearing and the shaft to ascertain that the wear is negligible.

(3) Where the propeller is fitted to a taper on the shaft without a key, a visual and non-destructive crack detection examination of the forward part of the taper to establish that corrosion or corrosion cracking has not occurred. Alternative methods of ascertaining that sea water has not penetrated the shaft taper/propeller boss bore and that corrosion or corrosion cracking has not occurred may be accepted by the Chief Surveyor of the Government of India.

(4) Where the propeller is attached to the shaft by a bolted flange, a visual and a non-destructive crack detection examination of the shaft flange radii and bolt hole bores and recesses.

(5) An inspection of the shaft sealing arrangements, which shall require dismantling the shaft seals, to the extent considered necessary by the Chief Surveyor of the Government of India to establish that they will remain efficient for the extended period, and

(6) An inspection of the surface of that part of the shaft that normally lies within the aft part of the aft bearing to a distance at least equal to one-half of the shaft diameter.

Concept review questions:

Q: SOME SCREW SHAFTS DO NOT HAVE LINERS FITTED, IN SUCH CASES HOW IS THE SHAFT END PROTECTED FROM SEA WATER? W HERE IS THE MOST LIKELY POINT OF INGRESS OF SEA WATER? ANS: Where screw shafts are not fitted with liners, the shaft is oil lubricated and the stern tube bearings are white metal-lined cast iron bushes. In order to retain oil in the stern tube, the inboard end of the shaft is fitted with a mechanical seal which prevents the oil from running out. Seal in the aft end would be discussed later. Q: HOW IS THE PROCEDURE OF OIL LUBRICATION CARRIED OUT IN STERN TUBE? WHAT ARE THE TWO TYPES OF HEADER TANKS ? ANS : Oil is pumped to the bush through external axial grooves and passes through holes on each side into axial passages. The oil leaves from the ends of the bush and circulates back to the pump

and the cooler. Oil pressure within the stern tube is maintained at approximately at the same level as that of the surrounding sea water by a header tank. The static lubrication system for vessels with moderate changes in draft, have header tanks placed 2-3 m above the maximum load waterline. The small differential pressure ensures that water is excluded. The cooling of simple stern tubes necessitates keeping the aft peak water level at least 1m above the stern tube. Tankers and other ships with large changes in draught may be fitted with 2 oil header tanks for either the fully loaded condition or ballast condition.

Q: WHAT IS THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF BEARING BUSH? ANS: The bearing bush is normally of grey or nodular cast iron, centrifugally lined with white metal. A typical analysis of white metal would be 3% Cu, 7.5% antimony and remainder tin. White metals thickness is varies according to classification society specifications. Figures of 3.8 mm for a shaft of 300 mm diameter to 7.4 mm for 900 mm diameter shaft have been quoted, with bearing clearances of 0.51 to 0.63 mm and 1.53 to 1.89 mm respectively. (NOTE:-These figures are only for better understanding) Q:WHAT ARE THE TWO MOST COMMONLY USED TYPE OF OIL LUBRICATED STERN TUBE BEARING? WHERE IS THE MOST LIKELY POINT OF INGRESS OF SEA WATER? ANS : Oil lubricated stern bearings use either lip seals or radial face seals or combination of the two. Lip seals, in which a number of flexible membranes in contact with the shaft are shaped rings of material with a projecting lip or edge which is held in contact with a shaft to prevent oil leakage or water entry. Oil is contained within the simplex type stern tube by lip seals .The elastic lip of each nitrile rubber seal, grips a rubbing surface provided by short chrome steel liners at outboard and inboard ends of the steel propeller shafts. A number of lip seals are usually fitted depending upon the particular application.

LIP SEALS
Face seals use a pair of mating radial faces to seal against leakage. One face is stationary and the other rotates. The rotating face of the after seal is usually secured to the propeller boss .the stationary face of the forward or inboard seal is the after bulkhead. A spring arrangement forces the stationary and rotating faces together. The aft end is the most likely point of ingress of seawater to the screwshaft.

RADIAL FACE SEAL What are the inbuilt safety precautionary devices fitted in case of St. L.O. P/P failure and seal failure? ANS : One of the two header tanks will provide a back pressure in the system and a period of oil supply in the event of the pump failure. A low-level alarm will be fitted to each header tank. Oil pressure in the lubrication system is higher than the static sea water head to ensure that sea water cannot enter the stern tube in the event of seal failure.

PROTECTION MADE FOR LIP SEALS What problem can arise out of the chrome liners and how can it be tackled? ANS : The chrome liners act as rubbing surfaces for the rubber lip seals but grooving from frictional wear has been a problem. The difficulty has been overcome by using ceramic filler for the groove or alternatively a distance piece to displace axially the seal and ring assembly. Allowance must be made for the relative movement of shaft and stern tube due to differential expansion. New seals are fitted by cutting and vulcanizing in position. WHAT KIND OF LUBRICANT CAN BE USED IN STERN TUBES WITH WHITE-METAL LINED BEARINGS? ANS : The lubricant used in stern tubes systems must have the ability to maintain a lubrication film in the presence of water so that it is not washed away. The lubricant must also have good affinity for metal surfaces so that it affords good protection of the metal in the stern tube and the shaft areas against sea water. This affinity for metal surfaces so that it affords good protection of the metal surfaces and is also necessary when the screw shaft starts to revolve, as boundary lubrication conditions are present at this time. Compounded oils have these properties: they are blends of mineral oil and fatty oils .the fatty constituent causes water to physically to combine with the oil and form an emulsion. The fatty constituent may be lanolin or synthetic fatty oil having similar properties. The lubricant used have a specific gravity at 15.5 0C within the range of 0.92 to 0.95, with a viscosity REDWOOD 1 at 60 0C .The viscosity index of many brands of stern tube lubricant have wide ranges which is unfortunate , as the conditions under which they operate make a high viscosity index desirable If leakage of sea-water into an oil lubricated screwshaft occurs, what indications will be there? When is seawater leakage into the system most likely to occur? ANS : Leakage of sea water into the stern tube is indicated by emulsification of the lubricant .the best time to carry out checks of the vessel is at ports. As the ship loads or discharges cargo, the aft draught of the vessel changes and the static head of sea water above the screw shaft outer seal will change in a similar manner .if the pressure gauge showing the oil pressure in the stern tube system changes with the change of draught it may under many conditions indicate a defective outer

seal. Also when the stern tube system drain cock is opened and any water is drained off. If there is a lot of water drained out ,it shows a seal leak If the ship has a light aft draught and there is no, or only small ,current round the ship ,the stern tube system can be pressurized to some pressure greater than the head of water outside the outer seal.if the seal is defective oil globules will be seen coming to the surfaces from the seal. How can outer seal leakage can be founded when at sea? What can be done to keep the system safe without dry docking the vessel? ANS : Outer seal leakage has often been found by an increase in the consumption of the stern tube lubricant. It is more likely to be noticed when the ship is proceeding in the tropical waters from cold water areas. Leakage inboard is shown by oil emulsification and reduced oil consumption. Why is cooling system required and how? Heat produced by the friction will result in hardening and loss of elasticity of the rubber, should temperature of the seal material exceed 110o C. Cooling at the outboard end is provided by the sea. Inboard seals, unlike those at the outboard end, cannot dissipate heat to the surrounding water. Oil circulation aided by convection, is arranged to maintain the low temperature of the seals at the inboard end. Connection for circulation, are fitted top and bottom between the two inboard seals and the small local header tank. Is oil pressure dependent on shaft speed? ANS : The requirement of steaming at a slow, economical speed during periods of high fuel prices (or for other reasons) gives a lower fluid film or hydrodynamic pressure in stern tubes, due to the slower speed. The possibility of bearing damage occurring prompted the installation of forced lubrication systems to provide a hydrostatic pressure which is independent of shaft speed. The supplied oil pressure gives adequate lift to separate shaft and bearing and an adequate oil flow for cooling. How are such stern tubes supported? ANS : The later designs of oil lubricated stern tubes are fitted in a stern frame with an elongated boss to provide better support for the white metal lined bearing. A minimum bearing length of two times shaft diameter will ensure that bearing load does not exceed 0.8 N/mm2. The forward part of the stern tube is fabricated and welded direct to the extension of the stern frame boss and into the aft peak bulkhead. The outboard liner additionally protects the steel shaft from sea water contact and corrosion.

PROJECT # 3
AIR STARTING SYSTEM

WARTSILA-SULZER 12RTA96C ENGINE, built by Doosan Heavy Industries, South Korea (a licensee of WARTSILA)

The picture shows WARTSILA-SULZER 12RTA96C SLOW SPEED 2STROKE MARINE DIESEL ENGINE. This goliath engine producing power in excess of 90,000 BHP propels ULTRA LARGE CONTAINER VESSELS like M.V. EMMA MAERSK at speeds of about 25 knots. To start this engine, compressed air at 25 - 30 bar pressure is used. To discover more about air starting system of such mammoth engines and how it is designed, take a look at the technical challenge put forth by this project.

INTRODUCTION
Air starting is the method used for starting large diesel engines (land based /marine) by supplying compressed air into the cylinders in a fixed sequence (one after other). The compressed air is supplied by air

compressors, i.e. either diesel or motor driven. After a period of being at standstill (i.e. stationary), the engine requires to be started with a high initial torque at low revolutions in order to accelerate the engine rotating and reciprocating masses. The compressed air is then supplied by a large bore pipe to a remote-operating non-return or automatic valve and then to the cylinder air start valve. The momentum built in the rotating elements of the crankshaft will help in smooth starting once the initial inertia has been overcome. The pressure of the starting air must be sufficient to impart enough speed to the engine pistons to quickly compress the combustion air sufficiently during the compression stroke for it to reach a temperature at which the combustion of the injected fuel initiates. The pressure requirements will also vary according to engine size, design and service requirement and mainly working temperature.

An Air Compressor

The starting air is admitted from the air bottle to the engine cylinder through a starting air master valve common for all cylinders and cylinder starting air valve mounted on cylinder head, one for each cylinder. The distributor ensures the air is introduced into the relevant cylinder at the correct time to achieve starting in the desired direction from any position of the engine at rest. The automatic master air starting valve is forced open by main air acting against a collar and air is admitted to the starting air valves. Air is simultaneously admitted, via the distributor .To pressurize the top side of piston operating air starting valve on cylinder head while bottom side of the piston is vented.

Air compressors preferably multi-stage types are used to provide air at high pressures required for diesel engine starting. If all the air had been compressed in a single-stage, it would unfortunately generate compression temperatures similar to those in a diesel engine. Multi-stage air compressor units with various cylindrical configurations and piston shapes are used in conjunction with inter-cooling and after-cooling to provide the nearest possible approach to the ideal of the isothermal compression. Such intercooling and after-cooling is achieved by water cooling or can be air-cooled (i.e. sea water can be used in water cooled type and fin type coolers in air cooled). Air cooling is achieved by multi-tubular heat exchangers where water is circulated.

Schematic of position of starting air line in marine diesel engines

Air starting system

Technical Challenge:

It is required to design an Air starting system for a 6 cylinder 2-stroke reversible diesel engine, consisting of two air storage receivers with hemispherical ends and having necessary fittings and condensers. The compressed air supplied through two single acting 2 stage compressors, each of them capable of coping up with the starting air requirements at an average of one start every 3 minutes. As per specification rules, it is necessary that the capacity of an air bottle should be such that 12 starts may be given to the engine without replenishing the air bottle. For prompt starting of the engine it is necessary that air be admitted to two cylinders consecutively for a period of 70o crank rotation at a mean pressure of 20 bars. The compressors are two stage tandem-type with H.P cylinder on top having an intercooler and after cooler giving perfect cooling. The following other data may be used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Main engine bore Main engine stroke Maximum air bottle pressure Minimum pressure allowed when the compressor has to be started External dia. Of air bottles Maximum allowable stress for air bottle material Average engine room temperature Compressor bore/stroke ratio(L.P. cylinder) Index of compression and expansion.(compressor) Rotational speed of compressor Mechanical efficiency of compressor Sea water inlet temperature to compressor Sea water outlet temperature from compressor specific heat of sea water Compressor L.P suction pressure and temperature Clearance volume in both the stages 780mm 1400mm 30bar 20bar 1.5m 90 MN/m2 270C 1.2 1.3 750rpm 85% 200C 350C 4.12 KJ/Kg K 1 bar and 250C 3% of stroke volume

I. Calculate

1) Capacity and overall length of air bottle. 2) Thickness of air bottle, using thin cylinder theory. 3) Capacity of each compressor at free air delivery conditions of 1.013bar and 15oC. 4) The motor power required to drive the compressor. 5) Compressor cylinder dimensions. 6) Capacity of sea water cooling pump in Tonnes/hour. 7) A spring loaded safety valve is to be fitted as a mounting to each of the air receiver to blow off at 10% above maximum pressure. The diameter of valve is 40mm and maximum lift of the valve is 10mm. Design a suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming spring index 6 and stress concentration factor 1.25. You are required to provide initial compression of spring 30mm. Maximum shear stress in the material of spring wire limited to 450 MN/m2. G=90 MN/m2; spring index=

II Draw (hand sketch only) 8) A section of the air receiver showing the weld details necessary. 9) An outside view showing the mountings. 10) Comment on the material used and welding procedure adopted for construction of the air bottle. What are the safety features in its construction and during use?

The above figure shows a sketch of an air reservoir

GIVEN: Main engine 6 cylinder, 2 stroke, reversible 2 main air bottles Main engine bore, d = 780mm Main engine stroke = 1400mm Max. air bottle pressure = 30 bar Minimum pressure allowed when the Compressor has to be started = 20bar External diameter of air bottles = 1.5m Max. Allowable Stress for air bottle material = 90MN/m2

Average engine room temperature = 27oC Compressor bore/stroke ratio (L.P. cycle) = 1.2 Index for compression and expansion (comp.) = 1.3 Rotational speed of compressor = 750 rpm Mech. Efficiency of compressor = 85% Sea water inlet temperature to compressor = 20oC Sea water outlet temperature from compressor = 35oC Specific heat of sea water = 4.12KJ/kg K Compressor L.P. Suction pressure & temp. = 1 bar & 25oC Clearance volume in both the stages = 3% of stroke volume 2main air, 2 stage tandem with H.P. cycle on top 12 starts continuously and one start in every 4 minutes

I. CALCULATE
1. Capacity and overall length of the air bottle We know that Stroke length = 2 x crank radius L=2xR R = L / 2 = 1400 / 2 = 700mm From diagram, AB = r - OB

=rrcos =r(1cos) = 700 (1 - cos70) = 460.58 mm AB = 461mm Volume of 1 cylinder = =

x 0.782 x 0.461 4

x D2 x AB

= 0.22 mm3 According to the firing order air is injected in 2 cylinders at start, Volume = 0.22 x 2 = 0.44 m3 Since 12 starts are required from one air bottle = 12 x 0.44 = 5.28 m3 Let v be the capacity of the air bottle 30 x V = 20(V+5.28) V= 10.57m310.6m3

2. Thickness of air bottle using thin cylinder theory According to thin cylinder theory, F=

Where, F = max. allowable stress

P = max. test pressure = 1.5 x max. air bottle pressure = 1.5 x 30 = 45 bar t= thickness Substitute the values 90x106 =
(. )

40t = 1.5 - 2t T = 35.7mm Thickness of cylindrical portion is 35.7 mm Inside diameter of cylindrical portion of air bottle, = 1.52 x 0.0357 D 1 = 1.4286m Thickness of hemispherical portion, given by formulae t= Pd 1 K/2t +0.75x10-3 where, P = 45x105 K = a constant t = max. allowable stress = 90x106N/m2 t=
. .

t = 18.6mm Inside diameter of the hemispherical end =1.5-2x0.0186 =1.4628m The length of cylindrical portion, v=

d 1 2 l+4/3(d 1 /2)3

10.56 = 1.6027 x l + 1.6389 L = 5.57m The overall length of air bottle, l overall = l+1.5 = 5.57+1.5 = 7.1m The overall length of the air bottle is 7.1m

3.) Capacity of each compressor of free air delivery conditions of 1.013 bar and 15oC. Volume of air following to the cylinder per second, v= 0.44 / 4 x 60 = 1.833 x 10-3 m3/sec Mass flow rate of air at starting of compressor PV=mRT Where P = pressure = 20x105N/m2 V = vol. of the air flowing per second to cylinder m= mass flow rate R = gas constant T = temperature = 27oC = 300K m= P V/R T= 20 x 105 x 1.833 x 10-3/ 287 x 300 = 0.0425 kg/sec

Then capacity of each compressor at free air delivery condition of 1.013 bar and 15oC, Capacity = m R T /P = 0.0425 x 287 x 288 /1013 x 105 = 0.0347m3/sec = 125m3/hr The capacity of each air compressor cannot go beyond 150m3/hr.

4.) The motor power required to drive the compressor Work done by the compressor, W = 2 n / (n-1) x R T 1 [(P 2 /P 1 )n-1/n-1] Where P 2 = Intermediate pressure =(P 1 P 3 ) =(1x30) = 5.47bar H = 1.3 T 1 = 273 + 25 = 298K R = Gas constant = 0.287 KJ/KgK P 1 = 1 bar W = 2x 1.3/1.3-1 x 0.287x298x [(5.47/1)1.3-1/1.3-1] =355.896KJ/Kg W x mass flow = 355.896x0.0425 = 15.125KW Therefore, the motor power required to drive the compressor, = Work done/mech. Efficiency

= 15.125/0.85 = 17.794KW =18KW

5.) Compressor cylinder dimensions From P-V diagram V 1 -V 5 = Swept volume ---1 = (V 1 -V 6 ) + (V 6 -V 5 ) V 5 = clearance volume both stage ----2 V 5 = 0.03 x (V1 -V 5 ) ----3 And P 1 (V 1 -v 6 ) = mRT 1 Where M=0.0425 Kg/sec R=287 J/ KgK T 1 = 25oC = 25+273=298K P 1 = 1bar Substitute in eqn. 3 1x105 (V 1 -V 6 ) = 0.0425 / 750 x 60 x287 x 298 V 1 -V 6 = 2.9078x10-3 m3 For low pressure cylinder, Polytropic Process, P 5 V 5 n = P 6 V 6 n [P 5 /P 6 ]1/n-1 = V 6/V 5 -1 [5.47/1]1/1.3 -1 = V 6 -V 5 /V5 V 6 -V 5 = 2.7 V 5 From eqn. 2 V 6 -V 5 = 2.7 x 0.03 x (V1 -V 5 ) From eqn. 1 V 1 -V 5 = 2.9078x10-3 + 0.08102(V 1 -V 5 )

V 1 -V 5 = 3.164x10-3m3 Since swept volume V 1 -V 5=/4d2l and Bore/stoke ratio, d/l = 1.2 d= 1.2l V 1 -V 5 =/4(1.2l)2 x l = 3.164 x 10-3 L3=2.27x10-3 Stroke of L.P. Cylinder, l = 140.9mm = 141mm For high pressure cylinder, Swept volume, ----4 V 2 -V 4 = (V 2 -V 5 ) + (V5 -V 4 ) ----5 P 2 (V 2 -V5 ) = mRT 2 ----6 V 4 = 0.03 (V2 -V 4 ) Where m= 0.0425 Kg/s R = 287 J/Kg K T 2 /T 1 = (P 2 /P 1 ) n-1/n =[5.47/1]1.3-1/1.3 T 2 =441.26 K And T 2 = T 2 And P 2 = P 2 = 5.47 bar Since, P 4 V 4 n = P 5 V 5 ,n [P 4 /P 5 ]1/n 1 = V5 /V 4 - 1 V 5 -V 4 = 2.69V4 From equation 4 and 6 V 2 - V 4 = 7.853 x 10-4 + 0.0807(V 2 -V4 ) V 2 - V 4 = 5.772x10-4 m3 Since, stroke of the H.P. and L.P. cylinder are same

i.e. l= 141 mm Swept volume of the L.P. cylinder 5.772 x 10-4=/4d2 x 141 D2 = 5.212 x 10-3 Diameter of H.P. cylinder, D= 72.1mm = 75mm

6.) Capacity of the sea water cooling pump in tones/hour Let m= mass flow rate = 0.0425Kg/s C p = specific heat at the constant pressure = 1.005 H 1 = enthalpy of the air at inlet H 2 = enthalpy of air at outlet T 1 = temp. of air at sudden T 2 = temp. of air at discharge Q = heat input during polytropic compression W = Indicated work output Q = (h 2 -h 1 ) + W = mC p (T 2 T 1 ) 15.125/2 = 0.0425 x 1.005(441.25 298) 7.5625 = 6.1189 7.5625 Q = -1.4435 KJ This is the heat rejected by air which is further received by JCW Q 1 = 2 x 1.4435 = 2.887KW For perfect inter cooling, T 2 = T 1 Q 2 = mC p (T 2 T 2 ) =0.0425 x 1.005 (441.26 298)

=6.118 KW For perfect after cooling , T 3 = T2 & T 2 =T 1 Q 3 = m C p (T 3 T 2 ) = 0.0425 x 1.005(441.26-298) = 6.118KW Total heat rejected to sea water, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 =2.887 + 6.118 +6.118 =15.14 KW Heat rejected = m Cw (T 2 T 1 ) Hence, the capacity of sea water cooling pump, 15.14 = m C w (T 2 -T 1 ) Where m= mass flow rate C w = sp. Heat of sea water = 4.12 KJ/KgK T 2 = seawater outlet temp. from compressor =35oC T 1 = seawater inlet temp. to compressor = 200C 15.14 = m x 4.12 (35-20) m = 15.14 / 4.12 x 15 =244.98Kg/s m= 0.881 tonnes/hr is the capacity of seawater cooling pump

7.) A spring loaded safety valve is to be fitted as a mounting to each of the air receiver to blow of at 10% above Max. pressure. The diameter of valve is 40mm and the Max. lift of the valve is 10mm.

Design a suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming spring index 6 and stress concentration factor 1.25%. You are required to provide initial compression of spring 30mm. Max. shear stress in the material of spring wire limited to 450 MN/m2 G= 90 MN/m2; spring index = coil diameter/wire diameter Diameter of valve, d 1 = 40 mm Max. Lift of the valve, S 2 = 10mm Max. Pressure, P = 3.3N/mm2 Spring index, C = D/d =6 Where, D= Coil diameter d= wire diameter Stress concentration factor, K = 1.25 Initial Compression of spring, S 1 = 30 mm Max. Shear stress in the material of spring wire, =450MN/m2 Modulus of rigidity, G= 90 GN/m2 Maximum Load, W 1=/4d 1 2x3.3 =/4x402 x3.3 = 4146.9N Max. Compression of the spring
max.

= 1 +

=30 + 10 = 40mm

Load of 4146.9 keeps value on set by providing initial compression of 30mm, therefore max. load on the spring when the value is open i.e., for max. compression of 40mm. W= 4146.9/30 x 40 =5529.2N Stress concentration factor, K = 1.25 Max.Shearstress, ,=Kx8WC/d2 450=1.25x8x5529.6x6/d2 D2 = 234.66 D = 15.31mm For consideration the wire diameter is, d = 15.4mm Mean diameter = spring index x wire diameter = 6 x 15.4 = 92.4mm No. of active turns = n Max.compressionofthespring( max. ) max. = 8WC3n/Gd 40 = 8 x 5529.6 x 62 x n/ 90x103x15.4 N = 5.8 Say 6 turns Taking the ends of the coil as squared and ground the total no. of turns. n = n +2 = 6+2 =8

Free length of the spring L F = nd + max. +0.15 max. = 8 x 15.4 + 40 + 0.15 x 40 = 169.2mm Pitch of the coil = free length / n-1 = 169.2/8-1 = 24.17mm

Q. 8) A section of the air receiver showing the weld details necessary.

Q9.) An outside view showing the mountings.

Q 10.) Comment on the material used and welding used and welding procedure adopted for construction of the air bottle. What are the safety features in its construction and during use? The material used for construction of large or small reservoirs is of good quality mild steel plate having similar specification to boiler plate material. The steel will have an ultimate tensile strength within the range of 360 MN/m2 to 500MN/m2 will have an elongation of not less than 23% to 25%. Large starting air storage reservoirs have dish ends; one end has an opening formed within lip to take an elliptical manhole door. The fore of the dished end may be either tori-spherical or semi-spherical. The dished ends are usually made by the spinning process. The edge left by the spinning is machined and tapered down to the thickness of the cylindrical shell. The ends are welded to the cylindrical shell by full penetration welds. The longitudinal seams are machine welded. The circumferential seams where the dished ends join the cylindrical shell may be either machine or hand welded. Smaller air bottles have hemispherical ends and inspection holes may be fitted in the cylindrical shell. The air compressor is use on board the ship is of reciprocating-tandem or inline type. Compressor valves are normally plate type annular and spring loaded. Air passes through tubes in intercooler, the water jackets being protected from over-pressure by fitting a bursting disc. Compressor air discharge must lead to air receiver directly. No interconnection allowed with engine starting air line. Relief valves are to be provided in all stages as per stage pressures. Air receiver should have manhole doors with positive closing. Normally, air bottles are mounted on foundation with inclination to aft. Drains must be provided in each stage of compressor and air receiver. Relief valve fitted should have its discharge leading to open deck.

CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS

Q1. What are the uses of compressed air onboard ship? Ans : It is used for starting main and diesel engines in motor ships and for auxiliary diesel engines of steam ships. Also control air of low pressure is required for ships of both categories for control equipment and instrumentation purposes. Auxiliary boilers and economizers are fitted with soot blowers which use compressed air .Portable tools such as drilling machines, impact wrenches, torque wrenches, hard grinders and lifting gears use compressed air. Compressed air can also be used for chipping, scaling machines paint spraying equipments.

Q2.Why multistage compressors preferred over single stage? What is the use of inter cooler and after cooler? Ans : For a single stage air compressor, acting as isothermal during compression by provision of perfect cooling is an ideal situation which is very difficult to obtain. Moreover the necessary final pressure of compressed air is achieved by the number of stages. For higher pressure, more number of stages are required .When the air is compressed in stages; it is easier to control the temperatures during its passage through the compressors. This can be achieved by water jacketing the air compressor cylinders and passing the air through heat exchangers (intercoolers). As the air leaves each stage of compressor, it is cooled in the intercooler .This lowers the work done in compressing the air and prevents a lot of mechanical problems which could arise if the air temperature were uncontrolled. Apart from practical considerations and the as above question, a 3 stage air compressor is more desirable and requires less

energy or work input than a single stage air compressor when compressing air over the same pressure range.

Q3.What is the basic principle of working of an air compressor? Ans : Compressor produces high compression temperature approx. equal to the one in the diesel engine which is sufficient to ignite vaporized oil . The heat produced in a single stage of compression would be wasted and could add energy and produce a resultant rise in pressure apart from the pressure rise expected from the action of piston .However the air cools, the pressure rise due to the heat generated is lost. Only the pressure from compression remains .The extra pressure due to heat is of no use and actually demands greater power for the upward movement of the piston through the compression stroke.

Q4. Factors affecting volumetric efficiency of an air compressor. Ans : The factors affecting volumetric efficiency of an air compressor are as follows : i. The clearance between the cylinder cover and the end of the piston when the piston is at end of its discharge stroke. The larger the clearance, the less air is discharged per stroke. Sluggish opening and closing of suction and delivery valves. Leakage past the compressor piston rings. Insufficient cooling water (or) the cooling water inlet temperature is too high. Inlet temperature of the air to the first or low pressure stage compressor too high. Throttling of air supply to L.P. suction example dirty air inlet strainers.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Q5. How is clearance volume of air compressor checked? Ans : This check is made by making up a small ,loosely woven ball of lead wire .This is placed on the top of the piston which will have been moved a little off the end of the stroke .The cylinder cover is replaced on the cylinder with a joint in place and tightened down. The compressor is then barred slowly over top centre so that the ball of lead wire is compressed .After it is removed from the top of the piston it can be measured by a micrometer .The mechanical clearance measured is compared with the compressor manufactures recommendations. Adjustments are made by altering the cover joint thickness or by fitting or removing shims between the foot of the connecting rod and the bottom end bearing. Note: The ball of the wire must be placed centrally on the top of the piston; if the wire is on one side of the piston, there is a possibility that the piston rod could bend when the piston is barred over the top centre position.

Q6. How many starting air compressors are fitted on board ships? Ans. It is usual to have atleast 2 starting air compressors and sometimes there are more than two .The compressors may be independently driven by an electric motor or steam engine .Also there is an emergency air compressor which may be diesel engine driven. In case of air in air bottle and at the same time crew are facing black out condition then the diesel engine compressor comes into play. Q7. What are the mountings fitted on air bottle and air compressors? Ans. Safety valves are normally fitted to the air bottles but in some installations the reservoirs are protected against over pressure by those of the compressors .There is a requirement that if the safety valves can be isolated from the reservoirs the latter must have fusible plugs fitted to release the air in the event of fire. Reservoirs are designed ,built and tested under similar regulations to those for boilers .Many air reservoirs are also

fitted with other outlet valves which have connections with other air systems such as auxiliary engine starting systems ,instrument air ,workshop air services, ships whistle, filter cleaning systems ,emergency air supply to boiler feedback pump. Excess air pressure is prevented by spring loaded relief valves on air bottle. In some cases the relief valves are fitted on the common discharge line from the compressors and fusible plugs are fitted on the air reservoirs. The fusible plugs prevent serious pressure rise if a fire should break out near the air bottle. Drain valves or cocks are fitted to the bottom of the reservoir to drain off oil or moisture carried over with the air from the compressor. An independent connection is fitted for the pressure gauges used to indicate the air pressure within the reservoir. Q8. Why are the outlets from relief valve and fusible plug from air bottle let outside the engine room? Ans : Fusible plugs are fitted if the receiver is isolable from a relief valve. There will always a relief valve on the high pressure side of the compressor so that when the compressor is being used, the bottle is protected. However, this means that the receiver is only protected when the compressor is running. A fusible plug therefore offers protection against pressure development in the event of an engine room fire. The fusible plug therefore offers protection against pressure development in the event of an engine room fire. The fusible plug (lead, bismuth and antimony) softens as its temperature rises and extrudes from its fir tree type sockets. Q9. What is the implication of starting air reservoir on fixed fire fighting CO 2 system? Ans : The release of large amount of air in case of engine room fire would impair the effectiveness of any CO 2 fixed fire fighting system gas unless extra gas is provided in compensation or the air is piped out of the engine room. Q10. At what position of piston in the cylinder is the starting air introduced?

Ans : Modern practice is to introduce air into the cylinder slightly before TDC (the alignment of piston rod with the connecting rod at this point is such that little if any turning moment is developed). This allows the air to accumulate in the clearance volume ready to force down the piston once it is over TDC. At the same time, another cylinder will be receiving air (because of overlap discussed in next question).This unit will be one in which the crank is well past TDC so that it generates an adequate turning moment to carry the above unit over TDC. The first unit, already pressurized, will be able to accelerate the engine up to the fuel initiation speed. The useful expansion of the starting air will cease at the opening of the exhaust to continue air injection any further would be futile. This limit is normal to 3-cylinder engines but is unnecessarily long in engines with more than three units. A starting air pressure well below the compression of an engine will be able to turn the engine over against the compression because the compression pressure is only reached towards the end of the stroke, whereas starting air is introduced for a much longer period of the stroke. Q11. In the above project, why is the period of admission of compressed air for 70 degree of crank rotation? Ans : In order to conserve starting air, starting valves are designed to close as early as possible consistent with good starting and some explosion of the starting air then takes place. The opening and closing of starting air valves is controlled by the cam (operating within the starting air distributor) actuating the distributor valve. To enable a propulsion engine to be started from any crank position, overlap is necessary in the timing of the starting valves of an engine. Overlap is necessary in the timing of the starting valves of an engine. Overlap occurs during the period that any two valves are open, it being introduced that one valve will be opening whilst the other valve is closing. One valve will then always open when air is put on the engine to start some maneuver. If there were no overlaps in the valves it would be possible for the engine to stop in some position where all the valves remained closed when air was put on the engine.

The amount of overlap is dependent upon the number of cylinders, the timing of the exhaust opening and so on (the greater the number of cylinders, the less overlap required) Over lap calculation: In the above project there are 6 cylinders, with a obvious total rotation of 3600 of crank. Therefore an equal admission for a period of 600 of crank rotation in each cylinder, at the same time there needs to be a overlap for atleast 100 of crank rotation for the advantages of overlap stated just above. In the above example the firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4 indicates the order in which these units would be receiving the starting air during the air starting operation. If for example unit number 5 starting air valve has opened and the engine is rotating in clockwise direction. Before this valve shuts the starting air valve of unit 3 will open, unit 6 will be followed by unit 4 and so on (for anticlockwise rotation the order of air entry will be 1-4-2-6-3-5 i.e. reverse to clockwise timing order). It is evident from above that no matter in what position the engine stops, there will always be at least one of the cylinders with its starting air valve opened to admit, on starting, the compressed air to start the engine. Q12. What are the interlocks in engine, air starting system? Ans.) The starting interlocks prevent the engine being put on fuel before all the sequences of the starting system have been completed. With the systems controlled by the operation of hand lever, the interlocks may be cams or pins which lock and prevent hand lever movement. In the engines started by hand wheel controls the interlocks ate often slotted discs (fitted on the wheel shafts) and the small levers which engage or clear the slots in the disc. Some engines have a blocking device connected with the ships E/R telegraph which for events the engine being put as when an ahead order is

given and vice versa. Blocking devices are fitted to the engine turning gear so that the engine cannot be inadvertently started with the turning gear in In the event of E/R telegraph failure, any interlocking and blocking devices operated from the telegraph would prevent the engine being maneuvered during the time of emergency. It is therefore important to know how the interlock and blocking devices may be overridden so that the engine can be maneuvered under emergency conditions with orders via the bridge to engine room telephone. Q 13.Why should there be minimum of 12 starts in case of reversible engine? Ans : Reversibility can be achieved by introducing air into the cylinder where the piston is approaching TDC in the direction of rotation in which it was stopped. During maneuvering the engine is frequently subjected to ahead and astern starts. It is also an important requirement which is checked by a surveyor before entry of vessel in narrow channels like Panama Canal. The engine should be capable of being started 6 times in ahead direction and 6 times in astern direction without refilling the air bottle. This is necessary to avoid the ship being stranded in the canal or locks in case of failure of air compressor. Q 14.How does working temperature of the engine affect the starting air pressure? Ans : An engine at working temperature will start with a lower starting air pressure than a cold engine. The temperature of the lubricating oil supplied to the engine bearings will also have an influence on the minimum required starting air pressure. When the lubricating oil is at working temperature, the engine will swing more easily than when lubricating oil is cold; hence a lower air pressure will start an engine with lube oil at working temperature. During trials of newly built ships, it is a part of the main engine maneuvering tests to put one starting air reservoir on to the starting system and continue maneuvers ahead and astern until the pressure falls to the point that the engine cannot start. The pressure is recovered with the ships trial.

One of the principle factor is to overcome the forces of adhesion b/w the bearing surface due to the presence of cold lubricating oil b/w them. The walls of the combustion chamber being cold, there will be a greater heat flow to lower the temperature of the compression at the time of start. An engine which has been warmed up at the metallic surface of the combustion chamber, viscosity of lubricating oil lowered, will have the starting speed reached earlier. Q 15.What is Starting Air Line Explosion? What are the safety devices to avoid it? What are starting line safety devices? Ans : Explosions can and do occur in diesel engine starting air system. Also air start valves and other parts are sometimes burned away without explosion. These problems have been caused by cylinder air start valves which have leaked or not closed after operation and have allowed access from the cylinder to the air start system of the flame from combustion. Carbon deposits from burning fuel and oily deposits from compressor are available as substances which may be ignited and produce an explosion in the air start system. If no explosion occurs, the flame from the cylinder and high temperature air from compressor can cause carbon deposits in the system to burn. Careful maintenance of air start valves, distributors and other parts is vital as is regular cleaning of air start system components to remove deposits. The lubrication of components is limited as excess lubrication could cause the air start valves to be stuck by grease which has become hardened by the heat and oil could accumulate in the pipes from this source. The draining of compressor coolers and air receivers is important. Drains on air start systems are also checked. Flame traps or bursting caps are fitted at each air start valve.

PROJECT # 5

MARINE STEAM TURBINE UNIT

The world remembers the sinking of R.M.S. TITANIC, but that R.M.S. stands for Royal Mail Steamer. The 269.1m vessel was equipped with two reciprocating four cylinder, triple expansion steam engines and one low pressure Parsons turbine each driving a propeller. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). On paying special attention to the latter, the following project deals with designing of a steam turbine. Why has the triple expansion steam engine being replaced by steam turbine, the answer is in this project. To discover more about steam turbines of seagoing vessels and how it is designed, take a look at the technical challenge put forth by this project.

INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. The speed of the

steam jet is dependent on the rate of expansion, it had long been known and built into reciprocating engines, that a vacuum, or partial vacuum, at the exhaust end of the engine would create a higher pressure ratio between input and output and so impart more energy to the pistons, this vacuum is the main function of the condenser in which cooling steam is used to create a drop in pressure below that of atmosphere. Parsons idea was to reverse that function and create an exhaust that was pressurized, but still below that of the feed. This effectively resulted in a smaller pressure drop between feed and exhaust and a slower steam jet. By repeating this process a number of times most of the energy from the steam jet can be extracted without the turbine having to destroy itself.

A simple turbine schematic of the Parsons type, rotating and fixed stators alternate and steam pressure drops by a fraction of the total across each pair, the stators grow larger as pressure drops. There are 2 types of turbines depending on their operation, i.e. an impulse turbine has

fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or

"leaving loss". In reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Let U=Blade speed C i = velocity of steam at inlet to blade, i.e. leaving nozzle (giving nozzle angle) C i rel = velocity of steam relative to the blade (giving blade inlet angle) C o = Velocity of steam at outlet of blade

Parsons I mpulse-Reaction

The original blade design was thin section with a convergent path. The designed blades similar to bull nose impulse blades which allowed for a convergent-divergent path. However due to the greater number of stages the system did not find favor over impulse systems U/Ci = 0.9 If the heat drop across the fixed and moving blades are equal the design is known as half degree reaction. Steam velocity was kept small on early designs; this allowed the turbine to be directly coupled to the prop shaft. Increased boiler pressure and temperature meant that the expansion had to take place over multiple rotors and gear set. As there is full admission over the initial stage, blade height is kept low. This feature alone causes a decrease in blade and nozzle efficiency at part loading. In addition, although clearances at the blade tips are kept as small as practical, steam leakage causes a proportionally higher loss of work extracted per unit steam. Blade tip clearances may be kept very tight so long as the rotor is kept at steady state. Manoeuvring, however, introduces variable pressures and temperatures and hence an allowance must be made.

End tightening for blades is normally used. This refers to an axial extension of the blade shroud forming a labyrinth. When the rotor is warmed through a constant check is made on the axial position of the rotor. Only when the rotor has reached its normal working length may load be introduced. Alternatively tip tightening may be used referring to the use of the tips of the blade to form a labyrinth against the casing/rotor. This system is requires a greater allowance for loading and is not now generally used. To keep annular leakage as small as possible these rotors tend to have a smaller diameter than impulse turbines. To keep the mass flow the same with the increasing specific volume related to the drop in pressure requires an increase in axial velocity, blade height or both -see above. Altering the blade angle will also give the desired effect but if adopted would cause increased manufacturing cost as each stage would have to be individual. Generally the rotor and blading is stepped in batches with each batch identical. The gland at the HP end is subjected to full boiler conditions and is susceptible to rub. The casing must be suitably designed and manufactured from relevant materials. A velocity compounded wheel is often used as the first stage(s) giving a large drop in conditions allowing simpler construction of casing and rotor and reducing length. Special steels are limited to the nozzle box. TURBINE CONSTRUCTION

Vertical Casting

Only the bottom part of the ingot is used.

Rough Forging It is a requirement that forgings are heavily worked. Any small holes or defects can become hammer welded together. No forging is carried out below the plastic flow temperature as this can lead to work hardening. Forging will allow continuous grain flow.
Ultimate tensile stress and elongation checked. This must be near enough equal in all 3 directions.

After rough machining it is put in for a thermal stability test. For this final machining is given to the areas indicated. The end flange is marked at 90' intervals. Then the rotor is encased in a furnace. Pokers are placed onto the machined areas and accurate micrometer readings taken. The rotor is rotated though 4 positions marked on the flange. The rotor is then heated to 28 0 C above normal operating temperature and slowly rotated.

Measurement is then taken at hourly intervals until 3 consistent readings are taken (hence the rotor has stopped warping). The rotor is then allowed to cool and a set disparity allowed. For turbine sets operated at greater than 28'C above their designed superheat then run the risk of heavy warping as well as high temperature corrosion and creep. Final machining is now given. The rotor is statically balanced and then dynamically balanced and check to ensure homogeneity. The rotor is bladed then again dynamically balanced.

TECHNICAL CHALLENGE In a ships propulsion steam turbine installation following data available:-

The turbine is a multistage pressure compounded impulse type with each stage producing equal power. No steam is bled of at any stage of the machine. 1. Turbine rotor speed 2. Maximum shaft power 3. Input steam conditions 6000 r.p.m. 13.5 Mw 55 bar 5000C

4. Exhaust steam conditions 2 bar 1500 C 5. Steam consumption 78 tonnes/hr 6. Nozzle angle for all stages 200 C 7. Diameter of forged discs for all stages 540 mm 8. Overall length of shaft between inner edges of bearing 1290 mm 9. Density of rotor and blade material 7856 kg/m3 QUESTIONS:1. Calculate velocity of steam at the end of 1st stage nozzle box. Given Pressure at the outlet of the nozzle = 40 bar Nozzle efficiency= 93% 2. Calculate the blade angles assuming blades are symmetrical and mean blade speed for the first stage = 175 m/s 3. Calculate power developed per stage considering blade friction factor = 0.9 4. Calculate blade efficiency. 5. Calculate 1ST stage blade height. 6. Calculate number of stages required for developing the required power. 7. Calculate the blade height and radial stress exerted by the blades in last stage. 8. Show that the rotor shaft can be designed as 140 mm diameter. Take allowable shear stress = 41MN/m2 9. Calculate mass of rotor shaft between the bearing supports, frequency of transverse vibration and first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. Assumptions: -

(a) Exclude mass of the disc (b) Rotor shaft mass as uniformly distributed E = 200 X 109 N/m2 10. Determine natural frequency of transverse vibration of the loaded shaft and the first critical speed in r.p.s. Hence calculate the critical speed of the complete rotor system. 11. a. Discuss important properties of ideal blade material b. What is blade erosion and how is it prevented? c. Find the length of the bearing. Allowable pressure in the bearing = 254KN/m2

SOLUTION:Notations used:C a i = velocity absolute at inlet C a e = velocity absolute at exit C b = blade velocity = constant C w = whirl velocity i = blade inlet angle C f i & C f e = inlet and exit flow velocity respectively C r i & C r e = inlet and exit resultant velocity respectively Calculate:1) Velocity of steam at the end of first stage nozzle box. Given: pressure at outlet of nozzle = 40 bar Nozzle efficiency = 93 % Pressure at the outlet of the nozzle = 40 bar From steam tables, Enthalpy at nozzle inlet, h 1 = 3433.3 KJ/kg (at 55 bar 5000 C)

Enthalpy at nozzle outlet, h 2 = 3329.97 KJ/kg & h 2s = 3322.2 KJ/kg Since, nozzle efficiency =

h 1 - h 2 = 0.93 (h1 h 2s ) = 0.93 (3433.33 3322.2) h 1 h 2 = 103.32 KJ/kg Velocity of steam at the end of 1st stage nozzle box, C
ai

=2 X (h1 h2)

= 2 X (103.32 X 10) = 454.58 m/s 2)Calculate blade angles assuming blades are symmetrical and mean blade speed for 1st stage = 175 m/s C
b

for first stage = 175 m/s & Nozzle angle = 200

From the combined velocity diagram Sin =

Cf i = Ca i Sin = 454.58 Sin 20 = 155.47 m/s And also, Cos =

.

Cos 200 =

BE = 252.07 m/s and then Tan i =

i = tan ( i = 31.67 0

) = tan (

. .

3)Calculate power developed per stage considering blade friction factor = 0.9 We know that , Blade friction factor = 0.9 x Cr i = Cr e From the combined velocity diagram, Whirl velocity, Cw = Cr i X cos i + Cr e X cos e Where Cr i = =
. .

Cr i = 296.26 m/s Cr e = 0.9 x 296.26 = 266.7 m/s On substituting the values, we get CW = (296.26 X cos 31.67) + (266.7 X cos 31.7) = 479.23 m/s

Steam consumption per hour = 78 tonnes. Then steam consumption per sec =

= 21.67 kg/s

Power per stage = m (Cb X CW) = 21.67 (175 X 479.23) = 1.81 MW 4)Calculate blade efficiency Blade efficiency =

Where, power available = m CW2

= X 21.67 X 479.232

= 2.238 MW Substitute the values in above equation Blade efficiency =

. .

= 0.8087 = 80.87 % 5)Calculate first stage blade height Assuming 25% of the annular circumference is covered, Coverage of steam area wise = circumference of the nozzle x height of blade = D X height

Where D = diameter of forged disc Coverage of steam area wise = x 0.54 x height Area = 1.696 x height x 0.25 We know that, area x velocity of flow (axial velocity) Cf i = volume of flow of steam From steam table at 40 bar, specific volume = 0.08634 m3/kg. Substituting the value, we get, 1.696 x height x 0.25 x 155.47 = 0.08634 x 21.67 Height of blade in first stage = 28.38 mm 28.5 mm 6)Calculate number of stages required for developing the required power From the steam tables , hi = 3433.32 KJ/kg he = 2768.5 KJ/kg. then total power = m (hi - he) = 21.67 (3433.3 2768.5) X 103 = 14.325 MJ/s Then, the no. of stages = =
. .

7.933 = 8 stages

7)Calculate the blade height and radial stress exerted by the blades in the last stage Area = circumference of the nozzle X height X 0.25 = D X height X 0.25, Where D= 0.54 m Area = 1.696 x 0.25 x height Then, area x velocity of flow (Cf e) = volume of flow of steam Cf e =sin e X Cr e = sin 31.67 X 266.7 = 140 m/s - (from combined velocity diagram) From a steam table at 2 bar and 1500C, the specific volume = 0.9595 m3/kg Therefore, 1.696 x 0.25 x height x 140 = 0.9595 x 21.67 Height of the blade in last stage = 350.27 mm 350.5 mm Radial stress exerted by the blade = = =

= hxx r = 0.35027 x 7856 x 628.312 x 0.4451 Where=

= 628.31 rad/sec

r = disc radius + height of the blade = 0.542 + 0.350272 = 0.4451 m 8)Show that the rotor shaft can be designed as 140 mm diameter. Take allowable shear stress = 41 MN/m2 and total mass of the rotor and disc =580 kg Mass of rotor shaft and blade = 580 kg (Given) Length of the shaft between the inner edges of bearings l = 1290 mm = 12.9 m = 449.61 kg/m Bending moment acting on the shaft = WL 8 Mass per unit length =
.

= = 917.48 Nm we know that, Maximum shaft power P =

.

. . .

Then the torque acting on the rotor shaft T =

Equivalent torque = T + B. M. = 21.485 + 0.917 = 21.5 kNm TEQ = 21.5 kNm Since by the torsion equation,

. (1)

Where=allowableshearstress=41MN/m2 J = polar modulus of inertia =

r = d2 = diameter of the rotor shaft2 From equation (1)

T = x
3

21.5

10

41

10

d = 2.67 d = 138.74 mm 140 mm Therefore d=140 mm is perfectly suitable. 9)Calculate mass of the rotor shaft of transverse vibration, first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. Mass of the rotor shaft between bearing support = 7856 x 1.29 x x 0.142 = 156 kg

Moment of inertia of rotor Ig = x d4

x 0.144

= 1.8857 x 10 -5 m4 The frequency of transverse vibration fn =

.
. .

= 166.69 Hz Since we know that, first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. = the frequency of transverse vibrations = 166.69 r.p.s. 10) Determine natural frequency of transverse vibration of the loaded shaft and the first critical speed in r.p.s. Hence calculate the critical speed of the complete rotor system. According to Dunkerleys formula, natural frequency of transverse vibration of the blade shaft, fn =
. /.

and the deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to a pointload =

The rotor shaft is subjected to point load, by 8 stage rotor blade, equidistantly placed Weight of the blade Since, i. a = 0.143 m and b = 1.147 m 1 =
. . . . .

W=

( ) .

= 519.93 N

= 9.58 x 10-7 m

ii.

a = 0.286 m and b = 1.004 m 2 =

. . . . .

= 2.937 x 10-6 m iii. a = 0.429 m and b = 0.861 m 3 =

. . . . .

= 4.86 x 10-6 m iv. a = 0.572 m and b = 0.718 m 4 =

. . . . .

= 6 x 106 m v. a = 0.715 m and b = 0.575 m 5 =

. . . . .

= 6.021 x 10-6 m vi. a 6 = =

0.858 =

and

0.432

. . . . .

= 4.89 x 10-6 m

vii.

a 7 =

1.001 =

and

0.289

. . . . .

= 2.98 x 10-6 m viii. a = 1.144 m and b = 0.146 m 8 =

. . . . .

= 9.937 x 10-6 m 1 + 2 + + 8 = 9.58 x 10-7 m + 2.937 x 10-6 m + 4.86 x 10-6 m + 6 x 106 m + 6.021 x 10-6 m + 4.89 x 10-6 m + 2.98 x 10-6 m + 9.937 x 10-6 m = 2.964 x 10-5 m Hence the natural frequency of transverse vibration of blade shaft f n=
.

. .

= 91.5 Hz

The first critical speed in r.p.s = 91.5 r.p.s. Considering the mass of the rotor shaft only, the weight of the shaft per meter W= For 8=
. .

= 1186.32 N UDL the deflection is

. . .

= 1.1342 X 10-5 m By Dunkerleys formula fn =

. /.

= 80.267 r.p.s. 81 . . . 11. a. Discuss important properties of ideal blade material. -> Properties expected out of the blade material depends on portion of
blade in turbine. Good high temperature strength and resistance to creep is required at high pressure turbine inlet The L.P. rotor is high strength to withstand the high centrifugal stresses generated by long last row blades and it also has to avoid any tendency for brittleness at relatively low temperatures which exists at this exhaust side of machine.

b. What is blade erosion and how is it prevented?

The turbine blade undergoes severe corrosion in lower stages whilst high strength is required for highly stressed long L.P. turbine blade. The material used in L.P. turbine blade should resist corrosion although additional measures are also taken to avoid erosion. Manufacturing of blades in various grade 12- 13% chrome steel to give required property depending on position of blade in turbine. Additional toughness is provided by use of tungsten, molybdenum, steel especially for L.P. turbine. Stellite coating is given on L.P. turbine blade but if coating is given it is very dangerous. Tungsten is coated to give

toughness for 10000 -15000 hrs running of blade, the blades may be replaced. Shield is also provided only for longer durability of blade, no blade can last forever. Creep will occur, very slowly but suddenly in blade but fatigue normally doesnt occur, erosion shield is assisting to fight with erosion. Reheating of steam mechanism Advantages of reheating are that it increases the work done through turbine; it increases the efficiency of the turbine, reduced erosion of blade because of increase in dryness fraction of steam at exhaust. Amount of water required in condenser of turbine is reduced due to reduction in specific steam consumption, a slot (special dog tail) design is cut on the wheel and in this blade is fitted in sliding and they are tied up by tool. Heat the blades and hammer on sides to remove blades, on it can be cut up. Blade root grooves are of various types viz. fir tree, dove tailed, Tgrooves. Wire lashing is done on blades together to prevent bending of blades.

c. Find the length of the bearing. Allowable pressure in the bearing = 254KN/m2
Mass of rotor of blade = allowable pressure X projected area 9.81 x 580 = 250 X 102 X 0.14 X L L= 0.16 m = 160 mm

CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS

Why has the steam turbine replaced the steam engines? Ans: Steam turbine has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Even in Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. The advent of large steam turbines made

central-station electricity generation practical, since reciprocating steam engines of large rating became very bulky, and operated at slow speeds. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. The problem was one of basic engineering: the reciprocating engine utilizes the pressure of steam, but the turbine principle uses the speed of steam, and that is fast, 2,000 mph is fairly typical of a moderate power boiler. In order to utilize that energy the turbine blades have to rotate at least have the speed of the steam jet. Even by the 1880's it was just not possible to construct a device that could rotate at those speeds without melting or flying apart, probably both.

What are the various sizes of a steam turbine? Ans: Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <1 hp (<0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. What are the various types of classifying a modern steam turbine depending upon steam supply and exhaust conditions? Ans: These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction. Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of

the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available. Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.

Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion.

Extracting type turbines or Regenerative turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

What are the casing or shaft arrangements in a steam turbine? Ans: These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications. What is the principle of operation and design of steam turbine? Ans: An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of thesteamleavingtheturbine.Nosteamturbineistrulyisentropic,however,withtypical

isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage. What are the measures to enhance the efficiency of steam turbine? Ans: To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type. Explain the starting procedure of a steam turbine. Ans: When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine. What are the problems caused due to incorrect warming up procedure? Ans: The main object of warming through is to ensure straightness of the rotor. To do this a negligible temperature gradient must exist throughout the rotor. There is a tendency for the rotor to hog where the steam is introduced( that is to say the rotor bends due to temperature gradient rather than sagging under gravitational forces) with the rotor steam is introduced. Hence the rotor must be rotated. The graph below indicates the importance of this.

The line is the out of balance force due to centrifugal force equal to the mass of the rotor. Hence, the offset at 3000rpm to cause an out of balance equivalent to the mass of the rotor is 0.102 mm. Testing of the engines after shut down ahead and astern should be taken as part of the warming through process. Close watch of the relevant nozzle box temperatures is a good indication of the condition of the turbine. Second object of warming through is to prevent distortion of the casing. Rotation of the rotor churns up the steam and provides adequate mixing. With underslung condensers the temperature gradient is virtually unavoidable, hence separate condensers are better. The third objective is to prevent thermal stresses caused by the temperature gradient in thick materials such as at the bolt flanges. Vertical slots are often provided to help alleviate this problem, this distortion can also lead to non concentricity of the casing

This is particularly prevalent in open cylinder designs such as axial plane or double casings. Heat transfer rate is at its greatest where the steam is condensing on the surface of the casing. This in turn is governed by the inlet pressure of the warming through steam. Hence, warming through in steps providing adequate period to stabilize the temperature at each step. Complete warming through cannot occur until nearly at full power, hence, warming through much above atmospheric saturation temperature is pointless.

Also as part of the LP turbine runs at lower temperature, warming above 100oC is unnecessary. Protracted warming through periods are unnecessary. A temperature of 82oC at the LP inlet belt in 30 mins is acceptable Vibration caused by an out of balance of the rotor may be alleviated by running for a short period at reduced engine speed followed by a slow increase in speed. What are the possible failures and their causes in a modern steam turbine and what are the design features to avoid them? Ans: Problems with modern steam turbines are rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching straight through the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry steam - that is, superheated steam with minimal liquid water content. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover), rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine. How is speed control achieved in a steam turbine? Ans: The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as main propulsion unit or the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials. During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network without hunting and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.

Project #6 STEERING GEAR

Amoco Cadiz was a very large crude carrier (VLCC), owned by Amoco, that ran aground on Portsall Rocks, 5 km (3.1 mi) from the coast of Brittany, France, on 16 March 1978, and ultimately split in three and sank, all together resulting in the largest oil spill of its kind in history to that date. What was the reason of such an catastrophic disaster. The answer is in this project.

INTRODUCTION
The direction of the ship is controlled by the steering gear. As the ship moves through the water, the angle of the rudder at the stern determines the direction it will move. Modern ships are so big that moving the rudder necessitates the use of hydraulics or electrical power. The steering starts at the Bridge. The required rudder angle is transmitted hydraulically or electrically from the steering wheel at the Bridge to the telemotor at the steering gear, just above the rudder. There are a few common arrangements for using hydraulic power. There are the 4-rams, 2-rams, and rotary vane types. The heart of these hydraulic systems is the variable delivery pump. This type of pump can be controlled by just moving a spindle. The pump is driven by an electrical motor at constant speed. By moving the control spindle away from the central point, the pump stroke increases, and the hydraulic fluid is pumped in one direction. Moving the spindle more from the central point will cause more fluid to be pumped and consequently more pressure is generated to drive the rams. Moving the control spindle back to the original position and then away in the opposite direction causes the hydraulic fluid to be pumped in the reversed direction. The rams will also move in the reversed direction.

By using a floating lever feedback mechanism, when the rudder stock has reached the desired angle, the pump control lever moves back to the original position, and the pumping action stops. The rudder is stopped at the required angle. Moving the steering wheel to the opposite direction will cause the rudder to come back to the original zero position.

TECHNICAL CHALLENGE A vessel of 10,000 Tonnes displacement has LBP 120m, Breadth 15.6m and loaded draught 6.7m, fitted with a semi-balanced rudder having a single guide pintle operated by a 2 Ram electro-hydraulic steering gear (see accompanying sketch) has the following particulars. It is required to design a hydraulic steering gear with the help of information available and using a Rapson slide mechanism. S.No PARTICULARS VALUE 16 knots 35 100bar 75MN/m2 120MN/m2 50MN/m2 0.6m 7.5 sec

(a) Maximum speed of vessel (S) (b) Maximum rudder angle () (c) Maximumworkingpressureonrams (d) Allowable Shear stress in rudder stock (e) (f) Allowable bending stress in tiller arm Allowable hoop stress in ram cylinders

(g) Stroke of rams from mid-ship to hard-over (h) Time taken from mid-ship to hard-over

(i) (j) (k) (l)

Ram packing thickness Variable delivery pump efficiency Motor efficiency Vertical distance of rudder top from rudder stock bearing

20mm 70% 90% 0.4 m

Horizontal distance of center of press on rudder from leading (m) edge of rudder is given by x = (0.195 + 0.305 Sin ) b, where b is the breadth of the rudder & = rudder angle Force acting on the rudder is given by F = 577 X A X V2 Sin Newtons, where A is the area of the rudder in m2 , V is velocity of water passed in m/sec, and may be assumed to be (n) maximum speed of the vessel (S) 16 knots for ahead running and 50% of vessels speed for astern running. ( is the angle subtended between rudder and center line of the ship) Rudder area for fast ships and slow ships are 1/60th or 1/70th (o) of middle line area respectively. (p) Suitable relief valves to be provided to prevent high pressure in cylinder due to abnormal conditions.

(q) Height: breadth of the rudder is 1.5:1 (r) Owner requires 10% increase in rudder stock dia. over calculated value.

Calculate:A. (i) Find rudder area and dimensions;

(ii) Maximum force on the rudder; (iii) Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock with lower pintle in place and without lower pintle. (iv) Calculate rudder stock dia. allowing 20% increase for undue forces and compare the values with diameter without lower pintle. (v) Diameters of the rams so that the component of the force acting on the tiller arm is sufficient to counter balance the torque due to the force on the rudder. Accepted ram diameter should be a multiple of 10. (vi) Diameters of tiller arm assuming that the maximum stress occurs at the junction of the tiller arm to the boss for rudder stock (600mm. from center of rudder stock). (vii) Thickness of ram cylinder using Thin Cylinder Theory for approximation and then rounding up to a suitable figure. (viii) Motor power, rpm and shaft diameter given that the shear stress in the motor shaft is limited to 50MN/m2 and the motor driving variable delivery pump is a 4-pole induction motor connected to 440v, 3-phase, 50Hz supply mains. Full load slip is 4% with the 0.8 lagging Power Factor Motor should run at 85% MCR and available motor power ratings are multiple of 5. (ix) Calculate the capacity of pump considering probable losses where co-efficient discharge of pump is 0.94.

B. With the help of isometric drawing supplied draw:Elevation in section at the center line of the rams with rams, trunnion and the right ram cylinder in place clearly showing the allowance for rudder drop. (Tiller arm and the boss are not to be shown in this view.)

C. (i) Why the rudder stock is preferred to be more than 230mm dia.? What are the requirements in SOLAS pertaining to above criteria? (ii) What arrangement is required to protect the steering gear from damage due to jumping in rough sea? (iii) How wear down of rudder carrier bearing is measured?

Steering Gear

Displacement = 10000 tonnes. LBP= 20m Breadth = 15.6m Loaded Draught = 6.7m Semi-balanced rudders with single guide pintle operated by 2 ram electro-hydraulic steering gear. The steering gear uses Rapson slide mechanism. a) Max speed of vessel = 16 knots b) Max rudder angle = 35 c)Maxworkingpressureonrams100bar d) Allowable shear stress in rudder stock = 75 MN/m2 e) Allowable bending stress in tiller arm = 120 MN/m2 f) Allowable hoop stress in ram cylinders = 50 MN/m2 g) Stroke of ram from mid-ship to hard over = 0.6 m h) Ram packing thickness = 20 mm i) Variable delivery pump efficiency = 70% j) Motor efficiency = 90% k) Vertical distance of rudder top from rudder stock bearing = 0.4 mm

A (a) Rudder Area and Dimensions The area of rudder is added to the area of the immersed middle plane value at this ratio normally between 60 and 70.

Since speed of vessel is 60 knots, we can use area formula as

Area of Rudder =

Where L = LBP in m = 120 m H = Max loaded draught = 6.7 m A=

A = 13.4 m2 Rudder area is 13.4 m2 But

= 1.5

h = 1.5 b Where h = height of rudder in meters b = breadth of rudder in meters Area of rudder = h X b 13.4 = 1.5 b X b b = 2.98 m h = 1.5 X 2.98 h = 4.48 m These are the dimensions of the rudder

(b) Maximum force on Rudder Force acting on the rudder is given by F = 577 X A X V2 X sin Where A = area of rudder in m2 = 13.4 m2 V = velocity of water passed in m/s = 16 knots = (16 X 0.5144) / = Angle subtended between rudder and the center line of the ship for maximum force = 35 F = 577 X 13.4 X(16 X 0.5144)2X sin 35 Max Force on Rudder = 300.38 KN

(c)

Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock with lower pintle. Since it can be treated as a SSB, when rudder is supported by lower pintle, the max Bending movement is given by F = 4 + - R For equilibrium F = R Max B.M. = 300.38 0.4 + 4.48 300.38 4.48X 103 = 567.718 KN-m

Also Max torque = Force X Distance from axis =F

X

Where a = x - 0.7 = (0.195 + 0.305sin ) b 0.7 b = 2.98 m a = (0.195 + 0.305sin 35) X 2.98 - 0.7 = 1.1 - 0.7 a = 0.4 m Max Torque = F X a = 300.38 X 103 X 0.4 = 120.152 KN-m

Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock without lower pintle. Max Torque will be same for rudder having lower pintle and without lower pintle Max. Torque = 120.152 KN-m

Since it is cantilever beam, when it is considered for rudder without lower pintle Max. B.M. = Force X Distance from rudder stock bearing to C.O.P =FXL Where L = 0.4 + h = 0.4 +

X 4.48

= 3.38 m B.M. = 300.38

X

3.38

103

= 1015.28 KN-m (d) Diameter of Rudder stock with lower pintle The equivalent torque is given by Teq =(M ) + (T ) As we have already found max B.M. and max Torque with lower pintle Teq =(567.718) + (120.152) = 580.29 KN-m 20% increase has to be done for undue forces Teq =580.29 +

X 580.29

= 696.349 KN-m W.K.T. Teq =

d3 fs

fs = allowable shear stress in rudder stock = 75 MN/m2 = 75 X 106 N/m2 d = 16

3

d = 0.3616 m d = 361.6 mm d 370 mm This is the diameter of rudder stock with lower pintle.

Rudder stock diameter without lower pintle Eq. Torque, Teq = (M ) + (T ) =(1015.28) + (120.152) = 1022.36 KN-m As per undue forces, we have increased the eq. torque by 20% Teq = 1022.36

1.2

= 1226.832KN-m W.K.T. Teq = d3 = 16

d3 fs

d = 0.4367 m d = 436.7 mm d 450 mm This is the diameter of the rudder stock without lower pintle. (e) Diameter of Rams Torque due to force on Rudder = 120.152 KN-m W.K.T. Force = Pressure
X

Area

= P X d2

= 100 X 105 X d2

Force = 7853.9816 d2 KN From Triangle OAB cos 35 =

AB = 0.6 m = stroke of ram OA = 0.6 X cos 35= 0.8569 m Torque due to force = F X perpendicular distance of ram from rudder stock = 7853.9816 d2 X 0.8569 = 6730.0768 d2 As torque due to force on Rudder = torque due to tiller force on ram 120.152 X 103 = 6730.0768 d2 d = 0.135 m d = 135 mm d 140 mm [diashouldbeamultipleof10] Force = 7853.9181
X

0.1352

= 143.138 KN (f) Diameter of tiller arm (d) Length of tiller arm = 0.856 0.6 = 0.256 m

B.M. on tiller arm = Max Force X r Distance = 141.138 X 103 X 0.256 = 36.643 KN-m

d = d =

= 145 mm (g) Thickness of Ram cylinder By thin cylinder theory, we know thickness t=

Where P = max. Working pressure on rams = 100 bar = 100

X

105X N/m2

d = diameter of ram = 0.14 m = 140 mm f = allowable hoop stress in ram cylinder = 50 MN/m2 t=
.

t = 14 mm

(h) Motor power, rpm, and shaft dia. W.K.T. Voltage V = 440v

Current I = 20 A Frequency F = 50 Hz No of poles P = 4 cos = 0.8 (lag) Motor power = 3 V I cos = 3 X 440 X 20 X 0.8 Motor power = 12.193 KW Since power rating should be multiple of 5 Motor power = 15 KW W.K.T. Synchronous Speed, Ns = =

= 1500 rpm % slip = =

100 X

100 X

N = 1440 rpm Shear stress in motor shaft = 50MN/m2 W.K.T. Power = T=

T = 99.47 N-m But, torque T = d3 fs

d3 =

d3 =

d = 0.0216 m d = 21.6 mm As the diameter should be multiple of 5 d = 25 mm This the diameter of motor shaft (i) Capacity of pumps Cd = 0.94 (given) Cd =
. .

QTh = area of flow X velocity of flow = Velocity of flow =

Stroke of ram from midship to hard over Time taken from midship to hard over

= QTh = X

0 .6 7 .5
2

0.14 4

0 .6 7 .5
X

= 1.23

10-3 m3/s

Actual discharge, Qact = Cd X QTh = 0.94

X

4.43

= 4.16 m3/s Now considering probable losses.

Pump efficiency = 70% Qact= 4.16

X

0.7

= 2.917 m3/s Qact 3 m3/hr. Actual discharge of pump is 3 m3/hr. Rotor shaft dia. W.K.T. Torsional eq. of shaft.
T

J=

32

d4 (Polar movement of inertia of shaft)

d = Dia. of Shaft f = shear stress = 41 X 106 N/m R=

d

T = Torque acting

T=

fs J R

= =

fs

4 d 32 d 2 3

fs d 16

Now W.K.T. Equivalent Torque, Teq = M + T M Bending Movement, T Torque Also given length between bearing = 1290 mm Mass of Rotor and drive = 580 Kg Shaft of turbine is considered as UDL with w/unit length
2 2

 Wt. per unit length, w =

580 .

w = 449.612 kg/m B.M. due to load, M =

w2 8

Which can be calculated as follows:Now total load on turbine rotor shaft =

Wt Length

Length

=wXl Two reaction supports =

wl 2

(for each)

Now total weight is acting through the center of the shaft downwards Now taking moment about center pt. considering left of reaction Moment due to reaction =
wl 2

=
2

w 2 4 wl 2

Moment due to wt. of half beam = Net B.M. =

w2

X =
4

w 2 8

w 2 8

w 2 8

Subs. we get, w = 449.612 kg/m l = 1.29

 B.M. = W.K.T. P= T= T=

449.612 1.29 9.81

= 917.48 N-m

2 60 60 2

P = 13.5

106 W

60 135 106 = 2 6000

21.48 KN-m

2 2 Eq. Torque, Teq = T + M

Teq = (21.48)2 + (0.917)2 Teq = 21.5 KN-m Teq = =

3 3 16 .

d = 0.1387 m d = 138.7 mm = dia. of rotor shaft d 140 mm Mass of Rotor Mass of rotor = density X volume = e Xl XA Area of cross-section of shaft = A =

d2

dia. of shaft, d = 140 mm Area, A =

X

0.142

A = 0.01539 m2 e = density of shaft material = 7856 kg/m3 Length = 1.29 m Mass of rotor = 156 kg Mass of rotor/m = 156/1.29 = 120.934 kg/m W.K.T. freq. of transverse vibration fn= 2
EI
4

Ml

E = mod. Of elasticity of shaft material = 200 I = Moment of Inertia of shaft I=

109 N/m2

d4 =

(0.14)4 = 1.885

10-5 m4 X

Subs we get.

fn= . (.) .

fn=

. .

fn = 53.211 Hz First critical speed is Nc= 53.211 Hz

CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS Describe the sequence of events in the accident of Amoco Cadiz. En route from the Persian Gulf to Rotterdam, Netherlands, via a scheduled stop at Lyme Bay, Great Britain, the ship encountered stormy weather with gale conditions and high seas while in the English Channel. At around 09:45, a heavy wave hit the ship's rudder and it was found that she was no longer responding to the helm. This was due to the shearing of Whitworth thread studs in the Hastie four ram steering gear, built under licence in Spain, causing a loss of hydraulic fluid. Attempts to repair the damage were made but proved unsuccessful. While the message "no longer manoeuvrable" and asking other vessels to stand by was transmitted at 10:20, no call for tug assistance was issued until 11:20. Amoco Cadiz contained 1,604,500 barrels (219,797 tons) of light crude oil from Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia and Kharg Island, Iran. Severe weather resulted in the complete breakup of the ship before any oil could be pumped out of the wreck, resulting in its entire cargo of crude oil (belonging to Shell) and 4,000 tons of fuel oil being spilled into the sea.

PROJECT # 2 HOLLOW TAIL SHAFT (OIL COOLED)

As we have discussed about water cooled propeller shaft earlier, our next project is about hollow oil cooled propeller shaft. This type of propeller shaft is supported by a stern tube closed at both ends and having metal bearing surfaces lubricated by oil. Oil cooled propeller stern tube is preferred in many ships with machinery aft, where the short shaft is to be relatively stiff and only small deflections are to be tolerated. Where this patent oil lubricated stern tube is fitted, glands are provided at both ends to retain oil and to prevent the ingress of water. Besides, white metal (high lead content) bearing surfaces are also provided and oil for cooling and lubrication is supplied from a reservoir. Progress from sea water to early oil lubricated stern tubes involved an exchange of the wooden bearing (LIGNUM VITAE) in its bronze sleeve with a white metal lined cast iron (or sometimes bronze) bush. Oil retention and exclusion of sea water necessitated the fitting of an external face type seal. The stuffing box was retained in many early oil lubricated stern tubes, at the inboard end. In oil lubricated bearings the shaft does not require a full length protective bronze sleeve. This is the conventional type of arrangement

Now, without much ado let us proceed to the design project and learn the intricacies and challenges involved in design, operation and maintenance of this propeller shaft. HOLLOW PROPELLER SHAFT The following information relates to a steel propeller shaft for a single screw bulk carrier. The propeller shaft is hollow and connected to a solid intermediate shaft.

The propeller is fastened to the shaft by 16 pre-stressed internal bolts on P.C.D. of 1m fitted with hollow dowel pins around them. The hollow dowel pins can be regarded to carry the complete torsion load while the bolts take all other loads. Additional load due to vibrations may be assumed to be acting downwards through the C.G. of propeller and is given by LOAD =

x 0.75

Additional B.M. due to thrust may be taken as a product of Propeller Thrust x Propeller Dia. (in m) x 0.15 where Propeller Thrust = Shaft RPM = 75 Shaft power = 22400 KW Propeller dia = 9 m Propeller mass = 51000 kg Propeller buoyancy = 80 KN Max. Shear Stress allowed For solid shafting and coupling bolts 50 MN/m2 For hollow shaft due to welding involved 25 MN/m2 For hollow dowel pins 50 MN/m2 Neglecting mass of shafting Calculate Dia. D of intermediate shaft considering torsion only. Dia. of intermediate shaft coupling bolts. Outside dia. of hollow dowels. The total thrust given that the propeller efficiency 60% and the speed of advance 10 knots. The total B.M. on the shaft. Show that the equivalent torque on the shaft may be rounded to 5680 kN-m and hence, determine the outside dia. of the hollow shaft. Based on dia. so evaluated on hollow shaft, calculate a suitable flange diameter and size of coupling bolts placed on possible pitch circle.

Mention suitable materials used for each component in design and manufacture, also describe in brief how welding carried out during assembly. Describe the purpose of chrome liner fitted with the shaft seals. What bearing material is used in stern bush bearing of this type? What is the normal periodicity of tail shaft (OG) survey? What are the specific areas need to be inspected? Under what conditions this survey may be allowed with extended period? Solution: Calculate 1) Diameter of Intermediate Shaft Mass of the shafting is neglected Power, P = 22400KW (given), N=75 rpm P= Torque, T=

T = 2.85 MN-m

We can determine the diameter of the shaft by applying the torsion equation:

D = 0.6623m

D = 662.3mm

Considering 1% machining tolerance D = 662.3 + (0.01662.3)

D = 668.923

D670mm

2) Diameter of intermediate shaft coupling bolts Torque acting on each bolt (For 12 bolts)

= 237.671 KN-m

Force =

. .

= 306.672 KN

Force = Max. Shear stress Area

306.672103 = 50106

d = 88.37mm

 d90mm

(Boltsconnectingintermediateshaftandthrustshaft)

The value is rounded off to 90mm

(THIS DIAGRAM IS ONLY FOR PROPER UNDERSTANDING)

Torque acting on each bolt (for 16 bolts)

= 178.25 KN-m

Force =

= ..

= 336.42 KN To find the diameter of the coupling bolts

Force = Max. Shear stress Area

336.42103 = 50106

d = 92.557mm
P

d95mm (Bolts connecting intermediate shaft and tail shaft) The value is rounded off to 95mm.

Note: There is a twist (to baffle students) in the design question (iii) Outside diameter of the hollow dowel pin (d o ), here we need to use the equivalent torque which can be found in question (vi) and hence (iii) follows (vi)

5) Total B.M. on shaft

Total B.M. = Additional B.M. due to thrust + B.M. due to mass of propeller + B.M. through C.G. of propeller - B.M. due to Buoyancy. Additional B.M. due to thrust,

M = Propeller thrust Propeller diameter 0.15

= 2612.752 103 9 0.15

= 3527.216 KN-m.

B.M. due to mass of propeller,

M = 57000 9.81 (

+ 0.6 +1.05)

= 500.31 103 2.1

= 1050.651 KN-m.

Load due to vibrations =

0.75

0.75

= 237.5 KN As it acts through C.G. of propeller B.M. M = 237.5 103 2.1

= 498.75 KN-m. B.M. due to buoyancy, M = 80 2.1

M = 168 KN-m. Total BM, M = 3527.216 + 1050.651 + 498.75 168

M = 4908.617 KN-m. 6) Equivalent Torque is given by, T e = +

= (4908.617 10 ) + (2.85 10 )

T e = 5678.6039 KN-m.

T e 5680KNm.

The value of equivalent torque can be rounded off to 5680 KN-m. To get the tail shaft we apply the torsion and substitute the value of T e in place of T. Applying torsion equation
=
P

= ( .)

We already know that the internal diameter (bore) of the hollow tail shaft is 1.22m. 1.1563 =
.

Do4 = 3.627

Do = 1.38m

Do 1.4m 3) Outside Diameter of hollow dowel pin (do) Force on each hollow dowel = Force =
.

(here equivalent torque is taken)

= 710 KN

d i = 0.08 m (From diagram ) Force = Max. Shear stress Area

710 103 = 50 106

(d o 2 0.082)

+ 0.082 = d o 2

d o = 0.156 m d o = 156 mm d o160mm. The outer diameter hollow dowel pin is rounded off to 160mm. Equivalent torque is taken because dowel pins are subjected to both

torsion as well as bending. 4) Total Thrust Propeller thrust =

(GIVEN)

. .

Propeller thrust = 2612.752 KW.

7) Flange diameter is given by 2.2 times shaft diameter (here no. of bolts, n = 16)

Flange diameter, d f = 2.2 D o

d f = 2.2 1.4 d f = 3.08m. PCD = 1.6 D o =1.6 1.4 = 2.24 m. Torque = Force PCR 5680 103 = Force
.

Force = 5.071 MN

= 316.96 KN.

To find diameter of coupling bolts, Force = Max. Shear stress Area 316.96 103 = 50 106 d B = 0.0898 m d B = 89.8mm d B90mm The coupling bolt diameter can be rounded off to 90mm.

dB

8) Materials used for tail shaft are: Tail shaft -- The tail shaft in this type of oil cooled arrangement is made of mild steel with high carbon content. The tail shaft is subjected to shock and fatigue. High carbon content strengthens it against such loads. Hollow Dowel Hollow dowels used in this type of tail shaft are subjected to torsional loads. To ensure that these dowels work properly they are made up of high carbon content steel for durability, ductility, and strength.

9) Purpose of Chrome Liner

Chrome lines are fitted in order to safeguard the tail shaft against grooving action of lip seal. Lip seals are provided in order to prevent the ingress of sea water to the engine room and also prevent the lube oil used for tail shaft lubrication from leaking. Hence, chrome liners are fitted on the tail shaft where the lip seal rubs the material by push fit on slide fit.

10) Periodicity of tail shaft (OG) survey and areas to be inspected: Tail shaft surveyis done within a period of normally every 5 yrs. Extension is allowed and survey is done in a period up to 7 to 10 yrs, depending on the type of seals fitted under hydraulic jacking.

This could be the condition of tail shaft if not surveyed within the specified period Condition During every possible drydocking of the vessel :
1) Circulating oil sample from stern tube is tested. 2) Propeller drop is checked. When withdrawn, normally seals are changed along with chrome liners. Crack testing is done on shaft, meeting dowels, bolts, nuts, etc. Now let us take a brief glance at Directorate General of SHIPPING (D.G.S.) requirements of items to be inspected during a tail shaft survey

EIGHT SCHEDULE [See rule 73(2) (h) and (i)] EXAMINATION OF PROPELLER SHAFTS Part 1

The examination required to extend the interval between surveys as permitted shall include.(1) An inspection of the bearing oil to establish that it is not contaminated by water or debris. (2) Measurement of the clearance between the shaft bearing and the shaft to ascertain that the wear is negligible. (3) Removal of the propeller from the shaft to the extent that a full visual and non-destructive crack detection inspection of the shaft by the forward end of the keyway can be made, and (4) An inspection of the shaft sealing arrangements to establish that they will remain efficient for the extended period. Part 2

The examination required to extend the interval between surveys as permitted shall include.(1)An inspection of the bearing oil to establish that it is not contaminated by water or debris.

(2) Measurements of the clearance between the shaft bearing and the shaft to ascertain that the wear is negligible.

(3) Where the propeller is fitted to a taper on the shaft without a key, a visual and nondestructive crack detection examination of the forward part of the taper to establish that corrosion or corrosion cracking has not occurred. Alternative methods of ascertaining that sea water has not penetrated the shaft taper/propeller boss bore and that corrosion or corrosion cracking has not occurred may be accepted by the Chief Surveyor of the Government of India.

(4) Where the propeller is attached to the shaft by a bolted flange, a visual and a non-destructive crack detection examination of the shaft flange radii and bolt hole bores and recesses.

(5) An inspection of the shaft sealing arrangements, which shall require dismantling the shaft seals, to the extent considered necessary by the Chief Surveyor of the Government of India to establish that they will remain efficient for the extended period, and

(6) An inspection of the surface of that part of the shaft that normally lies within the aft part of the aft bearing to a distance at least equal to one-half of the shaft diameter.

Concept review questions: Q: SOME SCREW SHAFTS DO NOT HAVE LINERS FITTED, IN SUCH CASES HOW IS THE SHAFT END PROTECTED FROM SEA WATER? WHERE IS THE MOST LIKELY POINT OF INGRESS OF SEA WATER?
ANS: Where screw shafts are not fitted with liners, the shaft is oil lubricated and the stern tube bearings are white metal-lined cast iron bushes. In order to retain oil in the stern tube, the inboard end of the shaft is fitted with a mechanical seal which prevents the oil from running out. Seal in the aft end would be discussed later. Q: HOW IS THE PROCEDURE OF OIL LUBRICATION CARRIED OUT IN STERN TUBE? WHAT ARE THE TWO TYPES OF HEADER TANKS? ANS : Oil is pumped to the bush through external axial grooves and passes through holes on each side into axial passages. The oil leaves from the ends of the bush and circulates back to the pump and the cooler. Oil pressure within the stern tube is maintained at approximately at the same level as that of the surrounding sea water by a header tank. The static lubrication system for vessels with moderate changes in draft, have header tanks placed 2-3 m above the maximum load waterline. The small differential pressure ensures that water is excluded. The cooling of simple stern tubes necessitates keeping the aft peak water level at least 1m above the stern tube. Tankers and other ships with large changes in draught may be fitted with 2 oil header tanks for either the fully loaded condition or ballast condition.

Q: WHAT IS THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF BEARING BUSH? ANS: The bearing bush is normally of grey or nodular cast iron, centrifugally lined with white metal. A typical analysis of white metal would be 3% Cu, 7.5% antimony and remainder tin. White metals thickness is varies according to classification society specifications. Figures of 3.8 mm for a shaft of 300 mm diameter to 7.4 mm for 900 mm diameter shaft have been quoted, with bearing clearances of 0.51 to 0.63 mm and 1.53 to 1.89 mm respectively. (NOTE:-These figures are only for better understanding) Q:WHAT ARE THE TWO MOST COMMONLY USED TYPE OF OIL LUBRICATED STERN TUBE BEARING? WHERE IS THE MOST LIKELY POINT OF INGRESS OF SEA WATER? ANS : Oil lubricated stern bearings use either lip seals or radial face seals or combination of the two. Lip seals, in which a number of flexible membranes in contact with the shaft are shaped rings of material with a projecting lip or edge which is held in contact with a shaft to prevent oil leakage or water entry. Oil is contained within the simplex type stern tube by lip seals .The elastic lip of each nitrile rubber seal, grips a rubbing surface provided by short chrome steel liners at outboard and inboard ends of the steel propeller shafts. A number of lip seals are usually fitted depending upon the particular application.

LIP SEALS Face seals use a pair of mating radial faces to seal against leakage. One face is stationary and the other rotates. The rotating face of the after seal is usually secured to the propeller boss .the stationary face of the forward or inboard seal is the after bulkhead. A spring arrangement forces the stationary and rotating faces together. The aft end is the most likely point of ingress of sea-water to the screwshaft.

RADIAL FACE SEAL What are the inbuilt safety precautionary devices fitted in case of St. L.O. P/P failure and seal failure? ANS : One of the two header tanks will provide a back pressure in the system and a period of oil supply in the event of the pump failure. A low-level alarm will be fitted to each header tank. Oil pressure in the lubrication system is higher than the static sea water head to ensure that sea water cannot enter the stern tube in the event of seal failure.

PROTECTION MADE FOR LIP SEALS

What problem can arise out of the chrome liners and how can it be tackled? ANS : The chrome liners act as rubbing surfaces for the rubber lip seals but grooving from frictional wear has been a problem. The difficulty has been overcome by using ceramic filler for the groove or alternatively a distance piece to displace axially the seal and ring assembly. Allowance must be made for the relative movement of shaft and stern tube due to differential expansion. New seals are fitted by cutting and vulcanizing in position.

WHAT KIND OF LUBRICANT CAN BE USED IN STERN TUBES WITH WHITE-METAL LINED BEARINGS?
ANS : The lubricant used in stern tubes systems must have the ability to maintain a lubrication film in the presence of water so that it is not washed away. The lubricant must also have good affinity for metal surfaces so that it affords good protection of the metal in the stern tube and the shaft areas against sea water. This affinity for metal surfaces so that it affords good protection of the metal surfaces and is also necessary when the screw shaft starts to revolve, as boundary lubrication conditions are present at this time. Compounded oils have these properties: they are blends of mineral oil and fatty oils .the fatty constituent causes water to physically to combine with the oil and form an emulsion. The fatty constituent may be lanolin or synthetic fatty oil having similar properties. The lubricant used have a specific gravity at 15.5 0C within the range of 0.92 to 0.95, with a viscosity REDWOOD 1 at 60 0C .The viscosity index of many brands of stern tube lubricant have wide ranges which is unfortunate , as the conditions under which they operate make a high viscosity index desirable If leakage of sea-water into an oil lubricated screwshaft occurs, what indications will be there? When is seawater leakage into the system most likely to occur? ANS : Leakage of sea water into the stern tube is indicated by emulsification of the lubricant .the best time to carry out checks of the vessel is at ports. As the ship loads or discharges cargo, the aft draught of the vessel changes and the static head of sea water above the screw shaft outer seal will change in a similar manner .if the pressure gauge showing the oil pressure in the stern tube system changes with the change of draught it may under many conditions indicate a defective outer seal. Also when the stern tube system drain cock is opened and any water is drained off. If there is a lot of water drained out ,it shows a seal leak

If the ship has a light aft draught and there is no, or only small ,current round the ship ,the stern tube system can be pressurized to some pressure greater than the head of water outside the outer seal.if the seal is defective oil globules will be seen coming to the surfaces from the seal. How can outer seal leakage can be founded when at sea? What can be done to keep the system safe without dry docking the vessel? ANS : Outer seal leakage has often been found by an increase in the consumption of the stern tube lubricant. It is more likely to be noticed when the ship is proceeding in the tropical waters from cold water areas. Leakage inboard is shown by oil emulsification and reduced oil consumption. Why is cooling system required and how? Heat produced by the friction will result in hardening and loss of elasticity of the rubber, should temperature of the seal material exceed 110o C. Cooling at the outboard end is provided by the sea. Inboard seals, unlike those at the outboard end, cannot dissipate heat to the surrounding water. Oil circulation aided by convection, is arranged to maintain the low temperature of the seals at the inboard end. Connection for circulation, are fitted top and bottom between the two inboard seals and the small local header tank. Is oil pressure dependent on shaft speed? ANS : The requirement of steaming at a slow, economical speed during periods of high fuel prices (or for other reasons) gives a lower fluid film or hydrodynamic pressure in stern tubes, due to the slower speed. The possibility of bearing damage occurring prompted the installation of forced lubrication systems to provide a hydrostatic pressure which is independent of shaft speed. The supplied oil pressure gives adequate lift to separate shaft and bearing and an adequate oil flow for cooling. How are such stern tubes supported? ANS : The later designs of oil lubricated stern tubes are fitted in a stern frame with an elongated boss to provide better support for the white metal lined bearing. A minimum bearing length of two times shaft diameter will ensure that bearing load does not exceed 0.8 N/mm2. The forward part of the stern tube is fabricated and welded direct to the extension of the stern frame boss and into the aft peak bulkhead. The outboard liner additionally protects the steel shaft from sea water contact and corrosion.

PROJECT # 3
AIR STARTING SYSTEM

WARTSILA-SULZER 12RTA96C ENGINE, built by Doosan Heavy Industries, South Korea (a licensee of WARTSILA)

The picture shows WARTSILA-SULZER 12RTA96C SLOW SPEED 2STROKE MARINE DIESEL ENGINE. This goliath engine producing power in excess of 90,000 BHP propels ULTRA LARGE CONTAINER VESSELS like M.V. EMMA MAERSK at speeds of about 25 knots. To start this engine, compressed air at 25 - 30 bar pressure is used. To discover more about air starting system of such mammoth engines and how it is designed, take a look at the technical challenge put forth by this project.

INTRODUCTION
Air starting is the method used for starting large diesel engines (land based /marine) by supplying compressed air into the cylinders in a fixed sequence (one after other). The compressed air is supplied by air compressors, i.e. either diesel or motor driven. After a period of being at standstill (i.e. stationary), the engine requires to be started with a high initial torque at low revolutions in order to accelerate the engine rotating and reciprocating masses. The compressed air is then supplied by a large bore pipe to a remote-operating non-return or automatic valve and then to the cylinder air start valve. The momentum built in the rotating elements of the crankshaft will help in smooth starting once the initial inertia has been overcome. The pressure of the starting air must be sufficient to impart enough speed to the engine pistons to quickly compress the combustion air sufficiently during the compression stroke for it to reach a temperature at which the combustion of the injected fuel initiates. The pressure requirements will also vary according to engine size, design and service requirement and mainly working temperature.

An Air Compressor

The starting air is admitted from the air bottle to the engine cylinder through a starting air master valve common for all cylinders and cylinder starting air valve mounted on cylinder head, one for each cylinder. The

distributor ensures the air is introduced into the relevant cylinder at the correct time to achieve starting in the desired direction from any position of the engine at rest. The automatic master air starting valve is forced open by main air acting against a collar and air is admitted to the starting air valves. Air is simultaneously admitted, via the distributor .To pressurize the top side of piston operating air starting valve on cylinder head while bottom side of the piston is vented.

Air compressors preferably multi-stage types are used to provide air at high pressures required for diesel engine starting. If all the air had been compressed in a single-stage, it would unfortunately generate compression temperatures similar to those in a diesel engine. Multi-stage air compressor units with various cylindrical configurations and piston shapes are used in conjunction with inter-cooling and after-cooling to provide the nearest possible approach to the ideal of the isothermal compression. Such intercooling and after-cooling is achieved by water cooling or can be air-cooled (i.e. sea water can be used in water cooled type and fin type coolers in air cooled). Air cooling is achieved by multi-tubular heat exchangers where water is circulated.

Schematic of position of starting air line in marine diesel engines

Air starting system

Technical Challenge:

It is required to design an Air starting system for a 6 cylinder 2stroke reversible diesel engine, consisting of two air storage receivers with hemispherical ends and having necessary fittings and condensers. The compressed air supplied through two single acting 2 stage compressors, each of them capable of coping up with the starting air requirements at an average of one start every 3 minutes. As per specification rules, it is necessary that the capacity of an air bottle should be such that 12 starts may be given to the engine without replenishing the air bottle. For prompt starting of the engine it is necessary that air be admitted to two cylinders consecutively for a period of 70o crank rotation at a mean pressure of 20 bars. The compressors are two stage tandem-type with H.P cylinder on top having an intercooler and after cooler giving perfect cooling. The following other data may be used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Main engine bore Main engine stroke Maximum air bottle pressure Minimum pressure allowed when the compressor has to be started External dia. Of air bottles Maximum allowable stress for air bottle material Average engine room temperature Compressor bore/stroke ratio(L.P. cylinder) Index of compression and expansion.(compressor) Rotational speed of compressor Mechanical efficiency of compressor Sea water inlet temperature to compressor Sea water outlet temperature from compressor specific heat of sea water Compressor L.P suction pressure and temperature Clearance volume in both the stages 780mm 1400mm 30bar 20bar 1.5m 90 MN/m2 270C 1.2 1.3 750rpm 85% 200C 350C 4.12 KJ/Kg K 1 bar and 250C 3% of stroke volume

I. Calculate

1) Capacity and overall length of air bottle. 2) Thickness of air bottle, using thin cylinder theory. 3) Capacity of each compressor at free air delivery conditions of 1.013bar and 15oC. 4) The motor power required to drive the compressor. 5) Compressor cylinder dimensions. 6) Capacity of sea water cooling pump in Tonnes/hour. 7) A spring loaded safety valve is to be fitted as a mounting to each of the air receiver to blow off at 10% above maximum pressure. The diameter of valve is 40mm and maximum lift of the valve is 10mm. Design a suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming spring index 6 and stress concentration factor 1.25. You are required to provide initial compression of spring 30mm. Maximum shear stress in the material of spring wire limited to 450 MN/m2. G=90 MN/m2; spring index=

II Draw (hand sketch only) 8) A section of the air receiver showing the weld details necessary. 9) An outside view showing the mountings. 10) Comment on the material used and welding procedure adopted for construction of the air bottle. What are the safety features in its construction and during use?

The above figure shows a sketch of an air reservoir

GIVEN: Main engine 6 cylinder, 2 stroke, reversible 2 main air bottles Main engine bore, d = 780mm Main engine stroke = 1400mm Max. air bottle pressure = 30 bar Minimum pressure allowed when the Compressor has to be started = 20bar External diameter of air bottles = 1.5m Max. Allowable Stress for air bottle material = 90MN/m2

Average engine room temperature = 27oC Compressor bore/stroke ratio (L.P. cycle) = 1.2 Index for compression and expansion (comp.) = 1.3 Rotational speed of compressor = 750 rpm Mech. Efficiency of compressor = 85% Sea water inlet temperature to compressor = 20oC Sea water outlet temperature from compressor = 35oC Specific heat of sea water = 4.12KJ/kg K Compressor L.P. Suction pressure & temp. = 1 bar & 25oC Clearance volume in both the stages = 3% of stroke volume 2main air, 2 stage tandem with H.P. cycle on top 12 starts continuously and one start in every 4 minutes

I. CALCULATE
1. Capacity and overall length of the air bottle We know that Stroke length = 2 x crank radius L=2xR R = L / 2 = 1400 / 2 = 700mm From diagram,

AB = r - OB =rrcos =r(1cos) = 700 (1 - cos70) = 460.58 mm AB = 461mm Volume of 1 cylinder = =

x 0.782 x 0.461 4

x D2 x AB

= 0.22 mm3 According to the firing order air is injected in 2 cylinders at start, Volume = 0.22 x 2 = 0.44 m3 Since 12 starts are required from one air bottle = 12 x 0.44 = 5.28 m3 Let v be the capacity of the air bottle 30 x V = 20(V+5.28) V= 10.57m310.6m3

2. Thickness of air bottle using thin cylinder theory According to thin cylinder theory,

F=

Where, F = max. allowable stress P = max. test pressure = 1.5 x max. air bottle pressure = 1.5 x 30 = 45 bar t= thickness Substitute the values 90x106 =
(. )

40t = 1.5 - 2t T = 35.7mm Thickness of cylindrical portion is 35.7 mm Inside diameter of cylindrical portion of air bottle, = 1.52 x 0.0357 D 1 = 1.4286m Thickness of hemispherical portion, given by formulae t= Pd 1 K/2t +0.75x10-3

where, P = 45x105 K = a constant t = max. allowable stress = 90x106N/m2 t=

. .

t = 18.6mm Inside diameter of the hemispherical end =1.5-2x0.0186 =1.4628m The length of cylindrical portion, v=

d 1 2 l+4/3(d 1 /2)3

10.56 = 1.6027 x l + 1.6389 L = 5.57m The overall length of air bottle, l overall = l+1.5 = 5.57+1.5 = 7.1m The overall length of the air bottle is 7.1m

3.) Capacity of each compressor of free air delivery conditions of 1.013 bar and 15oC. Volume of air following to the cylinder per second, v= 0.44 / 4 x 60 = 1.833 x 10-3 m3/sec Mass flow rate of air at starting of compressor PV=mRT

Where P = pressure = 20x105N/m2 V = vol. of the air flowing per second to cylinder m= mass flow rate R = gas constant T = temperature = 27oC = 300K m= P V/R T= 20 x 105 x 1.833 x 10-3/ 287 x 300 = 0.0425 kg/sec Then capacity of each compressor at free air delivery condition of 1.013 bar and 15oC, Capacity = m R T /P = 0.0425 x 287 x 288 /1013 x 105 = 0.0347m3/sec = 125m3/hr The capacity of each air compressor cannot go beyond 150m3/hr.

4.) The motor power required to drive the compressor Work done by the compressor, W = 2 n / (n-1) x R T 1 [(P 2 /P 1 )n-1/n-1] Where P 2 = Intermediate pressure =(P 1 P 3 ) =(1x30) = 5.47bar H = 1.3 T 1 = 273 + 25

= 298K R = Gas constant = 0.287 KJ/KgK P 1 = 1 bar W = 2x 1.3/1.3-1 x 0.287x298x [(5.47/1)1.3-1/1.3-1] =355.896KJ/Kg W x mass flow = 355.896x0.0425 = 15.125KW Therefore, the motor power required to drive the compressor, = Work done/mech. Efficiency = 15.125/0.85 = 17.794KW =18KW

5.) Compressor cylinder dimensions From P-V diagram V 1 -V 5 = Swept volume ---1 = (V 1 -V 6 ) + (V 6 -V 5 ) V 5 = clearance volume both stage ----2 V 5 = 0.03 x (V1 -V 5 ) ----3 And P 1 (V 1 -v 6 ) = mRT 1 Where M=0.0425 Kg/sec R=287 J/ KgK T 1 = 25oC = 25+273=298K P 1 = 1bar

Substitute in eqn. 3 1x105 (V 1 -V 6 ) = 0.0425 / 750 x 60 x287 x 298 V 1 -V 6 = 2.9078x10-3 m3 For low pressure cylinder, Polytropic Process, P 5 V 5 n = P 6 V 6 n [P 5 /P 6 ]1/n-1 = V 6/V 5 -1 [5.47/1]1/1.3 -1 = V 6 -V 5 /V5 V 6 -V 5 = 2.7 V 5 From eqn. 2 V 6 -V 5 = 2.7 x 0.03 x (V1 -V 5 ) From eqn. 1 V 1 -V 5 = 2.9078x10-3 + 0.08102(V 1 -V 5 ) V 1 -V 5 = 3.164x10-3m3 Since swept volume V 1 -V 5=/4d2l and Bore/stoke ratio, d/l = 1.2 d= 1.2l V 1 -V 5 =/4(1.2l)2 x l = 3.164 x 10-3 L3=2.27x10-3 Stroke of L.P. Cylinder, l = 140.9mm = 141mm For high pressure cylinder, Swept volume, ----4 V 2 -V 4 = (V 2 -V 5 ) + (V5 -V 4 ) ----5 P 2 (V 2 -V5 ) = mRT 2 ----6 V 4 = 0.03 (V2 -V 4 ) Where m= 0.0425 Kg/s R = 287 J/Kg K T 2 /T 1 = (P 2 /P 1 ) n-1/n

=[5.47/1]1.3-1/1.3 T 2 =441.26 K And T 2 = T 2 And P 2 = P 2 = 5.47 bar Since, P 4 V 4 n = P 5 V 5 ,n [P 4 /P 5 ]1/n 1 = V5 /V 4 - 1 V 5 -V 4 = 2.69V4 From equation 4 and 6 V 2 - V 4 = 7.853 x 10-4 + 0.0807(V 2 -V4 ) V 2 - V 4 = 5.772x10-4 m3 Since, stroke of the H.P. and L.P. cylinder are same i.e. l= 141 mm Swept volume of the L.P. cylinder 5.772 x 10-4=/4d2 x 141 D2 = 5.212 x 10-3 Diameter of H.P. cylinder, D= 72.1mm = 75mm

6.) Capacity of the sea water cooling pump in tones/hour Let m= mass flow rate = 0.0425Kg/s C p = specific heat at the constant pressure = 1.005 H 1 = enthalpy of the air at inlet H 2 = enthalpy of air at outlet T 1 = temp. of air at sudden

T 2 = temp. of air at discharge Q = heat input during polytropic compression W = Indicated work output Q = (h 2 -h 1 ) + W = mC p (T 2 T 1 ) 15.125/2 = 0.0425 x 1.005(441.25 298) 7.5625 = 6.1189 7.5625 Q = -1.4435 KJ This is the heat rejected by air which is further received by JCW Q 1 = 2 x 1.4435 = 2.887KW For perfect inter cooling, T 2 = T 1 Q 2 = mC p (T 2 T 2 ) =0.0425 x 1.005 (441.26 298) =6.118 KW For perfect after cooling , T 3 = T2 & T 2 =T 1 Q 3 = m C p (T 3 T 2 ) = 0.0425 x 1.005(441.26-298) = 6.118KW Total heat rejected to sea water, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 =2.887 + 6.118 +6.118 =15.14 KW Heat rejected = m Cw (T 2 T 1 ) Hence, the capacity of sea water cooling pump, 15.14 = m C w (T 2 -T 1 ) Where m= mass flow rate C w = sp. Heat of sea water = 4.12 KJ/KgK

T 2 = seawater outlet temp. from compressor =35oC T 1 = seawater inlet temp. to compressor = 200C 15.14 = m x 4.12 (35-20) m = 15.14 / 4.12 x 15 =244.98Kg/s m= 0.881 tonnes/hr is the capacity of seawater cooling pump

7.) A spring loaded safety valve is to be fitted as a mounting to each of the air receiver to blow of at 10% above Max. pressure. The diameter of valve is 40mm and the Max. lift of the valve is 10mm. Design a suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming spring index 6 and stress concentration factor 1.25%. You are required to provide initial compression of spring 30mm. Max. shear stress in the material of spring wire limited to 450 MN/m2 G= 90 MN/m2; spring index = coil diameter/wire diameter Diameter of valve, d 1 = 40 mm Max. Lift of the valve, S 2 = 10mm Max. Pressure, P = 3.3N/mm2 Spring index, C = D/d =6 Where,

D= Coil diameter d= wire diameter Stress concentration factor, K = 1.25 Initial Compression of spring, S 1 = 30 mm Max. Shear stress in the material of spring wire, =450MN/m2 Modulus of rigidity, G= 90 GN/m2 Maximum Load, W 1=/4d 1 2x3.3 =/4x402 x3.3 = 4146.9N Max. Compression of the spring
max.

= 1 +

=30 + 10 = 40mm Load of 4146.9 keeps value on set by providing initial compression of 30mm, therefore max. load on the spring when the value is open i.e., for max. compression of 40mm. W= 4146.9/30 x 40 =5529.2N Stress concentration factor, K = 1.25 Max.Shearstress, ,=Kx8WC/d2 450=1.25x8x5529.6x6/d2 D2 = 234.66

D = 15.31mm For consideration the wire diameter is, d = 15.4mm Mean diameter = spring index x wire diameter = 6 x 15.4 = 92.4mm No. of active turns = n Max.compressionofthespring( max. ) max. = 8WC3n/Gd 40 = 8 x 5529.6 x 62 x n/ 90x103x15.4 N = 5.8 Say 6 turns Taking the ends of the coil as squared and ground the total no. of turns. n = n +2 = 6+2 =8 Free length of the spring L F = nd+ max. +0.15 max. = 8 x 15.4 + 40 + 0.15 x 40 = 169.2mm Pitch of the coil = free length / n-1 = 169.2/8-1 = 24.17mm

Q. 8) A section of the air receiver showing the weld details necessary.

Q9.) An outside view showing the mountings.

Q 10.) Comment on the material used and welding used and welding procedure adopted for construction of the air bottle. What are the safety features in its construction and during use? The material used for construction of large or small reservoirs is of good quality mild steel plate having similar specification to boiler plate material. The steel will have an ultimate tensile strength within the range of 360 MN/m2 to 500MN/m2 will have an elongation of not less than 23% to 25%. Large starting air storage reservoirs have dish ends; one end has an opening formed within lip to take an elliptical manhole door. The fore of the dished end may be either torispherical or semi-spherical. The dished ends are usually made by the spinning process. The edge left by the spinning is machined and tapered down to the thickness of the cylindrical shell. The ends are welded to the cylindrical shell by full penetration welds. The longitudinal seams are machine welded. The circumferential seams where the dished ends join the cylindrical shell may be either machine or hand welded. Smaller air bottles have hemispherical ends and inspection holes may be fitted in the cylindrical shell. The air compressor is use on board the ship is of reciprocating-tandem or inline type. Compressor valves are normally plate type annular and spring loaded. Air passes through tubes in intercooler, the water jackets being protected from over-pressure by fitting a bursting disc. Compressor air discharge must lead to air receiver directly. No interconnection allowed with engine starting air line. Relief valves are to be provided in all stages as per stage pressures.

Air receiver should have manhole doors with positive closing. Normally, air bottles are mounted on foundation with inclination to aft. Drains must be provided in each stage of compressor and air receiver. Relief valve fitted should have its discharge leading to open deck.

CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS

Q1. What are the uses of compressed air onboard ship? Ans : It is used for starting main and diesel engines in motor ships and for auxiliary diesel engines of steam ships. Also control air of low pressure is required for ships of both categories for control equipment and instrumentation purposes. Auxiliary boilers and economizers are fitted with soot blowers which use compressed air .Portable tools such as drilling machines, impact wrenches, torque wrenches, hard grinders and lifting gears use compressed air. Compressed air can also be used for chipping, scaling machines paint spraying equipments.

Q2.Why multistage compressors preferred over single stage? What is the use of inter cooler and after cooler? Ans : For a single stage air compressor, acting as isothermal during compression by provision of perfect cooling is an ideal situation which is very difficult to obtain. Moreover the necessary final pressure of compressed air is achieved by the number of stages. For higher pressure, more number of stages are required .When the air is compressed in stages; it is easier to control the temperatures during its passage through the compressors.

This can be achieved by water jacketing the air compressor cylinders and passing the air through heat exchangers (intercoolers). As the air leaves each stage of compressor, it is cooled in the intercooler .This lowers the work done in compressing the air and prevents a lot of mechanical problems which could arise if the air temperature were uncontrolled. Apart from practical considerations and the as above question, a 3 stage air compressor is more desirable and requires less energy or work input than a single stage air compressor when compressing air over the same pressure range.

Q3.What is the basic principle of working of an air compressor? Ans : Compressor produces high compression temperature approx. equal to the one in the diesel engine which is sufficient to ignite vaporized oil . The heat produced in a single stage of compression would be wasted and could add energy and produce a resultant rise in pressure apart from the pressure rise expected from the action of piston .However the air cools, the pressure rise due to the heat generated is lost. Only the pressure from compression remains .The extra pressure due to heat is of no use and actually demands greater power for the upward movement of the piston through the compression stroke.

Q4. Factors affecting volumetric efficiency of an air compressor. Ans : The factors affecting volumetric efficiency of an air compressor are as follows :

i.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

The clearance between the cylinder cover and the end of the piston when the piston is at end of its discharge stroke. The larger the clearance, the less air is discharged per stroke. Sluggish opening and closing of suction and delivery valves. Leakage past the compressor piston rings. Insufficient cooling water (or) the cooling water inlet temperature is too high. Inlet temperature of the air to the first or low pressure stage compressor too high. Throttling of air supply to L.P. suction example dirty air inlet strainers.

Q5. How is clearance volume of air compressor checked? Ans : This check is made by making up a small ,loosely woven ball of lead wire .This is placed on the top of the piston which will have been moved a little off the end of the stroke .The cylinder cover is replaced on the cylinder with a joint in place and tightened down. The compressor is then barred slowly over top centre so that the ball of lead wire is compressed .After it is removed from the top of the piston it can be measured by a micrometer .The mechanical clearance measured is compared with the compressor manufactures recommendations. Adjustments are made by altering the cover joint thickness or by fitting or removing shims between the foot of the connecting rod and the bottom end bearing. Note: The ball of the wire must be placed centrally on the top of the piston; if the wire is on one side of the piston, there is a possibility that the piston rod could bend when the piston is barred over the top centre position.

Q6. How many starting air compressors are fitted on board ships?

Ans. It is usual to have atleast 2 starting air compressors and sometimes there are more than two .The compressors may be independently driven by an electric motor or steam engine .Also there is an emergency air compressor which may be diesel engine driven. In case of air in air bottle and at the same time crew are facing black out condition then the diesel engine compressor comes into play. Q7. What are the mountings fitted on air bottle and air compressors? Ans. Safety valves are normally fitted to the air bottles but in some installations the reservoirs are protected against over pressure by those of the compressors .There is a requirement that if the safety valves can be isolated from the reservoirs the latter must have fusible plugs fitted to release the air in the event of fire. Reservoirs are designed ,built and tested under similar regulations to those for boilers .Many air reservoirs are also fitted with other outlet valves which have connections with other air systems such as auxiliary engine starting systems ,instrument air ,workshop air services, ships whistle, filter cleaning systems ,emergency air supply to boiler feedback pump. Excess air pressure is prevented by spring loaded relief valves on air bottle. In some cases the relief valves are fitted on the common discharge line from the compressors and fusible plugs are fitted on the air reservoirs. The fusible plugs prevent serious pressure rise if a fire should break out near the air bottle. Drain valves or cocks are fitted to the bottom of the reservoir to drain off oil or moisture carried over with the air from the compressor. An independent connection is fitted for the pressure gauges used to indicate the air pressure within the reservoir. Q8. Why are the outlets from relief valve and fusible plug from air bottle let outside the engine room? Ans : Fusible plugs are fitted if the receiver is isolable from a relief valve. There will always a relief valve on the high pressure side of the compressor so that when the compressor is being used, the bottle is protected.

However, this means that the receiver is only protected when the compressor is running. A fusible plug therefore offers protection against pressure development in the event of an engine room fire. The fusible plug therefore offers protection against pressure development in the event of an engine room fire. The fusible plug (lead, bismuth and antimony) softens as its temperature rises and extrudes from its fir tree type sockets. Q9. What is the implication of starting air reservoir on fixed fire fighting CO 2 system? Ans : The release of large amount of air in case of engine room fire would impair the effectiveness of any CO 2 fixed fire fighting system gas unless extra gas is provided in compensation or the air is piped out of the engine room. Q10. At what position of piston in the cylinder is the starting air introduced? Ans : Modern practice is to introduce air into the cylinder slightly before TDC (the alignment of piston rod with the connecting rod at this point is such that little if any turning moment is developed). This allows the air to accumulate in the clearance volume ready to force down the piston once it is over TDC. At the same time, another cylinder will be receiving air (because of overlap discussed in next question).This unit will be one in which the crank is well past TDC so that it generates an adequate turning moment to carry the above unit over TDC. The first unit, already pressurized, will be able to accelerate the engine up to the fuel initiation speed. The useful expansion of the starting air will cease at the opening of the exhaust to continue air injection any further would be futile. This limit is normal to 3-cylinder engines but is unnecessarily long in engines with more than three units. A starting air pressure well below the compression of an engine will be able to turn the engine over against the compression because the

compression pressure is only reached towards the end of the stroke, whereas starting air is introduced for a much longer period of the stroke. Q11. In the above project, why is the period of admission of compressed air for 70 degree of crank rotation? Ans : In order to conserve starting air, starting valves are designed to close as early as possible consistent with good starting and some explosion of the starting air then takes place. The opening and closing of starting air valves is controlled by the cam (operating within the starting air distributor) actuating the distributor valve. To enable a propulsion engine to be started from any crank position, overlap is necessary in the timing of the starting valves of an engine. Overlap is necessary in the timing of the starting valves of an engine. Overlap occurs during the period that any two valves are open, it being introduced that one valve will be opening whilst the other valve is closing. One valve will then always open when air is put on the engine to start some maneuver. If there were no overlaps in the valves it would be possible for the engine to stop in some position where all the valves remained closed when air was put on the engine. The amount of overlap is dependent upon the number of cylinders, the timing of the exhaust opening and so on (the greater the number of cylinders, the less overlap required) Over lap calculation: In the above project there are 6 cylinders, with a obvious total rotation of 3600 of crank. Therefore an equal admission for a period of 600 of crank rotation in each cylinder, at the same time there needs to be a overlap for atleast 100 of crank rotation for the advantages of overlap stated just above. In the above example the firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4 indicates the order in which these units would be receiving the starting air during the air

starting operation. If for example unit number 5 starting air valve has opened and the engine is rotating in clockwise direction. Before this valve shuts the starting air valve of unit 3 will open, unit 6 will be followed by unit 4 and so on (for anticlockwise rotation the order of air entry will be 14-2-6-3-5 i.e. reverse to clockwise timing order). It is evident from above that no matter in what position the engine stops, there will always be at least one of the cylinders with its starting air valve opened to admit, on starting, the compressed air to start the engine. Q12. What are the interlocks in engine, air starting system? Ans.) The starting interlocks prevent the engine being put on fuel before all the sequences of the starting system have been completed. With the systems controlled by the operation of hand lever, the interlocks may be cams or pins which lock and prevent hand lever movement. In the engines started by hand wheel controls the interlocks ate often slotted discs (fitted on the wheel shafts) and the small levers which engage or clear the slots in the disc. Some engines have a blocking device connected with the ships E/R telegraph which for events the engine being put as when an ahead order is given and vice versa. Blocking devices are fitted to the engine turning gear so that the engine cannot be inadvertently started with the turning gear in In the event of E/R telegraph failure, any interlocking and blocking devices operated from the telegraph would prevent the engine being maneuvered during the time of emergency. It is therefore important to know how the interlock and blocking devices may be overridden so that the engine can be maneuvered under emergency conditions with orders via the bridge to engine room telephone. Q 13.Why should there be minimum of 12 starts in case of reversible engine?

Ans : Reversibility can be achieved by introducing air into the cylinder where the piston is approaching TDC in the direction of rotation in which it was stopped. During maneuvering the engine is frequently subjected to ahead and astern starts. It is also an important requirement which is checked by a surveyor before entry of vessel in narrow channels like Panama Canal. The engine should be capable of being started 6 times in ahead direction and 6 times in astern direction without refilling the air bottle. This is necessary to avoid the ship being stranded in the canal or locks in case of failure of air compressor. Q 14.How does working temperature of the engine affect the starting air pressure? Ans : An engine at working temperature will start with a lower starting air pressure than a cold engine. The temperature of the lubricating oil supplied to the engine bearings will also have an influence on the minimum required starting air pressure. When the lubricating oil is at working temperature, the engine will swing more easily than when lubricating oil is cold; hence a lower air pressure will start an engine with lube oil at working temperature. During trials of newly built ships, it is a part of the main engine maneuvering tests to put one starting air reservoir on to the starting system and continue maneuvers ahead and astern until the pressure falls to the point that the engine cannot start. The pressure is recovered with the ships trial. One of the principle factor is to overcome the forces of adhesion b/w the bearing surface due to the presence of cold lubricating oil b/w them. The walls of the combustion chamber being cold, there will be a greater heat flow to lower the temperature of the compression at the time of start. An engine which has been warmed up at the metallic surface of the combustion chamber, viscosity of lubricating oil lowered, will have the starting speed reached earlier.

Q 15.What is Starting Air Line Explosion? What are the safety devices to avoid it? What are starting line safety devices? Ans : Explosions can and do occur in diesel engine starting air system. Also air start valves and other parts are sometimes burned away without explosion. These problems have been caused by cylinder air start valves which have leaked or not closed after operation and have allowed access from the cylinder to the air start system of the flame from combustion. Carbon deposits from burning fuel and oily deposits from compressor are available as substances which may be ignited and produce an explosion in the air start system. If no explosion occurs, the flame from the cylinder and high temperature air from compressor can cause carbon deposits in the system to burn. Careful maintenance of air start valves, distributors and other parts is vital as is regular cleaning of air start system components to remove deposits. The lubrication of components is limited as excess lubrication could cause the air start valves to be stuck by grease which has become hardened by the heat and oil could accumulate in the pipes from this source. The draining of compressor coolers and air receivers is important. Drains on air start systems are also checked. Flame traps or bursting caps are fitted at each air start valve.

PROJECT # 4

HEAT EXCHANGER
There are three methods employed for water cooled marine diesel engines: direct, keel cooling and heat exchanger cooling. Direct cooling of the cylinders and heads by seawater is unsatisfactory, because the engine which was probably originally designed for radiator cooling will run too cold and the seawater will eventually ruin the cylinder block and heads. Keel cooling is suitable for small boats operating in shallow weedy water, but the need for pipe work external to the hull is a severe limitation. Heat exchanger cooling is the most common method, the seawater being isolated in components which can be designed to withstand its corrosive effect. The closed fresh-water circuit can be thermostatically controlled so that the engine operates at its design temperature. The tube stack is fully floating, thus minimising thermal stresses, and it can easily be removed should cleaning be necessary. Heat exchanger header tanks prevent aeration of the engine water circuit which must be designed so that the system is self-venting on initial filling. It is usual for all the components in the seawater circuit to be in series, the gearbox oil and engine oil coolers being on the suction side of the seawater pump and the heat exchanger and any seawater cooled exhaust. Manifolds being on the discharge side of the heat exchanger. In the case of turbocharged engines the charge air cooler should receive the seawater first so that the lowest possible air temperature is obtained. The sea-water outlet from the heat exchanger should be from the end cover equipped with the upper connection; this ensures that the tube stack is always full of water. The gearbox cooler size will depend on the type of transmission used, but it will usually be a very size smaller as compared to the engine oil cooler. If preferred, the oil coolers can be fresh water cooled; these will need to be larger owing to the higher water temperature but need not be suitable for sea-water.

HEAT EXCHANGER
A six cylinder single acting 2-stroke Marine Diesel Engine consumes 60 tonnes of fuel oil of 48 MJ/Kg calorific value per day. It is required to design a cooling water system consisting of a cooler where fresh water circulated through the engine piston, jacket and cylinder is cooled by sea water supplied from a single stage circulating pump. The cooler is a single pass contra-flow type and a fresh water by-pass line is provided for mixing so that the jacket cooling temperature is maintained at a higher value (see attached sketch for further details). Engine Details 1. Specific fuel consumption 2. Bore 0.25 Kg/KW(brake)/ hr 0.84m

3. Stroke 4. Mean pressure from indicator card 5. Mechanical Efficiency Cooler Details 6. Effective length of cooler tubes 7. External diameter of tubes 8. Wall thickness of tube -

1.6m 11.2 bar 83.9 %

1.47m 20mm 1mm

For turbulent flow in tube take,

St = 1+1.5(Pr)-1/6 (Re)-1/8(Pr-1)

Where f = 0.0791 (Re)-1/4 All fluid properties are to be evaluated at mean bulk temperature. Neglect thermal resistance of the tube wall. For flow through tube it can be assumed that flow will be turbulent when Re (Reynolds number) is greater than 2100.

A. Calculate

(a) Brake power and speed of engine in R.P.M (b) Mass of fresh water to be circulated through the engine to cope up with 10% extra fuel burnt for overload running and given that 28% of total heat supplied to the engine is transferred to the circulating water of 4.18 KJ/KgK specific heat capacity. (c) The temperature T at cooler inlet considering that 2/3rd of fuel circulating water is used for cylinder jacket and cylinder head cooling and 1/3rd for piston cooling. Determine also the mass flow through the bypass line and hence calculate actual mass flow of fresh water through the cooler.

(d) Show that 400 tubes of given dimensions will be sufficient for the heat transfer based on the mean diameter of the tubes given that the velocity of sea water through the tube is 1.648 m/s for the required mass flow of sea water of 1020 kg/m3 density and 4.2 KJ/KgK specific heat capacity Use Tables for properties of H 2 O at near bulk temperature. (e) Calculate shell diameter considering tube plate area as 1.5 times the area utilized by the tube holder. Considering thin shell theory, find the allowable thickness of side shell plating when working pressure does not exceed 5 Kg/cm2. Ultimate tensile stress of the material is 240MN/m2. Take Factor of Safety as 6. B. Draw a section through the center of cooler end cover, tube plate and the cooler body showing details of a tube fitted in place. Show also arrangements for anodic protection C. a) Comment upon sacrificed anode required in coolers of the type as designed: b) Give the suitable materials required for various components under consideration. c) How will you ascertain a leaky coater tube and what action will you propose to take for continuing the use of cooler?

GIVEN:
Six cylinders, single acting two stroke marine diesel engine consumes 60 tonnes of fuel oil of 42/MJ calorific value per day

ENGINE DETAILS:
Specific Fuel consumption Daily consumption of F.O. Engine Cylinder Diameter (Bore) Length of Stroke = 0.25kg/kW (brake)/hr = 60 tonnes = 0.84m = 1.6m

Mean pressure from indicator card = 11.2bar Mechanical efficiency = 83.9%

COOLER DETAILS:

The cooler is a single pass, contra flow type

Effective length of cooler tubes = 1.47m External diameter of tubes Wall thickness of tube Also, the given calorific value of fuel = 20mm = 1mm = 42 MJ/kg

A) CALCULATE:
(a) Brake power and speed of engine in RPM
Fuel consumption per day = 60 tonnes Fuel consumption per hour =

tonnes / hour

= 2500 tonnes / hr Specific fuel consumption = B.H.P =

. .

= 10,000 kW
. . .

mec = MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY =

INDICATED POWER =

Xn

Where n = number of cylinders = 6 P = Mean pressure from Indicator Card = 11.2 bar = 11.2 x 105 N/m2 L = Length of stroke = 1.6 m A = Area of the cylinder bore = X 0.842 N = Engine speed in r.p.m.

11.2 X 105 X 1.6 X X 0.842 X N X 6

4

= 99308.5
Therefore

N
= 0.833

. .
mec =

= 120 RPM

SPEED OF THE ENGINE IS 120 RPM

b) Mass of the fresh water to be calculated through the engine to cope up with 10% extra fuel burnt for overload running and given that 28% of total heat supplied to the engine is transferred to the circulating water of 4.15KJ/ KG K specific heat capacity Since daily fuel consumption = 2500kg/hr 10% of extra fuel consumption = 2500 + 10% of 2500 = 2750kg/hr = 0.7638kg /sec Heat generated by the engine = Fuel consumption/second x calorific value Heat generated = 0.7638 X 42 X 106

= 32.08 MW As given 28% of the heat generated is transferred to circulating water of 4.18 KJ/kg K Specific heat capacity Q = m C W (T 2 -T 1 )

8.98 = m X 4.18 (65-55) m = 214.88 kg/s

This is amount of fresh water circulated to cope up with 10% extra fuel consumption due to overload.

(c) The temperature at cooler inlet (sketch) considering that 23 rd of the total circulating water in used for cylinder jacket and cylinder head cooling is 1/3 rd of piston cooling .Determine also the mass flow through the by pass line and hence actual mass flow of freshwater through the cooler. SOLUTION: Let, a = mass of water circulated to jacket cooler b = mass of water circulated to piston cooler a=

&

b=

m ()

Since from diagram and applying Kirchhoffs law at junction A 65a + 60b = 65 X T=

(a + b) T

m + 60 X +

( + )

mXT

T = 63.33OC or 333.33K And then applying Kirchhoffs law at B 55a

50 (a - x)

= xT

55 X X 214.88 - 50 (

X 214.88 - x) = 63.33 x

Therefore mass flow through the bypass line x = 53.7 kg/ s Actual mass flow through cooler = a+b-x = =

X 214.88 + X 214.888 - 53.7

161.17 kg/s

(d) Show that 400 tubes of given dimensions will be sufficient for the heat transfer based on the mean diameter of the tubes given that the velocity of the sea water through the tubes 1.648 m/s for the required mass flow of sea water of 1020kg/m3 density and 4.2KJ/Kg k specific heat capacity. Use tables for properties of H20 at mean bulk temperature.

 1= 5012

=38C

2= 63.332 =31.3C Then

M

( )

.
.

m=

34.54C

Stantum Number St =

.()

() ()

Where

f = 0.0791( )/

All fluid properties are to be evaluated at mean bulk temperature. Neglect thermal resistance to the tube wall for flow through tube, it can be assumed that flow will be turbulent when Re (Reynoldss number) is greater than 2100 Re = Where
. .

=density=1020kg/m d = inner dia of tube =18mm = 979 X 10-6 N / m2

Hence, Re =
. .

30906.312

Since Re is greater than 2100, the flow is turbulent f = 0.0791 (Re)-1/4 = 0.791 X (30906) - 1/4 = 5.95 X 10-3

Pr = 6.778 Finally

[Given]
.

.(.) (.) (.)

= 1.092 X 10 -3
w.k.t HEAT supplied to the engine, Q = ha X Qm

. .

Where C = velocity c = calorific value 1.092 X 10-3 =

. .

h = 7709 55 KW / m2h Therefore Q = Om

S

where

a = projected area of tube = X d x l X h

where d = 0.019m l = 1.47m n = no. of tubes Om = 34.54 Substitute in the above equation 8.98 X 106 = 7709.55 X X 0.019 X 1.47 X n X 35.54 n = 384.32 < 400 Therefore, the heat exchanger should have a minimum of 385 tubes Since, it has been provided with 400 tubes which will be sufficient for heat transfer

(e) Calculate shell diameter considering tube plate areas as 1.5 times the area utilised by tube holes Answer: Area utilised by tube holes = =

XdXn X 0.022 X 400

= 0.125m2 Tube plate area = 1.5 X area utilised by tube holes = 1.5 X 0.1256 = 0.18849m2 Hence, tube plate area =

Xd2

Where d = shell diameter 0.18849 =

d2

d 2 = 0.24 d Diameter of the shell is 490 mm (f) Considering thin shell theory find the allowable thickness of side shell plating where working pressure does not exceed 5kg/ cm2. Ultimate tensile stress of the material 240MN/m2.Take factor of safety is 6 SOLUTION: According to the thin shell theory = 489.89mm

f=

Where,

P = Working pressure = 0.5 MN/ m2 we know that, working stress = On substituting the values 40 X 106 =
. .

40MN

t = 3.06 mm Since the thickness obtained is very small, for a safer consideration of value, we assume it to be 5mm. C) A) Comment upon the sacrificial anodes required in cooling of this type as designed Answer: There are two ways of protecting the sea water cooling side of heat exchanger by coating and by cathodic protection systems. The fresh water side of the heat exchanger is protected by addition of chemical additives to cooling water. Coating varying to bitumen based paints through the epoxy coatings of various forms can be based to protect water boxes and water box covers. In other cases rubber sheet materials may be bonded to the mild steel or steel or cast iron so that sea water cannot make contact with steel or cast iron. The steel or cast iron is then, in effect electrically insulated from the sea water which is in contact with other metals of heat exchanger. Cathodic protection systems using sacrificial anodes are also used within the sea water spaces of heat exchangers. The metals used for sacrificial anodes must be such that they are higher in the electromotive or galvanic series of metals then the metals which they have to protect. These metals or alloys are referred to being active or anodic. In descending order of the galvanic series, they are cadmium, commercially pure aluminium, zinc and magnesium alloys. In the presence of sea water and with continued electrical continuity, the anode waste away and so protect the other metals within the heat exchanger. In some cases a protective or passive film is deposited on the metals being protected. Chemical additives in fresh water are known as inhibitors. There action creates a protective film of passive material on the metallic surfaces which they protect. They not only protect the heat exchangers but other parts of cooling system in which they circulate. B) Give the suitable materials required for various components under construction ANSWER: Tubes _ Anode Aluminium brass Zinc and Aluminium

End cover and water boxes - Cast iron & fabrication from mild steel

Shell -

Gun metal

Baffle plates - Monel metal Gasket - Nitrile rubber Although there is an abundance of free sea water available, marine diesel engines do not use it directly to keep the hottest parts of the engine cool. This is because of the corrosion which would be caused in the cooling water spaces, and the salts which would be deposited on the cooling surfaces interfering with the heat flow. Instead, the water circulated around the engine is fresh water (or better still, distilled water) which is then itself cooled using sea water. This fresh water is treated with chemicals to keep it slightly alkaline (to prevent corrosion) and to prevent scale formation. Of course, if distilled water, which some ships can make from sea water using evaporators, is used then there is a reduced risk of scale formation. The cooling water pump which may be engine driven or be a separate electrically driven pump pushes the water around the circuit. After passing through the engine, where it removes the heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust valves and sometimes the turbochargers, it is cooled by seawater and then returns to the engine. The temperature of the cooling water is closely controlled using a three way control valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then it will cause thermal shocking which may lead to component failure and will also allow water and acids to condense on the cylinder bores washing away the lubricating film and causing corrosion. If it gets too hot then it will not remove the heat effectively causing excessive wear and there is a greater danger of scale formation. For this reason the cooling water outlet temperature is usually maintained at about 78-82C. Because it is at a higher temperature than the cooling water used for other purposes (known as the LT cooling), the water for cooling the engine is known as the HT (High Temperature) cooling water. Cooling can be achieved by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing in some of the water from the LT cooling circuit. The LT cooling water is then cooled in the sea water coolers. The temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors both the inlet and outlet temperatures from the engine. This allows a fast response to any change in temperature due to a change in engine load. To make up for any leaks in the system there is a header tank, which automatically makes up any deficiency. Vents from the system are also led to this header tank to allow for any expansion in the system and to get rid of any air (if you are familiar with a domestic central heating system then you will see the similarities). The header tank is relatively small, and usually placed high in the engine room. It is deliberately made to be manually replenished, and is fitted with a low level alarm. This is so that

any major leak would be noticed immediately. Under normal conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then the amount logged. The system will also contain a heater which is to keep the cooling water hot when the engine is stopped, or to allow the temperature to be raised to a suitable level prior to starting. Some ships use a central cooling system, whereby the same cooling water is circulated through the main engine(s) and the alternator engines. This system has the advantage whereby the engines which are stopped are kept warm ready for immediate starting by the engines which are running. A fresh water generator (FWG) which is used to produce fresh water from sea water is also incorporated. A drain tank has been included. This is for when the engine is drained down for maintenance purposes. Because of the quantities of water involved and the chemical treatment, it is not economically viable or environmentally responsible to dump the treated water overboard each time. This way the water can be re used.

PROJECT # 5

MARINE STEAM TURBINE UNIT

The world remembers the sinking of R.M.S. TITANIC, but that R.M.S. stands for Royal Mail Steamer. The 269.1m vessel was equipped with two reciprocating four cylinder, triple expansion steam engines and one low pressure Parsons turbine each driving a propeller. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). On paying special attention to the latter, the following project deals with designing of a steam turbine. Why has the triple expansion steam engine being replaced by steam turbine, the answer is in this project. To discover more about steam turbines of seagoing vessels and how it is designed, take a look at the technical challenge put forth by this project.

INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. The speed of the steam jet is dependent on the rate of expansion, it had long been known and built into reciprocating engines, that a vacuum, or partial vacuum, at the exhaust end of the engine would create a higher pressure ratio between input and output and so impart more energy to the pistons, this vacuum is the main function of the condenser in which cooling steam is used to create a drop in pressure below that of atmosphere. Parsons idea was to reverse that function and create an exhaust that was pressurized, but still below that of the feed. This effectively resulted in a smaller pressure drop between feed and exhaust and a slower steam jet. By repeating this process a number of times most of the energy from the steam jet can be extracted without the turbine having to destroy itself.

A simple turbine schematic of the Parsons type, rotating and fixed stators alternate and steam pressure drops by a fraction of the total across each pair, the stators grow larger as pressure drops.

There are 2 types of turbines depending on their operation, i.e. an impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".

In reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Let U=Blade speed C i = velocity of steam at inlet to blade, i.e. leaving nozzle (giving nozzle angle) C i rel = velocity of steam relative to the blade (giving blade inlet angle)

C o = Velocity of steam at outlet of blade

Parsons Impulse-Reaction

The original blade design was thin section with a convergent path. The designed blades similar to bull nose impulse blades which allowed for a convergent-divergent path. However due to the greater number of stages the system did not find favor over impulse systems U/Ci = 0.9

If the heat drop across the fixed and moving blades are equal the design is known as half degree reaction. Steam velocity was kept small on early designs; this allowed the turbine to be directly coupled to the prop shaft. Increased boiler pressure and temperature meant that the expansion had to take place over multiple rotors and gear set. As there is full admission over the initial stage, blade height is kept low. This feature alone causes a decrease in blade and nozzle efficiency at part loading. In addition, although clearances at the blade tips are kept as small as practical, steam leakage causes a proportionally higher loss of work extracted per unit steam. Blade tip clearances may be kept very tight so long as the rotor is kept at steady state. Manoeuvring, however, introduces variable pressures and temperatures and hence an allowance must be made.

End tightening for blades is normally used. This refers to an axial extension of the blade shroud forming a labyrinth. When the rotor is warmed through a constant check is made on the axial position of the rotor. Only when the rotor has reached its normal working length may load be introduced. Alternatively tip tightening may be used referring to the use of the tips of the blade to form a labyrinth against the casing/rotor. This system is requires a greater allowance for loading and is not now generally used. To keep annular leakage as small as possible these rotors tend to have a smaller diameter than impulse turbines. To keep the mass flow the same with the increasing specific volume related to the drop in pressure requires an increase in axial velocity, blade height or both -see above. Altering the blade angle will also give the desired effect but if adopted would cause increased manufacturing cost as each stage would have to be individual. Generally the rotor and blading is stepped in batches with each batch identical. The gland at the HP end is subjected to full boiler conditions and is susceptible to rub. The casing must be suitably designed and manufactured

from relevant materials. A velocity compounded wheel is often used as the first stage(s) giving a large drop in conditions allowing simpler construction of casing and rotor and reducing length. Special steels are limited to the nozzle box. TURBINE CONSTRUCTION Vertical Casting

Only the bottom part of the ingot is used. Rough Forging It is a requirement that forgings are heavily worked. Any small holes or defects can become hammer welded together. No forging is carried out below the plastic flow temperature as this can lead to work hardening. Forging will allow continuous grain flow. Ultimate tensile stress and elongation checked. This must be near

enough equal in all 3 directions.

After rough machining it is put in for a thermal stability test. For this final machining is given to the areas indicated. The end flange is marked at 90' intervals. Then the rotor is encased in a furnace. Pokers are placed onto the machined areas and accurate micrometer readings taken. The rotor is rotated though 4 positions marked on the flange. The rotor is then heated to 28 0 C above normal operating temperature and slowly rotated. Measurement is then taken at hourly intervals until 3 consistent readings are taken (hence the rotor has stopped warping). The rotor is then allowed to cool and a set disparity allowed. For turbine sets operated at greater than 28'C above their designed superheat then run the risk of heavy warping as well as high temperature corrosion and creep. Final machining is now given. The rotor is statically balanced and then dynamically balanced and check to ensure homogeneity. The rotor is bladed then again dynamically balanced.

TECHNICAL CHALLENGE In a ships propulsion steam turbine installation following data available:-

The turbine is a multistage pressure compounded impulse type with each stage producing equal power. No steam is bled of at any stage of the machine. 1. Turbine rotor speed 6000 r.p.m. 2. Maximum shaft power 13.5 Mw 3. Input steam conditions 55 bar 5000C 4. Exhaust steam conditions 2 bar 1500 C 5. Steam consumption 78 tonnes/hr 6. Nozzle angle for all stages 200 C 7. Diameter of forged discs for all stages 540 mm 8. Overall length of shaft between inner edges of bearing 1290 mm 9. Density of rotor and blade material 7856 kg/m3 QUESTIONS:1. Calculate velocity of steam at the end of 1st stage nozzle box.

Given Pressure at the outlet of the nozzle = 40 bar Nozzle efficiency= 93% 2. Calculate the blade angles assuming blades are symmetrical and mean blade speed for the first stage = 175 m/s 3. Calculate power developed per stage considering blade friction factor = 0.9 4. Calculate blade efficiency. 5. Calculate 1ST stage blade height. 6. Calculate number of stages required for developing the required power. 7. Calculate the blade height and radial stress exerted by the blades in last stage. 8. Show that the rotor shaft can be designed as 140 mm diameter. Take allowable shear stress = 41MN/m2 9. Calculate mass of rotor shaft between the bearing supports, frequency of transverse vibration and first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. Assumptions: (a) Exclude mass of the disc (b) Rotor shaft mass as uniformly distributed E = 200 X 109 N/m2 10. Determine natural frequency of transverse vibration of the loaded shaft and the first critical speed in r.p.s. Hence calculate the critical speed of the complete rotor system. 11. a. Discuss important properties of ideal blade material b. What is blade erosion and how is it prevented?

c. Find the length of the bearing. Allowable pressure in the bearing = 254KN/m2

SOLUTION:Notations used:C a i = velocity absolute at inlet C a e = velocity absolute at exit C b = blade velocity = constant C w = whirl velocity i = blade inlet angle C f i & C f e = inlet and exit flow velocity respectively C r i & C r e = inlet and exit resultant velocity respectively Calculate:1) Velocity of steam at the end of first stage nozzle box. Given: pressure at outlet of nozzle = 40 bar Nozzle efficiency = 93 % Pressure at the outlet of the nozzle = 40 bar From steam tables, Enthalpy at nozzle inlet, h 1 = 3433.3 KJ/kg (at 55 bar 5000 C) Enthalpy at nozzle outlet, h 2 = 3329.97 KJ/kg & h 2s = 3322.2 KJ/kg Since, nozzle efficiency =

h 1 - h 2 = 0.93 (h1 h 2s ) = 0.93 (3433.33 3322.2) h 1 h 2 = 103.32 KJ/kg Velocity of steam at the end of 1st stage nozzle box, C
ai

=2 X (h1 h2)

= 2 X (103.32 X 10) = 454.58 m/s 2)Calculate blade angles assuming blades are symmetrical and mean blade speed for 1st stage = 175 m/s C
b

for first stage = 175 m/s & Nozzle angle = 200

From the combined velocity diagram Sin =

Cf i = Ca i Sin = 454.58 Sin 20 = 155.47 m/s And also, Cos =

.

Cos 200 =

BE = 252.07 m/s and then Tan i =

i = tan (

) = tan (

. .

 i = 31.67 0

3)Calculate power developed per stage considering blade friction factor = 0.9 We know that , Blade friction factor = 0.9 x Cr i = Cr e From the combined velocity diagram, Whirl velocity, Cw = Cr i X cos i + Cr e X cos e Where Cr i = =
. .

Cr i = 296.26 m/s Cr e = 0.9 x 296.26 = 266.7 m/s On substituting the values, we get CW = (296.26 X cos 31.67) + (266.7 X cos 31.7) = 479.23 m/s Steam consumption per hour = 78 tonnes. Then steam consumption per sec = Power per stage = m (Cb X CW)

= 21.67 kg/s

= 21.67 (175 X 479.23) = 1.81 MW 4)Calculate blade efficiency Blade efficiency =

Where, power available = m CW2

= X 21.67 X 479.232

= 2.238 MW Substitute the values in above equation Blade efficiency =

. .

= 0.8087 = 80.87 % 5)Calculate first stage blade height Assuming 25% of the annular circumference is covered, Coverage of steam area wise = circumference of the nozzle x height of blade = D X height Where D = diameter of forged disc Coverage of steam area wise = x 0.54 x height Area = 1.696 x height x 0.25

We know that, area x velocity of flow (axial velocity) Cf i = volume of flow of steam From steam table at 40 bar, specific volume = 0.08634 m3/kg. Substituting the value, we get, 1.696 x height x 0.25 x 155.47 = 0.08634 x 21.67 Height of blade in first stage = 28.38 mm 28.5 mm 6)Calculate number of stages required for developing the required power From the steam tables , hi = 3433.32 KJ/kg he = 2768.5 KJ/kg. then total power = m (hi - he) = 21.67 (3433.3 2768.5) X 103 = 14.325 MJ/s Then, the no. of stages = =
. .

7.933 = 8 stages 7)Calculate the blade height and radial stress exerted by the blades in the last stage

 Area = circumference of the nozzle X height X 0.25 = D X height X 0.25, Where D= 0.54 m Area = 1.696 x 0.25 x height Then, area x velocity of flow (Cf e) = volume of flow of steam Cf e =sin e X Cr e = sin 31.67 X 266.7 = 140 m/s - (from combined velocity diagram) From a steam table at 2 bar and 1500C, the specific volume = 0.9595 m3/kg Therefore, 1.696 x 0.25 x height x 140 = 0.9595 x 21.67 Height of the blade in last stage = 350.27 mm 350.5 mm Radial stress exerted by the blade = = =

= hxx r = 0.35027 x 7856 x 628.312 x 0.4451 Where=

= 628.31 rad/sec

r = disc radius + height of the blade = 0.542 + 0.350272 = 0.4451 m 8)Show that the rotor shaft can be designed as 140 mm diameter. Take allowable shear stress = 41 MN/m2 and total mass of the rotor and disc =580 kg Mass of rotor shaft and blade = 580 kg (Given) Length of the shaft between the inner edges of bearings l = 1290 mm = 12.9 m = 449.61 kg/m Bending moment acting on the shaft = WL 8 Mass per unit length =
.

= we know that, Maximum shaft power P =

.

. . .

= 917.48 Nm

Then the torque acting on the rotor shaft T =

Equivalent torque = T + B. M. = 21.485 + 0.917 = 21.5 kNm TEQ = 21.5 kNm Since by the torsion equation,

. (1)

Where = allowable shear stress = 41 MN/m2

J = polar modulus of inertia =

r = d2 = diameter of the rotor shaft2 From equation (1)

T d = 2.67 d = 138.74 mm 140 mm

3

= 21.5 x 103 = 41 x 106

x x

Therefore d=140 mm is perfectly suitable. 9)Calculate mass of the rotor shaft of transverse vibration, first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. Mass of the rotor shaft between bearing support = 7856 x 1.29 x x 0.142 = 156 kg

Moment of inertia of rotor Ig = x d4

x 0.144

= 1.8857 x 10 -5 m4

The frequency of transverse vibration fn =

.
. .

= 166.69 Hz Since we know that, first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.s. = the frequency of transverse vibrations = 166.69 r.p.s. 10) Determine natural frequency of transverse vibration of the loaded shaft and the first critical speed in r.p.s. Hence calculate the critical speed of the complete rotor system. According to Dunkerleys formula, natural frequency of transverse vibration of the blade shaft, fn =
. /.

and the deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to a pointload =

The rotor shaft is subjected to point load, by 8 stage rotor blade, equidistantly placed Weight of the blade W=
( ) .

= 519.93 N

Since, i. a = 0.143 m and b = 1.147 m 1 =

. . . . .

= 9.58 x 10-7 m ii. a = 0.286 m and b = 1.004 m 2 =

. . . . .

= 2.937 x 10-6 m iii. a = 0.429 m and b = 0.861 m 3 =

. . . . .

= 4.86 x 10-6 m iv. a = 0.572 m and b = 0.718 m 4 =

. . . . .

= 6 x 106 m v. a = 0.715 m and b = 0.575 m 5 =

. . . . .

= 6.021 x 10-6 m

vi.

a 6 =

0.858 =

and

0.432

. . . . .

= 4.89 x 10-6 m vii. a 7 = =

1.001 =

and

0.289

. . . . .

= 2.98 x 10-6 m viii. a = 1.144 m and b = 0.146 m 8 =

. . . . .

= 9.937 x 10-6 m 1 + 2 + + 8 = 9.58 x 10-7 m + 2.937 x 10-6 m + 4.86 x 10-6 m + 6 x 106 m + 6.021 x 10-6 m + 4.89 x 10-6 m + 2.98 x 106 m + 9.937 x 10-6 m = 2.964 x 10-5 m Hence the natural frequency of transverse vibration of blade shaft f n=
.

. .

= 91.5 Hz

The first critical speed in r.p.s = 91.5 r.p.s.

Considering the mass of the rotor shaft only, the weight of the shaft per meter W= For 8= =
. .

= 1186.32 N UDL the deflection is

x x

. . .

= 1.1342 X 10-5 m By Dunkerleys formula fn =

. /.

= 80.267 r.p.s. 81 . . . 11. a. Discuss important properties of ideal blade material. -> Properties expected out of the blade material depends on portion
of blade in turbine. Good high temperature strength and resistance to creep is required at high pressure turbine inlet The L.P. rotor is high strength to withstand the high centrifugal stresses generated by long last row blades and it also has to avoid any tendency for brittleness at relatively low temperatures which exists at this exhaust side of machine.

b. What is blade erosion and how is it prevented?

The turbine blade undergoes severe corrosion in lower stages whilst high strength is required for highly stressed long L.P. turbine blade. The material used in L.P. turbine blade should resist corrosion although additional measures are also taken to avoid erosion. Manufacturing of blades in various grade 12- 13% chrome steel to give required property depending on position of blade in turbine. Additional toughness is provided by use of tungsten, molybdenum, steel especially for L.P. turbine. Stellite coating is given on L.P. turbine blade but if coating is given it is very dangerous. Tungsten is coated to give toughness for 10000 -15000 hrs running of blade, the blades may be replaced. Shield is also provided only for longer durability of blade, no blade can last forever. Creep will occur, very slowly but suddenly in blade but fatigue normally doesnt occur, erosion shield is assisting to fight with erosion. Reheating of steam mechanism Advantages of reheating are that it increases the work done through turbine; it increases the efficiency of the turbine, reduced erosion of blade because of increase in dryness fraction of steam at exhaust. Amount of water required in condenser of turbine is reduced due to reduction in specific steam consumption, a slot (special dog tail) design is cut on the wheel and in this blade is fitted in sliding and they are tied up by tool. Heat the blades and hammer on sides to remove blades, on it can be cut up. Blade root grooves are of various types viz. fir tree, dove tailed, Tgrooves. Wire lashing is done on blades together to prevent bending of blades.

c. Find the length of the bearing. Allowable pressure in the bearing = 254KN/m2
Mass of rotor of blade = allowable pressure X projected area

 9.81 x 580 = 250 X 102 X 0.14 X L L= 0.16 m = 160 mm

CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS

Why has the steam turbine replaced the steam engines? Ans: Steam turbine has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Even in Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. The advent of large steam turbines made central-station electricity generation practical, since reciprocating steam engines of large rating became very bulky, and operated at slow speeds. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. The problem was one of basic engineering: the reciprocating engine utilizes the pressure of steam, but the turbine principle uses the speed of steam, and that is fast, 2,000 mph is fairly typical of a moderate power boiler. In order to utilize that energy the turbine blades have to rotate at least have the speed of the steam jet. Even by the 1880's it was just not possible to construct a device that could rotate at those speeds without melting or flying apart, probably both.

What are the various sizes of a steam turbine? Ans: Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <1 hp (<0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. What are the various types of classifying a modern steam turbine depending upon steam supply and exhaust conditions? Ans: These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction. Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available. Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near

90%,

at

pressure

well

below

atmospheric

to

condenser.

Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion.

Extracting type turbines or Regenerative turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

What are the casing or shaft arrangements in a steam turbine? Ans: These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications. What is the principle of operation and design of steam turbine?

Ans: An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage. What are the measures to enhance the efficiency of steam turbine? Ans: To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type. Explain the starting procedure of a steam turbine. Ans: When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine. What are the problems caused due to incorrect warming up procedure? Ans: The main object of warming through is to ensure straightness of the rotor. To do this a negligible temperature gradient must exist throughout the rotor. There is a tendency for the rotor to hog where the steam is introduced( that is to say the rotor bends due to temperature gradient rather than sagging under gravitational forces) with the rotor steam is introduced. Hence the rotor must be rotated. The graph below indicates the importance of this.

The line is the out of balance force due to centrifugal force equal to the mass of the rotor. Hence, the offset at 3000rpm to cause an out of balance equivalent to the mass of the rotor is 0.102 mm. Testing of the engines after shut down ahead and astern should be taken as part of the warming through process. Close watch of the relevant nozzle box temperatures is a good indication of the condition of the turbine. Second object of warming through is to prevent distortion of the casing. Rotation of the rotor churns up the steam and provides adequate mixing. With underslung condensers the temperature gradient is virtually unavoidable, hence separate condensers are better. The third objective is to prevent thermal stresses caused by the temperature gradient in thick materials such as at the bolt flanges. Vertical slots are often provided to help alleviate this problem, this distortion can also lead to non concentricity of the casing

This is particularly prevalent in open cylinder designs such as axial plane or double casings. Heat transfer rate is at its greatest where the steam is condensing on the surface of the casing. This in turn is governed by the inlet pressure of the warming through steam. Hence, warming

through in steps providing adequate period to stabilize the temperature at each step. Complete warming through cannot occur until nearly at full power, hence, warming through much above atmospheric saturation temperature is pointless. Also as part of the LP turbine runs at lower temperature, warming above 100oC is unnecessary. Protracted warming through periods are unnecessary. A temperature of 82oC at the LP inlet belt in 30 mins is acceptable Vibration caused by an out of balance of the rotor may be alleviated by running for a short period at reduced engine speed followed by a slow increase in speed. What are the possible failures and their causes in a modern steam turbine and what are the design features to avoid them? Ans: Problems with modern steam turbines are rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching straight through the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry steam - that is, superheated steam with minimal liquid water content. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover), rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine. How is speed control achieved in a steam turbine? Ans: The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as main propulsion unit or the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials. During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network without hunting and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.

Project #6 STEERING GEAR Amoco Cadiz was a very large crude carrier (VLCC), owned by Amoco, that ran aground on Portsall Rocks, 5 km (3.1 mi) from the coast of Brittany, France, on 16 March 1978, and ultimately split in three and sank, all together resulting in the largest oil spill of its kind in history to that date. What was the reason of such an catastrophic disaster. The answer is in this project.

INTRODUCTION
The direction of the ship is controlled by the steering gear. As the ship moves through the water, the angle of the rudder at the stern determines the direction it will move. Modern ships are so big that moving the rudder necessitates the use of hydraulics or electrical power. The steering starts at the Bridge. The required rudder angle is transmitted hydraulically or electrically from the steering wheel at the Bridge to the telemotor at the steering gear, just above the rudder. There are a few common arrangements for using hydraulic power. There are the 4-rams, 2-rams, and rotary vane types. The heart of these hydraulic systems is the variable delivery pump. This type of pump can be controlled by just moving a spindle. The pump is driven by an electrical motor at constant speed. By moving the control spindle away from the central point, the pump stroke increases, and the hydraulic fluid is pumped in one direction. Moving the spindle more from the central point will cause more fluid to be pumped and consequently more pressure is generated to drive the rams. Moving the control

spindle back to the original position and then away in the opposite direction causes the hydraulic fluid to be pumped in the reversed direction. The rams will also move in the reversed direction. By using a floating lever feedback mechanism, when the rudder stock has reached the desired angle, the pump control lever moves back to the original position, and the pumping action stops. The rudder is stopped at the required angle. Moving the steering wheel to the opposite direction will cause the rudder to come back to the original zero position.

TECHNICAL CHALLENGE A vessel of 10,000 Tonnes displacement has LBP 120m, Breadth 15.6m and loaded draught 6.7m, fitted with a semi-balanced rudder having a single guide pintle operated by a 2 Ram electro-hydraulic steering gear (see accompanying sketch) has the following particulars. It is required to design a hydraulic steering gear with the help of information available and using a Rapson slide mechanism. S.No PARTICULARS VALUE 16 knots 35 100bar 75MN/m2 120MN/m2 50MN/m2

(a) Maximum speed of vessel (S) (b) Maximum rudder angle () (c) Maximumworkingpressureonrams (d) Allowable Shear stress in rudder stock (e) (f) Allowable bending stress in tiller arm Allowable hoop stress in ram cylinders

(g) Stroke of rams from mid-ship to hard-over (h) Time taken from mid-ship to hard-over (i) (j) (k) (l) Ram packing thickness Variable delivery pump efficiency Motor efficiency Vertical distance of rudder top from rudder stock bearing

0.6m 7.5 sec 20mm 70% 90% 0.4 m

Horizontal distance of center of press on rudder from leading (m) edge of rudder is given by x = (0.195 + 0.305 Sin ) b, where b is the breadth of the rudder & = rudder angle Force acting on the rudder is given by F = 577 X A X V2 Sin Newtons, where A is the area of the rudder in m2 , V is velocity of water passed in m/sec, and may be assumed to be (n) maximum speed of the vessel (S) 16 knots for ahead running and 50% of vessels speed for astern running. ( is the angle subtended between rudder and center line of the ship) Rudder area for fast ships and slow ships are 1/60th or 1/70th (o) of middle line area respectively. (p) Suitable relief valves to be provided to prevent high pressure in cylinder due to abnormal conditions.

(q) Height: breadth of the rudder is 1.5:1 (r) Owner requires 10% increase in rudder stock dia. over calculated value.

Calculate:-

A. (i) Find rudder area and dimensions; (ii) Maximum force on the rudder; (iii) Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock with lower pintle in place and without lower pintle. (iv) Calculate rudder stock dia. allowing 20% increase for undue forces and compare the values with diameter without lower pintle. (v) Diameters of the rams so that the component of the force acting on the tiller arm is sufficient to counter balance the torque due to the force on the rudder. Accepted ram diameter should be a multiple of 10. (vi) Diameters of tiller arm assuming that the maximum stress occurs at the junction of the tiller arm to the boss for rudder stock (600mm. from center of rudder stock). (vii) Thickness of ram cylinder using Thin Cylinder Theory for approximation and then rounding up to a suitable figure. (viii) Motor power, rpm and shaft diameter given that the shear stress in the motor shaft is limited to 50MN/m2 and the motor driving variable delivery pump is a 4-pole induction motor connected to 440v, 3-phase, 50Hz supply mains. Full load slip is 4% with the 0.8 lagging Power Factor Motor should run at 85% MCR and available motor power ratings are multiple of 5. (ix) Calculate the capacity of pump considering probable losses where co-efficient discharge of pump is 0.94.

B. With the help of isometric drawing supplied draw:Elevation in section at the center line of the rams with rams, trunnion and the right ram cylinder in place clearly showing the

allowance for rudder drop. (Tiller arm and the boss are not to be shown in this view.)

C. (i) Why the rudder stock is preferred to be more than 230mm dia.? What are the requirements in SOLAS pertaining to above criteria? (ii) What arrangement is required to protect the steering gear from damage due to jumping in rough sea? (iii) How wear down of rudder carrier bearing is measured?

Steering Gear

Displacement = 10000 tonnes. LBP= 20m Breadth = 15.6m Loaded Draught = 6.7m Semi-balanced rudders with single guide pintle operated by 2 ram electro-hydraulic steering gear. The steering gear uses Rapson slide mechanism. a) Max speed of vessel = 16 knots b) Max rudder angle = 35 c)Maxworkingpressureonrams100bar d) Allowable shear stress in rudder stock = 75 MN/m2 e) Allowable bending stress in tiller arm = 120 MN/m2 f) Allowable hoop stress in ram cylinders = 50 MN/m2 g) Stroke of ram from mid-ship to hard over = 0.6 m h) Ram packing thickness = 20 mm i) Variable delivery pump efficiency = 70% j) Motor efficiency = 90% k) Vertical distance of rudder top from rudder stock bearing = 0.4 mm

A (a) Rudder Area and Dimensions The area of rudder is added to the area of the immersed middle plane value at this ratio normally between 60 and 70. Since speed of vessel is 60 knots, we can use area formula as

 Area of Rudder =

Where L = LBP in m = 120 m H = Max loaded draught = 6.7 m A=

A = 13.4 m2 Rudder area is 13.4 m2 But = 1.5

h = 1.5 b Where h = height of rudder in meters b = breadth of rudder in meters Area of rudder = h X b 13.4 = 1.5 b X b b = 2.98 m h = 1.5 X 2.98 h = 4.48 m These are the dimensions of the rudder (b) Maximum force on Rudder Force acting on the rudder is given by F = 577 X A X V2 X sin

Where A = area of rudder in m2 = 13.4 m2 V = velocity of water passed in m/s = 16 knots = (16 X 0.5144) / = Angle subtended between rudder and the center line of the ship for maximum force = 35 F = 577 X 13.4 X(16 X 0.5144) 2 X sin 35
P

Max Force on Rudder = 300.38 KN

(c) Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock with lower pintle. Since it can be treated as a SSB, when rudder is supported by lower pintle, the max Bending movement is given by F = 4 + - R For equilibrium F = R Max B.M. = 300.38 0.4 + 4.48 300.38 4.48 X
R

103 = 567.718 KN-m Also Max torque = Force X Distance from axis =F Where a = x - 0.7 = (0.195 + 0.305sin ) b 0.7
X

b = 2.98 m a = (0.195 + 0.305sin 35) X 2.98 - 0.7 = 1.1 - 0.7 a = 0.4 m Max Torque = F X a = 300.38 X 103 X 0.4 = 120.152 KN-m

Maximum Bending movement and Torque on the rudder stock without lower pintle. Max Torque will be same for rudder having lower pintle and without lower pintle Max. Torque = 120.152 KN-m

Since it is cantilever beam, when it is considered for rudder without lower pintle Max. B.M. = Force X Distance from rudder stock bearing to C.O.P =FXL Where L = 0.4 + h = 0.4 + X 4.48

= 3.38 m B.M. = 300.38

X

3.38

103

= 1015.28 KN-m

(d) Diameter of Rudder stock with lower pintle The equivalent torque is given by T eq =(M ) + (T ) As we have already found max B.M. and max Torque with lower pintle T eq =(567.718) + (120.152) = 580.29 KN-m 20% increase has to be done for undue forces T eq =580.29 +

X 580.29

= 696.349 KN-m W.K.T. T eq =

d3 f s

f s = allowable shear stress in rudder stock = 75 MN/m2 = 75 X 106 N/m2 d3 = 16

d = 0.3616 m d = 361.6 mm d 370 mm This is the diameter of rudder stock with lower pintle.

Rudder stock diameter without lower pintle Eq. Torque, T eq = (M ) + (T )

=(1015.28) + (120.152) = 1022.36 KN-m As per undue forces, we have increased the eq. torque by 20% T eq = 1022.36
X

1.2

= 1226.832KN-m W.K.T. T eq = d = 16
3

3 d fs .

d = 0.4367 m d = 436.7 mm d 450 mm This is the diameter of the rudder stock without lower pintle. (e) Diameter of Rams Torque due to force on Rudder = 120.152 KN-m W.K.T. Force = Pressure = P X d2

X

Area

= 100 X 105 X d2

Force = 7853.9816 d2 KN From Triangle OAB cos 35 =

AB = 0.6 m = stroke of ram OA = 0.6 X cos 35= 0.8569 m Torque due to force = F X perpendicular distance of ram from rudder stock = 7853.9816 d2 X 0.8569 = 6730.0768 d2 As torque due to force on Rudder = torque due to tiller force on ram 120.152 X 103 = 6730.0768 d2 d = 0.135 m d = 135 mm d 140 mm [diashouldbeamultipleof10] Force = 7853.9181
X

0.1352

= 143.138 KN (f) Diameter of tiller arm (d) Length of tiller arm = 0.856 0.6 = 0.256 m B.M. on tiller arm = Max Force X r Distance = 141.138 X 103 X 0.256
P

= 36.643 KN-m

d = d =

= 145 mm (g) Thickness of Ram cylinder By thin cylinder theory, we know thickness t=

Where P = max. Working pressure on rams = 100 bar = 100

X

105 X N/m2

d = diameter of ram = 0.14 m = 140 mm f = allowable hoop stress in ram cylinder = 50 MN/m2 t=
.

t = 14 mm

(h) Motor power, rpm, and shaft dia. W.K.T. Voltage V = 440v Current I = 20 A Frequency F = 50 Hz No of poles P = 4 cos = 0.8 (lag) Motor power = 3 V I cos = 3 X 440 X 20 X 0.8 Motor power = 12.193 KW
R

Since power rating should be multiple of 5 Motor power = 15 KW W.K.T. Synchronous Speed, N s = =

= 1500 rpm % slip = =

R

100
X 100

N = 1440 rpm Shear stress in motor shaft = 50MN/m2 W.K.T. Power = T=

T = 99.47 N-m But, torque T = d3 f s

d3 =

d3 =

d = 0.0216 m d = 21.6 mm As the diameter should be multiple of 5 d = 25 mm

This the diameter of motor shaft (i) Capacity of pumps C d = 0.94 (given) Cd =
. .

Q Th = area of flow X velocity of flow = Velocity of flow =

Stroke of ram from midship to hard over Time taken from midship to hard over

= Q Th = X

0 .6 7 .5
2

0.14 4

0 .6 7 .5
X

= 1.23

10-3 m3/s

Actual discharge, Q act = C d X Q Th = 0.94

X

4.43

= 4.16 m3/s Now considering probable losses. Pump efficiency = 70% Qact = 4.16
X

0.7

= 2.917 m3/s Qact 3 m3/hr. Actual discharge of pump is 3 m3/hr. Rotor shaft dia.

W.K.T. Torsional eq. of shaft.

T

J=

32

d4 (Polar movement of inertia of shaft)

d = Dia. of Shaft f = shear stress = 41 X 106 N/m

R

R=

T = Torque acting

T=

fs J R

= =

fs

4 d 32 d 2 3

fs d 16

Now W.K.T. Equivalent Torque, T eq = M + T M Bending Movement, T Torque Also given length between bearing = 1290 mm Mass of Rotor and drive = 580 Kg Shaft of turbine is considered as UDL with w/unit length
580 . 2 2

Wt. per unit length, w =

w = 449.612 kg/m B.M. due to load, M =

w2 8

Which can be calculated as follows:Now total load on turbine rotor shaft

Wt Length

Length

=wXl Two reaction supports =

wl 2

(for each)

Now total weight is acting through the center of the shaft downwards Now taking moment about center pt. considering left of reaction Moment due to reaction =
wl 2

=
2

w2 4 wl 2

Moment due to wt. of half beam = Net B.M. =

w2

X =
4

w2 8

w2 8

w2 8

Subs. we get, w = 449.612 kg/m l = 1.29 B.M. = W.K.T. P= T= T=

2 60 60 2
449.612 1. 29 9.81
2

= 917.48 N-m

P = 13.5

106 W

60 135 106 = 2 6000

21.48 KN-m

Eq. Torque, T eq = T + M

T eq = (21.48)2 + (0.917)2 T eq = 21.5 KN-m T eq = 3 =

3 16 .

d = 0.1387 m d = 138.7 mm = dia. of rotor shaft d 140 mm Mass of Rotor Mass of rotor = density X volume =e Xl XA Area of cross-section of shaft = A = d2

dia. of shaft, d = 140 mm Area, A =

R

0.142

A = 0.01539 m2 e = density of shaft material = 7856 kg/m3 Length = 1.29 m Mass of rotor = 156 kg

Mass of rotor/m = 156/1.29 = 120.934 kg/m W.K.T. freq. of transverse vibration fn= 2
EI
4

Ml

E = mod. Of elasticity of shaft material = 200 I = Moment of Inertia of shaft I=

109 N/m2

d4=

(0.14)4 = 1.885

10-5 m4 X

Subs we get.

fn=

. . (.) . .

f n = .

f n = 53.211 Hz First critical speed is N c = 53.211 Hz CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS Describe the sequence of events in the accident of Amoco Cadiz. En route from the Persian Gulf to Rotterdam, Netherlands, via a scheduled stop at Lyme Bay, Great Britain, the ship encountered stormy weather with gale conditions and high seas while in the English Channel. At around 09:45, a heavy wave hit the ship's rudder and it was found that she was no longer responding to the helm. This was due to the shearing of Whitworth thread studs in the Hastie four ram steering gear, built under licence in Spain, causing a loss of hydraulic fluid. Attempts to repair the damage

were made but proved unsuccessful. While the message "no longer manoeuvrable" and asking other vessels to stand by was transmitted at 10:20, no call for tug assistance was issued until 11:20. Amoco Cadiz contained 1,604,500 barrels (219,797 tons) of light crude oil from Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia and Kharg Island, Iran. Severe weather resulted in the complete breakup of the ship before any oil could be pumped out of the wreck, resulting in its entire cargo of crude oil (belonging to Shell) and 4,000 tons of fuel oil being spilled into the sea.

All cargo ships are required to be registered with concerned Administration as per Merchant Shipping Act. The Registrar issues the Certificate of Registry. In India ships can be registered in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The Principal Officer of M.M.D in each above individually acts as the Registrar of Indian Ships under Act. STATUTORY CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS FOR MERCHANT SHIPS
Cargo Ships Foreign going (all in original)
CERTIFICATES International Tonnage Certificate (1969) International Load line Certificate (1966) International Load line Exemption Certificate Minimum Safe Manning document Certificates of masters, officers and ratings Tonnage Computation Booklet Intact Stability Booklet with damage calculations VALIDITY Valid for lifetime unless major change in construction. Valid five years with annual and intermediate surveys Same as above CONVENTION International Tonnage Convention 1969 ILLC 1966 and protocol of 1988 Same as above SURVEY Surveyed by Class, measurements are taken, computed. Surveyed by Class ISSUANCE Issued by Registrar or others assigned for such job as per M.S Act Issued by Head quarters of Classification Society Same as above

Surveyed by Class

Valid for lifetime unless major change in constrn. As applicable under competence Valid for lifetime unless major change in construction. Valid for lifetime unless major change in construction

SOLAS 1974 (1989 amendments) STCW 1995 code International Tonnage Convention 1969 SOLAS 1974 regulation II-1/22 including calculations part B 25 regn 1-10

M.M.D M.M.D

Issued by The Principal officer M.M.D Issued by The Principal officer M.M.D Checked by M.M.D and finally approved by D.G.S (Indian Ships) Same as above

Surveyed by Class, measurements are taken, computed Same as above

For oil tankers above 150 GRT and other ships above 400 GRT
IOPP Certificate + Record of construction as per Regulation Oil Record Book Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (3copies) SOPEP Valid five years with annual and intermediate surveys Continuous record document As governed by IOPP MARPOL 73/78 annex I regulation 5 MARPOL 73/78 annex I regulation 20 MARPOL 73/78 annex I regulation 26 Surveyed by Class Issued by the Principal officer (Registrar) of M.M.D As approved by the Flag State Same as above

Same as above Same as above

In addition to all above cargo ships including tankers must have following in original
Safety Construction Certificate (SAFECON) Safety Equipment Certificate (500 GRT and above) Safety Equipment Plan and Record of Safety Equipment Safety Radio Telegraphy/Telephony or GMDSS Exemption certificate Safety Equipment DOC Special requirement for ships with dangerous cargo Dangerous goods Manifest Valid five years with annual and intermediate surveys Valid Five years & annual (HSSC effective since year 2000) Record issued every Full term survey Valid Five years & annual (HSSC effective since year 2000) If required as per SEC and valid same term As and when required to carry dangerous cargo Stowage Plan as required SOLAS 1974 as amended and GMDSS SOLAS 1974 Chapter II-2, III and COLGEG 1972 Same as above Surveyed by Class Issued by the Principal officer (Registrar) of M.M.D Issued by the Principal officer of concerned M.M.D Plan approved by D.G.S and Record issued with Safety Equipment Certificate. Issued by the Principal officer of concerned M.M.D Issued by the Principal officer of M.M.D

Surveyed by M.M.D Surveyors Scrutiny and check by M.M.D Surveyors

SOLAS Chapter IV as amended SOLAS 1974 Regulation I/12 SOLAS 1974 Regulation II/54 SOLAS 1974 Regulation VII, MARPOL annex III/4

Surveyed by Radio Inspector of M.M.D Surveyed by M.M.D Surveyor

Document of authorization for carriage of Grain Certificate of Insurance or other financial security in respect of civil liability Enhanced Survey Report file

As required where grain is required to be carried As per terms of agreement with regard to oil pollution damage TOVALOP

SOLAS 1974 as amended Chapter VI Regulation 9 CLC 1969 article VII

SOLAS 1974 Chapter XI/2, MARPOL annex I Regulation 13G

In addition to all above ships carrying noxious liquid chemicals in bulk shall carry
International pollution prevention certificate for carriage of noxious liquid in bulk (NLS) Certificate of fitness for carriage of NLS in bulk OR International certificate of fitness Cargo Record Book Valid five years subject to annual and intermediate surveys as applicable Same as above Same as above In support of above MARPOL 73/78 Annex II Regulation 12/12a BCH code Section 1.6 IBC code Section 1.5 MARPOL Annex II/9 Surveyed by Class Surveyor Certificate issued by The Registrar of ship

Same as above Same as above Same as above

Same as above Same as above Same as above

For Gas Carriers

Certificate of fitness for carriage of liquefied gasses in bulk OR International Certificate of fitness Valid five years subject to annual and intermediate Surveys Same as above GC code Section 1.6 Surveyed by Class Surveyor Certificate issued by The Registrar of Ship

IGC code Section 1.5

Same as above

Same as above

For passenger ships

Passenger Ship Safety Certificate Passenger Ship Exemption Certificate Special Trade Passenger Ship Certificate Special Trade Passenger Ship Space Certificate Valid one year only SOLAS/MARPOL/ILLC all combined as required SOLAS 1974 Regulation I/2 as amended STP agreement 1971 Regulation 6 SSTP agreement 1973 Regulation 5 Surveyed by MMD and Class Surveyors Surveyed by MMD Surveyors Same as above Certificate issued by The Registrar of ship Same as above Same as above

Same as above Same as above

Same as above

Same as above

Same as above

For high-speed crafts as defined by M.S Rules requires a SAFETY CERTIFICATE in compliance with Chapter X of SOLAS as amended
With reference to Chapter IX of SOLAS as amended ships to which ISM applies
Document of compliance (Certified copy) DOC Safety Management Certificate SMC Valid five years subject to annual and intermediate audits SOLAS 1974 Chapter IX + ISM provisos as amended Audit conducted by competent lead auditor/s as approved by the flag state Same as above Flag State or a competent authority on behalf of Flag State

Same as above

Same as above

Same as above

All such ships must possess elaborate SAFETY MANNUAL as document on board

International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the nucleus for origination of all shipping Regulations by way of holding conventions. Various maritime countries all over the globe are signatory members to IMO. These countries usually send representatives to IMOs conventions when held. All such valid signatory members of IMO are also termed as Flag States. For example, India is signatory member of IMO, so India is a Flag State. All Indian ships, obviously will fly Indian flag whether sailing high seas or in port. Each country has administrative body set up by the Government of that country to look after Shipping. For example, Government of India has Ministry of Shipping and Transport, a division under which the Directorate General of Shipping (DGS) has been established to control merchant shipping operation. For the purpose of legal proceedings M.S ACT 1958 has been formulated as key Instrument for merchant shipping and its alliances in India. Class Society (Classification Society) is an autonomous body established for the benefits of shipping, and promoted by the concerned Flag State for the activities in the field of shipping industry. Every Flag State can have one or more Classification Societies for the purpose of conducting ship related Surveys and monitoring internationally. Names of a few major Classification Societies: CLASS SOCIETY
Lloyds Register of Shipping LRS

HEADQUARTERS
United Kingdom (London)

SCOPE OF SURVEYS/ JOB

Ships, Industry, Testing house, Construction, ISO, ISM, Plan approval, Researches, Seminars Same as above Same as above Same as above Same as above

American Bureau of Shipping Det Norske Veritas Bureau Veritas Indian Register of Shipping

ABS DNV BV IRS

United States (New Jersey) Norway (Oslo) France (Paris) India (Mumbai)

Classification Society is a non-profit organization and operates under the vested guidelines of IACS (International Association of Classification societies) in liaison with Flag States. Merchant ship individually needs to be classed with any of international Class Societies as stated above right from the building yard. Ship-owners at their option can switch over to another Classification Society if they can satisfactorily prove their reason to do so. Whenever a merchant ship is proposed to be taken under class the Society arranges Its surveyor/s to board the ship for a First entry survey which is very exhaustive and may take a longer time depending on condition of ship and her equipments. After completion of first entry survey satisfactorily the ship is assigned with class notation like 100A1 and machinery class LMC (both are for Lloyds, + is added if the ship was originally built to LRS specifications). From that particular day when the ship is assigned with class notation, the ships class surveys start. All hull items are normally surveyed as per Special Survey sequences which is of 5 years interval having Intermediate Survey 2.5 + 0.5 yrs and Annual Survey having window period 3 months either side. All items need to be surveyed by 5 years. Machinery items are coded in a survey book and they are surveyed in continuous basis called CSM (continuous survey of machinery).

4. BASIC OUTLINES OF PROPELLER DESIGN

Propellers are designed to absorb minimum power and to give maximum efficiency, minimum cavitation and minimum hull vibration characteristics. The above objectives can be achieved in the following stages: 1. Basic design 2. Wake adaptation 3. Design analysis

a) Propeller Design Basis

The term propeller design basis refers to: i. ii. iii. Power Rotational speed Ship speed.

that are chosen to act as the basis for the design of the principal propeller geometric features. Resistance and Power Estimation A ship owner usually requires that the ship will achieve an average speed in service condition (fouled hull in full displacement and rough weather), VSERVICE, at a certain engine power. Initial acceptance will be the basis of demonstration of a higher speed on trial condition (clean ship usually in light displacement), VTRIAL, at some power, i.e. VTRIAL VSERVICE

where V is the speed increase due to the fouled hull, rough weather and other effects, and is usually taken as 1 knot.

PESERVICE

(1 x) PETRIAL

where (1+x) is the sea margin that the ship resistance is increased usually by 10 to 20% in average service conditions.

b) The Use of Standard Series Data in Design

Propeller design diagrams of Standard Series, such as Wageningen-B, can be used in five design options as: Known variables 1. Known power (PD), rotation rate (N) and advanced velocity (VA) Required Dopt

In this case the unknown variable optimum diameter, Dopt, can be eliminated from the diagrams by plotting KQ/J5 versus J instead of KQ vs J. KQ/J5 can be written as: KQ J5 since PD
2QN

Q ND 5 ( ) 2 5 N D V A

QN 3 5 V A

KQ J5

1/ 2 PD N 2 NPD | 5 2V A V A2.5

Bp

ND 1 and these diagrams are called Bp- J VA diagrams. On these diagrams optimum 0 and are read off at the intersection of known Bp value on the optimum efficiency line. Dopt is then calculated.
This parameter Bp is plotted against 2. Known power (PD), diameter (D) and advanced velocity (VA) Nopt (required)

If the delivered power PD and the diameter D are known a diagram of KQ/J3 can be obtained. KQ J
3

Q ND 3 ( ) 2 5 N D V A

QN 3 D 2V A

PD 3 2D 2V A

From these diagrams Nopt is calculated on the optimum efficiency line.

3. Known thrust (T), diameter (D) and advanced velocity (VA) Nopt(required)

If the resistance values of the ship are available, thrust T can be calculated using the thrust deduction factor t: T= RT/(1-t) T and D are known optimum rate of rotation Nopt can be eliminated using KT/J2.
KT J2 T ND 2 ( ) 2 4 N D V A T V A2 D 2

4. Known thrust (T), rotation rate (N) and advanced velocity (VA)

Dopt(required)

T and N are known and optimum diameter Dopt can be eliminated similarly using KT/J4. KT J4 T ND 4 ( ) 2 4 N D V A TN 2 V A4

5. Determination of Optimum RPM and Propeller Size (Diameter) (General Case)

To determine the propeller diameter D and rate of rotation N for a propeller when absorbing certain delivered power PD in association with the ship speed VS. i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Propeller type is chosen depending on the ship type, initial installation coast, running costs, maintenance requirements. Number of blades is determined by the need to avoid harmful resonant frequencies of the ship structure and the machinery. BAR is initially determined First it is necessary to determine a mean design Taylor wake fraction (wT) from experience, published data or model test results. Advance propeller speed VA can be determined as VA=(1-wT)VS Diameters of behind hull and open water are calculated as Dmax is assumed to be usually % of the draught Dmax DB a<0.65 for bulk carriers and tankers a<0.74 for container ships aT

where DB and T are the behind hull diameter and draught of the ship, respectively.

When the diameter is determined the diameter should be as large as the stern of hull can accommodate, to obtain the maximum propeller efficiency. The typical figures of the clearances of propeller-hull, propeller-rudder and propeller-baseline should be: X Y Z vii) 5% to 10% of D 15% to 25% of D up to 5% of D Open water diameter D0 is then calculated by increasing the DB by 5% and 3% for single and twin screws respectively.
D0 DB for single screw propellers 1 0.05

viii)

This diameter D0 should absorb the delivered power for trial condition at the optimum RPM which would correspond to the maximum propeller efficiency. From the Power-Speed diagram (PE vs. VS) PETRIAL is read off at the VSTRIAL

ix)

12000

10000

8000

PE (kW)

Trial Condition 6000 Service Condition

4000

2000

0 12 13 14 15 16 VS (Knots) 17 18 19 20

x)

Propulsive efficiency D is obtained by iteration for the optimum RPM, N. Initially D is assumed (i.e. D(assumed)=0.7) and the delivered power PD is calculated as:

PD (TRIAL )
xi)

PE (TRIAL )

D ( assumed )

Bp and values are calculated for a range of N (e.g. N=80 to 120)

xii)

From the Bp- diagram open water propeller efficiency, 0 is read off at the corresponding Bp- (D0) N (RPM) vs. 0 diagram is plotted and 0max and N values are read off from the diagram
0.624 0.622 0.62 0.618 0.616

xiii)

0.614

0.612 0.61 0.608 0.606 0.604 80 90 100 N (RPM) 110 120 130

xiv)

D is calculated

D ( calculated )
xv)

H R0

1 t R0 1 w

The difference between the D(calculated) and D(assumed) is calculated as:

D ( calculated ) D ( assumed )
iterate if required if value > threshold, go back to step (x) and assume D(assumed)=D(calculated) if value threshold, D(calculated) is converged and D is the latest calculated D(calculated) xvi) Based upon the latest value of D break power in trial condition PB(TRIAL) is calculated as:
PB (TRIAL ) xvii) PE (TRIAL ) PD

DS

Installed Maximum Continuous Power is taken as PB (TRIAL ) 0.85

xviii) PD = PBS xix) xx) Bp 1.158

1/ 2 NPD and B V A2.5

3.2808

ND B are calculated VA

PB/DB is read off at the calculated (Bp, B) from the Bp- diagram and the mean face pitch is calculated.

3. Engine Selection

xxi)

We have optimum RPM (latest), brake power in trial condition PBTRIAL and installed maximum continuous power. For engine selection refer to engine layout diagrams provided by the manufacturers.

4. Prediction of Performance in Service

Prediction of the ship speed and propeller rate of rotation in service condition with the engine developing 85% of MCR

5. Determination of Blade Surface Area and BAR (Cavitation Control)

Cavitation control is carried out for trial condition. This is due to fact that the ship will have the maximum speed in trial condition If the calculated BAR is less than the selected BAR, the design stage is completed. If the calculated BAR is greater than the selected BAR, a new BAR greater than the calculated BAR is chosen. All the calculations are performed for the new BAR.