Moors Part 1

Wednesday, July 25, 2012
YOU ARE NOW ROCKING WITH THE BEST
MOORS IN ANTIQUITY THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK
THE DIVINE MOVEMENT

THE MOORISH EMPIRE
THE MOORISH EMPIRE
THE MOORISH EMPIRE
THE MOORISH EMPIRE
I
PAVING THE WAY FOR EUROPES RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTMENT
ISLAM THIS WAS HIS HISTORIC MOORISH MYSTERY HISTORY SPEECH IN CAIRO EGYPT
MICHELLE OBAMA IN MOORISH SPAIN

ISLAM MOORS
ALHAMBRA
AL ANDULUS
MICHELLE OBAMA IN MOORISH SPAIN

ISLAM MOORS
ALHAMBRA
AL ANDULUS
MUSULMAN THE BLACKAMOORS THE LIGHT BEARERS THE NOBLES THE ILLUMINATED ONES THE DARK KNIGHTS THE FRUIT OF ISLAM THE SOVEREIGNS THE SWORD OF ISLAM THE SORCERERS THE SARACENS THE MOORS THE BERBERS THE NORTH AFRICANS THE MOSLEMS THE INDIANS THE GYPSIES
With a total population of nearly 3.5 million, the Moors are scattered throughout much of West Africa. Although most of them live in Morocco, Moors can also be found in Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Niger, and Gambia. They are almost entirely Muslim, as they have been for many centuries. Formerly nomads, large numbers of Moors have settled in urban areas due to recent years of drought. Still, they remain nomadic in spirit.
Beside its usage in historical context, Moor and Moorish (Italian and Spanish: moro, French: maure, Portuguese: mouro, Romanian: maur) is used to designate an ethnic group speaking the Hassaniya Arabic dialect. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger and Mali. In Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara.
TAUREG MOORS
ZENAGA/SANHAJA MOORS
TAUREG MOORS
ZENAGA/SANHAJA MOORS
MOORISH BERBERS NORTH AFRICA

ABORIGINAL COLOR OF MOORS

The Moors of the host wore silks and colourful clothes which they had taken as booty their horses reins were like re, their faces as black as pitch, the handsomest among them was black as a cooking pot and their eyes blazed like re; their horses as swift as leopards, their horsemen more cruel than the wolf that comes to a sheepfold in the nightOh luckless Spain! description of the Moors written in the 1200s A.D. and cited in, An Introduction to African Civilizations, by Willis N. Huggins and John J. Jackson, New York, 1937, and in Colin Smiths, Christians and Moors in Spain vol. 1 2nd edition p. 97. Red, in the speech of the people from the Hijaz, means fair-complexioned and this color is rare amongst the Arabs. This is the meaning of the saying, a red man as if he is one of the slaves. The speaker meant that his color is like that of the slaves who were captured from the Christians of Syria, Rome and Persia. From Al Dhahabi of Damascus Syria, in Seyar Alam al-Nubalaa, (Biography of Eminent Nobles) cited on p. 55, The Unknown Arabs, 2002, by Tariq Berry.
As for the black sheep, they are the Arabs. They will accept Islam and become many. The white sheep are the non-Arab Persians and the like. They will accept Islam and become so many that the Arabs will not be noticed amongst them. From the 15th c. writer, El-Suyuti of Egypt, in Taarikh in El Khulafaa quoting Abu Bakr a companion of the Prophets interpreting his dream. Cited on p. 80, in The Unknown Arabs, 2002.
THE IBERIAN PENINSULA WAS GREATLY ENRICHED BY THE LABORS OF THE MOORS. THEY ESTABLISHED THE SILK INDUSTRY;THEY WERE HIGHLY SKILLED AGRICULTURISTS,INTRODUCING COTTON,RICE,SUGAR CANE,DATES,LEMONS,AND STRAWBERRIES INTO THE COUNTRY.ABU ZACERIA AND IBN ALAMAM WROTE AUTHORITATIVE REMARKS ON MOORISH ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND AGRICULTURE.IBN KHALDUN, A MOORISH AGRICULTURIST,WROTE A TREATISE ON FARMING AND WORKED OUT A THEORY OF PRICES AND THE NATURE OF CAPITAL.(HE HAS BEEN CALLED THE KARL MARX OF THE MIDDLE AGES.) CALIPH ABD ER RAHMAN OF CORDOVA ORDERED THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN AQUEDUCT,WHICH CONVEYED PURE WATER FROM THE MOUNTAINS TO THE CITY. EXTNSIVE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS WERE CONTRUCTED BY MOORISH ENGINEERS,WHO ALSO BUILT LARGE UNDERGROUND SILOS FOR STORING GRAIN. THE MINERAL WEALTH OF THE LAND WAS NOT DISREGARDED. COPPER,GOLD,SILVER,TIN,LEAD,IRON,QUICKSILVER, AND ALUM WERE EXTENSIVELY MINED.
COTTON SUGARCANE
In his work, The Moor: Light of Europes Dark Age, Wayne B. Chandler offers the following definition of the Moors: Although the term Moor has been put to diverse use, its roots are still traceable. Circa 46 B. C., the Roman army entered West Africa where they encountered black Africans whom they called Maures from the Greek adjective mauros, meaning dark or black. Traditionally, the Moors were the African people who occupied northwest Africa, or present-day Morocco and Mauritania. These same African people became converts to Islam in the seventh century and have since been mistakenly identified by western European scholars as Arabs, Mohammedans, Saracens, etc. W. E. B Dubois in his work, The World and Africa, wrote on this subject, The Arabs brought the new religion of Mohammed into North Africa. During the seventh century, they did not migrate in great numbers. Spain was conquered not by Arabs, but by armies of Berbers and Negroids led by Arabs. The truth is that the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain and Portugal, was an African not an Arab conquest. The conquest of Spain and Portugal in the eighth century, and later the greater part of western Europe, was orchestrated by the Arabs who conquered North Africa; but the actual conquest was carried out by African adherents of Islam.
The fact that people of African descent, or specifically the Moors were in western Europe from 710 AD until the late 1400's is indisputable. It is noteworthy that these Moors were in Europe as conquerors and served as a civilizing force, as opposed to being enslaved by the Europeans. The Moors had a tremendously positive impact on European cultural, socio-economic and political institutions
MOORS INVADED & CONQUERED SPAIN 711-1492
By the end of the 7th century AD, the Islamic Jihad had swept through the Arabian peninsular and North Africa. It was the Moorish general Tarik-bin-Ziad who was given the task of spreading Moorish holdings northward into the Iberian peninsular. The catalyst for this action was the request by the Greek governor of Ceuta for help in emancipaton from the tyrany of the visigoth king Roderick who then ruled Spain.
VANDALS VISIGOTHS
The Visigoths (Latin: Visigothi,

Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi) were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe; the Ostrogoths being the other. Together these tribes were among the barbarians who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. The romanized Visigoths rst emerged as a distinct people during the 4th century, initially in the Balkans, where they participated in several wars with Rome. A Visigothic army under Alaric I eventually moved into Italy and famously sacked Rome in 410. A Visigothic nobleman, Pelayo, is credited with beginning the Christian Reconquista of Iberia in 718, when he defeated the Umayyads in battle and established the Kingdom of Asturias in the northern part of the peninsula. Other Visigoths, refusing to adopt the Muslim faith or live under their rule, ed north to the kingdom of the Franks, and Visigoths played key roles in the empire of Charlemagne a few generations later.
VANDALS ALANS SUEVI
Moorish Control of Spain from 711 to 1492

Gothic dominance lasted until 711, when Muslim armies crossed the Straight of Gibraltar and defeated Roderic, the last Visigoth king. .They conquered the whole peninsula rapidly except for a small enclave in the North which would become the initial springboard for the Reconquest, which took eight centuries to achieve. They were defeated for the first time by Visigoth King Pelayo at Covadonga in northern Spain, 722. The period of Muslim sway is divided into three periods: the Emirate (711 to 756), the Caliphate (756-1031) and the Reinos de Taifas (small independent kingdoms) (1031 to 1492). Muslim Spain became politically independent of the Arabian empire, and in 10th century Abderraman III. made Al-Andalus his own caliphate. At this time it could be said that Cordoba was the cultural centre of Spain.. Decadence, the curse of all empires, started in 11th century, when the various Arabian noble families started to fight among themselves, and al-Andalus broke into numerous small caliphates. The Christian kingdoms in the north started gradually to reconquer Spain. In 1212 a decisive Christian victory at battle of Navas de Tolosa spelt the beginning of the end of Moorish rule in Spain. Cordoba was taken from the moors in 1236, and in 1248 Ferdinand conquered Seville.
VISI-GOTHIC EMPIRE
GIBRALTAR PILLARS OF HERCULES

ROCK OF
The Rock of Gibraltar is named for the Moor, Tarik ibn Zeyad. In 711 AD, Musa-ibn-Nusair commanded his leading Moorish general, Tarik ibn Zeyad to assemble an army of seven thousand men and ordered them to conquer Spain in the name of Islam. In that same year, General Tarik ibn Zeyad and his men, most of whom were Moors and Berbers, landed at the edge of an escarpment known then as Mons Calpe. Since King Roderick and most of his military forces were engaged in a battle with the Basques in the north of Spain, Tarik ibn Zeyad and his army had little opposition as they conquered all the small towns in close proximity to Mons Calpe. When King Roderick heard of the invasion of Spain by the Moors, he amassed an army six times that of Tarik ibn Zeyads and moved south to defend his kingdom. The two forces met in a fierce battle that lasted for an entire week. Greatly outnumbered, the Moors began to lose faith, but their leader, Tarik ibn Zeyad, was resolute and ordered them forward. King Roderick and his forces were routed and Roderick was killed in the fierce fighting. J. C. deGraft-Johnson describes the fight in his work, African Glory:
The Jews of Spain had been utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule by the time of the Muslim invasion. To them, the Moors were perceived as, and indeed were, a liberating force (Stillman, p. 53). Wherever they went, the Muslims were greeted by Jews eager to aid them in administering the country. In many conquered towns the garrison was left in the hands of the Jews before the Muslims proceeded further north. Thus was initiated the period that became known as the "Golden Age" for Spanish Jews.
With the victory of Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. In spite of the stigma attached to being dhimmis (non-Muslim members of monotheistic faiths) under Muslim rule, the coming of the Moors was by-and-large welcomed by the Jews of Iberia. Both Muslim and Christian sources tell us that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders . Once captured, the defense of Cordoba was left in the hands of Jews, and Granada, Mlaga, Seville, and Toledo were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. The Chronicle of Lucas de Tuy records that "when the Christians left Toledo on Sunday before Easter to go to the Church of the Holy Laodicea to listen to the divine sermon, the Jews acted treacherously and informed the Saracens. Then they closed the gates of the city before the Christians and opened them for the Moors." (Although, in contradiction to de Tuy's account, Rodrigo of Toledo's Historia de rebus Hispaniae maintains that Toledo was "almost of completely empty from its inhabitants," not because of Jewish treachery, but because "many had fled to Amiara, others to Asturias and some to the mountains," following which the city was fortified by a militia of Arabs and Jews (3.24). Although in the cases of some towns the behavior of the Jews may have been conducive to Muslim success, such was of limited impact overall. The claims of the fall of Iberia as being due in large part to Jewish perfidy are no doubt exaggerated (Assis, pp. 44-45). In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as dhimmis, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity in comparison to that under prior Christian Visigoths, as testified by the influx of Jews from abroad. To Jews throughout the Christian and Muslim worlds, Iberia was seen as a land of relative tolerance and opportunity. Following initial Arab victories, and especially with the establishment of Umayyad rule by Abd-ar-Rahman I in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab territories, from Morocco to Babylon (Assis, p. 12; Sarna, p. 324). Thus the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions. Contacts with Middle Eastern communities were strengthened, and it was during this time that the influence of the Babylonian academies of Sura and Pumbedita was at its greatest. As a result, until the mid-tenth century, much of Sephardic scholarship focused on Halakhah. Although not as influential, Palestinian traditions were also made manifest in an increased interest in Hebrew language and biblical studies (Sarna, pp. 325-326). Arabic culture, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of scripture was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish polemics and the spread of rationalism, as well as the antiRabbanite polemics of Karaite sectarianism (which was inspired by various Muslim schismatic movements). In adopting the Arabic language, as had the Babylonian geonim (the heads of Babylonian rabbinic academies), not only were the cultural and intellectual achievements of Arabic culture opened up to the educated Jew, but much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of Greek culture, which had been best preserved by Arab scholars, were as well. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest among Jews in philological matters in general (Sarna, pp. 327-328). Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy, and everyday business. From the second half of the ninth century, most Jewish prose, including many nonhalakhic religious works, were in Arabic. The thorough adoption of Arabic greatly facilitated the assimilation of Jews into Arabic culture (Dan, p. 115; Halkin, pp. 324-325).
MUFDI
JUSTICE
MUFDI
JUSTICE
MUFDI
JUSTICE
Moors In Antiquity
Moors In Antiquity
"For nearly eight centuries, under the Mohamedan rule, Spain set all Europe a shining example of a civilized and enlightened state. Her fertile provinces rendered doubly prolic, by the industrious engineering skill of the conquerors bore fruit a hundredfold, cities innumerable sprang up in the rich valleys in the Guadalquivir and the Guadiana whose names, and names only commemorate the vanished glories of their past. "...To Cordoba belong all the beauty and ornaments that delight the eye or dazzle the sight. Her long line of Sultans form her crown of glory; her necklace is strung with the pearls which her poets have gathered from the ocean of language; her dress is of the banners of learning, well-knit together by her men of science; and the masters of every art and industry are the hem of her garments. "Art, literature and science prospered as they then prospered nowhere else in Europe... "Mathematics, astronomy, botany, history, philosophy and jurisprudence were to be mastered in Spain, and Spain alone. Whatever makes a kingdom great and prosperous, whatever tends to renement and civilization, was found in Muslim Spain... "With Granada fell all Spain's greatness. For a brief while, indeed, the reection of the Moorish splendour cast a borrowed light upon the history of the land which it had once warmed with its sunny radiance. The great epoch of Isabella, Charles V and Philip II, of Columbus, Cortes and Pizarro, shed a last halo about the dying monuments of a mighty state. When followed the abomination of dissolution, the rule of inquisition and the blackness of darkness in which Spain has been plunged ever since. "In the land where science was once supreme, the Spanish doctors became noted for nothing but their ignorance and incapacity. The arts of Toledo and Almeria faded into insignicance. "The land deprived of skillful irrigation of the Moors, grew improvished and neglected, the richest and most fertile valleys languished and were deserted, and most of the populous cities which had lled every district in Andalusia, fell into ruinous decay; and beggars, friars, and bandits took the place of scholars, merchants and knights. So low fell Spain when she had driven away the Moors. Such is the melancholy contrast offered by her history."STANLEY LANE POOLE THE MOORS IN SPAIN INTRODUCTION
MOORISH NOBILITY
WARRIORS & ROYAL GUARDS
"Cordova had 471 mosques, and 300 public baths......and the number of houses of the great and noble were 63,000 and 200, 077 houses of the common people. There were ....upwards of 80,000 shops. Water from the mountains was...distributed through every corner and quarter of the city by means of leaden pipes into basins of different shapes, made of the purst gold, the nest silver or plated brass as well into vast lakes, curious tanks, amazing resevoirs and fountains of Grecian marble." The houses in Cordova were air conditioned in the summer by "ingeniously arranged draughts of fresh air drawn from the garden over beds of owers, chosen for their perfume, warmed in winter by hot air conveyed through pipes bedded in the walls. Bathrooms supplied hot and cold water and there were tables of gold, set with emweralds rubies and pearls. This list of impressve works appears endless; it includes lampposts that lit their streets at night, to grand palaces, such as the one called Azzahra with its 15,000 doors. Rennaissance men like Zaryab."
THE TANNERIES OF CORDOVA AND MOROCCO CITY WERE THE BEST IN THE WORLD.ALMERIA SPECIALIZED IN THE MAKING OF SASHES,FAMED FOR THEIR FINE TEXTURE AND BRILLIANT COLORS. CARPETS WERE MADE IN TEULALA, AND BRIGHTHUED WOOLENS IN GRANADA AND BAZA. MOORISH ARTISANS ALSO PRODUCED HIGH QUALITY GLASS AND POTTERY,VASES,MOSIACS, AND JEWELRY. CORDOVA WAS THE MOST WONDERFUL CITY OF THE TENTH CENTURY; THE STREETS WERE WELL PAVED, WITH RAISED SIDEWALKS FOR PEDESTRIANS. AT NIGHT, TEN MILES OF STREETS WERE WELL ILLUMINATED BY LAMPS.(THIS WAS HUNDREDS OF YEARS BEFORE THERE WAS A PAVED STREET IN PARIS OR A STREET LAMP IN LONDON) CORDOVA, WITH A POPULATION OF AT LEAST ONE MILLION, WAS SERVED BY FOUR THOUSAND PUBLIC MARKETS AND FIVE THOUSAND MILLS.PUBLIC BATHS NUMBERED IN THE HUNDREDS. THIS AMENITY WAS PRESENT AT A TIME WHEN CLEANLINESS IN CHRISTIAN EUROPE WAS REGARDED A SIN. MOORISH MONARCHS DWELT IN SPLENDID PALACES, WHILE THE CROWNED HEADS OF ENGLAND,FRANCE, AND GERMANY LIVED IN BIG BARNS,LACKING BOTH WINDOWS AND CHIMNEYS,WITH ONLY A HOLE IN THE ROOF FOR THE EMISSION OF SMOKE.
The Andalusian horse originates from the rugged hilly areas of the Iberian Peninsula and is one of the most ancient horse breeds. Spanish horses were famous for their use as cavalry mounts by the Ancient Greeks and the Romans and from ancient times onward there are many references to the Iberian or Celtiberian horses and riders of the peninsula by Greek and Roman chroniclers. Homer referred to them in the Iliad and the celebrated Greek cavalry officer Xenophon was full of praise for the gifted Spanish horses and horsemen and greatly admired the equestrian war techniques of Iberian mercenaries who were inuential in the victory of Sparta against Athens in the Peloponnesian wars. The Andalusian became the standard by which all warhorses were measured and were prized for their agility, temperament, endurance and strength of character. They continued to be highly regarded as a cavalry horse due to their agility and courage but they became less favoured as a warhorse when knights later became more heavily armoured and required heavier horses to carry them. Amongst cavalries they regained their popularity again with the introduction of rearms when a fast, agile horse was needed again. The development of the Andalusian breed owed a great deal to the Carthusian monks who began breeding them in the late middle Ages. The monks were superb horse breeders and trainers and through careful selective breeding kept the blood of their horses exceptionally pure. It turned out that El Cid was not such a poor judge of horses after all and from a not too promising start Babieca grew into an imposing and exceptional example of the Andalusian breed, obedient and nimble, noble and with great personal courage. He was an outstanding example of a pure bred that has great stamina coupled with its stance, power and the rhythm and grace of its movements. The horse was the perfect companion for El Cid. He soon grew into a formidable charger and a frightening machine of war. He carried his master courageously into all of his battles for thirty years, each time towards victory. His name was legendary as his masters and he was spoken of with awe, reverence and great respect. The Andalusian has a reputation for a proud but cooperative temperament, sensitive and intelligent, able to learn quickly and easily when treated with respect and care. They are strongly-built, compact horses, generally standing 15.2-16.2 hands high and usually white or light grey in colour. They have a lean, medium-length head with a convex prole and large eyes, a long but broad and powerful neck, a long, sloping shoulder, clean legs with good bone, short, strong cannons, and a thick, long, owing mane and tail and they move with a lofty, elegant action which carries the rider high in the saddle.
ANDALUSIAN HORSE
ANDALUSIAN HORSE
THE DYNASTIES OF THE MOORS SPANNED THE SEVEN SEAS WE HAD A GLOBAL EMPIRE THE COVERED THE PLANET THE NAVIGATORS THE TRAVELLING MAN
Moorish ROYALTY
THE 4 MAJOR MOORISH DYNASTIES
OUT OF THE DARKNESS CAME THE AGE OF ENLIGHTMENT

The so-called "Greek Miracle" was never to have a profound effect on European culture. In fact, the record shows virulent persecution of the major Greek thinkers by their own society for teaching concepts which were entirely foreign to their culture. By the 4th century, the temples and places of learning began to be shut down by the emperors of Byzantium. By the middle ages, Europe had sunk back into barbarism. But from the south - again - would come a new age of enlightenment ushered in by black Africans and black Asians from the Arabian peninsula. As is the custom, these legendary figures have been whitened by academia and their influence erased. Yet it is clear that the sweeping wave of civilization brought in by these sons of Africa saved Europe from its backwardness and created the scientific and cultural foundation which would result in the European Rennaissance. Over a period of 700 years, 4 superb Moorish dynasties would rule Spain,
the UmMayad, the Abbasid, the Almoravid and the Almohade.

UMMAYYAD
UMMAYYAD
Tarik and his black army swept up into Spain and defeated the Visigoths in successive stages - capturing and consolidating Spanish towns from the south includingToledo and Cordoba. By 715 AD, the Ummayad dynasty had been established.It would rule Spain for over a century until 850 AD although their racial memory hes been erased, the achievements and monuments of the Moors still endure. The great Mosque at Cordoba, the Mezquita is an architectural marvel and is to this day considered one of the most magnificent buildings of the middle ages. The Ummayad dynasty was followed by the Abbasid an Arab dynasty which usurped the throne in 750 AD. However, in 756 AD, the African Abdurrahmon led an army of African Moors up into the Iberian Penninsula, overthrew the Abbasid and re-established the Ummayad dynasty.
UMAYYADS (7 11-1031 CE)

Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, died in 632 CE in Medina. Following his death, several of his close companions succeeded him as caliphs. The term caliph is a transliterated version of the Arabic word for "successor" or "representative." They included Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali. During this time, Muslims had extended their rule outside Arabia to include much of todays Middle East and parts of North Africa. Thus, they reduced the size of the Byzantine Empire and brought the Sasanid Empire in Persia to an end. In 661 CE, opponents of Ali assassinated him. Then-governor of Syria, Muawiya, acquired leadership of the caliphate and moved the capital to Damascus. He was of a member of the elite Meccan tribe of Banu Umayya. Muawiya designated his son, Yazid, to be his successor. In effect, this designation created the first Muslim dynasty: the Umayyads. During the next century, his descendants expanded Muslim rule northwards into Anatolia and Central Asia, eastwards to the borders of India and westward across North Africa. In 711, Amazigh (Berber) commander Tariq ibn Ziyad led an Umayyad force across the Mediterranean into Spain. They defeated the army of the Visigothic king, Roderic. The caliph in Damascus appointed an Umayyad governor to rule most of Iberia. The Muslims called this new land AlAndalus. In 750 CE, the Abbasid family rallied support among opponents of the Umayyads and overthrew the dynasty. The Abbasids were a noble clan descended from one of Muhammads uncles. They took control of the caliphate and established their new capital at Baghdad. While many of his relatives were killed, a young Umayyad prince named Abd al-Rahman sought refuge among his Amazigh (Berber) mothers tribe in North Africa. He crossed over to Spain. In 755, he gained control of Crdoba. There, he became amir (ruler) of Al-Andalus, which was independent from the Abbasid caliphate. Others followed Abd al-Rahman's example, such as Idris -- a descendant of Ali -- who established the Idrisid Dynasty in Morocco around 788. The Umayyad amirate lasted until 929 CE. An Umayyad descendant named Abd al-Rahman (III), who was not content with the title of amir, declared himself caliph. In doing so, he openly challenged the Abbasids claim. He also countered the Shii Fatimids in North Africa, who had recently taken the title of caliph, as well. The 10th century Umayyad caliphate in Spain represents the pinnacle of unity, power, wealth, and scientific and artistic achievement in AlAndalus. The rise to power of an ambitious palace official, Muhammad Ibn Abi Amir (Al-Mansur), initially enhanced the Muslims military strength in the peninsula. But, Al-Mansurs military regime threatened the internal stability cultivated over several centuries, sowing the seeds for civil war. In 1013 CE, Amazigh (Berber) troops seized control in Crdoba, killed Caliph Hisham II and sacked the palace city, Madinat al-Zahra. Amid chaos and tragedy, the leading religious authorities in Crdoba dissolved the caliphate. This move opened the way for former governors and city administrators to become local kings of a fragmented Al-Andalus.
The Caliphate of Cordoba The first period of exceptional prosperity took place under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman III (882-942), the first independent Caliph of Cordoba. The inauguration of the Golden Age is closely identified with the career of his Jewish councillor, Hasdai ibn Shaprut (882-942). Originally a court physician, Shaprut's official duties went on to include the supervision of customs and foreign trade. It was in his capacity as dignitary that he corresponded with the kingdom of the Khazars, who had converted to Judaism in the 8th century (Assis, pp. 13, 47). Abd al-Rahman III's support for Arabic scholasticism had made Iberia the center of Arabic philological research. It was within this context of cultural patronage that interest in Hebrew studies developed and flourished. With Hasdai as its leading patron, Cordoba became the "Mecca of Jewish scholars who could be assured of a hospitable welcome from Jewish courtiers and men of means" (Sarna, p. 327). During this period the achievements of Sephardic culture, which were in large measure a synthesis of different Jewish traditions, in turn enriched those other cultures to which it was indebted. Perhaps most notable of Sephardic achievements which occurred during and following Hasdai's time were in the literary and linguistic fields.
THEFALLOFTHEUMAYYADDYNASTY
A serious rebellion had broken out in 747 against the Umayyad dynasty, who ruled much of what we know now as Middle East from 661 to 750. The main factor which incited this rebellion was that to the outlying peoples of the Caliphate, the Umayyads (based in Damascus) seemed distant, and the governors they appointed to rule were essentially corrupt and obsessed only with their own gain. Equally, the Umayyads could claim no direct descent from Muhammad, however the Abbasids could make such a claim a fact they played upon greatly during the revolution, although not specifying until the revolution had been won that they were in fact descended from Muhammad's uncle (see the Abbasid and Umayyad pages for more details). In 750, the army of the Umayyad caliph Marwan II fought a combined force of Persians, Shi'ite Arabs and Abbasid soldiers at the Zab. Marwan's army was, on paper at least, far larger and more formidable than that of his opponents, as it contained many veterans of the Ummayyads' earlier campaigns against the Byzantine Empire, but its support for the caliph was only lukewarm. It is fair to say their morale had been damaged whereas the Abbasid's armies had been increased by the series of defeats inicted on the Umayyads earlier in the rebellion.
ABBASID DYNASTY
750a.d.-756a.d.
Petty Kings / Muluk al-Tawaif (1031-1086 CE)

Competition and political intrigue among Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs in the late Umayyad period contributed to the fragmentation of Al-Andalus. With central authority destroyed, local leaders of about 30 cities and surrounding territories declared themselves independent rulers. Historical sources describe these rulers as muluk al-tawaif (petty kings): each represented a faction or party with its own interests and resources. For example, the chief judge of Seville became the ruler of that city. Thus, he founded the Abbadid dynasty, famed for its poet-kings. The Amazigh (Berber) Zirids founded Granada, after being invited to rule its region by the populace. Meanwhile, Slavs (former slaves of the Umayyads) took control of coastal cities, such as Denia and Almera. The taifa kings competed with one another, attempting to annex territories and increase their wealth. They often sought Christian allies in their efforts against other Muslim rulers. Despite the collapse of political unity, Umayyad court culture spread during the taifa period, as each king sought to style himself as a worthy ruler. The petty kings vied to recruit the most famous poets to grace their courts, and the most skilled artisans to adorn their halls. However, the petty kings' self-absorption ultimately led to their demise. During this time, Christian rulers became increasingly unified and began to consider expanding into the southern peninsula. Alfonso VI of Len-Castile's success in taking possession of Toledo sent shockwaves through the palaces of the petty kings, prompting them to call on North African warriors for support.
The famous era of the Almoravids begins with The Black Muslim leader Ibn Yasin. Originally brought from Mecca, Yasin's initial base of operations was in the area of Senegal in West Africa. He embarked upon an ambitious effort to convert all of the surrounding area to Islam through force. Over time, the Almoravids (from "AlMurabitun") conquered a vast area of west and northern Africa. In 1076, they overwhelmed and brought to an end the mighty Empire of Ghana itself . In 1086 AD, Yusuf Ibn Tashibin became aware of events in Spain, where Christians had long been persecuting Arabs and Moors. Yusuf invaded Spain to aid in its liberation. He is unequivocably described in the Moorish work Roudh-el Kartos as a black skinned African. Other matters back home in Africa however prompted him to return before the conquest was complete. He left his army to aid the Spaniards in their battle but was later informed that the local Spanish governers had left the Moors to do most of the fighting. Yusuf in fury, ordered their replacement with Moorish rulers and there followed a splendid era of African rule which would not end until 1142 AD
Almoravids (1086-1146 CE)
Around 1040 CE, Yahya ibn Ibrahim -- a Amazigh (Berber) chief of the Sanhaja tribe in southern Morocco -made a pilgrimage to Mecca. On his return journey, he stopped at Qayrawan in Tunisia, where he attended scholarly gatherings. Yahya came to recognize that religious knowledge among his people was lacking. So, he returned home with a preacher named Abd Allah ibn Yasin. Ibn Yasins puritanical message met with resistance among ibn Ibrahim's people. In response, both men retired to the Sahara and founded a ribat (isolated, fortified retreat) to attract only committed disciples. The followers of Ibn Yasin came to be known as al-murabitun, which is Latinized as the Almoravids. This highly cohesive and disciplined group soon acquired a military dimension. In 1053, they began spreading their teachings across southern Morocco. An Almoravid commander named Yusuf ibn Tashufin founded Marrakesh in 1062, which served as a base of operations for northward expansion. Thus, a local religious and political movement grew into a large North African empire. The petty kings of Al-Andalus appealed to ibn Tashufin to defend them against Alfonso VI. In 1085, the Christian king had conquered the important city of Toledo. Welcoming the opportunity to help defend Muslims, ibn Tashufin crossed the straits to Spain. He then inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the Battle of alZallaqah. As ibn Tashufin promised to the petty kings, he returned to Africa. However, a renewed Christian threat obliged the kings to ask for his assistance again. When he returned to Iberia in 1090, the Al-Andalus populace expressed support for Almoravid rule. They hoped he would depose the Muslim kings. These kings taxed the population heavily to support their extravagance and make tribute payments to the Christians. However, not long after the Almoravids came to dominate Al-Andalus, they became the target of popular resistance among native Muslims for their foreign and puritanical ways. By 1094, Ibn Tashufin removed almost all of the petty kings, reunified a large portion of Al-Andalus, and kept the Christian rulers at bay. His success garnered praise far and wide, leading the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad to grant him the title of Amir al Muslimin (Prince of the Muslims) in 1097 CE.
EMIRS/KALIPHS
Abdallah Ibn Yasin (1040-1059) Yusuf ibn Tashfin (10611106) Ali ibn Yusuf (110642) Tashfin ibn Ali (114246) Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1146) Ishaq ibn Ali (114647)
Map of the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the Almoravid arrival in the 11th centuryChristian Kingdoms included Aragn, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Portugal
Berbers ,North Africa

CULTURAL CROSSROADS MELTING POT CENTERS OF INTERNATIONAL/ GLOBAL TRADE & EDUCATION
MOORISH FLAGS OF ANTIQUITY
Al-Andalus was a very important centre of trade; Spains geography makes it into one of the worlds natural cultural crossroads, much like Yugoslavia, Egypt/the Levant, India, southeast Asia, Malaysia/Indonesia, Louisiana, and Central America, for instance. Such regions are often centres of trade and also multicultural melting-pots and Al-Andalus was no different. This region is where the Moors held sway during the different Islamic dynasties that ruled the region (Moor = Almoravid and Almohad). As a result of its remoteness in the west, tolerant governments, multicultural population without hard class divisions, reliance on international trade and communication, and European/African bias, Al-Andalus developed a shockingly original political profile and as a political entity, Al-Andalus may have been a precursor to the ideas of democracy that have been carried out in the United States, which is built on a similar (albeit non-Islamic) multicultural model.
The Almohade/MUWAHHADIS DYNASTY
In 1145, the last Moorish dynasty came to power. African accomplishment in the penisular reached its apex. But Christian resolve had strengthened, and as Moorish culture grew more and more passive, Christian forces gained courage and began a campaign which recaptured territories from the blacks over the following centuries. The Almohade dynasty had deep intellectual concerns and encouraged its thinkers and scholars to engage in great debates and expressions of ideas of both theological and secular nature. It is during the reign of this dynasty that the tower of Seville is constructed. And it is during this time that Abu-Al-Walid Mohamed ibn Mohamed ibgn Rashd, known to the West as Averroes established a peerless intellectual body of work in the arts and sciences which is revered to this day. Ummayad savants and scholars initiated another intellectual revolution by ushering in and promoting:
Land reforms in Spain. Religious freedom.Support of the Arts & Sciences

In 1075, the Almoravids army of the Sanhaja Empire conquered and absorbed parts of the old Ghana Empire. Ghana declined and degraded into a collection of motley tribal units shortly thereafter. One must note that old Ghana Empire was in the areas of modern day southern Mauritania.
The Ghana Empire was a so-called black African Empire. Sanhajal (Senegal) Empire was equally a so-called black African Empire. One defeated and absorbed the other in the never ending struggle for power and primacy among powerful people. Yet, both were so-called Black African Empires.Some ideologically motivated scholars have often lamented the destruction of Ghana Empire (which is tagged a Black Sudanese Empire) by the mythical white Moors/Arabs/Semites or anything but Black group called the Almoravids. This brief historical sketch should leave all in no doubt about the ethnicity of the Almoravids. They are same as the modern day Senegalese who are named after their late Sanhajalese Empire.
The one reason for this attempted obfuscation of cultural ethnicity of the Almoravid Sanhajas is due to the fact that they were the ones who founded the geopolitical entities which later morphed into the present day Senegal, Mauritania, and Morocco as this was the extent of the spread of this African Empire. The other reason for the attempted hijack of the identity of the Black Moors of Senegal is that they conquered, ruled and civilized a huge swat of southern European countries including Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Malta, and Sicily, who were beyond the pale in terms of backwardness and savagery in those days. The Europeans are loath to admit that it was the Moors, the present day so called sub-Saharan Africans living in the present day Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Libya, Morocco, and Sudan who brought them this modern phase of civilization.
The Almoravids are a Berber dynasty of Sahara, which lived between the current Senegaland south of the current Morocco It is affiliated to the Berbertribe of Sanhadjaand Lemtuna. From the eleventh century to the twelfth century, they ruled the Sahara, part of North Africaand part of the Iberian Peninsula.
ALMOHADES/MUWAHADDIS (1146-1230 CE)

Another group of religious reformers in Morocco, known as al-muwahiddun (those who proclaim Gods Unity), followed on the heels of the Almoravids. Around 1100 CE, the pious Ibn Tumart journeyed as a young man to Mecca. He was a member of the Masmuda tribe of Amazighs (Berbers) in the Atlas Mountains. He was expelled from the city for being overly critical of others. He reportedly went to Baghdad, where he studied with eminent religious scholars. He formulated a unique theology that was a variation on established Sunni doctrine. After his return to Morocco, he began publicly preaching and inciting attacks on wine shops and other "objectionable" businesses. In the city of Fes, he castigated the sister of the Almoravid ruler for going about unveiled, but he escaped punishment for such an affront. Ibn Tumart moved to a ribat at Tinmal in the Atlas mountains. When he died in 1128, his main disciple, Abd al-Mumin, kept his death secret for two years, until his own influence upon the followers was secure. Abd al-Mumin came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart, a messianic figure who had come to restore peace and justice. Abd al-Mumins forces steadily eroded Almoravid power, conquered Marrakesh, and extended their reach across northern Africa and into Al-Andalus. In 1170, the Almohads made Seville their regional capital, signified by the construction of a Great Mosque and the massive minaret known today as the Giralda. The Almohads emphasis on purity and simplicity is evident in their aesthetic tastes. Unlike the Almoravids, the Almohads resisted the allure of the luxurious, sensual Andalusian lifestyle, preferring to maintain a military posture. What's more, their policy towards Jews and Christians was in some ways less tolerant than that of earlier rulers. As a result, some members of these communities sought refuge outside Al-Andalus. For example, the family of Moses ibn Maimon (Maimonides) emigrated from Crdoba to Fes, then on to Cairo, where Jews thrived under the reign of Salah al-Din and his successors. In 1195, Abd al-Mumins descendant, Yaqub al-Mansur, defeated Alfonso VIII of Castile in the Battle of Alarcos. However, the Christian states in Iberia were becoming increasingly organized. At the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, the combined forces of five Christian princes representing Castile, Lon, Navarre, and Portugal defeated Almohad ruler Muhammad III.
in the early part of the 12th century another religious reformer, calling himself the Mahdi appeared in Morocco in 1147, He named his followers Almohades (Unitarians). After the conquest of Morocco in 1147, when the last Almoravide king was dethroned and executed, the Almohades seized the reins of government,and then invaded Europe. By 1150 they had defeated the Christian armies of Spain and placed and Almohade sovereign on the throne of Moorish Spain:and, thus, for the second time a purely African Dynasty ruled over the most civilized portion of the Iberian Peninsula. Under a great line of Almohade kings, the splendor of Moorish Spain was not only maintained but enhanced: for they erected the Castile of Gilbraltar in 1160 and began the building of the great Mosque of Seville in 1183 in the early part of the 13th century Moorish power in Spain began to decline.Unfortunately the Moslems, due to religious and political differences, began to split into factions and wage war amongst themselves.At the same time the Christians of Europe, having absorbed the science and culture of the Moors whuch enabled them to bring to an end the long night of the Dark Ages
CORDOBA MOORISH PARADISE
CORDOBA MOORISH PARADISE
the dominions of the Alhomades were slowly but surely captured by the Christian armies,and after almost a century of brilliant achievement the ALMOHADE dynasty was ended when their last reigning sovereign was deprived of his throne in 1230.Moslem Spain declared independence under the rule of of Ibn Hud, the founder of the Huddite Dynasty. The Christian forces, in the meantime, conquered one great city after another, taking Valencia in 1238,, Cordova in 1239, and Seville in 1260
the Jewish population,numbering about 120,000 maintained good relations with the Christian Kings of Castille. Under the rulers of the Almohades, the Jews had been repressed,and they responded by helping the Castilian Kings in their perpetual struggle against the Moors
MARINID DYNASTY
The Marinid dynasty or Benemerine dynasty (Arabic: marniyn or ban marn; Spanish marin/marines/ benimerines) was a Zenata Berber dynasty of Morocco. They overtook the Almohads in controlling Morocco in 1244[1], and most of the Maghreb from the mid-14th century to the 15th century, and also supported the Kingdom of Granada, in AlAndalus in the 13th and 14th centuries. The last Marinid fortress in the Iberian Peninsula fell to Castile in 1344[citation needed]. They were in turn r eplaced by the Wattasids in 1465.
EMIRATE OF GRANADA
The Emirate of Granada was established in 1228, after the Almohad dynasty was defeated by the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. The Almohad prince Idris had left Iberia to take the Almohad leadership, then ambitious Ibn alAhmar established the longest lasting Muslim dynasty on the Iberian peninsula the Nasrids. With the Reconquista in full swing after the conquest of Cordoba in 1236, the Nasrids aligned themselves with Ferdinand III of Castile, ofcially becoming a tributary state in 1238. The state ofcially became the Kingdom of Granada in 1238. The Nasrid emirs and kings were responsible for building most of the palaces in the Alhambra. The taifa became a vassal state of the Christian kingdom of Castile for the next 250 years. The Nasrid emirs and kings paid tribute to the Christian kings and collaborated with them in their battle against rebellious Muslims under Christian rule. Initially the kingdom of Granada linked the commercial routes from Europe with those of the Maghreb. The kingdom constantly shrank due to repeated Castilian invasions however, and by 1492, Granada controlled only a small territory on the Mediterranean coast. Arabic was the ofcial language, and was the mother tongue of the majority of the population. Granada was held as a vassal to Castile over many decades, and provided trade links to the Muslim world, particularly the gold trade with the southern subsaharan areas of Africa. The Nasrids provided troops for Castile and was a source of mercenary ghters from North Africa. However, Portugal discovered direct African trade routes by sailing around the coast of West Africa. Thus Granada became less and less important for Castile, and with the union of Castile and Aragon in 1479, those kingdoms set their sights on annexing Granada and Navarre. The Granada War began in 1482. On January 2, 1492, the last Muslim leader, Muhammad XII, known as Boabdil to the Spanish, surrendered complete control of Granada, to Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Catlicos ("The Catholic Monarchs"), after the city was besieged.
Nasrids ( 1232 - 1492CE )

As Almohad rule in Al-Andalus collapsed in the early 13th century, Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar (or ibn Nasr) gained control of Granada. A horseman of Arab lineage, he founded the last Muslim dynasty in Iberia. Ibn al-Ahmar sought a truce with Fernando III of Len-Castile. He agreed to assist Fernando in the conquest of Seville. In return, Granada would be allowed to remain a Muslim domain. Upon returning to Granada, Ibn al-Ahmar proclaimed despondently that there is no victor but God, which became a slogan closely identified with Nasrid rule. The Nasrids paid annual tribute to Ferdinand III and his successors. Yet, Granada continued to prosper due to the influx of Muslim and Jewish scholars, artisans, merchants, and farmers from territories newly acquired by the Christians. Nasrid ceramics, silks, and other luxury goods, were very popular among the Christian elite in the north, as they could not produce such items themselves. During the height of their power in the mid-14th century, the Nasrids extended the royal residences. They created the Alhambra, a vast new palace and garden complex, dubbed al-hamra (the red) by the inhabitants of Granada.
By the early 15th century, several factors reduced Nasrid prestige and power. Two main factors were rivalries between the palace wazirs (ministers) and military expansion by the Amazigh (Berber) Marinid Dynasty in Fes. Then, in 1469, the fateful union of Isabella of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon launched a concerted effort to unify all of Spain under a common religious identity. In 1492, they conquered Granada, raising their banner atop the Alhambras highest tower.
MONGOL INVASION
Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad (1091) - Muslim
Key Moors in Spain
Ruler of Seville upon the caliphate's collapse in Crdoba. He was Ibn Abbad's grandfather. Al-Mu'tamid served as a judge (qadi) in Seville before becoming the third and last of the Abbadid rulers of Seville. He gained renown as a poet-king. Styling himself as ruler of the crown of taifa states, Al-Mu'tamid sought to reproduce the famed splendor of Madinat al-Zahra in his court at the Alcazar. He patronized scholars, poets, and artisans, and held lively salons that continued to propagate high Andalusian culture. However, his rivalries with other petty kings exhausted his military strength and financial resources. Ultimately, it forced him to pay tribute to Alfonso VI of Castile and tax his subjects heavily. Ibn Abbad turned for assistance to Yusuf ibn Tashufin, a Amazigh (Berber) and the Almoravid ruler of North Africa. The Berbers' arrival restored unity to Al-Andalus. But, by that time, AlMu'tamid was exiled and impoverished
Hakam II (914-976) - Muslim

A king of the Umayyad dynasty. He continued his father Abd al-Rahman III's policies in order to secure the Umayyad caliphate. He negotiated peace with northern Iberia's Christian kingdoms. He also further developed agriculture through construction of new irrigation works. He amassed a vast library with over 400,000 books from all parts of the Muslim world. He gathered at his court the brightest Jewish, Christian, and Muslim minds. He also patronized translations of Greek works. What's more, he oversaw the expansion of the Great Mosque of Crdoba. This move reflected the increased conversion to Islam taking place at the time. His young son, Hisham II, succeeded him. Wazir Al-Mansur coddled Hisham II and took control of the government.
Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860-940) - Muslim

A renowned poet in Crdoba. He was the descendant from a former slave of the Umayyad ruler Hisham I. He enjoyed a great reputation for learning and eloquence. His most famous work is al-Iqd al-Farid (The Precious Necklace). It is an anthology of the best selections of original, sophisticated, and pleasing Arabic prose, satire, and essays. Each of its 25 sections is named after a precious gem. Such naming illustrates the tendency of Arabic authors to apply witty and creative names to their works.
KEY CHRISTIANS IN SPAIN

Isidore of Seville (circa 560-636) - Christian
Eminent bishop of Seville. During the height of Visigothic rule, he played a key role in stamping out Arianism. His most influential work is the Etymologies. This encyclopedia summarizes all of the knowledge of the time. It also preserves portions of Greco-Roman classical writings. In addition, he wrote a valuable history of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi who had ruled Spain, as well as treatises on theology, language, natural history, and other subjects. He was canonized as a saint in 1598.
Jimenez de Cisneros (1436-1517) - Christian

A Spanish Cardinal and royal official in Spain. Born into a humble household, he ascended the heights of power as a religious reformer, regent of the Spanish throne, Grand Inquisitor, and Crusader in North Africa. As ambitious as he was, he often lived as an ascetic. He was known for his strictness and rigidity. He lived during the time of Spanish unification and the dynamic rule of Ferdinand and Isabella and their royal successors. Cisneros is known for having forcibly converted many Muslims of Granada and burning Arabic manuscripts in his zeal. He is also known for funding charities and educational institutions, as well as reforming Spanish clerical orders. He died just as he was preparing to receive Charles V into Spain and serve as regent to the 16-year-old monarch. Historians speculate that he may have been poisoned.
Hroswitha (circa 932-circa 1002) - Christian

A noblewoman and Benedictine nun from a Saxon family of Gandersheim. She distinguished herself as a major poet and composer of dramatic works in Latin. She was well-versed in the Church fathers, as well as Classical writings, which included Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Terence, among others. Her works form part of the Ottonian Renaissance. She traveled to Crdoba during the height of its splendor in the mid-10th century. She was captivated by the bustling citys running water, paved streets, palaces, and industries, characterizing shining Crdoba as the ornament of the world, a description that continues to resonate with visitors today.
Charles Martel ( 686 - 741 ) Christian

The Franks' Mayor of the Palace and Duke, nicknamed The Hammer. His army routed a small Muslim contingent at the Battle of Tours in 732-33. Muslim rule in Europe had nearly reached its geographic limit. Yet, the battle is often viewed incorrectly as a decisive action saving Europe from becoming part of the fold of Islam.
Charles V ( 1500 - 1558 ) - Christian

Charles V was ruler of the Burgundian territories, King of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily, Archduke of Austria, a King of German territory, and Holy Roman Emperor. As a Habsburg monarch, his territories were spread across much of Europe. In Spain, he was called Carlos V but was officially Charles I of Spain. He was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and son of Phillip of Flanders and Joanna the Mad of Castile. He ruled alongside them during his youth. He also was related to other royal houses in Europe, including Emperor Maximilian I Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VIII, and others. He was among the first imperial monarchs of Europe during the Age of Exploration. He presided over the earliest stirrings of the Reformation in Europe. As such, he attempted to repress Protestants. He did so by supporting the Catholic Church through political and military maneuvering, as well as Inquistion. He engaged in many entanglements, such as war with the Ottomans, the French and the Dutch Protestants. What's more, his appointment of numerous Flemish officials to his Spanish court angered his subjects. Under Charles V, the conquests of Cortes and Pizarro over the Aztecs and Incas took place under his reign. These conquests added huge territories and wealth in precious metals. He is said to have introduced slavery to the New World.
Mancebo de Arevalo (died 1550) Morisco (or cr ypto-Muslim)

Scholar whose writings document the deprivations of life after the Christians' conquest of Islamic Spain. This literature has been called aljamiado. These writings focus mainly on the attempt to pass on Islamic knowledge and heritage under the repressive conditions of forced conversions and the early Spanish Inquisition. De Arevalo was from the Castilian Arevalo near Madrid. His name means young man of Arevalo. He was forced to pretend to be a convert to Christianity. He did so by indicating that his mother had been a Christian for 25 years. He traveled extensively around Spain to such places as Alcantara, Astorga, Saragossa, Gandia, Granada, and Segovia. On his travels, he visited with other Morisco, or crypto-Muslim, notables; gathered knowledge; and collected the teachings of his now-forbidden religion. He transcribed documents and texts he discovered to preserve and pass them on. He recounts people's memories of Nasnd times and of the Christian conquest of Granada. Little is known about him. However, it is thought that he must have traveled during the end of the 15th century, up to the time of Ferdinands death, as pressure on Muslims was increasing. The information he collected was written down in three works. The first, El brebe compendio de nuestra santa ley y sunna (The Brief Compendium of Our Holy Law and Sunnah), represents the work of a group of Muslim notables at Aragon, including the alfaqui Bray de Reminjo. Today, it sits in the Cambridge University Library. The other two, Tafsira and Sumano de la relacion y ejerctcio espintual (Summary of the Account and Spiritual Exercise) also exist in libraries today.
Maslama al-Majriti (died 1007) - Muslim

A leading mathematician and astronomer from the frontier town of Madrid (al-Majra) in central Spain. At the Umayyad court of al-Hakam II, he produced an improved translation of Ptolemys astronomical work Almagest. He circulated al-Khwarizmis astronomical tables (zij). He also demonstrated the use of algebra for business transactions and taxation. And, he introduced techniques of surveying and triangulation. Joannes Hispalensis later translated his treatise on the astrolabe into Latin. Al-Majriti most likely authored an important compendium on chemistry, called the Rutbat al-Hakeem (The Footsteps of the Sage).
Muhammad ibn Nasr (died 1273) - Muslim

King of Granada from 1235 CE and founder of the Nasrid Dynasty. The Nasrids ruled the Kingdom of Granada from 1238, until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered it in 1492. They were the last Muslim dynasty on the Iberian Peninsula. The Nasrids originated the most monumental, sophisticated and lavish period within Spanish Islamic art. As a result, Granada became the artistic center of North Africa and the Iberian Christian kingdoms. The best example of Nasrid art is the royal residence of the Alhambra.
Muhammad ibn Tumar t (c.1080-1130) - Muslim

Leader of the Almohad movement (Muwahhidun). He was born around 1080 in Morocco of Amazigh (Berber) ancestry. He acquired a reputation for personal piety and charisma as a preacher. He also was known for controversial positions in debates. His opinions led the Almoravid rulers to perceive him as a political threat. Refusing arrest, he soon after declared himself Mahdi, or "The Guided One." Thus, he became associated with the rise of the Almohads in North Africa. He died after a battle in 1130 CE. His death was concealed long enough for Abd al-Mumin to be proclaimed Almohad leader.
Umar ibn Hafsun (circa 840-917) - Muslim/Christian
Leader of anti-Umayyad Dynasty rebel forces in southern Spain. He was a muwallad in his youth. He joined a group of brigands and caused trouble for local Umayyad governors. In 883, he became a leader of rebels based at the castle of Bobastro near Ronda. This move expanded his control over nearby lands. He initially gained support by rallying disaffected muwallads to his cause. However, when he renounced belief in Islam, many of his followers abandoned him. The Umayyad ruler, Abd-arRahman III, began annual offensives against him. He eventually conquered Ibn Hafsuns fortress and ended the rebellion.
An astrolabe (Greek: astrolabon 'star-taker')[1] is an historical astronomical instrument used by astronomers, navigators, and astrologers. Its many uses include locating and predicting the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars; determining local time (given local latitude) and vice-versa; surveying; triangulation; and to cast horoscopes. They were used in Classical Antiquity and through the medieval Islamic world and the European Middle Ages and Renaissance for all these purposes. In the Islamic world, they were also used to calculate the Qibla and to find the times for Salah prayers. There is often confusion between the astrolabe and the mariner's astrolabe. While the astrolabe could be useful for determining latitude on land, it was an awkward instrument for use on the heaving deck of a ship or in wind. The mariner's astrolabe was developed to address these issues.
holy quran
Al Andulus
Basic descriptive information The autonomous community of Andaluca, with a population of 7,975,672, covers an area of 87,597 square kilometres, and is divided into eight provinces: Almera, Cdiz, Crdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jan, Mlaga, and Sevilla. This last is the regional capital and the seat of the regional government, the Junta de Andaluca. including such major cities as
Sevilla, Cdiz, Granada, Crdoba, Jan and
Mlaga.It is the largest of Spains seventeen autonomous communities in terms of population and the second largest in terms
of land area, behind Castilla y Len. Its land area represents 17.3% of Spanish territory. Situated at the far south west of the European Union, the region looks onto the meeting point of two seas and two continents: the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, with Africa just 15 kilometres away across the Strait of Gibraltar. The Sierra Morena acts as a natural boundary for the regions northern borders with Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha. Portugal lies to the West and the Murcia Region to the East. Cdiz provinces shares a land border with Gibraltar. Maritime boundaries are the Mediterranean in the East and South, the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic at the regions south western border, and the Atlantic in the West, making up a total of 917 kilometres of coastline. We will be bringing more information on the region of Andalucia and its points of interest shortly as this page is currently being expanded. In the meantime, however, we provide you with some useful links.
Al-Andalus is remembered on another level as the one area that was once - but is no longer - part of the Muslim world. Until the middle of this century, Muslims have withstood Mongols, Crusaders, empire-builders and settlers and still emerged with their Islamic identity intact - except in Spain. Even the Communist regimes of present-day China and the former Soviet Union failed to root out Islam, failed to deracinate their Muslim populations, despite vast expenditures of time, of treasure and of blood in attempts to build "the new socialist man" (See Aramco World, January-February 1990). The fact that the rest of the Muslim world has retained its religious identity over some fourteen centuries rife with political, social, cultural and technological change makes the exception of Spain that much more painful to Muslims.
On the other hand, Islamic Spain was an immensely fertile ground for learning, producing a long series of intellectual, esthetic and scientific advances attributable to Muslim, Christian and Jewish thinkers and the atmosphere they created. This blossoming was due in part to the spirit of tolerance that prevailed for much, though not all, of the history of Al-Andalus - a tolerance extended not only just to other religious groups but operative within Muslim society as well. Despite the passage of 500 years, Al-Andalus continues to cast its spell. As the birthplace of some of the world's outstanding scholars and artisans, home of dazzling architectural masterpieces, and setting of a brilliant society notable for both the height of its achievements and the depths of its decadence, Al-Andalus retains its emotional impact and its privileged place in Muslim historical memory.
ZIRYAB THE BLACKBIRD
The cornerstone of Spanish Musical art Fashionable arbiter of taste in the 9th century Kings and great people took him for a pattern of manners and education
If you eat asparagus, or if you start your meal with soup and end with dessert, or if you use toothpaste, or if you wear your hair in bangs, you owe a lot to one of the greatest musicians in history. He was known as Ziryab, a colloquial Arabic term that translates as "blackbird." He lived in Medieval Spain more than a thousand years ago. He was a freed slave who made good, charming the royal court at Crdoba with his songs. He founded a music school whose fame survived more than 500 years after his death. Ibn Hayyan of Crdoba, one of Arab Spain's greatest historians, says in his monumental Al-Muqtabas (The Citation) that Ziryab knew thousands of songs by heart and revolutionized the design of the musical instrument that became the lute. He spread a new musical style around the Mediterranean, influencing troubadours and minstrels and affecting the course of European music. He was also his generation's arbiter of taste and style and manners, and he exerted enormous influence on Medieval European society. How people dressed, what and how they ate, how they groomed themselves, what music they enjoyed -- all were influenced by Ziryab. If you've never heard of this remarkable artist, it's not surprising. With the twists and turns of history, his name has dropped from public memory in the western world. But the changes he brought to Europe are very much a part of the reality we know today. One reason Ziryab is unknown to us is that he spoke Arabic, and was part of the royal court of the Arab empire in Spain. Muslims from Arabia and North Africa ruled part of Spain from AD 711 until 1492. The last remnant of Arab rule in the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Granada, was conquered by the armies of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in the same year that Columbus sailed for the New World. The Arabs called their Iberian domain Al-Andalus -- a direct reference to the Vandals, who occupied the peninsula in the fifth century and whose legacy was still pervasive when Muslim forces arrived in the eighth -- and that name survives today in the name of Spain's southern province, Andalusia. At its peak, Al-Andalus experienced a golden age of civilization that was the envy of all Europe, and which set the stage for the European Renaissance that followed. Muslims, Christians and Jews interacted in a convivencia -- a "livingtogether" -- of tolerance and cooperation unparalleled in its time. Influences from Arab Spain spread to France and throughout Europe, and from there to the Americas. It was in this context that the achievements of Ziryab became part of western culture. Ziryab's achievements were not forgotten in the Arab world, and it is from historians there that we know of his life and accomplishments. As the 17th-century Arab historian al-Maqqari says in his Nafb al-Tib (Fragrant Breeze), "There never was, either before or after him, a man of his profession who was more generally beloved and admired."
The staying power of Blackbird's reputation is such that even today in Algeria, where Andalusi influence continues to echo, the sweet orange Arab pastry known as zalabia -- here it takes the form of a spiral of fried batter soaked in saffron syrup -- is believed by many Algerians to derive its name from Ziryab's, a claim impossible to confirm or refute. An Indian version of zalabia, the jalebi, can be traced back to the 15th century within India but no earlier, and could be a borrowing from the Arabs and ultimately from Ziryab. With the emir's blessing, Ziryab decreed that palace dinners would be served in courses -- that is, according to a fixed sequence, starting with soups or broths, continuing with fish, fowl or meats, and concluding with fruits, sweet desserts and bowls of pistachios and other nuts. This presentation style, unheard of even in Baghdad or Damascus, steadily gained in popularity, spreading through the upper and merchant classes, then among Christians and Jews, and even to the peasantry. Eventually the custom became the rule throughout Europe. The English expression "from soup to nuts," indicating a lavish, multi-course meal, can be traced back to Ziryab's innovations at the Andalusi table.
Dressing up the plain wooden dinner table, Ziryab taught local craftsmen how to produce tooled and fitted leather table coverings. He replaced the heavy gold and silver drinking goblets of the upper classes -- a holdover from the Goths and Romans -- with delicate, finely crafted crystal. He redesigned the bulky wooden soupspoon, substituting a trimmer, lighter-weight model. Ziryab also turned his attention to personal grooming and fashion. He developed Europe's first toothpaste (though what exactly its ingredients were, we cannot say). He popularized shaving among men and set new haircut trends. Before Ziryab, royalty and nobles washed their clothes with rose water; to improve the cleaning process, he introduced the use of salt. For women, Blackbird opened a "beauty parlor/cosmetology school" not far from the Alcazar, the emir's palace. He created hairstyles that were daring for the time. The women of Spain traditionally wore their hair parted in the middle, covering their ears, with a long braid down the back. Ziryab introduced a shorter, shaped cut, with bangs on the forehead and the ears uncovered. He taught the shaping of eyebrows and the use of depilatories for removing body hair. He introduced new perfumes and cosmetics. Some of Ziryab's fashion tips he borrowed from the elite social circles of Baghdad, then the world's most cosmopolitan city. Others were twists on local Andalusi custom. Most became widespread simply because Ziryab advocated them: He was a celebrity, and people gained status simply by emulating him.
As an arbiter of courtly dress, he decreed Spain's first seasonal fashion calendar. In springtime, men and women were to wear bright colors in their cotton and linen tunics, shirts, blouses and gowns. Ziryab introduced colorful silk clothing to supplement traditional fabrics. In summer, white clothing was the rule. When the weather turned cold, Ziryab recommended long cloaks trimmed with fur, which became all the rage in Al-Andalus. Ziryab exercised great clout at the emir's court, even in political and administrative decision-making. 'Abd al-Rahman II has been credited with organizing the "norms of the state" in Al-Andalus, transforming it from a Roman-Visigothic model to one set up along Abbasid lines, and Ziryab is said to have played a significant role in this process.
Ziryab exercised great clout at the emir's court, even in political and administrative decision-making. 'Abd al-Rahman II has been credited with organizing the "norms of the state" in Al-Andalus, transforming it from a Roman-Visigothic model to one set up along Abbasid lines, and Ziryab is said to have played a significant role in this process. Ziryab brought in astrologers from India and Jewish doctors from North Africa and Iraq. The astrologers were grounded in astronomy, and Ziryab encouraged the spread of this knowledge. The Indians also knew how to play chess, and Ziryab had them teach the game to members of the royal court, and from there it spread throughout the peninsula.
Not surprisingly, Ziryab's all-encompassing influence incurred the jealousy and resentment of other courtiers in Crdoba. Two celebrated poets of the day, Ibn Habib and al-Ghazzal, wrote scathing verses attacking him. Al-Ghazzal, a prominent Andalusi satirist, probably viewed the Baghdadi Ziryab as a high-toned interloper. Ziryab maintained the friendship and support of the emir, however, and that was all that mattered. But 'Abd al-Rahman II died in about 852, and his remarkable innovator Ziryab is believed to have followed about five years later. Ziryab's children kept alive his musical inventions, assuring their spread throughout Europe. Each of his eight sons and two daughters eventually pursued a musical career, though not all became celebrities. The most popular singer was Ziryab's son 'Ubayd Allah, though his brother Qasim was said to have a better voice. Next in talent was 'Abd al-Rahman, the first of the children to take over the music school after their father's death -- though arrogance was said to be his downfall, for he ended up alienating everyone, according to Ibn Hayyan. Ziryab's daughters were skilled musicians. The better artist was Hamduna, whose fame translated into marriage with the vizier of the realm. The better teacher was her sister 'Ulaiya, the last surviving of Ziryab's children, who went on to inherit most of her father's musical clients. As 'Abd al-Rahman II and Ziryab departed the stage, Crdoba was coming into its own as a cultural capital and seat of learning. By the time another 'Abd al-Rahman -- the third -- took power in 912, the city had become the intellectual center of Europe. As historian James Cleugh said of Crdoba in Spain in the Modern World, "there was nothing like it, at that epoch, in the rest of Europe. The best minds in that continent looked to Spain for everything which most clearly differentiates a human being from a tiger."
Moorish Nobility
(THE IMAGE ABOVE IS A PAINTING OF ONE OF THE MOST RESPECTED BLACK MEN IN THE ANNALS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. HIS NAME IS CHEVALIER DE SAINT GEORGES AND HE WAS WELL RESPECTED AS AN EQUESTRIAN, SWORDSMAN, VIOLINIST, COMPOSER, AND A GREAT INTELLECT. HE WAS KNOWN AS THE "BLACK MOZART" OR THE "BLACK VOLTAIRE" OF MUSIC AND HE WAS HIGHLY SOUGHT AFTER FOR HIS TALENTS IN FRANCE AND OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE AS WELL.) ....
Occult Legacy of the Moors
TALES OF SPANISH MAGIC & SORCERY AKA MOORISH SCIENCE

SPAIN seems to have been regarded by the other countries of Western Europe as the special abode of superstition, sorcery, and magic, probably because of the notoriety given to the discoveries of the Moorish alchemists, the first scientists in Europe. But with the coming of the Inquisition a marked and natural falling off is noticeable in the prevalence of occult belief, for anything which in the least tended to heresy was repressed in the most rigid manner by that illiberal Institution. In this way much of the folk-lore and peasant belief of Spain, many fascinating legends, and many a curious custom have been lost, never to be recovered. The Brothers, in their zeal for the purity of their Church, banished not only the witch, the sorcerer, and the demon from Spain, but also the innocent fairy, the spirits of wood and wold, and those household familiars which harm no one, but assist the housewife and the
After discussing the terminology of talismanic magic (or necromancy) and its position in divisions of science in the Middle Ages, this book traces the history of talismanic texts from the Classical period through the Arabic world to the Latin Middle Ages. The principal authorities are Hermes and Aristotle, and the search for the secret knowledge of these ancient sages is shown to have been a catalyst for the translating activity from Arabic into Latin in 12th-century Spain. The second half of the volume is devoted to examples of the kinds of divination prevalent in Arabic and Latin-reading societies: chiromancy, onomancy, scapulimancy, geomancy and fortune-telling. The book ends with advice on when to practice alchemy and a prophetic letter of supposed Arabic provenance, warning of the coming of the Mongols. Several editions of previously unedited texts are included, with translations. Contents: Introduction; Talismans: magic as science? Necromancy among the Seven Liberal Arts; Adelard, Ergaphalau and the science of the stars; Arabic, Greek and Latin works on astrological magic attributed to Aristotle; The translating activity in medieval Spain; The legend of the three Hermes and Abu Mashars Kitab al-Uluf in the Latin Middle Ages; Hermann of Carinthia and the kitab al-Istamatis: further evidence for the transmission of Hermetic magic; The kitab al-Istamatis and a manuscript of astrological and astronomical works from Barcelona (Biblioteca de Catalunya, 634); Scandinavian runes in a Latin magical treatise; The Conte de Sarzana magical manuscript; The earliest chiromancy in the West; Chiromancy: supplement. The principal Latin texts on chiromancy extant in the Middle Ages; The Eadwine Psalter and the western tradition of the onomancy in Pseudo-Aristotle's Secret of Secrets; Scapulimancy (divination by the shoulder blades of sheep); Arabic divinatory texts and Celtic folklore: a comment on the theory and practice of scapulimancy in Western Europe; Divination from sheep's shoulder blades: a reflection on Andalusian society; An Islamic divinatory technique in medieval Spain; The scapulimancy of Giorgio Anselmi's Divinum opus de magia disciplina; What is the Experimentarius of Bernardus Silvestris? A preliminary survey of the material; A note on two fortune-telling tables; The astrologers assay of the alchemist: early references to alchemy in Arabic and Latin texts; An apocryphal letter from the Arabic philosopher al-Kindi to Theodore, Frederick II's astrologer, concerning Gog and Magog, the enclosed nations and the scourge of the Mongols; Index.
Moorish Magic
By no race was the practice of the occult arts studied with such perseverance as by the Moors of Spain, and it is strange indeed that only fragmentary notices of their works in this respect remain to us. The statement that they were famous for magical and alchemical studies is reiterated by numerous European historians, but the majority of these have refrained from any description of their methods, and the Moors themselves have left so few undoubted memorials of their labours in this direction that we remain in considerable ignorance of the trend of their efforts, so that if we desire any knowledge upon this most recondite subject we must perforce collect it painfully from the fragmentary notices of it in con temporary European and Arabic literature. The rst name of importance which we encounter in the broken annals of Moorish occultism is a great onethat of the famous Geber, who ourished about 720-750, and who is reported to have penned upward of ve hundred works upon the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. In common with his fellowalchemists, he appears to have failed signally in his search for those marvellous elements, but if he was unable to point way to immortal life and boundless wealth, he is to have given mankind the nitrate of silver, corrossive sublimate, and nitric acid. He believed that a preparation of gold would heal all diseases in both animals plants, as well as in human beings, and that all men were in a condition of chronic sickness in so far that they had departed from their natural and original state of gold. His works, all of which are in Latin, are not considered authentic, but his Summa Perfectionis manual for the alchemical student, has frequently been translated. The Moorish alchemists taught that all metals are composed of varying proportions of mercury and sulphur. They laboured strenuously to multiply drugs out of the various mixtures and reactions of the few chemicals their disposal, but although they believed in the theory of transmutation of metals they did not strive to effect. It belonged to their creed rather than to the practice. They were a school of scientic artisans and experimentalists, rst and last. They probably owe their alchemical knowledge to Byzantium, which in turn had received it from Egypt; or it may be that the Arab drew their scientic inspiration at rst hand from the land of the Nile, where the great art of alchemy undoubtedly had its birth. Wednesday, July 25, 2012
SPAIN seems to have been regarded by the other countries of Western Europe as the special abode of superstition, sorcery, and magic, probably because of the notoriety given to the discoveries of the Moorish alchemists, the rst scientists in Europe. But with the coming of the Inquisition a marked and natural falling off is noticeable in the prevalence of occult belief, for anything which in the least tended to heresy was repressed in the most rigid manner by that illiberal Institution. In this way much of the folklore and peasant belief of Spain, many fascinating legends, and many a curious custom have been lost, never to be recovered. The Brothers, in their zeal for the purity of their Church, banished not only the witch, the sorcerer, and the demon from Spain, but also the innocent fairy, the spirits of wood and wold, and those household familiars which harm no one, but assist the housewife and the dairymaid.
The rst information we receive that the authorities intended a campaign against the whole demonhood, good and evil, of Spain is contained in a work by Alfonso de Speria, a Castilian Franciscan, who wrote, about 1458 or 1460, a work specially directed against heretics and unbelievers, in which he gives a chapter on those popular beliefs which were derived from ancient pagan practices. The belief in witches, whom he calls xurguine (jurguja) or bruxe, seems to have been imported from Dauphin or Gascony, where, he tells us, they abounded. They were, he says, wont to assemble at night in great numbers on a high tableland, carrying candles with them, for the purpose of worshipped Satan, who appeared to them in the form of a boar rather than in that of the he-goat in which he so frequently manifested himself in other localities. Liorente, in his History of the Inquisition in Sp states that the rst auto-de-f against sorcery was at Calabarra in 1507, when thirty women charged with witchcraft by the Inquisition were burnt. In the rst treatise on Spanish sorcery, that of Martin de Castanaga, a Franciscan monk (i 529), we learn that Navarre was regarded as the motherland of Spanish witchcraft, and that that province sent many 'missionaries' to Aragon to convert its women to sorcery. But we nd that the Spanish theologians of the sixteenth century were so much more enlightened than those of other countries that they admitted that witchcraft was merely a delusion, and the punishment they meted out to those who believed in it was inicted in respect that the belief, erroneous though it was, was contrary to the tenets of the Church.
Spain had not in the sixteenth century ceased to be celebrated for its magicians, who still retained a modicum of the occult philosophy of the Moorish doctors of Toledo and Granada. Perhaps the most celebrated of these comparatively modern masters of magic was Doctor Eugenio Torralva, physician to the family of the Admiral of Castile. Educated at Rome, he early became a pronounced sceptic, and formed an intimacy with a certain Master Alfonso, a man who, after changing his Jewish faith for Islam, and that again for Christianity, had at last become a free-thinker. Another evil companion was a Dominican monk called Brother Pietro, who told Torralva that he had in his service a good angel called Zequid, who had no equal in the spiritual world as a seer, and was besides of such a disinterested temperament that he served only those who had complete condence in him and deserved his attachment.All this excited Torralva's curiosity to an unbounded degree. He was one of those people, fortunate or otherwise, in whom the love of mystery has been deeply implanted, and when Pietro generously proposed to resign his familiar spirit to his friend's keeping he eagerly accepted the offer. Nor did Zequid himself offer any opposition to this change of master, and appearing at the summons of Pietro, assured Torralvo that he would follow his service as long as he lived, and wherever he was obliged to go. There was nothing very startling in the appearance of the spirit, who was dressed in a esh-coloured habit and black cloak, and had the appearance of a young man with an abundance of fair hair.From this time onward Zequiel appeared to Torralva at every change of the moon, and as often as the physician required his services, which was generally for the purpose of transporting him An a short space of time to distant places. Sometimes the spirit assumed the appearance of a hermit, at others that of a traveller and even accompanied his master to church, from which circumstance Torralva concluded that he was a benecent and Christian-minded spirit. But, alas! Dr Torralva was to nd, like many another, that attendance at the sacred edice is not necessarily a guarantee of piety.
About the end of the tenth century the learned men of Europe began to resort to Spain for the purpose of studying the arts, occult and otherwise. Among the rst to do so was Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylvester II, who spent several years in Cordova, and who introduced into Christendom the knowledge of the Arabic numerals and the no less useful art of clock-making. Strange that he did not apply his knowledge of the one to the other, and that even to-day our timepieces are burdened with the old and cumbrous Roman numerals! William of Malmesbury assures us that Gerbert made many discoveries of treasure through the art of necromancy, and relates how he visited a magnicent subterranean palace, which, though dazzling to the sight, would not remain when its splendours were subjected to the test of human touch. Ignorant Europe took Gerbert's mathematical diagrams for magical signs, and his occult reputation increased as his moral character withered. It was said that the Devil had promised him that he should not die until he had celebrated high mass at Jerusalem. One day Gerbert celebrated his ofce in the Church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem at Rome, and, feeling ill, asked where he was, observed the double entendre of the Evil One, and expired. Such was the tale that benighted ignorance cast round the memory of this singleminded and en-lightened man, much in the same spirit as it bedevilled the recollections of our own Michael Scot and Roger Bacon. Wednesday, July 25, 2012
The Dean of Santiago

In the Conde Lucanor, a Spanish collection of tales and homilies of the fourteenth century, already alluded to, is a story of the Dean of Santiago, who went to Illan, a magician of Toledo, to be instructed in necromancy. The magus raised a difculty, saying that as the Dean was a man of inuence, and would attain a high position. he would probably forget all past obligations. The Dean, however, protested that no matter to what eminence he attained he would not fail to remember and assist his former friends, and particularly his tutor in things supernatural. Satised with the churchman's promises, the necromancer led his pupil to a remote apartment, rst requesting his housekeeper to purchase some partridges for supper, but not to cook them until she had denite orders to do so.When the Dean and his instructor had settled themselves to the business before them, they were interrupted in their labours by a messenger, who came to inform the Dean that his uncle, the Archbishop, had summoned him to his death-bed. Being unwilling, however, to forgo the instruction he was about to receive, he excused himself from the duty. Four days later, another messenger arrived, informing the Dean of the Archbishop's death, and later he learned that he had been appointed Archbishop in his uncle's place. On hearing this, Illan requested the vacant deanery for his son. But the new Archbishop preferred his own brother, Inviting, however, Illan and his son to accompany him to his see. Later the deanery became vacant once more, and once again the magician begged that his son might be appointed to it. But the Archbishop refused his suit, in favour of one of his own uncles. Two years later the Archbishop became a cardinal, and was summoned to Rome, with liberty to appoint his successor in the see. Once more Illan was disappointed. At length the Cardinal was elected Pope, and Illan, who had accompanied him to Rome, reminded him that he had now no excuse for not fullling the promises he had so often made to him. The Pope, in anger, threatened to have Illan cast into prison and starved as a heretic and sorcerer. "Ingrate!" cried the incensed magician, "since you would thus starve me, I must perforce fall back upon the partridges I ordered for to-night's supper."With these words he waved his wand, and called to his housekeeper to prepare the birds. Instantly the Dean found himself once more in Toledo, still Dean of Santiago, for, indeed, the years he had spent as Archbishop, Cardinal, and Pope were illusory, and had existed only in his imagination at the suggestion of the magus. This was the means the sage had taken to test his character, before committing himself to his hands and so crestfallen was the churchman that he had nothing to reply to the reproaches of Illan, who sent him off without permitting him to sup upon the partridges!
Astrology was also an important branch of occult study with the Moors
of Spain, whose consideration of it greatly assisted the science of mathematics, especially that branch of it which still retains its Arabic name-algebra (al = the, jabara = to set, compute). It is probable that the Arabs rst received an insight into the practice of foretelling events by the position of the planets at a given time from the Chaldeans, who undoubtedly were its earliest students. References to astrology are plentifully encountered in Spanish story, as the reader will have observed. But high as it stood in the estimation of the Moorish sages, it was still subservient to the grander and more mysterious art of magic, whereby the spirits of the air could be forced to do the will of the magus, and carry out his behests in four elements. Most unfortunately, we are almost entirely ignorant of the tenets of Moorish magic, owing probably to the circumstance that it was averse to the spirit of Islam. But we know that it was founded upon Alexandrian magic, and therefore recognized the principles of that art as laid down by the great Hermes Trismegistus, who was none other than the Egyptian Thoth, the god of writing, computation, and wisdom.
Another important point i want to reiterate: at that time in history, magic and occultism were openly practiced and studied by the educated upper classes and clergy in the universities and religious centres within the Islamic territories because Muslims admired the Hellenist wordlviews in which magic was considered to be a science and a philosophy.
Astrology was considered an important science at the time, and excellent astrologers were venerated to the same level as today's Nobel prize-winning scientists. This kind of veneration of magic happened in the early days of Islam before orthodoxy set in and Hellenist-friendly Sufist bent was replaced by the Sharia interpretations of the Madh'hab considered magic to be shir (sorcery) and threfore unrighteous. The Islamic and Sephardic Jewish writings of the time were all influenced to a large degree by Greek philosophy, especially the works of Plato and the Neoplatonists, as well as the Gnostic heresies. In addition to Greek philosophy, the Islamic writings were also heavily influenced by Sufism, whereas the Jewish writings were heavily influenced by Kabbalism. European writings came from a grab-bag of influences but tended to be married to Catholicism in some way, most likely in order to avoid ecumenical censorship. European writings also tended to contain references to folk practices and survivals of European culture, such as Italian, French, Basque/Celtic, and German paganism in their oral traditions. In this way the learning was truly cosmopolitan, and it may be that this is what Abraham of Worms was referring to in The Sacred Magic of Abramelin The Mage when he stated that Jews, Muslims, Christians (Byzantine Europeans), and Pagans (Germans and Scandanavians) may learn the sacred magic. The multiculturalism of Andalusian and Moorish metaphysics made it universal. Some of the more well-known magical treatises in the Islamic/Sufi bent include the Shams al-Ma'arif alKubra (Sun of the Great Knowledge) by Ahmad al-Buni, and Ghayat al-Hakim (The Picatrix) by Ahmad alMajriti, among many other grimoires. Not all of the grimoires of the time were written in the Moorish regions; many of them were written elsewhere in the Caliphate and brought to the attention of the university researchers in Spain. However, the works compiled in Iberia are the foundation of many of the grimoires created later on in Europe.
MOORISH SCIENCE
Palmistry or chiromancy (also spelled cheiromancy, Greek cheir (), hand; manteia (), divination), is the art of characterization and foretelling the future through the study of the palm, also known as palm reading, or chirology. The practice is found all over the world, with numerous cultural variations. Those who practice chiromancy are generally called palmists, palm readers, hand readers, hand analysts,or chirologists.
GRIMOIRE
The text dates to the Late Middle Ages or the Italian Renaissance. Many such grimoires attributed to King Solomon were written in this period, ultimately inuenced by earlier (High Medieval) works of Jewish kabbalists and Arab alchemists, which in turn hark back to Greco-Roman magic of Late Antiquity. Several versions of the Key of Solomon exist, in various translations, and with minor or signicant differences. The archetype was likely a Latin or Italian text dating to the 14th or 15th century.[1] Most extant manuscripts date to the late 16th, 17th or 18th centuries, but there is an early Greek manuscript, dating to the 15th century (Harleian MS. 5596) closely associated with the text. The Greek manuscript is referred to as The Magical Treatise of Solomon, and was published by Armand Delatte in Anecdota Atheniensia (Lige, 1927, pp.397-445.) Its contents are very similar to the Clavicula, and it may in fact be the prototype on which the Italian or Latin text was based.
The dizzying breadth of philosophy and magical practice led to many different grimoires and magical treatises over the course of different centuries, and these were published and spread throughout the Caliphates of the time. These writings took on different slants due to the nationality and metaphysical views of the authors, and they are not always consistent with each other in minor detail; nevertheless, the grimoires show a remarkable level of cross-referencing. Obviously the authors were well-read and well aware of each others work.
The name "Grimoire" is derived from the word "Grammar". A grammar is a description of a set of symbols and how to combine them to create well-formed sentences. A Grimoire is, appropriately enough, a description of a set of magickal symbols and how to combine them properly. Most of the texts linked below are descriptions of traditional European ritual magick, which is based on Judeo-Christianity. Even though this must not be confused with neo-Paganism, many of the neo-Pagan traditions use similar rituals and techniques, albeit with a different (usually Celtic) vocabulary.
Many of the important cities in Al-Andalus had powerful research and development departments for scientific inquiry, and these universities regularly shared information with independent research also being carried out in other parts of the Arab world, namely Syria, Egypt, and parts of Persia. Al-Andalus population and location added a more international flair to its scientific inquiry and its location deep in western Europe gave it autonomy that the other centres didnt quite have, being that they were located in the Middle East.
Many sources, one destination Andalusian researchers must have known about the different magical traditions of other lands due to the multiculturalism of the society. It is well-known that Andalusian scholars investigated Neoplatonism and Gnostic mysteries. It is also well-known that many advances were made under Sufism and Kabbalism because many Sufi and Kabbalist works were published at the universities there. It only makes sense that their zeal for metaphysical inquiry would have also led them to investigate the paranormal sciences found in Dharmic philosophy, Zoroastrianism, Kemetic/Egyptian mysteries, and even Esoteric Christianity from Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Ethiopian Coptic areas. I speculate that they may also have done research into the surviving folk metaphysics of the Greek mystery schools and Roman religion, as well as more modern practices of other lands such as Celtic Druid mysteries, Scandanavian/ Germanic heathenry, and the Gypsy magic of the Berber and Romani shamans. And believe it or not,
THE REVELATIONS OF THE ABOVE CLEARLY SUPPORT THE CONTENTION THAT EUROPES ACADEMIC ASCENSION WAS PRIMARILY BORN OF ITS CONTACTS WITH THE MOORS WHO WERE OCCUPYING EUROPEAN SOIL. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THESE FAMED EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES DURING THE SAME TIME ITS SCHOLARS ARE STUDYING THE WORKS OF MOORISH ANDALUS, EVEN MAKING THEM STANDARD TEXTS IN ASTRONOMY,MATHEMATICS,MEDICINE, ETC.,CANNOT SIMPLY BE DISMISSED AS COINCIDENCE.
THE EFFECT OF THE MOORISH AND ARAB IMPACT ON THE FILED OF ASTRONOMY CAN BE NOTED BY EUROPEAN NAMES FOR CERTAIN STARS OR CONSTELLATIONS WHICH HAVE AN ARABIC ORIGIN, ACRAB(AQRAB=SCORPION) ALGEDI (AL-JADI=THE GOAT) ALTAIR (ALTAIR=THE FLYER) PHERKARD (FARQAD=THE CALF) AND DENEB (DHANAB=THE TAIL) EVEN THE TECHNICAL TERMS LIKE AZIMUTH (AL-SUMUT) AND NADER (NADIR) ILLUSTRATE A MOORISH/ARABIC ORIGIN.-PG 225 G.A.O.T.M
SCIENTIFIC GENUIS OF THE MOORS
THE IMAGE ABOVE IS A SO-CALLED "VANITAS" PAINTING THAT BECAME POPULAR AMONGST THE OCCULTIST AND ROYALTY OF EUROPE DURING THE BAROQUE PERIOD. IT DEPICTS A MOOR SEATED AMONGST VARIOUS ESOTERIC SYMBOLS. AS "SUBJECT MATTER" THE ARTIST HAS CAREFULLY CONCEALED THE DESIGN OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA, REVEALING THE SHAFTS AND CHAMBERS. THIS IS A TESTAMENT TO THE EXTREME KNOWLEDGE OF MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY THAT WAS PREVALENT AMONG THE MOORS IN EUROPE
With the coming of Islam, interaction between Moors and Arabs increased but research into the manuscripts and documents of medieval Europe emphatically demonstrates that the prevailing image of the MOORS - for the period - concerned was that of the black skinned, woolly haired African. The image occurs repeatedly in such famed works as Las Cantigas de Santa Maria , a 13th century manuscript of Moorish musical works translated by Spain's King Alfonso X (El Sabio), one of the best known of Europe's acquirers of Moorish texts. Numerous works such as these leave no doubt as to what race of people the term "Moor" referred to in medieval Europe.Alfonso set up centres in cities such as Toledo for the express purpose of acquiring and translating these texts. There is no question that it was not until centuries later that the distinctions became blurred and the term Moor began to be used for various other ethnic groups as well.
THE REIGN OF THE CASTILIAN KING ALFONSO X (1252-84) REPRESENTED THE HIGH POINT OF THIS CROSS FERTILIZATION.SCHOOLED IN ARABIC AND KNOWN AS EL SABIO, THE LERANED ONE, ALFONSO WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR GREAT CULTURAL AND SOCIAL WORKS.EVEN AS HE GAVE LIP SERVICE TO THE TRADITIONAL OBLIGATION OF CHRISTIAN KINGS TO CONFRONT AND CONQUER THE MOORS, HE SET OUT TO CREATE A CULTURE IN THE NORTH OF SPAIN THAT WAS EQUAL IN GLORY TO MOORISH CULTURE IN THE SOUTH. HE ORDERED BOTH THE KORAN AND THE TALMUD TO BE TRANSLATED INTO LATIN, AND HE PROMOTED VALUABLE TRANSLATIONS FROM ARABIC ASTRONOMY THAT CAME TO BE KNOWN AS THE ALFONSINE TABLES AND THAT WOULD GUIDE THE STUDY OF ASTRONOMY FOR THE NEXT TWO HUNDRED YEARS UNTIL THE REVOLUTIONARY WORK OF NICOLUAS COPERNICUS CHANGED EVERYTHING
THESE TABLES WERE PRODUCED BY A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT OF FIFTY ASTRONOMERS IN 1252, INCLUDING A CLUTCH OF ARABIC ASTRONOMERS AND AN IMPORTANT JEWISH ASTRONOMER NAMED YEHUDA BEN MOSES COHEN, THEY SOUGHT TO PLOT THE PATH OF THE PLANETS AS A SERIES OF INTRICATE AND INTER-RELATED EPICYCLES AND TO DESCRIBE THE CONSTELLATIONS BEYOND THE PLANETS. IN THE ALFONSINE TABLES, THE ARABIC NAMES FOR CERTAIN STARS LIKE ALTAR,BETELGEUSE,RIGEL,AND VEGA WERE USED. ARABIC CHEMICAL WORDS CAME INTO EUROPEAN LANGUAGES:ALKALI,ALCOHOL,CAMPHOR,ELIXIR,SYRUP,TALC,AND TARTAR.MATHEMATICAL TERMS LIKE AZIMUTH,ZERO,SINE,ROOT,ALGEBRA,NADIR,AND ZENITH CAME FROM THE ARABIC, AS DID BOTANICAL NAMES LIKE GINGER,LILAC,JASMINE,MYRRH,SAFFRON,SESAME,LEMON,RHUBARB, AND COFFEE.MODERN SPANISH CONTAINS APPROXIMATELY EIGHT THOUSAND WORDS DERIVED FROM ARABIC.
IBN HAZM(994-1064) EDUCATOR CURRICULUM FOR AL ANDALUS STUDENTS 1.THE STUDY OF THE HOLY KORAN,FOLLOWED BY AN EVALUTION OF ITS MEANING 2.ADDITION,SUBTRACTION,MULTIPLICATION,DIVISION,FRACTIONS AND PLANE GEOMETRY (IN THAT ORDER) 3.ARITHMETIC 4.EUCLIDS TREATISE ON CELESTIAL BODIES 5.PTOLEMYS ALMAGEST (TIS SHOULD BE STUDIED IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF DURATION,LIMITATION) 6.LOGIC 7.BOTANY,ZOOLOGY,GEOLOGY AND MEDICINE (IN THAT ORDER) 8.HISTORY-EMPHASIZING THE CAUSES FOR ASCENSION AND DECLINE IN ANCIENT SOCIETY WITH THE INTENTION OF AVOIDING REPEATED ERRORS 9.RELIGIOUS LAW (SHARIAH)
HAZAM EVEN PROFESSED THAT A KNOWLEDGE OF THE KORAN WAS NOT SUFFICIENT WITHOUT A KNOWLEDGE OF PROPHETIC TRADITIONS AND RELATED DISCIPLINES AND WITHOUT THE KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE,MEDICINE AND OTHER DISCIPLINES.IN TRUTH, MOST OF THE DISCIPLINES STUDIED BY MOORISH STUDENTS USUALLY REQUIRED AN UNDERSTANDING OF VARIOUS OTHER DISCIPLINES. THE SCIENCES WERE APPROACHED HOLISTICALLY. FOR EXAMPLE,PHYSICS ENCOMPASSED MEDICINE WHILE ARITHMETIC INCLUDED CALCULATION AS WELL AS INHERITANCE LAWS AND BUSINESS. CONSEQUENTLY,EUROPEANS FROM THE SCIENTIFICALLY EMACIATED COUNTRIES OF THE CHRISTIAN WEST MADE THEIR WAY INTO MOORISH SPAIN,EITHER TO BEHOLD THE COUNTRYS WONDERS OR TO PARTAKE OF SUCH SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL ADVANTAGES
MONROE ASSERTS THAT THE BASIS FOR SETTING UP CENTERS FOR ARABIC STUDIES WAS AN ATTEMPT BY CATHOLIC POWERS TO COUNTER ISLAMIC EXPANSION FACED WITH A FOE SUPERIOR IN CULTURE,THE SPANIARDS OF MEDIEVAL TIMES WERE QUICK TO FIND MEans to combat an alien and invading civilization by studying its nature and then writing a polemical literature destined at first to halt the islamic expansion and latter to convert the moriscos of granada to christianity i might add that the fruits of these studies by the spanish catholics ultimately made their way into other european nations.with regard to the attempt at conversion through the use of theological argumentative literature(polemics)
success is not clearly evident,particularily when one recalls the establishment of the brutally coercive inquisition and the tendency of the moors to flee catholic-controlled regions. some medievalists ,like rashdall,frequently claimed that the primary reason for catholic europes interest in the translation and study of moorish treatises,was for the purpose of convertng the moors into catholics.but as we take note of the type of work which was being translated,we see that much of europes focus was upon arabic/moorish scientific and mathmatical texts.this fact does not offer much support for the asssertion that the primary interest of catholic-dominated european societies was simply the proselytizing of muslims.
WHEN ONE NOTES THE PERIOD IN WHICH MOST OF EUROPES OLDEST AND FINEST UNIVERSITIES WERE ESTABLISHED, ONE CANNOT BUT BE STRUCK BY THE PROXIMITY IN TIME TO THE SCIENTIFIC FLOWERING OF MOORISH ANDALUS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF EUROPEAN CENTERS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF MOORISH DOCUMENTS. 1158 BOLOGNA (ITALY) 1180 MONTPELIER (FRANCE) 1200 OXFORD (ENGLAND) 1209 VALENCIA (CATH. SP.) 1223 TOULOUSE (FRANCE) 1224 NAPLES (ITALY) 1228 PADUA (ITALY) 1245 ROME (ITALY) 1250 SALAMANCA (CATH. SP.) 1257 CAMBRIDGE (ENGLAND) 1279 COIMBRA (SP/PORT.) 1290 LISBON (SP/PORT.)
Unfortunately, finding the secrets of Southern Esotericism can be frustrating due to many complex factors. Most ATR is orally transmitted and one has to initiate into extremely exclusive traditions in order to find out what they know, so even basic information is rarely if ever made available to outsiders. Also, ATR are notoriously moody and combative, and witch wars are not uncommon among African mages and secret societies. Finally, the true continental ATR are not for everybody. ATR is not a given. An initiate does not choose to go into ATR; ATR forces choose the initiates they want to work with. Finally, many of the ATR paths are highly exclusionary (racist and/or ancestral only), meaning outsiders are NOT allowed to learn them. Regardless, Arabic travellers spent much time trading in Africa and were surely aware of the African practices. It is possible that the West and Central African Khemetic metaphysical developments in ATR were understood in Al-Andalus because Egyptian magical treatises survived from more ancient times and Coptic Catholic texts incorporated many folk practices from older Cuthan/Cushite folk and ceremonial rites. It is also very possible that scientists travelled up from West and Central Africa into the Andalusian regions to share knowledge because there is evidence that African or Berber priests have gone as far north as the Basque regions in northern Spain and even into Ireland (this would explain the phenomena of the 'Black Irish' descendents who have divergent DNA to the common Irish as being the remnant of miscegenation between visiting travellers/settlers and the ordinary population). I offer the suggestion that the griots and philosophers of the Wagadou Empire (Kingdom of Ghana) travelled to Al-Andalus and shared information for the simple fact that The Kingdom of Ghana (modern day Mali) was located adjacent to the Almoravid and Almohad Dynasties. The universities at Timbuktu were known worldwide as the greatest educational centres in the western world at the time, so scientific and metaphysical knowledge surely passed between the Wagadou Ghanians and the Moors in Iberia, there can be no doubt about that fact.
In addition, the many source Egyptian hermetic texts have been studied in great detail by western esotericists as they have been excavated and brought to the world's attention, especially in recent times.
Jews, Muslims, Christians, and Pagans: Multicultural Metaphysics

One distinguishing feature of Andalusian metaphysical study is its multiculturalism. Multiculturalism in world history is not often practiced but when it is it tends to have a dynamism that is missing from monocultural learning. In Al-Andalus, much of the writing and research was carried out by Middle Eastern scholars. An important point is that their scientific inquiry led them to study non-Middle Eastern concepts very often. Telling that the scholars tended to be mathematicians and cryptographers as well as scientists, with mathematics being the language they used as often as their own mother tongues in order to explain obscure metaphysical concepts. This mathematical language comes down to us via the numerology of Greek, Jewish, and Arabic alphabets as well as concepts the Jewish scholars employed (such as notarikon, temurah, and gematria). Combining mathematics with language allowed the Semitic scholars to probe deeper into the liminal universe and extract great secrets from the invisible energies of the universe in the name of scientific inquiry.
It may be that the source text for all of western magic is the Indian Vedas. These are the oldest written philosophical records in the world; only Dahomeyan Vodun and Siberian Shamanism have a comparable age, but both Vodun and shamanism are oral traditions. The Vedas are important inasmuch as they point to an interconnected unity that no longer exists between physical science, metaphysics (in tenet and practice), and memetic beliefformations, which are used in individuals for NLP-style maps/models of the world, and by societies as reinforced cultural/social/legal customs. Now, when I speak of an interconnected unity, I am speaking by example. For instance, todays scientists debunk religion as being superstitious and magic as being pseudoscientific; todays religious leaders discourage magical practice as being heretical apostasy; and todays social leaders in politics, law, and business are unconcerned with either science or any form of religion per se, they are instead into maintaining power. The interplay between these disparate areas is either greatly diminished in modern times, or has been obscured in the eyes of regular citizens, whereas in societies of the past it was well-known that the upper class of priests, scientists, businesspeople, and rulers incorporated metaphysics. In the Vedas and the Upanishads, one easily realizes this unity because it is made apparent both in the writings and in the practice of spiritual exercises and puja.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
Over the millenia, many different strains of thought developed in Western Esotericism, with other different ideas developing simultaneously in the East. Today Kabbalah bridges the two arenas, but it was the Persian Zoroastrian religion that originally united Eastern and Western Esoteric thought. Zoroastrianism had important innovations in esoteric thought that developed into the dominant monotheistic religions of the West. In that way a theosophical unity stretched across eras to unite the esoteric avatars of the early Aryan race with the west Asian cultures in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and Iberian metaphysical practice. Indeed I would like to present the opinion that many of the missing points of information in the western esoteric tradition are to be found in the study of Vedic and Zoroastrian wisdom, and I would like to ask if many of the metaphysical concepts and forces in the west (including Goetia) are not actually Vedic/Zoroastrian archetypes under different names? If any experts on the matter are reading this and would like to weigh in on that theory of mine in order to offer an educated opinion in the matter, i'd greatly appreciate it. Zoroastrianism and its reliance upon monotheism coloured the scientific research of the western tradition in many ways, and many of the Zoroastrian concepts survive in modified form in western philosophies, religions, scientific ideas, and even laws right up to this day. Understanding the source material does help in comprehending some of the obscure statements in the literature.
Khemetic metaphysics (Egyptian magic)
It is well-known that the priests of Kemet (the Egyptian dynasties) held incredible scientific knowledge, possibly the greatest knowledge of any metaphysicians anywhere in the world including India and China. Khem is now known to us as Egypt but its legacy lives on; the Khemetic magic of alchemy (from the Arabic al-Khimia, meaning 'the Egyptian') has come down to us and in the west forms modern Chemistry. It may be possible that Khemetic metaphysics/Egyptian magic IS in fact the Southern Magical Tradition found in Africa but almost NEVER mentioned alongside Eastern and Western Magical Trads. In the millenia during the Egyptian Dynasties and following their collapse, Nubians, Cuthans/Cushites (descendents of Indian priests that migrated to East Africa), and the Sudanese migrated southward along the Nile river from the Nubian Khemetic kingdoms in a sort of reverse-migration and then west across the Sahel into both West Africa (along the Gold Coast) and the Kongo kingdoms. Combinations of Egyptian knowledge, Bantu mysteries and folk customs in Central Africa, and Dahomeyan metaphysics in West Africa led over time to great innovations in ATR traditions such as the Dahomeyan and Beninois Vodun mysteries, and the Bantu Palos along with other practical metachemistries such as Hudu. The dynamic and extremely powerful Khemetic metaphysics and ATR have evolved continuously in Africa since the days of the Dynasties and is very much alive to this day. I was recently told that there is a group of elders that travels across the continent and collects specialized knowledge in each region, but this group is highly secretive and their knowledge is top secret. In an esoteric sense these men of knowledge and science are the descendents of the Khemetic (Egyptian) priesthood. I will not tell you their name but they are probably the most powerful metaphysicians on the planet.
Khemetic metaphysics (Egyptian magic)
GREEK PHILOSOPHY
At the time of the Islamic renaissance, the re-establishment of Greco-Roman philosophy was the overriding concern of university research. Andalusian scholars followed the ideal of a learned man of culture in the mold of Socrates, Aristotle, and especially Plato. The researchers at the Iberian universities were intellectuals of the highest order; many if not most of them were polymaths of exceptional intelligence, world-class geniuses even by todays standards. All of this is in keeping up to a Platonist ideal of the scholar that is personally tutored by an otherworldly force. One thing that is not often recognized is that the Greek scientists of their own time were also metaphysical philosophers and practicing magicians. It is an obscure fact that Socrates and his students were also magicians and that much of the knowledge they gained was through their connection to spirits that acted as tutelary dieties. The Andalusian scholars had the same type of relationship to the spirit world. The single most important philosopher in his time had to be Plato. Plato's idea of the Eidos was eventually combined with Ptolemy's Geocentric Model to form a theory of magical creation that quietly guided many forms of Western Esotericism through various developments over many centuries. These two ideas were greatly expanded upon by many scholars and magicians over the course of centuries leading up to the formation of the Iberian universities. Other followers of Plato reconciled his ideas with the philosophies of the time in their own respective regions. Philo's ideas combined Platonism with Judaism and sowed a seed among Jesus Christ and his disciples that eventally led to the formation of Christianity, a religion of overriding importance and overwhelming influence upon Western Esotericism.
Greek Philosophy
Platonism had remarkable influence upon Judaism through Ebionite and Essene sects of Saducee priesthood, as well as Kabbalah in the European Middle Ages. It had influence on Early Christianity in the cosmology of Gnosticism (as well as other Early Christian sects such as Arianism, and Marcionism). Later on, it had influence on esoteric Islam in the form of Sufism, the field of esoteric Islam that is of overriding importance to Iberian science. Gnosticism (as an offshoot of Platonism) formed a natural left hand path to Platonism's theurgy. The gnostic practice of goetia forms the base tradition through which the modern Goetic spirits such as Dantalion were revealed to the world. The Nag Hammadi library is a recently discovered collection of some of the many lost Gnostic texts of old; a Gnostic counterbalance to the Essene-derived Dead Sea Scrolls. There are also other Gnostic texts available, but the list is scant. The fathers of Gnosticism sought to reconcile gnosticism with Christianity, but Early Christians rejected Gnosticism vehemently as a heresy. Platonists also rejected Gnosticism, regarding the Gnostic view of the Monad as being an offensive distortion of fact. With all of the antipathy toward Gnosticism, censorship was only a matter of time. Over time church-decreed Gnostic crackdowns and book-burnings considerably reduced the number of Gnostic texts. Nevertheless, Manicheism and Hermeticism (which have strong parallels in Gnosticism) exerted powerful influences on esoteric Christianity and many of the hidden teachings of Gnosticism survive in modified form in the Esoteric metaphors and spiritual lessons of the modern magical lodges.
Platonist/Neoplatonist offshoots
Manicheism (a synthesis of Gnostic Neoplatonism with tenets of Zoroastrianism) flourished in the early days of Christianity. Manicheism is related to Zoroastrianism proper in much the same way that Christianity is related to Judaism; as a Hellenized Middle Eastern offshoot rather than a unique philosophy of its own. Manicheism's philosophies connect ancient Aryan traditions of the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas to Neoplatonism via Zoroastrianism, which makes it an important strain in the practices and dogmas that flourished during the early days of Christianity. Hermeticism has come to be an important ongoing part of Western Esotericism. At its core, Hermeticism was made up of Hellenist esoteric axioms attributed to the mythical magical figure known as Hermes Trismegistus, and these axioms were collected over time in the Corpus Hermeticum, a sourcebook which contains many occult metaphors used to transmit deeper initiatic teachings in the Western Esoteric Tradition. Technically, hermeticism is Egyptian and falls under Khemetic metaphysics, but in reality it is so shot through with Platonism that i include it here rather than with the Khemetic metaphysics. In addition to Greek philosophy, the surviving activity of the Greek Mysteries may have been studied or speculated upon at the time. Fragments of the mysteries and their experiments show that magic in the Greco-Roman world was extensive; however, most of the specific practices were kept secret. Surviving accounts of this activity can be found in the Greek Magical Papyri, the Chaldean Oracles, and other private sources, but much important information is now either lost to time or very carefully preserved, far from public knowledge.
KEYS OF SOLOMON
The Key of Solomon, in Latin Clavis Salomonis or Clavicula Salomonis, Hebrew Mafteah Shelomoh () , is a grimoire, or book on magic, attributed to King Solomon, probably dating to the 14th to 15th Century Italian Renaissance and presenting a typical example of Renaissance magic. It is possible that the Key of Solomon inspired later works, particularly the 17th century grimoire also known as Clavicula Salomonis or "The Lesser Key of Solomon", although there are many differences between the books.
KEYS OF SOLOMON MAGICAL TALISMANS

Some of the more well-known magical treatises with a Judaic/Kabbalist bent include Sefer Yetzirah (of unknown authorship); Sefer ha-Bahir by Yitzhak Saggi Nehor (Isaac the blind) (1200?) and Sefer ha-Zohar by Moses de Leon (1280?), both of which were written in the Caliphate; Sefer Raziel haMalakh by Eleazar ben Judah ben Kalonymus of Worms; and the Guide for the Perplexed by Moshe Maimonides, which was written in the Caliphate. European writings were heavily influenced by both Sufism and Kabbalism mixed with Catholic overtones and some rural European or Gypsy folk practices. Some of the more wellknown European magical treatises include the Ars Notoria (of unknown authorship to my knowledge) or the Liber Juratus Honorii, compiled by Honorius of Thebes (1250?). The list of all works studied at the time would surely extend to hundreds of important magical texts, many of which are either hidden in private libraries or which no longer exist. These and other source documents are the base material for much of western esotericism to this day. They have been extrapolated from and in many cases plagirized and bastardized in many other magical publications in order to create other books, some legitimate, many spurious. There are other works that are not nearly as well-known as these but I lack the knowledge to speak with authority or even speculative way about them, therefore I will remain silent on the matter. The Moors not only held their metaphysical research in high regard; they regularly practiced their results. There were many fables related to Moorish miracle-working in the Middle Ages. Some works that cite Moorish magic include the writing of philosopher Francis Bacon and the works of the English dramatist William Shakespeare. Shaekspeares plays often take on a magical realist attitude toward the reality of their situations, and are stocked full of Moorish and Jewish characters.
SHAKESPEAR
OCCULT & MAGICAL MOORISH RICH MOVIES
Aliester Crowley aka THE BEAST

The Zohar-hebrew Islamic Moors

The Zohar (Hebrew: , lit Splendor or Radiance) is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah.[1] It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the ve books of Moses) and scriptural interpretations as well as material on theosophic theology, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology. The Zohar contains a discussion of the nature of God, the origin and structure of the universe, the nature of souls, redemption, the relationship of Ego to Darkness and "true self" to "The Light of God," and the relationship between the "universal energy" and man. Its scriptural exegesis can be c onsidered an esoteric form of the Rabbinic literature known as Midrash, which elaborates on the Torah. The Zohar is mostly written in what has been described as an exalted, eccentric style of Aramaic, a language spoken in the Land of Israel during the Roman Period in the rst centuries of the Common Era. The Zohar rst appeared in Spain in the 13th century, and was published by a Jewish writer named Moses de Leon. De Leon ascribed the work to Shimon bar Yochai, a rabbi of the second century CE during the Roman persecution[2] who, according to Jewish legend,[3][4] hid in a cave for thirteen years studying the Torah and was inspired by the Prophet Elijah to write the Zohar. This accords with the traditional claim by adherents that Kabbalah is the concealed part of the Oral Torah. While the traditional majority view in religious Judaism has been that the teachings of Kabbalah were revealed by God to Biblical gures such as Abraham and Moses and were then transmitted orally from the Biblical era until its redaction by Shimon ben Yochai, modern academic analysis of the Zohar, such as that by the 20th century religious historian Gershom Scholem, has theorized that De Leon was the actual author. The view of non-Orthodox Jewish denominations generally conforms to this latter view, and as such, most non-Orthodox Jews have long viewed the Zohar as pseudepigraphy and apocrypha while sometimes accepting that its contents may have meaning for modern Judaism. Jewish prayerbooks edited by non-Orthodox Jews may therefore contain excerpts from the Zohar and other kabbalistic works,[5] even if the editors don't literally believe that they are oral traditions from the time of Moses.
ZOHAR QABBALA MYSTICISM
The Mystic
A mystic tends to look at ordinary things as manifestations of a miraculous and innite source of wisdom. From the mundane-seeming plethora of garbage and trash to the high mystery of photo-synthesis, anything can be translated into or ignite a mystical experience. A scientist, thinking that s/he is seeing clearly the evidence of the eyes and empirical study, will announce a fact that, for example, photo-synthesis is how plants grow and obtain a majority of their nourishment. The plants do this by exchanging sunlight into energy and then into chlorophyll. The analysis ends there. A mystic, on the other hand, will use this as a starting point to reect on the signicance, both inner and outer, of such an obvious and mysterious miracle. Is there any relationship or analogy that can be drawn from this fact? For example, if we compare ourselves to the plant, and the sunlight to the Creator's life-giving essence, then perhaps might we also have the ability to transform that energy into something more than what we are given, into something more than what we think we are? Perhaps what we see is not necessarily what we get; that perhaps there is the possibility within us of transforming inner energy into something else. As a matter of fact, that is exactly the same principal of garbage and fecal matter. The best plants grow from garbage, whether it's steer manure, or rotten compost from the garden. It is transformed by the work of the gardener into beauty, food, scents of paradise like the narcissus and rose from the stench of lowly intestinal activity. To see within a glass of water some essential aspect of the Creator is the conscious goal of the mystic. To be striving to turn everyday activities and objects into a reection of the divine is part of a Su's practice. Remembering that Allah is teaching, explaining, testing our abilities is an ongoing mystical experience. One way to look at a mystical experience is to imagine the mind as a glass. Experience, knowledge, understanding can be contained within the glass, like water. But if you were to take that same glass of water and place it within the ocean...
Lo! ye are those who are called to spend in the way of Allah, yet among you are some who hoard. Ans as for him who hoardeth, he hoardeth only from his nafs (his own self). And Allah is the Rich, and ye are the poor. And if ye turn away, He will exchange you for some other folk, and they will not be the likes of you. (Qur'an 47:38) Seven Conditions for Building a Society Our Way of Community 1. Focus on Allah 2. Knowledge 3. Unity 4. Love 5. Economic Strength 6. Silat 7. Good Physical Health Shaykh Taner Ansari
QADIRI RIFAI SUFI ORDER-MYSTICISM

We limit our ability to perceive reality by becoming satised with things as they are or seem to be. A chair will always be a chair, and should remain placed just so on the oor. However, the Creator is innite in All ways, including possibilities. All possibilities- however strange, odd, or inconceivable to us -- are possible to Allah. Why can't the chair be sticking partly out of the wall? Perhaps a person from another dimension but invisible to our eyes might be sitting in it. It is our limitation in thinking that limits our ability to perceive reality. Mysticism is the science of removing mental limitations. A mystic is one who learns through practice to be able to look behind the veil of limitations and sees more clearly with more senses awakened. How does one achieve this ability? When a person begins to strive to be more fully "human" certain qualities of awareness arise which, according to different mystical traditions, can be mapped. Of course certain qualities can arise spontaneously and (seemingly) randomly outside these traditions. We're talking here about the ability to hear what others think, or seeing and hearing other beings, or passing back and forth through time. However, without a ground of tradition, a guide, or a map, these abilities can become dangerous to the individual and others. They can become unsettling and even lead to psychosis. Within mystical traditions such as Susm, these abilities are expected to arise, and are markers along the path. They are not, however, emphasized or even desired for themselves. They are indicators of one's spiritual growth. At these nodes of new abilities, it is the teacher's job to re-direct the student's attention back to the source of everything. In Susm we call this source Allah. The student's job is to acknowledge this ability as just another manifestation of Allah's and to continue to humble oneself, to be of service, and that when needed, this ability is available to help someone. That's it. The ability such as telepathy or seeing the future becomes a tool to help others.
The spectacular rise of the Fatimids in North Africa, together with the influence of their underground networks, provoked the Abbasid rulers in Mesopotamia to launch a campaign against heresy. With the backing of the hyper-orthodox scholars and the legalists of exoteric religion, Mansur al-Hallaj, the revered Muslim esotericist and Sufi saint, was condemned to death. Al-Hallaj had penetrated the outer shell that is exoteric Islam, to reveal the inner core. He realised illumination, fana, or what the Sufis know as death to ones self and passing away in the Divine Beloved, exclaiming: I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is me. We are two spirits dwelling in one body. When thou seest me thou seest Him, and when thou seest Him, thou seest us both. Viewed from the perspective of mainstream Islamic law, such a declaration appears shocking and forbidden. But understood esoterically it is nothing less than the sentiment of an illumined mystic. Al-Hallaj further offended the legalists with such statements as: To claim to know Him is ignorance, to persist in serving Him is disrespectful, to forbid yourself to struggle with Him is folly, to allow yourself to be misled by His peace is stupid, to discourse on his attributes is to lose the way. The public execution of al-Hallaj in Baghdad (922 C.E.) attracted large and sympathetic crowds. He was first scourged, gibbeted, and finally decapitated. As he died, he prayed for mercy for his executioners. Years after his murder he was openly hailed by Sufis, dissident Muslims, and even some highly respected orthodox writers, as a martyr of exoteric incomprehension. For many years al-Hallaj had traveled widely in Persia, India and as far as the borders of China. This has led some scholars to speculate that al-Hallaj presided over a secret network of missionaries and wandering Sufis. The universal appeal of al-Hallajs message can be gleaned from his words: I have meditated on the different religions, endeavouring to understand them, and I have found that they stem from a single principle with numerous ramifications. Do not therefore ask a man to adopt a particular religion (rather than another), for this would separate him from the fundamental principle; it is this principle itself which must come to seek him; in it are all the heights and all the meanings elucidated; then he will understand them. Three decades after Mansour al-Hallaj stood upon the gallows in Baghdad, a secret society emerged in the Iraqi city of Basra. Like the Fatimids, the group, known as the Brethren of Purity (Ikwan as-Safa), dedicated themselves to the pursuit of science as well as political action. They published a veritable encyclopedia of existing knowledge. Their works covered such subjects as philosophy, theology, astrology, metaphysics, cosmology, and the natural sciences, including botany and zoology. The brotherhood recognised truth wherever found, accepting the wisdom in other religions. A seeker of truth must shun no science, scorn no book, nor cling fanatically to a single creed. They attempted to compile a common doctrine of Islamic esotericism beginning with self-knowledge and the emancipation of the soul from matter leading to a return to God. The first letter of the brotherhood restated the Sufi axiom: He who knows himself, knows his Lord. Condemned as heretical and burnt by the authorities, their writings enjoyed a wide influence, even reaching Europe in the Middle Ages.
THE EPISTLES OF THE BREDREN OF PURITY-52 TREATSIES IN MATHEMATICS,NATURAL SCIENCES,PSYCHOLOGY & THEOLOGY
Wherever we look we find historians and researchers seeking for the key to spiritual enlightenment among the Orients arcane Muslim communities. Elaborate myths may guard the source of the teachings of Europes occult fraternities, but they all point to the Muslim lands of North Africa and the mysterious East. A view endorsed by one of Europes greatest occultists, Gerard Encausse, known as Papus, who wrote that the Gnostic sects, the Arabs, Alchemists, Templars form a chain transmitting ancient wisdom to the West. The early Rosicrucians claimed sources in Arabia for their secret wisdom. Indeed, a central Rosicrucian myth tells how young Christian Rosenkreuz [Rosie Cross] journeyed to the mystic Arabian city of Damcar in search of lost knowledge. According to Manly P. Hall: C.R.C. [Christian Rosie Cross] was but sixteen years of age when he arrived at Damcar. He was received as one who had been long expected, a comrade and a friend in philosophy, and was instructed in the secrets of the Arabian adepts. While there, C.R.C. learned Arabic and translated the sacred book M into Latin, and upon returning to Europe he brought this important volume with him. After studying three years in Damcar, C.R.C. departed for the [Moorish] city of Fez, where Arabian magicians declared further information would be given him.1 Returning to Europe from his sojourn in the Moorish lands, C.R.C. is said to have established a secret House of the Holy Spirit modeled on the Muslim House of Wisdom he visited at Cairo in Egypt. Even the name Rosicrucian, a follower of the path of the Rose Cross, is remarkably similar to the common Moorish Sufi phrase Path of the Rose. One has only to intelligently study Rosicrucian rituals and legends to see the borrowing of Moorish imagery and the debt to Islamic esotericism. Sir Francis Bacon is held to be one of the pioneers of Western science and philosophy. Many Western esotericists believe him to be the real author of Shakespeares works. Within the writings attributed to Shakespeare can be found Sufi ideas placed there by Francis Bacon. Roger Bacon, called the miraculous Doctor, received his knowledge of medicine and the natural sciences from North African Moorish teachers. He often wore Arab dress at Oxford, knew the Arabic language, and translated Sufi texts. Bacon asserted that his knowledge was only part of a whole body of ancient wisdom known to Noah and Abraham, to Zoroaster, to the Chaldean, Egyptian and Greek masters, and to Muslim mystics. At the end of the eighteenth century, Napoleon invaded Egypt. The French Emperor held long discussions with the Ulema [religious scholars] of Cairo on Moslem theology, holding out to them the possibility of the whole French Army being converted to Islam.2 The French writer Gourgaud noted in his Memories, the Emperor reads the Koran in silence. He raises his head and says, as in a dream: Muhammads religion is the most beautiful. Under Napoleons patronage, one of his generals embraced Islam and founded the secret Order of the Seekers of Wisdom
Like Christian Rosenkreuz, the Sicilian magus Alessandro Cagliostro (1743-1795) is rumored to have traveled to the Moorish lands in pursuit of ancient wisdom. And like Rosenkreuz, Cagliostro dubbed the Noble Traveler was received as the emissary of a powerful secret society. He claimed to have been initiated into arcane mysteries at the pyramids of Egypt. Cagliostro wore Moorish robes and worked to establish a universal esoteric Order above all sects and schisms, which would restore the patriarchal religion under which Adam, Seth, Noah, Abraham, etc., were in direct communion with God, and eventually lead mankind back to the state enjoyed before the Fall.3 After spreading his ideas throughout Europe Cagliostro ended up in Rome, where he was arrested by the Catholic Inquisition and died in prison. In the eighteenth century Europeans opposed to the domination of Church and State were sympathetic to Islam and Moorish culture. The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche was moved to write: Christianity has cheated us out of the harvest of ancient culture; later it cheated us again, out of the harvest of the culture of Islam. The wonderful world of the Moorish culture of Spain, really more closely related to us, more congenial to our senses and tastes than Rome and Greece, was trampled down (I do not say by what kind of feet). Why? Because it owed its origin to noble, to male instincts, because it said Yes to life even with the rare and refined luxuries of Moorish life.
Our cause is the truth of truth. It is the exoteric, the esoteric of the exoteric and the esoteric of the esoteric. It is the secret of the secret; it is the secret of that which remains wrapped in secret. Saying of the Sixth Imam At the end of the eighth century and the beginning of the ninth century, many Muslims who secretly followed the spiritual path openly declared their connection with Islamic esotericism. They divulged truths based on spiritual experience that, because of their outward appearance, brought on them the condemnation of orthodox Islamic jurists and theologians. Some were imprisoned, flogged, and even killed. Historically, the practitioners of esotericism were associated with the descendants of the family of Prophet Muhammad. Ali, Muhammads son-in-law, is universally regarded as the fountainhead of divine wisdom. The relationship between the Prophet Muhammad and Ali is symbolic of the exoteric form and the esoteric core of divine religion. This is similar to the Christian Gnostic idea of the relationship between Jesus, representing the exoteric, and the beloved disciple John to whom the esoteric doctrine was divulged.Over time, from this secret Islamic tradition, eventually emerged distinct Muslim groups such as the Fatimids, Ismailis, Nusairi (Alawis), etc. Certain mystical brotherhoods and Orders formed within Muslim communities and became known as Sufis, the mystics or esotericists. It is commonly thought the word Sufi comes from the Arabic word suf (wool); the rough woolen clothing worn by early ascetics to demonstrate their detachment from the world. The Sufi appeal and strength lay in the satisfaction which it gave to the religious instincts of the people, instincts which were to some extent chilled and starved by the abstract and impersonal teachings of the orthodox and found relief in the more directly personal and emotional religious approach of the Sufis.8 Clearly, the growth of Sufism was in response to the conformist legalism of orthodox Islamic exoteric practice and the dry intellectualism of the mainstream Muslim thinkers.The Sufi, like all genuine mystics, aims for a glimpse of the Eternal while still trapped by life in this world. To achieve such a personal encounter with their Divine Beloved: The Sufis laid out the path (tariqah) that would lead to gnosis (marifah) or mystic knowledge of the Lord. The path of ascension to divine union with God passes through stages known commonly as stations or states: the last stage is that of fana, or passing away in God, which is the ultimate desire of a successful mystic. The Sufi at this point ceases to be aware of his physical identity even though he continues to exist as an individual.9 Although most Sufi Orders meticulously observe the Islamic law (Sharia), they believe it to be only the outer clothing or external shell protecting the core, the esoteric truth. The Holy Koran calls those who know the essence of things the possessors of the kernels. The Sufis liken esoteric wisdom to a kernel hidden within a shell. Exoteric Islam, experienced as a traditional way of life, creates the environment, the culture, the community, and necessary psychological orientation, from which certain individuals are called to initiation into esotericism. The authentic Gnostic and mystic is always a minority when compared to most of humanity who remain fully satisfied with exoteric religion.The Sufi schools and brotherhoods are renowned for propagating Islam throughout the world. Their piety, profound spirituality and tolerance, enabled the Sufis to attract a large following. As one author says: The brotherhoods rendered their incalculable, monumental services to Islam in three different ways: they prevented Islam from becoming a cold and formal doctrine, keeping it alive as an intimate, compassionate faith; they were mainly responsible for spreading the faith in east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa; and they were among the foremost leaders in Islams military and political battles against the encroaching power of the Christian West.10
By the tenth century, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah, and her husband Ali, established the Fatimid Empire over a large part of North Africa. Many Muslims saw this as a fulfillment of a prediction attributed to the Prophet that a time would come in which the Sun [of Islam] would rise in the West. Prior to accepting Islam, North Africa had been home to a number of Gnostic communities. One historian speculates the Fatimids esoteric doctrines were widely received by the North African tribes due to the fact that [they were called] to a contemporary version of their old beliefs, now clothed in the form of the newly dominant religion.11 The dynastys enemies even claimed the Fatimids were the philosophical descendants of Bardesane, the renowned Gnostic Christian Master Teacher. The Fatimids ushered in a golden age of Islam. They established the city of Cairo in Egypt, calling it: The Victorious City of the Exalter of the Divine Religion. From the new capital the empire expanded to include Palestine. The public devotions of the Fatimids differed very little from the orthodox Muslims, the esoteric teachings being restricted to those of the community able to receive them. A proper understanding of their books required special education and years of training. At Cairo the Fatimids established the Grand House of Wisdom (Darul Hikmet) for the training of missionaries (dais) skilled in the propagation of Islamic esoteric philosophy. Students came from all over the Orient to the House of Wisdom for instruction and initiation. Twice a week, every Monday and Wednesday, the Grand Prior convened meetings, which were frequented by adepts dressed in white. These gatherings were named philosophical conferences (Majalis-al-Hikmet). The Fatimid Caliph was also the Grand Master of the House of Wisdom. One of the students who attended was Hasan Sabbah. On return to his native Persia, he formed the so-called Assassins with headquarters at the mountain monastery-fortress of Alamut. From North Africa the Fatimid rulers dispatched missionaries (dais) throughout the known world. Under cover they even infiltrated Christian Europe. Accomplished in the esoteric doctrine, the dais could use any outer form be it artistic, scientific, religious or secular to impart universal and perennial truths. Even poetry, for which the Sufis are renowned, could be used to transfer spiritual insights from one culture or religion to another. Their use of allegory and cipher amounted to a secret language, the universal language of initiates. Together with wandering Sufi dervishes, they transmitted ancient wisdom to Europe. A Celtic cross bearing the Islamic Arabic inscription Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Rahim (In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful), suggests that the Celts were in close contact with North African Moorish initiates. The Fatimids also maintained communication with Persia, Turkestan and India through the secret networks of the dais. So influential was the Fatimid House of Wisdom that, centuries later, European Freemasons copied its structure. In A Short History of the Saracens, the Muslim historian Ameer Ali says: The account of the different degrees of initiation adopted in the [House of Wisdom] forms an invaluable record In fact, the [House of Wisdom] at Cairo became the model of all the [Freemasonic] Lodges created in Christendom.
KNIGHTS TEMPLARS
THE KNIGHTS TEMPLARS

Who was the last Templar? Do they still exist as a secret society? Or did they fade into the mists of history after the Pope dissolved the controversial order in 1307? Few groups have excited as much controversy or as many theories of their activities and legacy as the medieval military/religious order known as the Knights Templar. They were a secret order and their secrets went to the graves of its leaders, or were closely kept through the intervening centuries, so that what history does not know about them is almost as much as is known.
Templars Live On
But in Portugal the knights did live on, under another name and under the protection of the King. For unlike the king of France who had convinced the Pope to outlaw them -- and other rulers who feared the power and lusted after the tremendous wealth of the knights, King Dinis of Portugal did not seize the riches and slay the knights who only a few years earlier had helped deliver his land from centuries of Moorish occupation. Instead, although disbanded them officially as the Pope had directed, he convinced the Pope to let him establish a new order of religious knights under his own watchful eye in Portugal. No sooner had he founded the Order of Christ than the word went out that former Templars would be welcome to join it and safe from those who were hunting them down at the order of other kings.
New Order of Christ

It was not just gratitude for the Knights Templars role in expelling the Moors from Portugal that led to King Dinis act. For while the new Order of Christ took on a more religious and somewhat less militant form than the Templars, they none-the-less stood ready to defend Portugal from any possible return of the Moors, who had not yet been driven out of neighboring Spain.
The initiatic journey to Islamic soil has been a repeated theme of European esotericism, ever since the Templars settled in Jerusalem and the mythical Christian Rosenkreuz learnt his trade in Damcar (Damascus). We find it in the lives of Paracelsus and Cagliostro, then, as travel became easier, in a whole host that includes P. B. Randolph, H. P. Blavatsky, Max Theon, G. I. Gurdjieff, Aleister Crowley, Rene Guenon, R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, and Henry Corbin. There was very likely some element of this in Napoleons Egyptian campaign of 1797, when he announced to an astounded audience that he, too, was a Muslim. - Joscelyn Godwin, The Theosophical Enlightenment Some of Europes leading seekers after hidden knowledge were convinced that in the Muslim lands of the Orient could be found representatives of a hidden wisdom transmitted from generation to generation within closed communities of initiates. They sought inspiration in a cultural and religious milieu long denounced as the enemy by European Christianity. The French poet and historian Gerard de Nerval (1808-1855) believed secret Islamic communities, principally the Druze, the Ismailis and the Nusairis, had been responsible for transmitting hidden knowledge to Europe through their influence on the Knights Templar. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, the nineteenth century historian of Persian and Arabic literature as well as a chronicler of secret societies, claimed the Knights Templar (and through them the Freemasons) derived their doctrines and practices from the Ismaili Assassins, who in turn inherited them from the ancient Gnostics. Godfrey Higgins (1772-1833), whose books influenced Madame Blavatsky and the early Theosophists, also came to the conclusion the Ismaili Assassins passed their mysteries onto Europes Templars, Rosicrucians and authentic Freemasons. Higgins resolutely defended Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, while expressing the hope to visit the Moorish lands of Egypt, Palestine and Syria before he died. The writer and mystic Laurence Oliphant (1829-1888) reasoned the Druze and Nusairi sects of Islam were the custodians of the most complete system of esoteric knowledge. In The Treasure of Montsegur, an authoritative book on the medieval Gnostic Cathars, the scholar R.A. Gilbert argues the doctrines of the Nusairis are identical to those of the Cathars.
What we tend to forget in our modern perspective on such things is that the men of this age were not merely politicians or soldiers or even both, but frequently priests, mystics and magicians as well. Most of them had a belief that their paths had been shaped by divine and mysterious forces, and they spent a great deal of time trying to master and understand these forces. Caesar would have been no different, and it is likely that the Egyptian queen Cleopatra introduced him to the secrets of Egyptian ritual and magic as a payment for his gift of placing her exclusively on the Egyptian throne. Her ambitions rivaled his, and showing Caesar the powers hidden in the rites and science of the world's oldest civilization would have been a tremendous bonding agent between them.
But Caesar came to the table in Egypt with an already well established understanding of the stars and ancient mysteries. He had been co-opted into the Roman college of priests in 73 BC and became Consul for Gaul (France) in 59 BC after submitting an extensive report on the Druid religion to the Empire. He spent several years studying them and learning their religions and astronomical sciences, which ultimately led to his authorship of a book on astronomy while stationed in Gaul.
The Druids were the guardians of most of the megalithic sites in what is now England and Scotland, including Stonehenge, New Grange, and Avebury and Silbury Hill. A recent book by Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, "Uriel's Machine" (following on the pioneering work in the 1960's of Thom and Hawkins), makes a compelling case that these sites were astronomical and calendrical in nature, and that the knowledge of how to use them was transmitted by the Watchers, a group of "semi-divine" beings that have counterparts in many other ancient religions -- including Egypt's. The purpose of these massive instruments was to give the users a sense of where they stood in the overall time scheme relative to precession, the (roughly) 26,000 years cycle of the Earth's "wobble" on its rotational axis. Inherent in this apparent ancient understanding of precession is an equally unbelievable link to a pre-historic concept of "Hyperdimensional Physics" (for "primitive" peoples) -- a science that could conceivably impart its initiates with what must have seemed like "magical" powers over both "nature" and other human beings. Apparently at Caesar's behest, the Roman empire than began a century long campaign to wipe the Druids from the Earth. Caesar himself made a landing on the English coast in 55 BC, but was stymied. Eventually, the fourth Roman emperor Claudius succeeded in conquering Britain and decimating the Druid population.
This is all the more strange when you consider that the Druidic culture of the times was essentially a bunch of illiterate (because they committed all of their knowledge to memory, and did not by law write any of it down) savages, literally running around in skins, who posed no possible military threat to Rome whatsoever. Britain possessed no great mineral wealth, and in fact was a cold, wet, and generally inhospitable place to live. So why did Rome go so far out its way to expend signicant manpower and treasure -- across more than a century of successive administrations -- to ultimately subdue the entire population of an out-of-the-way collection of scattered northern islands ... and to wipe out its reigning priesthood? The only logical answer is that the Druids possessed "something" of immense value ... or danger ... to Rome. If Caesar learned some valuable secret in his studies with the Druids, a secret that promised unimaginable power or knowledge of the future, he would naturally want to protect this advantage for the good of Rome. His campaign against the Druids seemed calculated to eliminate the magical knowledge of the Druids and preserve the secret for the Republic (soon to be "Empire," under his command) alone. Indeed, for reasons not abundantly clear, the Julian calendar itself is ultimately anchored to Greenwich Mean Time, based in England. In this scenario, Rome's otherwise senseless campaign against the British Isles nally begins to make some sense. Six years after his campaign in Gaul he made his way to Egypt. As we have seen previously, the Egyptians possessed high knowledge in the movements of the stars and planets, and Sosigenes was a high master of this art. In looking at the results of his wares, the Julian calendar, it becomes obvious just what he had revealed to Caesar.
WHEN THE MOORS RULED IN EUROPE
EASTER RITUAL IN SPAIN
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
MOORISH NOBLES
Over time, an ugly development in the history of the Moors began: The initiation and growth of the aquisition of white slaves as a prevalent aspect of its culture. The trade was began by a a Jewish element which began to buy and sell captured Slavs and Germans as laborers and concubines. the polygamous tendencies of the Islamic Black Moors encouraged this development and contributed to the lightening of the complexion of the Moorish element over time. It also contributed to a degeneration of values. The Ummayyad dynasty became ripe foe overthrow and in 1031 Christian forces achieved their defeat and brought the dynasty to a close.
WHITE SLAVERY
Over time, an ugly development in the history of the Moors began: The initiation and growth of the aquisition of white slaves as a prevalent aspect of its culture. The trade was began by a a Jewish element which began to buy and sell captured Slavs and Germans as laborers and concubines. the polygamous tendencies of the Islamic Black Moors encouraged this development and contributed to the lightening of the complexion of the Moorish element over time. It also contributed to a degeneration of values. The Ummayyad dynasty became ripe foe overthrow and in 1031 Christian forces achieved their defeat and brought the dynasty to a close.
WHITE SLAVERY
Moorish Harems
Harem (Turkish, from Arabic aram 'forbidden place; sacrosanct, sanctum', related to arm 'a sacred inviolable place; female members of the family' and arm, 'forbidden; sacred') refers to the sphere of women in what is usually a polygynous household and their enclosed quarters which are forbidden to men.
HAREM
. It originated in the Near East and came to the Western world via the Ottoman Empire.
Harem (Turkish, from Arabic aram 'forbidden place; sacrosanct, sanctum', related to arm 'a sacred inviolable place; female members of the family' and arm, 'forbidden; sacred') refers to the sphere of women in what is usually a polygynous household and their enclosed quarters which are forbidden to men.
HAREM
. It originated in the Near East and came to the Western world via the Ottoman Empire.
MOORISH HAREMS
Jewish Slav(e) Auctions
MOORISH HAREMS WERE A LUXURY TO THE CALIPHS,SULTANS & BEYS

IN NATURE KNOWS NO COLOR LINE ,ROGERS ALSO CITES NOTES OF SIR WALTER SCOTT ON SPANISH CHRONICLES WHICH SAY THAT EUROPEAN CHRISTIANS IN SPAIN WERE FORCED TO PAY TRIBUTE TO THE MOORS IN THE FORM OF WOMEN. ACCORDING TO ANOTHER HISTORIAN, A VERITABLE TERROR REIGNED IN THE MEDITERRANEAN. THEY RAVAGED THE COASTS OF SPAIN,PORTUGAL AND SOUTHERN FRANCE,CAPTURING MANY. THERE IS APPARENTLY DOCUMENTATION OF THE PERIODIC LANDING OF CORSAIRS ALONG THE COASTAL AREAS OF EUROPE TO TAKE OFF THE ENTIRE POPULATION OF VILLAGES.EVEN IN 1721, KING GEORGE 1 SPOKE OF THE GREAT NUMBER OF HIS SUBJECTS THAT HAD BEEN DELIVERED INTO SLAVERY INTO NORTH AFRICA.ANOTHER FAMOUS MOORISH SULTAN, MULAI ISMAIL OF MEKNES IN MOROCCO, A FEW CENTURIES AGO, HAD AS MANY AS 25,000 EUROPEAN SLAVES WHO PARTICIPATED IN THE BUILDING OF HIS COLOSSAL STABLES.MANY OF THE SAME EUROPEANS BROUGHT BY THE SHIPLOAD TO AFRICA WERE THEN SENT TO AMERICA WHERE THEY REMAINED IN INDENTURED SERVITUDE
ALMAGAMATED MOORS
DAUGHTERSOFTHEAMERICAN REVOLUTION
D.A.R
The Decline of the Moors

The Moors of the Iberian pennisula suffered great and incalculable losses when their centuries old rule was brought to a violent end in Spain in 1492 following the loss of the Caliphate of Granada. Beginning from that same 1492 in Spain and 1497 in Portugal, the exile of the original dark sons was inauguarated. The conquering European armies were filled with a strange blood lust and an incurable pathological jealousy of the Moors. It was their simple wish to dispossess the Moorish owners of the land, confisicate all their properties and enslave their bodies. It was easy and simple for them because the fight for Iberia had been drawn across racial lines, so-called white AsiaticEuropeans versus so-calledblack n brownAfricans and Afro-Arabians.
The Moors occupied the land mass where Lisbon is currently situated and in their time they called it Alishbuna. They had ruled for 400 years since 700 AD only losing their grip on power in 1147 AD. From that date until 1249 when christian crusaders conquered Algarve, the Moors lost land and authority before the hordes of inner Europe. Following the complete conquest of Portugal in 1249 (with the capture of Algarve), the crusaders gradually tighten the noose around the Moors neck, literally speaking. Discrimination got worse. Odinary folks were constantly harrassed. Moors were under unrelenting suspicion of disloyalty, insurrection, and rebellion. They were imposed on with excessive taxes. Their cultural rights were abrigded, language was restricted, political and business space became increasing non-accessible. Finally, with the conquest of Granada in 1492 by the Spanish branch of the crusaders, all hell was let loose on the hapless Moors living then in Spain and in Portugal. The crusaders decided that the fact of being a Moor was criminal enough in itself and so Moors were required to symbolically renounce their heritage and culture. They were required to adopt a new identity as christians called conversos. Sometimes these new christians were called marranoes a racist term which connoted a pig or something unclean.Conversos were like second class christians of Portugal. Those who would not convert and accept their ofcial second class status as de-culturated animals were then forcibly expelledeither as prisoners, slaves or refugees.
For all its might and intelligence,creativity & tolerance,the kingdom of the Moors had been steadily shrinking since the beginning of the second millenium of Christ. The Reconquest of Spain by the Christians had pushed south slowly but relentlessly. At the beginning of the 15th Century, the Moorish state was in its twilight,reduced to the humiliation of vassalage,enduring only at the sufferance of the Castillian Kings,whose might increased year by year. The question was only who would finish the Job..and when.The Answer was the Catholic Sovereigns,Isabella & Ferdinand,in their triumph over the Moors in the Apocalypse of 1492-
Dogs of God pg 8
OUT OF THE ASHES OF THE GOTHS ROSE AN EVIL EMPIRE THAT WOULD EVENTUALLY CONQUER THE WORLD AND PLUNDER HER FOR HER RICHES &CLAIM THE LIVES OF BILLIONS WORLDWIDE AT THE SWORD & THE CROSS
Here are some quotes:
THE BLACK PLAGUE
"St. Agnes was never washed throughout her lifetime....and a fourth century pilgrim boasted that she had not washed her face for eighteen years so as not to disturb the holy water used at her baptism" p. 11. "The dead Archbishop was clothed in an extraordinary accumulation of garments...The innumerable vermin which had infested the dead prelate were stimulated to such activity by the cold, that his hair cloth boiled over with them like water in a simmering cauldron" p. 19 "In this part of the city (Edinburgh)there are neither sewers nor drains... In consequence, all refuse, garbage and excrements of at least 50,000 persons are thrown into the gutters every night" p. 133 In 1842: In one part of Market Street is a dunghill, yet it is too large to be called a dunghill. I do not nistake its size when I say it contains a hundred cubit yards of impure filth, collected from all parts of town..." p.134
SPANISH INQUISITION
SPANISHINQUISITION TORTURE MURDER
CARDINAL XIMENES
The succeeding Popes, Lucius III, Innocent III and Gregory IX, adopted Alexanders brainchild and nurtured it until it became the monstrous papal tribunal called The Inquisition. The chief inquisitor, usually a Dominican or Franciscan monk, did not work alone. He used spies, jailers, and sergeants at arms to apprehend suspects. To obtain a confession of guilt, the inquisitor often resorted to artifice, deception and torture. After the trial, the inquisitor turned the guilty over to the State. Those who abjured their crimes received life imprisonment; the impenitent were burned to death. One inquisitor, Torquemada, had 2000 suspected heretics killed at the stake. This horrible institution lasted 700 years under 75 popes. Any of them could have abolished the Inquisition in three words: close it down. No one did. If God was protecting the Church from error, how could he permit such cruel abuse of power, all in his name and for his greater glory
Thenotoriousinstuititionknownastheinquisition,asystem ofspies,secretpolice,tortures,confessionsandswift executionswasestablished.Itwasresponsibleforthedeath ofmillionsofMoorsalloverEuropebutespeciallyinthe Iberianpennisula.Itlastedforhundredsofyearstorturing, maimingandkillingallrealandsuspectedenemiesofthenew Europeanroyalty.Itsbloodlust,sadismandcrueltyare nowliveininfamy.ThoseMoorsitdidnotkillormaim,it soldasslaves.

It so happened that in1496-7 Portugese Kings Joao II and Manuel I horded hundreds of thousands of Jews sent them into exile on the West African coasts of Guinea and Biafra, and on the Islands of Cape Verde and Sao Tome, into a live of perpetual slavery. These peculiar branch of the Iberian moorish Hebrews were called the Ladinos. Ladino means latinized negros. It was a racist term used for the black Jews of Iberia who were soon deported to African Islands and coastal settlements and used as the first slaves in the sugar plantations.
DOMINICAN SAINTS
DOGS OF GOD
IRON MAIDEN
The Maiden of Nuremberg
"As the Spaniards went with their war dogs hunting down Indian men and women, it happened that a sick Indian woman who could not escape from the dogs, sought to avoid being torn apart by them, in this fashion: she took a cord and tied her year-old child to her leg, and then she hanged herself from a beam. But the dogs came and tore the child apart; before the creature expired, however, a friar baptized it."
ARCHBISHOP
ARCHBISHOP
Museo de la Inquisicion Seville City,Spain Palace of the Inquisition, Mexico City,Mexico Medieval Criminal Musuem Collection San Gimignano, Italy Museo de la Inquisicion Central Lima Peru
Torturamuseum.com
1492THEAPOCALYPSE FALL OF THE MOORISH EMPIRE RISE OF THE CHRISTENDOM EMPIRE
The Reconquista of Spain 1492 the Moorish Apocalypse
it has been suggested that the three most important years in American history are 1492,1776 & 1865. Of these, 1492 goes far beyond American history.it is pivotal as well in Spanish history,in Jewish and Arab history,in World and Church history.Indeed,it is difficult to imagine another single year in the past millennium when so many significant strands of history came together and so changed the world in one swoop:the completion of the 500 year movement to conquer the Moors,the end of the 800 year reign of the glorious culture of Islamic Spain,the consolidation of the modern Spanish State,the sinister explosion of the Spanish Inquisition,the Spanish Renaissance in art & literature,the Expulsion of the Jews,the Discovery of the New World,and the subsequent division of the World between Spanish & Portugeuese Spheres of influence.
SPANISH RECONQUISTA
ST JAMES THE MOOR SLAYER
Whenever St James's day (25 July) falls on a Sunday, the cathedral declares a Holy or Jubilee Year. Depending on leap years, Holy Years occur in 5, 6 and 11 year intervals. The most recent were 1982, 1993, 1999, 2004, and 2010. The next will be 2021, 2027, and 2032.
MAJOR BATTLES
The contest of Muslim and Christian Spain played out over nine centuries. While individuals and communities sought ways to thrive and cooperate in day-to-day life, larger forces were always at work. Conflict took the more mundane form of battles fought for material gain and prestige. And, as often as Muslim and Christian leaders fought against each other, they fought against rivals who were their co-religionists. For much of Medieval Spain's history, leaders also were more concerned with maintaining economic and military power -just as other rulers worldwide -- than on the rhetoric of crusade and jihad. The following key battles involving Muslim and Christian forces in Al-Andalus reveal the complexity of military affairs. Each encounter represents a unique moment in the history of Al-Andalus, leading ultimately to its demise.
Battle of Guadalete Battle of Covadonga Battle of Tours/Poitiers Battle of Roncesvalles Battle of Zallaqa/Sagrajas Battle of Alarcos Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa Battle of the Rio Salado Conquest of Granada Revolt of the Alpujarras
MOORISH ROYAL GUARD
Battle of Guadalete (July 19, 711)

This battle took place close to the Guadalete River near the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula, between Muslim and Visigothic forces. An Arab and Amazigh (Berber) Muslim army of 7,000-10,000 soldiers crossed to Spain -- the land of the Vandals or Andalus as they called it -from North Africa. The Amazighs (Berbers) possibly received the help of the governor of Ceuta, Count Julian. He confirmed that the peninsula offered numerous riches. The forces landed near a large mountain. It was later named Gibraltar (jabal Tariq, or Tariqs mountain) in homage to the army commander, Tariq ibn Ziyad. According to one account, Tariq burned the ships used for the crossing and stirred his troops with the words: O People! There is nowhere to run away! The sea is behind you, and the enemy is before you. I swear to God, you have only sincerity and patience. Roderic was a Visigothic nobleman recently chosen as king. He had been fighting Basques in the north. Upon hearing of the new threat in the south, he rushed to meet the Muslims. His army is said to have been nearly 10 times larger than the Muslim forces. However, exhaustion from the long march and treachery on the part of other Visigothic rivals led to Roderics defeat. With the routing of the Visigothic army -- including many prominent nobles -- the Muslim forces continued northward unhindered. They established garrisons in major cities and conquered many regions. Within a few years, virtually the entire peninsula came under Muslim rule.
Battle of Covadonga (summer of 722)

Seven years after the Muslim conquest of Iberia, a local Asturian strong man named Pelayo fled to the extreme north of the peninsula. There, he established the Kingdom of Asturias. The Umayyad rulers based in Crdoba were unable to extend their power into Frankish territory. So, they decided to consolidate their power in Iberia. Meanwhile, Muslim forces made periodic incursions into Asturias. In the late summer of 722, a Muslim army overran much of Pelayo's territory, forcing him to retreat deep into the mountains. Pelayo and 300 men retired into a narrow valley at Covadonga. There, they could defend against a broad frontal attack. Pelayos forces routed the Muslim army, inspiring local villagers to take up arms, as well. Despite further attempts, the Muslims were unable to conquer Pelayo's mountainous stronghold. Pelayo's victory at Covadonga is hailed by some as the first stage of the Reconquista.
Battle of Tours/Poitiers (October 10, 732)

This encounter took place near the border between the Frankish realm and the independent region of Aquitaine. Frankish and Burgundian forces -- under Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel's command -- fought against an Umayyad army led by al-Ghafiqi, the governor of Al-Andalus. In the preceding decades, the Muslims had conquered Iberia. They were making tentative expeditions in southern France. They were pushing the limits of their expansion far from the regional capital of Crdoba . At the battle, Martel's forces defeated Al-Ghafiqis contingent. It included about 70 Muslim families unprepared for warfare. The battle's location is described in Arabic historical works as The Plain of the Martyrs. Historians give little attention to the engagement itself as a minor skirmish. However, European chroniclers increasingly began to praise Charles Martel as the champion of Christianity. What's more, 18th and 19th century historians came to characterize this battle as a decisive turning point in the struggle against Islam. Modern historians are divided as to whether the victory should be considered a landmark event that saved Christianity and halted the conquest of Europe by the Muslims.
BATTLE OF TOULOUSE BATTLE OF TOURS

Battle of Roncesvalles (August 15, 778)

Roncesvalles is situated in the Spanish region of Navarre, close to the French border in the Pyrenees Mountains. The army of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, had entered northern Spain. He hoped to extend his empires boundaries into Iberia, capturing Barcelona and Pamplona. Frankish commander Roland and his troops -- comprising the armys rear guard -- were returning to France across the Pyrenees. Suddenly, local Basque Christian tribes attacked Roland and his army unexpectedly. Though poorly equipped, these tribes knew their terrain well and defeated Rolands forces at the Pass of Roncesvalles in 778. The famous Song of Roland, dated about 1100, immortalizes his valor. It is the earliest existing French epic poem (chanson de geste). However, the poem relates that a Muslim (Saracen) army of 400,000 attacked Roland and the rear guard. Roland could not repeal the onslaught. His comrade urged him to summon aid from Charlemagne by sounding his horn, but it was too late. Handed down by oral tradition, this minor battle was romanticized into a major conflict between Christians and Muslims.
Battle of Zallaqa/Sagrajas (October 23, 1086)

On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo. He established direct personal control over the Muslim city from which he had been exacting tribute. This turn of events alarmed the rulers of other petty kingdoms. They began to realize their own disunity had strengthened Christian states in the north. In order to counterhalt the Christian advance, the Muslims needed assistance from determined and capable warriors. Three of the petty kings, including al-Mu'tamid of Seville, decided to invite Almoravid leader Yusuf ibn Tashufin. He was the head of a new religious and political movement in North Africa. They agreed to have him come to Andalus and help them fight the Christians. Afterwards, they expected him to return to his capital at Marrakesh. Ibn Tashfin agreed to help the Andalusians. He crossed over to Iberia with 7,000 warriors. He marched north to al-Zallaqa. There, the petty kings' forces joined his troop. By then, the Muslim army reached 30,000 soldiers. Alfonso VI of Castile arrived at the battleground with his large army. Using a variety of tactics, the Muslim forces were able to defeat the Christians. The casualties of Alfonso's troops were tremendous: only 100 knights returned to Castile, including Alfonso himself. Following the battle, Ibn Tashufin kept his word and returned to North Africa, only to be called back again to help hamper renewed threats. His return led to Andalus' inclusion in the Amazigh (Berber) Almoravid Empire.
Battle of Alarcos (July 18, 1195)

The Almohads were a Amazigh (Berber) religious and political reform group founded by Ibn Tumart. They came to power in North Africa in the mid-12th century. Ibn Tumart's disciple, Abd al-Mu'min, led the Almohads in conquering Marrakesh and overthrowing the Almoravids. In 1149, the Almohads replaced Almoravid rule in Al-Andalus. King Alfonso VIII of Castile decided to attack the region of Seville. He had the support of the military Order of Calatrava. The attack ravaged the province, taking much war booty. Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur crossed to Spain to lead a retaliatory expedition against the Christians. Local governors and a small Christian cavalry under Pedro Fernndez de Castro, who opposed Alfonso, raised the troops that reinforced Al-Mansur. The two sides met at Alarcos (al-Arak in Arabic), near the Guadiana River. Al-Mansur's army severely outnumbered Alfonso's troops. But, Alfonso entered battle rather than retreating and waiting for reinforcements. The Almohads were victorious, although there were significant casualties on both sides. The battle's outcome threatened the Kingdom of Castile's stability for some time. The Christians abandoned or surrendered all nearby castles. Abu Yusuf settled in Seville to consolidate Muslim holdings, rather than attempt conquests northward. He took the title of al-Mansur Billah ("Victorious by the Grace of God"). He initiated the construction of the Great Mosque of Seville, including the massive minaret (later known as the Giralda). In 1198, he returned to North Africa. After Al-Mansur's death in February 1199, the Almohad Empire began to falter. The empire's decline opened the way for renewed Christian expansion into southern Spain.
CRUSADERS
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (July 16, 1212) THE 3RD CRUSADES
Following their victory at Alarcos, the Almohads conquered such key cities as Trujillo, Plasencia, Talavera, Cuenca, and Ucls. They also took a stronghold of the Calatrava Knights. The Almohad threat prompted Pope Innocent III to call for a crusade in Iberia. The Pope convinced King Alfonso VIII of Castile and his Christian rivals -- Sancho VII of Navarre, Afonso II of Portugal, and Peter II of Aragon -- to set aside any enmity and join forces against the Muslim south. Almohad ruler Muhammad al-Nasir brought together troops from his extensive North African domains and Al-Andalus. They engaged the Christian coalition at Las Navas de Tolosa. The battle took place near a pass separating southern Spain from the central meseta. Alfonso's forces caught the Muslim army by surprise. The Muslims suffered a great many casualties. Al-Nasir escaped and returned to Marrakesh, where he died soon afterward. The Muslim forces were unable to recover from this defeat, called al-Uqab in Arabic (the great tragedy). As a result, Andalusi cities such as Jan, Crdoba , Seville, Jerez, and others were exposed to Christian attack in the mid-13th century.
KNIGHT TEMPLARS
BATTALLA DE LAS NAVAS De TOLOS
THE FALL OF MOORISH KINGDOM OF SEVILLE
The Almohadss defeat in the battle of Navas de Tolosa in 1212 allowed the Christians to advance. This fact, apart from splitting the Moslem supremacy, divided the Islamic power into new Taifas kingdoms of which the Granada Nazar one was the most wealthy and powerful since 1238. Some of the most important artistic works of the Islamic art, which also constitute the last samples from the Hispano-Moslem art, rose during their domain. The Alhambra, together with the Generalife gardens, are undoubtely the most fascinating monumental complex from the Nazar art. The Alhambra, which was built on the remains of a 11th c. ancient castle, became then a palace and, later on, a small town where the nazar sultans had their residence. The Alhambra stands on the highest point of the Sabka Hill, which rises on the left bank of the Darro river. The charming Albaycn Citadel, from the Zir period, is opposite to the Alhambra. The Alhambra name comes from the reddish colour of the walls of a previous castle, already mentioned in the Arabian chronicles of 889. The existence of a "red castle" on the Sabika Hill allows scholars to date its antiquity. According to the 12th c. chronicles, the Nazar resistance used the Alhambra as a refuge from both the Almoravids and the Almohads. It is quite probable that the last ones dismantled the old citadel when the different revolts had been put down.Alhambra is the most important work of art dating from the last Islamic sultanate in the Iberian Peninsula. The Nasrid Dynasty (1238 - 1492), who was responsible for the building of the Palace, combined artistic and cultural activities with their constant policy of military campaigns and pacts, thus maintaining a strong united Statc. Within the long tradition of Hispano-Muslim art, the Nasrids represent the culmination of the evolution of Islamic culture in Europe wich at the time was more advanced than that of their feudal Christian enemies. The Alhambra of Granada is the most characteristic example of Nasrid art, which is the high point of the periods of the Emirate, the Caliphate of Cordoba, the Alhambra is one of the most widely known of all Islamic works of art.
Battle of the Rio Salado (October 30, 1340)

King Alfonso XI of Castile and King Afonso IV of Portugal joined forces to resist the combined army of Nasrid ruler Yusuf I of Granada and Marinid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali from North Africa. The Granadan rulers allied with the Marinid Dynasty in Fes, because they were not strong enough on their own to engage the Christian states. The Nasrid-Marinid alliance represented an effort to reclaim lost territories in southern Spain. There, substantial numbers of Muslims still lived as Mudejars in communities under Christian rule. But the Granadans were wary not to allow the Marinids too much influence in the shrinking territory of Al-Andalus. The battle took place near the River Salado. There, the Christians decisively defeated the Marinids, who made up the bulk of the forces. The Marinids then returned to North Africa. Subsequently, Alfonso XI's son, Pedro of Castile, maintained cordial relations with the Nasrids of Granada. He admired their courtly culture so much that he called craftsman from Granada to upgrade the Alczar of Seville in the style of the Alhambra palace.
Conquest of Granada (January 2, 1492)

Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon married in 1469. Their marriage instituted a policy of extending the Catholic faith throughout the peninsula. The Kingdom of Granada remained as the sole Muslim domain in Spain. Yet, it no longer thrived as it once did. Thus, it was less probable to offer tribute to the Christians in lieu of conquest. The Catholic Monarchs amassed their armies on the plains west of Granada at a place they named Santa Fe. The Granadans contemplated a course of action. The elders of Granada signed a treaty of surrender, with a promise from the Christians to be granted freedom of religion and personal safety. The twenty-third and final Nasrid ruler, Abu Abd Allah (Boabdil), delivered the city into the hands of Ferdinand and Isabella to end the city's siege. The Catholic Monarchs hoisted their banner from atop the Alhambra's citadel, proclaiming their victory. It is often depicted that Boabdil and his entourage headed into exile, glancing wistfully back upon the once shining city that his dynasty had ruled for 250 years. However, Boabdil accepted his new status as King of the Alpujjaras. About a year later, he decided to abandon his people and go into exile.
FALL OF KINGDOM OF ALHAMBRA 1492
AL ANDALUS
Revolt of the Alpujarras (1568-1571)

The policies of Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros increasingly pressured Granada's Muslim population -- initially Mudejars -- to convert to Christianity. As new Christians, they were called Moriscos (or "Moroccan-like"). The Hapsburg ruler of Spain, Philip II (son of Charles V), introduced laws prohibiting the practice of Muslim religion and customs to accelerate conversion. However, many Moriscos continued to practice Islam in secret. They began organizing opposition to the restrictive policies. In 1568, the Moriscos rallied under the leadership of Ibn Humeya. They initiated a guerrilla war against Spanish authorities. This uprising took place in the Alpujarra Mountains south of Granada. Castilian troops -- led by Philip's half-brother Don Juan de Austria suppressed the revolt -- ending it in 1571. Conflicts between Moriscos and Christians continued. As a result, in 1609, Philip III issued a decree of expulsion of the Moriscos. Similarly, in 1492, the Catholic monarchs' decree of expulsion forced the Jews to seek a more tolerant environment.
CHRISTIAN RECONQUISTA
The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: al-Istirdd, "Recapturing") was a period of nearly 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula succeeded in retaking (and repopulating) the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Al-Andalus Province. The Islamic conquest of the Christian Visigothic kingdom in the eighth century (begun 71012) extended over almost the entire peninsula (except major parts of Galicia, the Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque Country). After 500 years, in the thirteenth century, the sole remaining Moors ruling were the Nasrid dynasty in the Kingdom of Granada. They were defeated in 1492 2 , which brought the entire Iberian Peninsula under Christian rule, thus completing the Reconquista. The Reconquista of Al-Andalus began soon after the Islamic conquest and passed through major phases over the centuries before its completion. The formation of the Kingdom of Asturias under Pelagius and the Battle of Covadonga in 722 were major formative events. Charlemagne (768814) reconquered the western Pyrenees and Septimania and formed a Marca Hispanica to defend the border between Francia and the Muslims. After the advent of the Crusades, much of the ideology of Reconquista was subsumed within the wider context of Crusading. Even before the Crusades, however, soldiers from elsewhere in Europe had been travelling to Iberia to participate in the Reconquista as an act of Christian penitence. The reconquista, being of such great duration, is much more complex than any simple account would allow. Christian and Muslim rulers commonly became divided amongst themselves and fought. Alliances across faith lines were not unusual. The ghting along the Christian-Muslim frontier was punctuated by periods of prolonged peace and truces. Blurring matters even further were the mercenaries who simply fought for whoever paid most. The Reconquista was largely completed in 1238, when the sole remaining Muslim state on Iberia, the Emirate of Granada, became a vassal state of the Christian Crown of Castile. This arrangement lasted for 250 years until the Castilians launched the Granada War of 1492, which nally expelled all Muslim authority from Spain. The last Muslim ruler of Granada, Muhammad XII, better known as King Boabdil, surrendered his kingdom to Isabella I of Castile, who with her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon were known as the Catholic Monarchs (los Reyes Catlicos).
such are a few traits of the celebrated Inquisition! Of a tribunal,to the mercy of which the most beautiful kingdom in the world was delivered up, after the expulsion of the Moors. Unfortunately for the Spaniards, the policy of Ferdinand and his immediate succesors went hand in hand with the mistaken policy of the monastic orders. Both alike concurred in maturing and letting loose upon the world a monster far more deformed,far more frightful than Gorgons,Hydras, and Chimares dire.A Concise history of the Moors in Spain pg 49
CHURCH SANCTIONED TORTURE
Alexander, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to the illustrious sovereigns, our very dear son in Christ, Ferdinand, king, and our very dear daughter in Christ, Isabella, queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily, and Granada, health and apostolic benediction. Among other works well pleasing to the Divine Majesty and cherished of our heart, this assuredly ranks highest, that in our times especially the Catholic faith and the Christian religion be exalted and be everywhere increased and spread, that the health of souls be cared for and that barbarous nations be overthrown and brought to the faith itself. Wherefore inasmuch as by the favor of divine clemency, we, though of insufcient merits, have been called to this Holy See of Peter, recognizing that as true Catholic kings and princes, such as we have known you always to be, and as your illustrious deeds already known to almost the whole world declare, you not only eagerly desire but with every effort, zeal, and diligence, without regard to hardships, expenses, dangers, with the shedding even of your blood, are laboring to that end; recognizing also that you have long since dedicated to this purpose your whole soul and all your endeavors -- as witnessed in these times with so much glory to the Divine Name in your recovery of the kingdom of Granada from the yoke of the Saracens -- we therefore are rightly led, and hold it as our duty, to grant you even of our own accord and in your favor those things whereby with effort each day more hearty you may be enabled for the honor of God himself and the spread of the Christian rule to carry forward your holy and praiseworthy purpose so pleasing to immortal God. We have indeed learned that you, who for a long time had intended to seek out and discover certain islands and mainlands remote and unknown and not hitherto discovered by others, to the end that you might bring to the worship of our Redeemer and the profession of the Catholic faith their residents and inhabitants, having been up to the present time greatly engaged in the siege and recovery of the kingdom itself of Granada were unable to accomplish this holy and praiseworthy purpose; but the said kingdom having at length been regained, as was pleasing to the Lord, you, with the wish to fulll your desire, chose our beloved son, Christopher Columbus, a man assuredly worthy and of the highest recommendations and tted for so great an undertaking, whom you furnished with ships and men equipped for like designs, not without the greatest hardships, dangers, and expenses, to make diligent quest for these remote and unknown mainlands and islands through the sea, where hitherto no one had sailed; and they at length, with divine aid and with the utmost diligence sailing in the ocean sea, discovered certain very remote islands and even mainlands that hitherto had not been discovered by others; wherein dwell very many peoples living in peace, and, as reported, going unclothed, and not eating esh. Moreover, as your aforesaid envoys are of opinion, these very peoples living in the said islands and countries believe in one God, the Creator in heaven, and seem sufciently disposed to embrace the Catholic faith and be trained in good morals.
And it is hoped that, were they instructed, the name of the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, would easily be introduced into the said countries and islands. Also, on one of the chief of these aforesaid islands the said Christopher has already caused to be put together and built a fortress fairly equipped, wherein he has stationed as garrison certain Christians, companions of his, who are to make search for other remote and unknown islands and mainlands. In the islands and countries already discovered are found gold, spices, and very many other precious things of divers kinds and qualities. Wherefore, as becomes Catholic kings and princes, after earnest consideration of all matters, especially of the rise and spread of the Catholic faith, as was the fashion of your ancestors, kings of renowned memory, you have purposed with the favor of divine clemency to bring under your sway the said mainlands and islands with their residents and inhabitants and to bring them to the Catholic faith. Hence, heartily commending in the Lord this your holy and praiseworthy purpose, and desirous that it be duly accomplished, and that the name of our Savior be carried into those regions, we exhort you very earnestly in the Lord and by your reception of holy baptism, whereby you are bound to our apostolic commands, and by the bowels of the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, enjoin strictly, that inasmuch as with eager zeal for the true faith you design to equip and despatch this expedition, you purpose also, as is your duty, to lead the peoples dwelling in those islands and countries to embrace the Christian religion; nor at any time let dangers or hardships deter you therefrom, with the stout hope and trust in your hearts that Almighty God will further your undertakings. And, in order that you may enter upon so great an undertaking with greater readiness and heartiness endowed with the benet of our apostolic favor, we, of our own accord, not at your instance nor the request of anyone else in your regard, but of our own sole largess and certain knowledge and out of the fullness of our apostolic power, by the authority of Almighty God conferred upon us in blessed Peter and of the vicarship of Jesus Christ, which we hold on earth, do by tenor of these presents, should any of said islands have been found by your envoys and captains, give, grant, and assign to you and your heirs and successors, kings of Castile and Leon, forever, together with all their dominions, cities, camps, places, and villages, and all rights, jurisdictions, and appurtenances, all islands and mainlands found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a line from the Arctic pole, namely the north, to the Antarctic pole, namely the south, no matter whether the said mainlands and islands are found and to be found in the direction of India or towards any other quarter, the said line to be distant one hundred leagues towards the west and south from any of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cape Verde. With this proviso however that none of the islands and mainlands, found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered, beyond that said line towards the west and south, be in the actual possession of any Christian king or prince up to the birthday of our Lord Jesus Christ just past from which the present year one thousand four hundred and ninety-three begins. And we make, appoint, and depute you and your said heirs and successors lords of them with full and free power, authority, and jurisdiction of every kind; with this proviso however, that by this our gift, grant, and assignment no right acquired by any Christian prince, who may be in actual possession of said islands and mainlands prior to the said birthday of our Lord Jesus Christ, is hereby to be understood to be withdrawn or taken away. Moreover we command you in virtue of holy obedience that, employing all due diligence in the premises, as you also promise -- nor do we doubt your compliance therein in accordance with your loyalty and royal greatness of spirit -you should appoint to the aforesaid mainlands and islands worthy, God-fearing, learned, skilled, and experienced men, in order to instruct the aforesaid inhabitants and residents in the Catholic faith and train them in good morals.
Furthermore, under penalty of excommunication late sententie to be incurred ipso facto, should anyone thus contravene, we strictly forbid all persons of whatsoever rank, even imperial and royal, or of whatsoever estate, degree, order, or condition, to dare, without your special permit or that of your aforesaid heirs and successors, to go for the purpose of trade or any other reason to the islands or mainlands, found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered, towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a line from the Arctic pole to the Antarctic pole, no matter whether the mainlands and islands, found and to be found, lie in the direction of India or toward any other quarter whatsoever, the said line to be distant one hundred leagues towards the west and south, as is aforesaid, from any of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cape Verde; apostolic constitutions and ordinances and other decrees whatsoever to the contrary notwithstanding. We trust in Him from whom empires and governments and all good things proceed, that, should you, with the Lord's guidance, pursue this holy and praiseworthy undertaking, in a short while your hardships and endeavors will attain the most felicitous result, to the happiness and glory of all Christendom. But inasmuch as it would be difcult to have these present letters sent to all places where desirable, we wish, and with similar accord and knowledge do decree, that to copies of them, signed by the hand of a public notary commissioned therefor, and sealed with the seal of any ecclesiastical ofcer or ecclesiastical court, the same respect is to be shown in court and outside as well as anywhere else as would be given to these presents should they thus be exhibited or shown. Let no one, therefore, infringe, or with rash boldness contravene, this our recommendation, exhortation, requisition, gift, grant, assignment, constitution, deputation, decree, mandate, prohibition, and will. Should anyone presume to attempt this, be it known to him that he will incur the wrath of Almighty God and of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul. Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, in the year of the incarnation of our Lord one thousand four hundred and ninety-three, the fourth of May, and the rst year of our ponticate.
Gratis by order of our most holy lord, the pope. June. For the referendary, For J. Bufolinus, A. de Mucciarellis. A. Santoseverino. L. Podocatharus.
Also knowThe Treaty of Granada was signed and ratied on November 25, 1491 between the sultan of Granada, Muhammad XII and Ferdinand and Isabella, the King and Queen of Castile, Len, Aragon and Sicily. It was issued before the Alhambra Decree of 1492 revoking some rights. n as the Capitulation of Granada the treaty relinquished the sovereignty of the Moorish Emirate of Granada (founded ve centuries earlier) to the Catholic monarchs of Spain. The treaty guaranteed a set of rights to the Moors, including religious tolerance and fair treatment in return for their unconditional surrender and capitulation. The capitulation of 1492 contained sixty-seven articles among which were the following: That both great and small should be perfectly secure in their persons, families, and properties. That they should be allowed to continue in their dwellings and residences, whether in the city, the suburbs, or any other part of the country. That their laws should be preserved as they were before, and that no-one should judge them except by those same laws. That their mosques, and the religious endowments appertaining to them, should remain as they were in the times of Islam. That no Christian should enter the house of a Muslim, or insult him in any way. That no Christian or Jew holding public ofces by the appointment of the late Sultan should be allowed to exercise his functions or rule over them. That all Muslim captives taken during the siege of Granada, from whatever part of the country they might have come, but especially the nobles and chiefs mentioned in the agreement, should be liberated. That such Muslim captives as might have escaped from their Christians masters, and taken refuge in Granada, should not be surrendered; but that the Sultan should be bound to pay the price of such captives to their owners. That all those who might choose to cross over to Africa should be allowed to take their departure within a certain time, and be conveyed thither in the king's ships, and without any pecuniary tax being imposed on them, beyond the mere charge for passage, and That after the expiration of that time no Muslim should be hindered from departing, provided he paid, in addition to the price of his passage, the tithe of whatever property he might carry along with him. That no-one should be prosecuted and punished for the crime of another man. That the Christians who had embraced Islam should not be compelled to relinquish it and adopt their former creed. That any Muslim wishing to become a Christian should be allowed some days to consider the step he was about to take; after which he is to be questioned by both a Muslim and a Christian judge concerning his intended change, and if, after this examination, he still refused to return to Islam, he should be permitted to follow his own inclination. That no Muslim should be prosecuted for the death of a Christian slain during the siege; and that no restitution of property taken during this war should be enforced. That no Muslim should be subject to have Christian soldiers billeted upon him, or be transported to provinces of this kingdom against his will. That no increase should be made to the usual imposts, but that, on the contrary, all the oppressive taxes lately imposed should be immediately suppressed. That no Christian should be allowed to peep over the wall, or into the house of a Muslim or enter a mosque. That any Muslim choosing to travel or reside among the Christians should be perfectly secure in his person and property. That no badge or distinctive mark be put upon them, as was done with the Jews and Mudejares. That no muezzin should be interrupted in the act of calling the people to prayer, and no Muslim molested either in the performance of his daily devotions or in the observance of his fast, or in any other religious ceremony; but that if a Christian should be found laughing at them he should be punished for it. That the Muslims should be exempted from all taxation for a certain number of years. That the Lord of Rome, the Pope, should be requested to give his assent to the above conditions, and sign the treaty himself."
from MUSLIM MOORS to CHRISTIAN SLAVES

MORISCOS CONVERSOS
FROMMOORSTOMORISCOS
"As a result of his (Cardinal Ximenes' coercive) endeavours, it is reported that on l8th December 1499 about three thousand Moors were baptized by him and a leading mosque in Granada was converted into a church. 'Converts' were encouraged to surrender their Islamic books, several thousands of which were destroyed by Ximenes in a public bonre. A few rare books on medicine were kept aside for the University of Alcala...(Ximenes) claimed...the Moors had forfeited all their rights under the terms of capitulation (of Granada). They should therefore be given the choice between baptism and expulsion...At Andarax the principal mosque, in which the women and children had taken refuge, was blown up with gun-powder...all books in Arabic, especially the Qur'an, were collected to be burnt...Cardinal Ximenes:...was reported during his conversion campaign among the Granada Moors in 1500 to have burnt in the public square of Vivarrambla over 1,005,000 volumes including unique works of Moorish culture." "... tailors were not to make garments nor silver-smiths jewels after their (Moorish) fashion; their baths were prohibited; all births were to be watched by Christian midwives to see that no Moorish rites were performed; disarmament was to be enforced by a rigid inspection of licences; their doors were to be kept open on feastdays, Fridays, Saturdays, and during weddings, to see that Moorish rites were abandoned and Christian ones observed...no Moorish names were to be used and they were not to keep 'gacis' or unbaptised Moors either free or as slaves."
Once the Christians gained power in the land, the story of their subsequent persecution of the Jews and Muslims is not a pleasant one. Navarrte speaks of 2,000,000 Jews and 3,000,000 Muslims having been at various times expelled from Spain, and he is copied by Gil Gonzales Davila, the ofcial historiographer of Philip III and IV. The institution which was largely responsible for these expulsions was the Spanish Inquisition. Its activities were so horrifying that the majority of historians have chosen to mention it very briey and to pass on to other matters. Any attempt to cover in detail what amounted to the genocide of two distinct and large communities in Spain is an almost impossible task. The whole story can never be told. ... In order to disguise the fact that Islam once ourished in Spain, the Muslims who once lived there have been given different names by the Catholic Church, in the same way that the Paulicians were given different names whenever they appeared in another country in order to cover the unity of the movement. A brief summary of the terminology used to describe the Muslims of Spain is necessary at this stage, so that when they are used later on, the different terms will not cause confusion. The most popular synonym for the Muslims is 'the Moors'. This term is often used by ofcial historians to describe the Muslims either before, during or after their presence in Spain. They are also often referred to as 'the Mudejares' and 'the Moriscos.'These nicknames are indicative of the process of decline and erosion of Islam. The name 'Mudejar', which originates from the Arab 'mudajjal' was originally used as a term of ridicule for the Muslims who made pacts with the Christians, and even fought their Muslim brothers with the Christians. It was also used to describe all the Muslims who remained in the North after rst wave of persecution by the Church, and who worked for the Christian nobles on their large country estates.... When, in the next stages of persecution, the Mudejares were eventually all forcibly baptised, they became known as Moriscos, the 'Christian Moors'. This term was also used to describe the Muslims in the South who, after the fall of Granada in 1492, were also forcibly baptised. These changes in name, therefore, indicate the main stages in the process by which Islam was watered down until it was no longer a reality in Spain...
As a result of his endeavours, it is reported that on l8th December 1499 about three thousand Moors were baptized by him and a leading mosque in Granada was converted into a church. 'Converts' were encouraged to surrender their Islamic books, several thousands of which were destroyed by Ximenes in a public bonre. A few rare books on medicine were kept aside for the University of Alcala. These destructive measures were not achieved without the use of force. As a young Muslim girl was being dragged through the streets of the Muslim quarter, she cried out that she was about to be forcibly baptized, in contravention of the terms of lo treaty. A crowd collected, her captors were attacked, and a riot and momentary uprising of the Muslims was the result. They besieged the house of Ximenes, and after three days ghting, negotiations were opened. The Muslims stated that they had not risen against the king, but against the ofcials who had broken the king's word. They could not be contradicted, and initially peace was re-established. Further promise was given that the terms of the original treaty would again be honoured. However, it soon became clear that this was solely a means of restoring order and that it was not intended to abide by this promise:
Ximenes immediately denounced the uprising as a rebellion, and claimed that by this the Moors had forfeited all their rights under the terms of capitulation. They should therefore be given the choice between baptism and expulsion. The government agreed with his arguments, and Ximenes then began the mass baptism of the population of Granada, most of whom preferred this fate to the more hazardous one of deportation to Africa. The speed with which the baptisms were carried out meant that there was no time in which to instruct the Moors in the fundamentals of their new religion, so that inevitably most of the new converts became Christian only in name. ... It is estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 Muslims were forcibly baptized in the mass baptism of Granada by Ximenes. It is not known how many were deported to Africa, but the number was probably small not only because it was made difcult toleave, but also because the Muslims were not prepared to relinquish their kingdom so easily. ... At Andarax, for example, the principal mosque, in which the women and children had taken refuge, was blown up with gun-powder. At Belque all the men were put to the sword and the women were taken as slaves. All children under the age of eleven years were spared, but were separated from their parents and handed over to the Church to be brought up as Catholics. The survivors were always forcibly baptized, thus preparing them for further persecution from the Spanish Inquisition at a later date, and all books in Arabic, especially the Qur'an, were collected to be burnt.
CHRISTIAN BOOK BURNINGS
Cardinal Ximenes ...was reported during his conversion campaign among the Granada Moors in 1500 to have burnt in the public square of Vivarrambla over 1,005,000 volumes including unique works of Moorish culture. The last community of Muslims in Andalusia was thus smashed and fragmented within a very short space of time, and the rst armed rebellion of Granada was put down with such ruthless efciency that: ...by 1501 it was ofcially assumed that the kingdom of Granada had become a realm of Christian Moors - the Moriscos. Those Moors who wished to emigrate to Africa could do so on payment of a sum of money but converts were not allowed to go. Ferdinand granted the Moriscos legal equality with Christians but at the same time disarmed the population, for fear of further risings. Since the majority of Muslims had been 'converted', the offer of emigration was an empty one, and the 'legal equality' granted by Ferdinand was but a mockery of the terms of the Treaty of Granada which he had so blatantly permitted to be broken. Behind the words of conciliation and peace, the general intention of the Church to eliminate the practice of Islam was unmistakable, and now that the Muslims of southern Andalusia, or the Moriscos as they were called, were within the jurisdiction of the Spanish Inquisition, the Inquisitors embarked on the task of detecting 'relapsed heretics' and secret Muslims. The communities of Muslims which had survived the suppression of the rebellion, or reformed after it, were repeatedly harassed by the Inquisitors.... In 1507, Ximenes was appointed Inquisitor General of Spain. He co-ordinated the activities of the Inquisitors throughout Spain so effectively that the wealth of the Spanish Inquisition and the poverty of the Muslims were both greatly increased. It was during this time that the notorious Complutensian Polygot Bible was assembled in the University of Alcala on the orders of Ximenes. It was composed of six volumes with the Hebrew Chaldean and Greek 'original' of the Bible printed in column parallel to the Latin Vulgate. It was nally published in 1522. This was the rst time that the Bible had been printed in Greek. The people who assembled it faithfully incorporated the two famous New Testament forgeries of I John 5.7 and I Tim. 3.16 in all the texts. Although it was claimed that the texts were 'original', no manuscript written prior to the Council of Nicaea was used. The printing of the Complutensian Polygot cost Ximenes 50,000 ducats. The ease with which he could pay it was a tribute to his successful work in southern Andalusia....
INTER CAETERA DIVINA PAPAL BULLA 1493 A.D
. About "Inter Caetera Divina" The Church Bulla of 1493 A.D.

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Divina is a password used by most European Colonist descendants, who have overthrown, settled, or occupied other lands or countries. Divina, in most instances, appears unthreatening to the unknowing ear, when Europeans find cause to refer to their pseudoreligious doctrine, which is politically and socially inculcated with terse policies and regulatory constructs. However, it must be noted and brought to the attention of all Aboriginal natural peoples, that Divina was, and is, used as a war-reference and control guide-point for Colonial Inquisition Operations in North America. The formal name of the Divina Doctrine of Christianity is, Inter Caetera Divina. Its origin is from Pope Alexander VI, one of many iconic social / political / religious representative Vicars dedicated to policies for world dominance. The Germanic form or word, Gott / Guth / Gud / God, was introduced to the world during the Middle Ages, which is the period of European history that divides Ancient and Modern times, being 500 A.D. to 1450 A.D. The nave converts among the Aboriginals, who have naively accepted their teachings, are deceived by the propagated beliefs that the Christians were embracing ideas of a universal Creator, or Supreme Being, overflowing with teachings of filial and universal love, etc. Little did the Conversios know that (in reality) Divina, (from the European Colonial-conquest mindset) is an institutionalized religious - war sanction tool, justifying genocide, rape, theft, sadistic human oppression, land thefts, .... With the advent of the Spanish Inquisition, (Inquisitio) the maxims of inflicting creative forms of human torture, drowning, burnings, skinning, mutilations, death, and other horrors, became as normal to justified Christendomsupremacy culture as their penchant for highly stylized rituals of prayer. These same selfrighteous, self-appointed merchants of godliness, are also the supreme masters of sadism. The Aboriginal, natural peoples of the planet have suffered more deaths, slavery, artificially-induced diseases, and other sadistic mistreatments, at the hands of these pseudo-religious propagandists, than by that of the most vile and deviant soldiers amongst the known military armies of the world.
Conversionorexpulsion decreeforJewsinSpain
To this end we issue our Edict,by virtue of which we command all Jews,of both sexes and of all ages,who live,dwell,and are in any ways present in our Kingdoms and lands,both natives & foreigners who for whatever manner or whatever reason have come or are now here,that by the end of July in this present year of 1492,they be gone from all our kingdoms and lands,together with their sons,daughters,Jewish servants & familiars ,without regard to rank or station,and of whatever age they may be,and that they not presume to return or even to pass through these realms nor any part of them under pain of death and confiscation of all their Property-
EdictofExpulsion.issuedMarch31st1492
it affected all of Jerusalem in Spain the traditional Hebrew designation for Sephardim. Spanish Jews were the descendants of Judean royalty who had lived in Spain for nearly one thousand five hundred years and graced Iberia with a long line of Poets,scientists,diplomats, and Philosophers.The shock was enormous..
The people of Abraham,Jacob & Isaac had one option only to avoild exile:to convert immediately to the Christian Faith
as individual Jews considered their horrible fate-to leave or convert,to flee to Italy,Portugal,North Africa or Turkey..to sell their land to scavengers, PARASITES and scoundrels For a piTTance,the spiritual police, the santa hermanDAD, pondered the immense logistical problems of the exoduS.ironically, ABRAHam senior, as treasurer of the hermandad, was drawn into the plaNNING for the deportation of his own people.AS the titular leader of all SPanish jews & the chief magistrate of jerusALEM In spain,it fell to him to oversee the disposal of jewISH PROPerty.
SEPHARDIM JEWS
With the victory of Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. In spite of the covenant of protection given to thedhimmis (non-Muslim members of monotheistic faiths), the coming of the Moors was by-and-large welcomed by the Jews of Iberia. Both Muslim and Christian sources tell us that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders. Once captured, the defense of Cordoba was left in the hands of Jews, and Granada, Malaga, Seville, and Toledo were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. Although in some towns Jews may have been helpful to Muslim success, they were of limited impact overall. However it was frequently claimed by Christians in later centuries that the fall of Iberia was due in large part to Jewish perdy. In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as dhimmis, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity and Jews ourished as they did not under prior Christian Visigoths. Many Jews came to Iberia, seen as a land of tolerance and opportunity, from the Christian and Muslim worlds. Following initial Arab victories, and especially with the establishment of Umayyad rule by Abd al-Rahman I in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab lands, from Morocco to Babylon. Thus the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions.
SEPHARDIM JEWS
The Moroccan Jewish community in Morocco is the biggest in the Arab world and there are several historical testimonies of the presence of Jews in Morocco so far as during the Roman occupation and even before. The native Jews were called "Toshavim" whereas the Jews expelled from Andalusia in the Middle Age were known as "Megorachim", who imported their refined cultural way of living and they provided eminent scholars, Talmudists, jurists such as Isaac Cohen AlFassi,Mamounides The Jews have always been well integrated by the pre-islamic populations and then by the various Sultans of Morocco. Most Mellahs (Jewish quarters) were constructed next to the Royal Palaces so the Sultans could protect the community.
The Moors ruled on the Iberian kingdom of Granada, as the last Moorish kingdom in Spain until the 2nd of January in 1492 when they were conquered by the armies of Ferdinand and Isabelle. The years after the Christian conquest of Granada were lled with acts of outrage such as murder, rape, enslvaement and imprisonment against the Moors of Africa. The acts of outrage grew as the christians consolidated their conquest. In 1499, the bishop Cisneros demanded that all Moors should be baptized into the popish crusader legion of Rome if they were to live as free citizens. Later the Moors were harrased with with heavy taxes and other impositions. Moorish culture and languages were barred except for the pidgin latin which is now called Spanish. In 1568 due to the suppression the Moors still living in the town rebeled against the Spaniards but they were defeated, mercilessly massacared and the remnant were deported to the Island of Jamaica, and Hispaniola (Haiti), Florida, and Cuba where they called them the Maroons. The ones who could escape ed either to the continent of the Americas, or to the coast of Guinea where a Moorish culture thrived and was known as Criole. The Moors lived and traded all over Guinea Bissua, Cape Verde, PortoNovo, Fernanda-Po, Escarvos, Lagos. Many others headed across the straits to North Africa. From there they headed across the Sahara into the relative safety of the African based Moorish kingdoms and Empires such as Kanem-Bornu, Mal
..Portugese or Iberian Jews sometimes use this term to note this social group which consitituted a portion of early migrants to the Cape Verde Islands. Some reference use this term for the people and language of 16th and 17th century Sephardic Jews from Iberian Pennisula. The term Ladino could also refer to baptized African slaves. In either case, the reference was often racist, and derogatory and implied a lying, wandering, sneaky, and thieving group which was particularly untrustworthy... Exiled Moors, the Jews of Biafra: The Portugese had followed the pursuit of their defeated Moorish foes right across the straits of Gibraltar. The objective was to defeat the Moors in all of their land andseize it as Iberia had been seized. Following the path of the Moorish network, the Protugese had soon falled on Cape Verde off the coast of West Africa which they seized in the middle 15th century. Cape Verde was a half-way restocking station for the ancient Phoenicians and their medieval Moorish successors on their voyages across the ocean towards the continent in the west which later came to be known as the Americas and the Carribeans. Having seized these groups of Islands, the Portugese continued their raids on the Moorish lands off theGulf ofGuinea and Biafra. Many coastal communites were sacked and burnt. Strategic locations on the coast such as the Elmina castle area in Cape coast, Porto Novo areain Dahomey,were occupied and declared to be under the realm of the King of Portugal. Islands such as Lagos, Escarvos, Fernado Po, and Sao Tome were colonized that early in time. States and Kingdoms of coast of Guinea and Biafra were harrassed by the marauding Portugese crusaders cum slave raiders. Their acts of depredations were vigorously challenged by many Kings and Queens of those coastal states. One of the more famous incidents involved the war between Protugese crusaders and Queen Nzinga over the formersincessant slave-raiding activites. The Portugese crown had soon declared a monopoly of trade over the rich Moorish territories newly aquired off the coast of Guinea and Biafra. The Crown viewed the unwanted Moorish Jews and Muslims as cheap and easy labour to develop these newly acquired territories. It was a master stroke, getting rid of the black-a-moors and getting rich while doing it.Between 1450 and 1500, Portugese record detail the deportation and enslavement of more than 500,000 Moorish Jews to the Islands off the the Gulf of Guinea and Biafra. Many of these were children who had been stolen and separated from their parents.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND IN PORTUGAL

In Iberia the Reconquista movement was growing in its mission to recover their lands from the Muslim Moors who had first arrived in the 8th century. Jews may have first arrived far earlier during the time of the Phonecians and Roman. Nevertheless, Maghrebi Jews were key allies of the Moors and centuries-long residents of Iberia. Probably as early as 1480 one may find the beginnings of the Spanish Inquisition and expulsion of Jews. It was however in 1492 the the Spanish Inquisition emerged in its fullest expression of intolerance, anti-Semitism. This social pathology quickly spread to neighboring Portugal where Portuguese Kings Joao II and especially Manuel I in 1496, determined to exile thousands of Jews to Sao Tome, Principe, and Cape Verde. The numbers expelled at this time were so great that the term Portuguese" almost implied those of Jewish origin. Those who were not expelled were converted by force or were even executed. Despite the important role of Portuguese Jews in commerce, navigational sciences, and in the cartography of Africa, they faced riots, pogroms, and profound oppression during the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions when they became termed Narannos (Moorish Jews) or Judeus Segredos (Secret Jews). This led to forced conversions and to Jews becoming known as Novos Cristaos (New Christians). It was not until 1768 that Portugal officially abolished the distinction between "Old" and "New" (i.e. Jewish) Christians. Meanwhile, in order to begin to develop the Cape Verde Islands which had been discovered between 1455 and 1462 the Portuguese king granted a Royal Charter in 1466 to have the right" to trade in slaves for Portuguese residing in Cape Verde. This lucrative offer was soon to be rescinded and in 1472 slave trading rights were restricted to an exclusive royal monopoly. Thus from the very beginning of its history Cape Verde, and its diverse multicultural peoples were situated within the context of a slave society and the slave trade.
JEWS ON THE WEST AFRICAN COAST AND ISLANDS Despite their despised, exile, or degredado (convict) status, the small number of Europeans and Jews residing in Cape Verde were allowed to engage in trade, as long as they did not compete severely with the Portuguese trading monopolies. On the other hand if trading polices of the king were not sufficiently liberal then there was little incentive or reward to trade at all. Such was the eternal tension in Cape Verde between free Judeo-European traders in the islands and on the coast and the monopolistic tendancies of the Crown. To a certain extent, this structural rivalry remains right to the present. Some Cape Verdean commercial interests are focused on economic and political links to Portugal while others have made their ties to the politics and economies of coastal West Africa. Those who formally served the Portuguese ruling class came to be known as capitaos who were almost never Jews, and those free-lance traders were usually termed lan, cados who were often but not completely, of part Jewish origin.
At least by the early or mid 1600's Cape Verdean lanados had trading centers all along the Senegambian coast as especially at such places as Goree (famed for the Crioula female slave traders or Senhoras) Joal, Portuguese Town in Gambia, and Ziguinchor in the Casamance as well as in Cacheu, Bissau, Bolama and further down the Upper Guinea coast including the Portuguese role in the construction of Al-Mina castle in modern Ghana, which also included a visit by the famed navigator Christopher Columbus. The excellent research of Jean Boulegue has brought to light many fascinating details of the Portuguese Jewish presence in Senegambia and Guinea. For example, in 1517 Portuguese King Manuel I made reference to a group of lan, cados on the Senegambian coast; most of these were Portuguese Jews who had been deported. The term lancados, derived from the Portuguese verb "to throw out," is related to their outcaste or fugitive role in Luso-African coastal commerce. Figuratively the term lancados means "outcastes." They were usually fugitive Portuguese settlers including those exiled degredados following their conviction for some political "crime" as was the case for Jews following the full-scale Portuguese Inquisition in 1536, but Christian lanados were also known. Jews from Cape Verde and Portugal were already known in Joal as early as 1591 and a synagogue was noted there in 1641. In 1606, in Portugal, also on the Senegalese coast there were 100 Portuguese following the "Laws of Moses." Boulegue notes that in 1614 the Governor of Cape Verde recorded that the greatest number of lanados were Jews. In 1622 the Cape Verdean Governor, Dom Francisco de Mourra, reported to the Portuguese King that the Guinea coastal rivers were "full of Jews who were masters of the local regions and were quite independent of the Crown." No doubt such information relating to "the Jewish danger" gave "justification" to the Portuguese to punish two wealthy members of the Jewish community around the synagogue in Rufisque, Senegal, for economic excesses in 1629. When a branch of the Portuguese Inquisition was established in Cape Verde in 1672, one result was the seizure of Jewish-owned merchandise. As the 17th century evolved, the Portuguese were steadily displaced from Senegambia, but they retained their bases in the Cape Verde islands and in Guinea at Cacheu, Bolama, Bissau, Buba, Geba, Mansoa. In the 16th and 17th centuries the term ganagoga was also used in the Upper Guinea/Cape Verde region to imply Jewish lanados, but in practice ganagoga also meant people who were able to speak many local African languages. Allied with them were the tangomaos who represented a still deeper connection to the African interior for the lanados. It seems most likely that the term tangomao is a corrupted form of targuman, which means "translator" in Arabic.
Muslims and Arabic-speakers were and are widespread in this area, especially the northern and interior regions where the tangomaos or lanados traded. Lanados were reputed for being resourceful and courageous, and having initiative. The term also connotes the mixed-race traders living in the trading communities in the islands or on the coast where they conducted trade. They
often had African wives from the local groups and, as such, their children can be said to be the nucleus of the future Crioulo population. They were economic intermediaries or middlemen for the Portuguese regional trade.
Other references to Portuguese or Iberian Jews sometimes use the term Ladino to note this social group which constituted a portion of early migrants to the Cape Verde Islands. Some references use this term for the people and language of 16th and 17th
century Sephardic Jews. from the Iberian peninsula. The term ladinos could also refer to baptized African slaves. In either case, the reference was often racist, and derogatory, and implied a lying, wandering, sneaky, and thieving group which was particularly untrustworthy. In certain social contexts it could be
used affectionately to mean a scamp. While seeking to convert or expel Jews from Portugal, the Crown in the 16th and 17th century allowed, or even encouraged, the lanados to settle along the Senegambian and Upper Guinea coast to trade for ivory, hides, slaves, gold, gum, wax, and amber while based in Cape Verde. Within the islands Jews would receive these same items for later resale to those traders who wanted to avoid the risks of coastal trade even if it meant higher costs in the islands. Jews in Cape Verde were also active in the trade of hides, urzella, and coffee. Restrictions for the lanados prohibited them from selling iron bars, firearms, and navigational instruments, yet the lanados were clearly critical in the economic network which linked the Crown trade monopolies to the coast. Spanish and English smugglers using ties to the lan,cados were frequent violaters of these rather schizophrenic Portuguese prohibitions. Evidentally such trading enterprises were "too effective" so in 1687 the King of Portugal ruled that Cape Verdean Jews and lan,cados were officially forbidden to sell cloth currency or panos to foreigners. By producing panos with slave labor in farming and weaving, the Cape Verdean merchants undermined the royal economy. Yet this rivalry continued for centuries. Another short chapter of the history of Cape Verdean Jews appears in the 1820s when some of the very few Jews of Portugal were involved in the ULiberal Wars" in Portugal. These Jewish UMiguelistas" fled Santo Antao for refuge and exile. A final chapter of Jewish history in Cape Verde takes place in the 1850's when Moroccan Jews arrived, especially in Boa Vista and Maio for the hide trade. In short, Jewish history plays a role in Cape Verde and Guinea that is far greater than expected or recognized. Thus, as early as the later 15th century and through the 16th and even 17th centuries, a Jewish coastal presence was deeply established. This brought on an important synthesis which was responsible for playing a central role in the creation of Crioulo culture.These Jews, both in the Cape Verde Islands and on the coast, were at the heart of the Afro-Portuguese merging which became Crioulo culture. The anti-Semitism of Spain and Portugal and the financial goals of the Portuguese Crown were constantly trying to restrict their success. The more successful, the more restrictions, but also the more deeply struck were the commerical and cultural roots of these people.
There were the capitaos, Portugese agents of the Crown who supervised the extraction of wealth and resources from this newly conquered land of the Moors on the coast of West Africa. They were the ruling elites of those societies. They were the degrados, or the lancados Portugese. Lancados literally means outcasts or throw-aways. They were cast off of the Portuguese society, ex-convicts, debtors, murderers and thieves. These were allowed to trade as long as they stayed within the applicable restrictions imposed by the Portugese Crown including restriction on the sale of rearms, iron bars, navigational equipment, cloth currency known as Panos, and slaves which were the Kings monopoly. Then there were the Iberian Jewish Moors the Ladinos who had been disposessed of all they
had and exiled or enslaved on the Islands of West Africa. Many of the Jews had ed the
persecutions of the Portugese inquisition which ranged between 1496 and 1510, then had ramped up in 1536. Many came looking for their children who had been stolen by the authorities and enslaved along the coast of West Africa. Muslim Moors who spoke Arabic were widespread in the area especially in Upper Guinea area. They were known as Targomas (a word that means interpreters).
The word Lanados connotes Africanized Portugeses Moorish Jews. Those had
abondoned the Portugese outposts and had gone completely native. They lived together with the African communities of the interior, as Africans, intermarrying and interworshiping with them; having very little recollection of their Portugese connections. The synthesis that occurred between the lanados and the local Africans of the coast created the nuclues of the Creole culture, a vibrant cultural expression which defines modern West Africa, especially the coastal states.
Portuguese maritime overseas exploration and expansion in the 15th century took on two directions. The first was towards the southern coast of West Africa where the Portugueseinitially participated in kidnapping raids, bringing several Africans back to Portugal. They soon realized that by establishing diplomatic relations with
local kings, they could penetrate the interior of Africa and carefully observe lands, rivers, and other natural resources, thus gaining intelligence on Muslim activity. The Portuguese, like
their commercial rivals, the Spanish, were trying to break the Muslim monopoly over trade between Europe and eastern Asia. The Portuguese explored the Atlantic coast of Africa and established links with the peoples and kingdoms of the sub-Saharan regions of Guinea, Ghana, Dahomey, and the Congo. Explorers and adventurers soon became very active in expeditions in search of gold, pepper, tusks, slaves, profitable trade routes, and more importantly converting native populace to Christianity. In addition to seeking new trade routes to India and China, the spreading of Christianity into new lands also became a powerful justification for material Portugal and Spain. By 1492, trade with West Africas Gold Coast provided two-thirds of Europes supply of gold (4). The second direction was toward the islands of the Atlantic Ocean such as Cape Verde, Sao Tome, Madeira, Canary, and the Azores. Many of the islands were uninhabited or had small villages. Sugar consumption in Europe was steadily growing and the demand for sugarcane labor drastically changed the nature of Portuguese slavery. It went from domestic servitude to plantation slavery.
THE RISE OF THE PORTUGESE SLAVE TRADE
in the year 1483 Portugal was the most progressive,visionary,affluent country in all of Europe,and Lisbon was the continents most vibrant port
the Treaty of Alcacovas formally ended the War of Succession between Portugal & Spain,it defined the spheres of influence in foreign exploration between the two countries.Portugal would rule the African coastline,and any Spanish vessel had to receive Portugese permission to trade as far as Cape Bojador.Castile gave up any claim to the Cape Verde islands,Madeira,and the Azores.but it retained the Canaries,those Volcanic islands off the African Coast that were named by the Romans for their big dogs
THEIR DREAM WAS TO FIND A WAY AROUND AFRICA INTO INDIA.TH0UGH THIS WOULD NOT HAPPEN FOR ANOTHER 50 YEARS, WHEN BARTHELOMEW DIAZ ROUNDED THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE IN 1488 AND VASCO DE GAMA REACHED INDIA IN 1498, PORTUGUESE SAILORS DISCOVERED AND COLONIZED THE ISLAND OF MADEIRA, WHERE THE 1ST CHILDREN BORN ON THAT OUTPOST WERE CHRISTENED ADAM AND EVE.FROM MADEIRA THEY PROCEEDED TO THE CANARIES AND THE AZORES, AND HENRY BEGAN TO FLIRT WITH THE THOUGHT THAT SAILING DUE WEST COULD EVENTUALLY BRING THE MARINER TO INDIA. WITH HENRYS VOYAGES DOWN THE COAST OF AFRICA AND THE ESTABLISHMENTS OF WESTERN OUTPOSTS, THE EUROPEAN SLAVE TRADE BEGAN IN EARNEST. AT FIRST THE PRINCE PROMOTED THIS VIGOROUS TRADE AS A TOOL OF CHRISTIAN CONVERSION,IT WAS SEEN AS AN ACT OF CHARITY,GUIDED BY THE WILL OF GOD
GOLDEN TRADE OF THE MOORS
THE SILK ROAD
The Silk Road (German: Seidenstrae) (or Silk Routes) is an extensive interconnected network of trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean world, as well as North and Northeast Africa and Europe. The term "Seidenstrae" (literally "Silk Road") was coined retrospectively by the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 and has since found its way into general usage. It was the major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive trans-continental network.[1][2][3] In recent years, both the maritime and overland Silk Routes are again being used, often closely following the ancient routes.
Extending 4,000 miles, the routes enabled people to transport goods, especially luxuries such as slaves, silk, satin and other ne fabrics, musk, other perfumes, spices, medicines, jewels, glassware and even rhubarb, as well as serving as a conduit for the spread of knowledge, ideas, cultures and diseases[5] between different parts of the world (Ancient China, Ancient India, Asia Minor and the Mediterranean). Trade on the Silk Road was a signicant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, India, Egypt, Persia, Arabia and Rome, and in several respects helped lay the foundations for the modern world. Although the term the Silk Road implies a continuous journey, very few who traveled the route traversed it from end to end. For the most part, goods were transported by a series of agents on varying routes and were traded in the bustling mercantile markets of the oasis towns.
Beginning to Trade The Portuguese brought in copper ware, cloth, tools, wine and horses. (Trade goods soon included arms and ammunition.) In exchange, the Portuguese received gold (transported from mines of the Akan deposits), pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498) and ivory. Shipping Slaves for the Islamic Market There was a very small market for African slaves as domestic workers in Europe, and as workers on the sugar plantations of the Mediterranean. However, the Portuguese found they could make considerable amounts of gold transporting slaves from one trading post to another, along the Atlantic coast of Africa. Muslim merchants had an insatiable appetite for slaves, which were used as porters on the trans-Saharan routes (with a high mortality rate), and for sale in the Islamic Wednesday, July 25, 2012 Empire.
When the Portuguese first sailed down the Atlantic coast of Africa in the 1430's, they were interested in one thing. Surprisingly, given modern perspectives, it was not slaves but gold. Ever since Mansa Musa, the king of Mali, made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325, with 500 slaves and 100 camels (each carrying gold) the region had become synonymous with such wealth. There was one major problem: trade from sub-Saharan Africa was controlled by the Islamic Empire which stretched along Africa's northern coast. Muslim trade routes across the Sahara, which had existed for centuries, involved salt, kola, textiles, fish, grain, and slaves.
MANSA MUSA, MALI KING
CITIES OF PURE GOLD
The rivalry for the control of the Atlantic slave trade would later be taken over by the more business conscious and efficient Protestants of Holland and England through a series of wars fought on the high-seas and several continents. Portugals ruling class, monarchs and merchants enriched by the lucrative sugar and slave trade exercised significant economic and political power. In 1498, Vasca de Gama rounded Africas Cape of Good Hope, which opened new trade routes to India and China, severing the Muslim trade monopoly into Asia. Portugal also claimed the new territory of the New World within the scope of the Papal Bull of 1455, which authorized Catholic nations to reduce to servitude all infidel people. In order to appease hostilities arbitration was needed. They sought the assistance of the Vatican. It was a logical and natural choice in an age when the papacy was still unchallenged by person or kingdom. The Christian Church was independent of any earthly powers. The Vatican, with its hierarchy of popes, deacons, and bishops, believed that the church, like God, was perfect and incapable of reform. Ecclesiastic authority successfully kept the masses on the straight and narrow path through fear and spiritual agony. Fear of the devil had a stronger impact than the love of Jesus or God (4). Europe was effectively ruled by an aristocracy of traditionally privileged families and nobles, enterprising merchants and traders, and the Catholic Church. Collectively, they sought to gain power and wealth by taking advantage of the insurmountable resources in the New World and by exploiting the people of Africa and the West Indies. The ruling elite of Western Europe had a mutual understanding of greed, which spawned a horrific enterprise in the trading and shipping of human cargo. The enslavement of the African race and genocidal campaigns towards indigeneous peoples of the Bahama Islands was capitalisim at its earliest stages. It became a necessary evil that maintained the inward flow of wealth and absolute power to European treasuries.
WERE WE IN THE AMERICAS BEFORE SLAVERY???

PORTUGESE MAP OF AFRICA
..Portugese or Iberian Jews sometimes use this term to note this social group which consitituted a portion of early migrants to the Cape Verde Islands. Some reference use this term for the people and language of 16th and 17th century Sephardic Jews from Iberian Pennisula. The term Ladino could also refer to baptized African slaves. In either case, the reference was often racist, and derogatory and implied a lying, wandering, sneaky, and thieving group which was particularly untrustworthy... Exiled Moors, the Jews of Biafra: The Portugese had followed the pursuit of their defeated Moorish foes right across the straits of Gibraltar. The objective was to defeat the Moors in all of their land andseize it as Iberia had been seized. Following the path of the Moorish network, the Protugese had soon falled on Cape Verde off the coast of West Africa which they seized in the middle 15th century. Cape Verde was a half-way restocking station for the ancient Phoenicians and their medieval Moorish successors on their voyages across the ocean towards the continent in the west which later came to be known as the Americas and the Carribeans. Having seized these groups of Islands, the Portugese continued their raids on the Moorish lands off theGulf ofGuinea and Biafra. Many coastal communites were sacked and burnt. Strategic locations on the coast such as the Elmina castle area in Cape coast, Porto Novo areain Dahomey,were occupied and declared to be under the realm of the King of Portugal. Islands such as Lagos, Escarvos, Fernado Po, and Sao Tome were colonized that early in time. States and Kingdoms of coast of Guinea and Biafra were harrassed by the marauding Portugese crusaders cum slave raiders. Their acts of depredations were vigorously challenged by many Kings and Queens of those coastal states. One of the more famous incidents involved the war between Protugese crusaders and Queen Nzinga over the formersincessant slave-raiding activites. The Portugese crown had soon declared a monopoly of trade over the rich Moorish territories newly aquired off the coast of Guinea and Biafra. The Crown viewed the unwanted Moorish Jews and Muslims as cheap and easy labour to develop these newly acquired territories. It was a master stroke, getting rid of the black-a-moors and getting rich while doing it.Between 1450 and 1500, Portugese record detail the deportation and enslavement of more than 500,000 Moorish Jews to the Islands off the the Gulf of Guinea and Biafra. Many of these were children who had been stolen and separated from their parents.
CAPE VERDE,AFRICA
In 1500, Portuguese mariner Pedro Alvares Cabral sighted Brazil and stopped there briefly. The Portuguese did not have much interest in Brazil at first, but when French and Dutch sailors began to visit the Brazilian coastline, the king of Portugal granted large tracts of territory to nobles in the expectation that they would develop their new lands. (2) Governors were dispatched to oversee construction of sugarcane plantation along the coastline. By the middle of the 16th century, entrepreneurs recognized Brazils importance as a profitable leg of the sugar trade. The Portuguese and the Spanish, as well as the rest of Europe, saw the New World as land to exploit and the native infidel people to subjugate. The New World ballooned European wealth. Vast amounts of stolen gold, silver, precious gems, and other natural resources contributed in the construction of decorative cathedrals and churches with spires in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the Vatican. The pace of European exploration and navigation technology quickened after 1415 when Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, also Dom Henrique, conquered the small Moroccan port of Ceuta. He was the son of King John, also known as Don Juan, and his English wife, Princess Phillippa. By age twenty-five, he was governor of the southern coasts of Portugal as well as Master of the Order of Christ. Prince Henry soon sponsored a series of voyages down the west coast of Africa and began to map its coastline. The Battle of Ceuta was a turning point because it was the first time in centuries that a European nation had taken over African territory. Access into the Mediterranean Sea, which had been formerly dominated by Arab and African fleets, was not possible. In 711 A.D., an African general Jebel Tarik, also known as Tarikh ben Zaid, led an army into Spain, which had remained under the domination of Africans, Berbers, and Arabs for seven centuries (1). Prince Henry the Navigator took an active interest in inaugurating Portuguese oceanic exploration and expansion. This would later inspire the maritime nations of Europe to do the same. His sponsored voyages led the Portuguese to claim the islands of the Atlantic Ocean. This system of island hopping put the Portuguese fleet further south and in a position to claim economic superiority in the early stages of European. The Portuguese had the most maritime experience along the coast of West Africa and connections with local kings. They monopolized the outward flow of slaves brought from the interior and controlled the price of slaves brought into the new world (3). By the mid-sixteenth century, African slaves were used in the island colonies of Madeira and the Canaries.
Prince Henry is best known for introducing maritime technology and information to Europe, discovering the Madeira and Azores Islands of the Atlantic, and sending ships to circumnavigate Africa and beyond. Without maritime technology, Portugals influence on European overseas expansion and colonization would not have been possible. Henry received his oceanic understanding from African and Arab (or Moors) sailors, who retained their knowledge from the great University of Salamanca, Spain. For centuries African and Arab mariners had traveled into the Indian Ocean and as far as China to trade. Portuguese sailors in the late 15th century encountered Arab sailors using simpler and more effective instruments for determining latitude and longitude (2).
Seasonal westerly wind patterns served as maritime conveyor belts, well known to Christopher Columbus, cousin of Prince Henry, before his world altering encounter with the Arawak people of the Bahama Islands on October 12, 1492. Columbus wasprivyto ancient oceanic knowledgeand may have even have possesseddetailed maps such as the Piri Reis maps. The Piri Reis maps are extraordinary since they contain exact geographical informationof land masses underneath the ice at the southern tip of South America. Conventional American history would like you to believe that brave Christopher Columbus set sail across an unpredictable and dangerous ocean withtheblessing of King Ferdinand, Queen Isabella, and God.Sailing to the New World was nothing new for the Africans along the West Coast, but for Europe it was. Columbus was just the first sponsored European spokesperson to confirm and claim the lands beyond the Atlantic Ocean, which were now fair game. That is,as soon asthey could land anddeclare ownership.Conquest,plunder, and thegenocidal extinction of theindigenous populationwas necessary in order to implent the European way of life, which wastheiroriginal goal.Once Prince Henry compiled a body of practical knowledge about the sea, winds, and currents, he set out to start his map-making and charting schools. Europe had entered a new era of navigational possibilities. European sailors, previously with no understanding of longitude and latitude, were now able to travel east and west without getting lost. Prince Henrys knowledge of Africa was further enhanced when he came into contact with Jewish traderswho spoke of grand and majestic cities in Africas interior. Through his African contacts he was able to acquire a cache of maps that were mostly written by Jewish gold dealers who had been dealing in the Western Sudan and the coast of West Africa (1). They were the major gold dealers in between Spain, the Mediterranean states, and the nations of in Africa, particularly Western Sudan.
Stories of wealth and gold in cities such as Timbuktu only widened Henrys ambition to explore the African continent. Sadly, wherever the European went he brought death and destruction. The European invasion of Africa, the West Indies, and the Americas altered the peoples way of life and civilization profoundly. Traders, warriors, missionaries, and adventurers forced new political, social, cultural, commercial, and religious patterns over four continents. Ironically, Christianity played a major role in the inhumane treatment and justified behavior towards non-Europeans. Religion by itself would not have been able to influence the horrid global economic order that was taking place. Equally important are the social and political structures that identify and unite people into a common cause.A unified state encourages progress, civic duty, and state responsibility. During the period from the early Portuguese maritime exploration and expansion up until the secularization of the modern state, Europe was able to synthesize (1) various economic, political, and cultural forms. The nations of Europe fighting less for religious ideals, took advantage of market conditions and the accumulation of capital. Slavery saw the rise of European capitalism. European banks along with joint-stock corporations, kings, monarchs, and popes controlled lands, resources, and labor. They established large-scale trading that operated over a large geographical area. The European had other advantages, which included weapons and technology. They had guns, a large fleet of ships with sailors and soldiers, but more importantly was their no sentimental value for non-Europeans. The atrocities committed by the Portuguese and Spanish go beyond description. Verbal or written representation cannot be relied upon as accurate representation. The cruelty unleashed on the inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere was the result of Europes centuries old warfare. Incessant warfare, sadism, treachery, fratricide, abduction, lawlessness, an obsession with the supernatural, coupled with monarchial indifference and the Vaticans hold on the masses through spiritual horror, created an impenetrable mindlessness. This unpleasant environment defined the character of the Europe and mans inhumanity to man generational. Sharp iron frames prevented victims from sleeping, lying, or even sitting. Braziers scorched the soles of their fee, racks stretched and shattered their limbs, [and] suspects were crushed to death beneath chest filled with stones (4). The end result was the European was able to successfully conquer most of the known world because of its militaristic order and savage minds. The Arawak and Taino people of the West Indies, unable to stop the Spanish, were butchered by the thousands. Their children were fed to starved war-dogs and their small bodies used to test the sharpness of the Conquistadors blades. The systematic enslavement of the African civilization and genocidal extermination of the people of the Western Hemisphere was initiated by the Catholic nations of Portugal and Spain
North African Political Theatre

Just as the 12 century offensive launched by a Sicilian norman prince brought about a response from the Almoravids, so the 16th century expansion of the Spanish brought the Ottomans to North Africa. The Christians crusaders continued their pursuit of the Moors across the straits of Gibraltar. They were anxious about the impact that the refugee Moors would bring into North Africa. They needed to ensure that the Moors would not be planning any counter attacks to retake their lost possessions in Iberia. So the crusaders continued their attacks following their conquest of Granada in 1492 and occupied the North African coastline. The Christians enchroachments occured in a pincer movement. Led by the Spanish, the Neapolitans, the Portugese, the Knights of Malta, and the Knights of St John. In 1505 a succession of the main ports of North Africa fell into Christian hands, including Bougie and Tripoli both in 1510. Tripoli was given to the Knights of the St Johns. Towns which had not been conquered were awed into payment of tribute.
The Moorish refugees were mercilessly hunted. With their wealth and their sophistication and inuence, they were quite visible. Haunted by this seemiingly relentless ill fate, the hunted moorish jews and muslim refugees headed down south.
From Tripoli to the Kanem Bornu Empire, which controlled the territories now known as Nigeria, Niger, and Chad, it was about a months walk and two weeks worth of camels ride. In the winter times, many mystics walk this path alone by themselves all the way from Nigeria to Libya hoping between Oasis.
Similarly, from Sijilmasa in Morocco to Oudagoust in Mauretania, is a six week journey by camel ride. There are oasis in between the desert route and for millenia it has been known as one of the major tran-saharan highways. It was a route of demographic, cultural and commercial exchange. The Moorish refugees knew that beyond the desert, in the deep embrace of mother Africa, was a Moorish state known as Kanem Bornu Kingdom which could possibly offer them some safety and dignity if they were ever such things in creation. So just like Moses did when hunted by the Pharaoh, just like Yehushua did when threatened by Herod, and just as Mohammed when he made the Hejira to Ethiopia, just like the Cartheginians and the Kemetians ed into and across the Sahara from invading armies, so the refugee Moors of Spain headed deep into the protecting depths of the continent, where many of them originally came from. Into the Saharan Moorish Kingdom of Kanem-Bornu they looked for solace, like those other black Egyptians of 837 A.d. who ed the Turkish army unleashed by a vengful caliph, those Moorish refugees ed back to Beri-beri kingdom of the Kanuris, Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States of Nigeria. Kanem-Bornu Empire The Kanuris of the Kanem Bornu empire are known all through Africa and in Nigeria their modern home state as the Bari-beris, i.e. the Berbers from Libya and the Zhagawas from Sudan. The Kanem Bornu Empire was originally a southern Libyan based Berber Kingdom that moved its capital from Fezzan in Libya further into the central sahara over the ages. Its origins have been xed at around the 5th century A.D. but it is probably older. It spanned all the way from the present Bornu State in Nigeria all the way up to Fezzan and Siwa oasis in southern Libya. Even though the Kanem Bornu Empire moved its capital into the central sahara for strategic reasons, it yet maintained its Libyan territories into the 15th century ad. Kanem Bornu Empire was the dominant power in the areas around Nigeria, Chad, southern Libya and Niger in the early 15th century. It was the hegemonic power which held the Hausa kingdoms in a form of super-structure. It was intimately connected with events unfolding in North Africa and must have viewed with dis-quiet the enchroachment of the christian popist European forces into Moorish territories. It received a fair amounts of Moorish refugees both Jews and Muslims whose only hope for safety was within the political protection offered by the one last viable Moorish state still safe in the center of the Sahara
COLUMBUS
christopher columbus Queen Isabella & King Ferdinad CRUSADERS AGAINST MOORS & ALL ABORIGINALS WORLDWIDE
MOORISH COATS OF ARMS ST MAURICE THE MOOR

SAINT MAURICE
CHRISTIANIZED MOORS IN HISTORY,MORISCOS
THE RISE OF EUROPEAN RACISM

FOR CENTURIES THE MUSLIMS,CHRISTIANS & JEWS LIVED SIDE BY SIDE AND IN MANY INSTANCES HAD SO INTERMARRIED THAT NUMEROUS FAMILIES WERE PART MUSLIM,PART CHRISTIAN & PART JEW. THE TEACHINGS OF THE PROPHET ,TOO, HAD STRESSED REPEATEDLY THAT PEOPLES OF ALL RACES & COLORS WERE EQUAL IN THE SIGHT OF ALLAH AND THESE TEACHINGS WERE NOT ONLY PREACHED BUT OFTEN PRACTICED. THE PERSECUTION OF MOORS & JEWS, THEREFORE, AND THEIR TRAGIC AND INHUMANE EXPULSION, GAVE ADDED MOMENTUM TO THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF RACISM IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN AFTER THE RECONQUISTA. AND THIS PECULIARLY EUROPEAN PHENOMENOM OF A MANICHEISTIC RACISM,(WHITES AGAINST BLACK & BROWN) WOVE ITSELF INTO THE FABRIC OF CHRISTIANITY AND REMAINS THERE UNTIL THIS DAY
AT ITS ZENITH, MUSLIM POWER STRETCHED FROM CHINA,ACROSS THE HIMALAYAS INTO INDIA, THROUGH THE MIDDLE EAST, AND DEEP INTO THE NILE VALLEY. IT CRISS-CROSSED ALL OF NORTH AFRICA, REACHED DOWN TO DAR-ES-SALAAM IN EAST AFRICA AND WENT AS FAR SOUTH AS GHANA IN WEST AFRICA. AND IT THEN SPREAD NORTH ACROSS THE PILLARS OF HERCULES TO STRETCH FROM PORTUGALS ATLANTIC COAST, THROUGH THE IBERIUAN PENINSULA,OVER THE PYRENEES AND INTO FRANCES RHONE VALLEY & BEYOND-PG. 251 G.A.O.T.M WITH THE END OF MOORISH POWER, THE SPANISH NOT ONLY WENT ON A BOOK BURNING SPREE, THEY ALSO TRIED TO ERASE VESTIGE OF MOORISH CULTURAL INFLUENCE FROM THEIR CONSCIOUSNESS. THE HOLY INQUISITION WITH ITS LIMPIEZE DE SANGRE(CLEANSING OF THE SPANISH BLOOD) ITS ZEALOTRY, AND ITS ALL-ENCOMPASSING AND REPRESSIVE TENTACLES REACHING INTO THE LIVES OF THE HIGHEST & LOWLIEST IN THE LAND,SET ABOUT DE-CIVILIZING THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.AND THE PERSECUTION WAS MOST WRENCHING IN THE LIVES OF SPAINS PRINCIPLE CULTURE BRINGERS:THE MOORS & THE JEWS-PG.250 G.A.O.T.M
What happened to the Moors? After being forced out of Spain, most were driven back into West Africa, but many would later be recaptured and sold into America and the Caribbean as slaves. Some of these slaves (multilingual and erudite scholars) came on ships of Christopher Columbus who was commissioned by Queen Isabella to discover the "New World" Around 1492.
Those Muurs were the inventors of the science of sea travel, cartography, navigation and piracy, being Muurs, who hitherto had controlled the seas, since the times of the Phoenicians to their fall in Spain to the combined forces of Romes crusading hordes in 1495. They lost their ships, their ports and their trade routes. They turned to piracy as a rear guard guerrilla sea military tactis. They terrorized the lenght and breath of the Mediterranean sea for generations, robbing christian ships, seizing their occupants as booties for sale in the North African and Turkish slave markets. Millions of Europeans went down to slavery through the instrumentality of those Muurs. They were later defeated and nally ushed out of their strongholds. Their ships were burnt. Their greatness no more. For centuries no European nation or ships could dare tangle with them. The formation of the Order of the Knights of Malta is linked to the ght against the Muurs. The Navy of the United States was principally formed in response to the threat and challenge posed by the Moorish guerrilla seamen. The U.S. marines was thus set up by the US establishment urged on by one of the founding masonic members of the United States Mr. Jefferson, to try and subjugate those proud Muurs and put a stop to their (as perceived by Euros) notorious penchant for raiding and taking and trading on European slaves. A grand conspiracy of great powers including muslim nations like the Ottoman turks, western nations like Britain and United States and France, conspired and launched a series of devastating attacks on the cities and strongholds of those Muurish pirates eventually breaking their resistance. Which made the American marines to compose and sign this song that recounts their exploits in the Muurish Empire: From the halls of Monteczuma to the shores of the Emperor of Morocco So again they destabilized the Muurs. They uprooted us once again. Worse still they sought to steal our identities. Turkish and iranian settlers were brought into the land of Morocco, Algeria, Egypt Libya and Tunisia by Ottoman turks with the encouragement of France and Britain. There were many ethnic cleansing measures that have been forgotten, genocides that have been buried all linked to the hegemonic activities of the Ottoman turks in North Africa. At the end of the day, those Ottomans, and the Yanissaris descendants of slaves and mecenaries claim to be original North Africans and practise all kinds of racist degradations on the real Muurish owners and legatees of the land whom they now call Africans or sub-saharan Africans.
Effects of Barbary Slavery on the World

Barbary piracy was not only an issue for the slaves, but for surrounding places as well. European oceanic trade and commerce was greatly affected by barbary pirates and privateers in the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries. After years of having ships raided, cargoes seized, and crews captured by the barbary corsairs, European states and eventually the U.S. took action. These countries were forced to negotiate individual treaties with the sultan of Morocco and the governors (deys) of the Ottoman regencies of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. The treaties consisted primarily of a yearly tribute to be paid to the North African rulers in exchange for safe passage of crews and goods.
Many have argued that barbary slavery between 1625-1640 was one of the reasons for the outbreak of civil war in England. King Charles I succeeded to the throne in 1625, and immediately faced tension with the English sailors, ship owners, and other coastal inhabitants. At this time, there were already hundreds of captives in the Barbary States. Merchants would not only lose their employees to the barbary corsairs, but also their vessels and goods. They were furious that King Charles I was not putting enough of the money that was earned from taxes and other forms of revenue toward security along the coastline. Furthermore, many of the captives were members of distraught families, who thought that anything that could be done to have their family members returned should be done. The King attempted to appease the masses and pay ransoms for the captives, but his efforts were thwarted by corruption in his government. King Charles I proposed having members of his government collect ransom money from townspeople, but often, the government official would claim to have freed many captives but instead keep the collected money to himself. By 1640, there were thousands of English captives in North Africa. As a result, King Charles I was very unpopular around the coast of England, and this helped lead to the Civil War in 1642.
Following the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, as well as the involvement of the United States Navy in the First and Second Barbary Wars (18011805, 1815), European powers agreed upon the need to suppress the Barbary pirates and the effectiveness of the corsairs declined. France colonised much of the Barbary coast in the 19th century. During the rst period (1518-1587), the beylerbeys were admirals of the sultan, commanding great eets and conducting war operations for political ends. They were slave-hunters and their methods were ferocious. After 1587, the sole object of their successors became plunder, on land and sea. The maritime operations were conducted by the captains, or reises, who formed a class or even a corporation. Cruisers were tted out by capitalists and commanded by the reises. Ten percent of the value of the prizes was paid to the pasha or his successors, who bore the titles of agha or dey or bey.
In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population.[9] In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 slaves.[10] In 1555, Turgut Reis sacked Bastia, Corsica, taking 6,000 prisoners. In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves.[11] In 1563, Turgut Reis landed on the shores of the province of Granada, Spain, and captured coastal settlements in the area, such as Almucar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands, and in response many coastal watchtowers and fortied churches were erected. The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera became uninhabited.[12][13] Even at this early stage, the European states sometimes fought back: Livorno's monument Quattro Mori celebrates 16th Century victories against the Barbary corsairs won by the Order of Saint Stephen, of which the Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinando I de' Medici was Grand Master.
Even the Kabyles a notoriously fair-skinned Berber people of North Africa are up until the 19th century described as brown apart from a few clans. (See quotes below). The knowledge that Europeans were changing the complexion literally and guratively of North Africa up until the 19th century has disappeared from modern European histories. Most know about the large part played by sub-saharan black slaves in the making of modern North Africa and Arabia while the white slave trade which was in fact dominant trade in North Africa until the fall of Constantinople (Istanbul in Turkey) in the 15th century had been largely ignored in historical writings of the 20th. Yet it was only a few centuries ago that Europeans visiting North Africa commenting on the fact that, on almost every street of the cities of Barbary, Europeans could be seen harnessed to carts like draught horses or selling water from jars loaded on the backs of donkeys. 1809 Commentary on those called Moors by an early 19th century observer: They carry the Christian captives about the desert to the different markets to sell them for they soon discover that their habits of life render them unserviceable , or very inferior to the black slaves of Timbuktoo. from An Account of the Empire of Marocco, by J. G. Jackson published 1809 and 1814.
Corsairs from a place in Morocco called Sale -- who became known in Britain as the Sally Rovers -- sailed up the Cornish coast in July 1625, for example, came ashore dressed in djellabas and wielding damascene scimitars, burst into the parish church at Mounts Bay and dragged out 60 men women and children whom they shipped off to Morocco. Thousands more Britons were seized from their villages or their ships and dispatched to the hell-holes of the Moroccan slave pens, from where they were forced to work all hours in appalling conditions building the vast palace of the monstrous and psychopathic Sultan, Moulay Ismail, who tortured and butchered them at whim. Most of them perished, but the book records the survival of a tenacious Cornish boy Thomas Pellow, who survived 23 years of this ordeal and whose descendant, Lord Exmouth, nally ended the white slave trade when he destroyed Algiers in 1816.
THE BARBARY PIRATES CONSISTED OF MIXED RACES OF PEOPLE,ALL WERE OPPOSED TO THE CHRISTIAN POWERS OF EUROPE
The book makes clear that this assault upon the British people (and upon Europeans and Americans who were similarly seized) was a jihad. The Sally Rovers, writes Milton, were called al-ghuzat-- the term once used for the soldiers who fought with the Prophet -- and were hailed as religious warriors engaged in a holy war against the indel Christians who were pressurised to convert to Islam under threat of hideous punishment. What is even more striking was the response of the British crown. For almost two centuries, it made only the most ineffectual attempts to rescue its enslaved subjects. Those who had succumbed to the torture and inhumanity of the Sultan and converted to Islam were deemed to be no longer British and therefore outside the scope of any rescue. The pleas of Pellows parents were simply brushed aside. Popular outrage forced successive Kings to dispatch a series of feeble emissaries to try to get the Sultan to end this vile traffic and release the slaves, all to no avail.
But this went on for virtually two centuries. For almost 200 years the British state either sat on its hands or wrung them impotently while the Islamic jihad seized, enslaved and butchered its people. And then it appears, this staggering onslaught was all but airbrushed out of our history.
CORSIARS,BARBARIANS,PIRATES
from the days when Barborosa defied the whole strength of the Emperor Charles V,to the present century,when prizes were taken by Algerine rovers under the guns,so to say,of all the fleets of Europe,the Corsairs were masters of the Narrow Seas,and dictated their own terms to all comers.Nothing but the creation of the large standing Navies of the present age crippled them,nothing LESS than the conquest of their too convenie nt coasts could have thoroughly supressed them. During those three centuries they levied BlackMail upon all who had any trading interest in the Mediterranean.The VENETIANS,GENOESE,PISANS in the older days:the english,French,Dutch,Danish,Swedish,and American Governments in MODERN TIMES ,Purchased SECURITY by the payment of a regular tribute,or by the periodical presentation of costly gifts.The Penalty of resistance was too well known to need exemplification:Thousands of Christian SLAVES in the Banginos at Algiers bore witness to the consequences of an independent Policy.So as long as the nations of Europe continued to quarrel amongst themselves,instead of presenting a united line of battle to the enemy,such humiliations had to be endured,so long as a Corsair raid upon Spain suited the policy of France,so long as the Dutch,in their jealousy of other states,could declare that Algiers was necessary to them: there was no chance of the plague subsiding:and it was not till the close of the great Napoleonic Wars that the POWERS AGREED at the Congress of Aix la Chapelle in 1818,to ACT TOGETHER and do away with the scourge of CHRISTENDOM
The Moors after Spain,Stanley Poole

Ammand the Corsair (Ghassan Massoud), "Lord of the Black Sea" - Commands the Barbary Pirates that flourish in the Black Sea and robs the trade ships of Christian infidels - "Combined his forces with the Ottoman Empire to control the region from Morocco to Turkey and beyond" - Has a vast fleets of highly organized privateers called "Corsairs"
Captain Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush), Lord of the Caspian Sea - First mate of the Black Pearl when Jack Sparrow captained it -led a mutiny against him on their way to the Aztec Gold of Cortes, on Isla de Muerta - Took on the curse that would bring ruin to the entire crew when he took the Aztec Gold - Travels to the end of the world after a meeting with Lord Sao Feng in Singapore
DISNEYS BILLION DOLLAR ODE TO MOORISH,CORSAIN HISTORY

As Governor Weatherby Swann (Jonathan Pryce) and his 12-year-old daughter, Elizabeth, sail to Port Royal, Jamaica, their vessel, HMS Dauntless encounters a shipwreck with a sole survivor, the young Will Turner. Elizabeth nds and hides a gold medallion that the unconscious Will is wearing, fearing he would be accused of piracy. She glimpses a ghostly pirate ship, the Black Pearl, fading into the mist.Eight years later, Captain James Norrington (Jack Davenport) of the British Royal Navy is promoted to Commodore. He proposes to Elizabeth (Keira Knightley). Before she can answer, her over-tightened corset causes her to faint and fall off the rampart into the bay. The medallion she is wearing emits a pulse.
Pirate Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) has arrived in Port Royal to commandeer a ship. He rescues Elizabeth, but Norrington recognizes him as a pirate and he is arrested. He threatens Elizabeth in order to escape and ducks into a blacksmith shop where he meets Will Turner (Orlando Bloom), now a blacksmith's apprentice and self-taught swordsman.The two engage in sword ght until Sparrow is knocked unconscious by Mr Brown with a bottle and jailed, to be hanged the next day. That night, Port Royal is attacked by the Pearl, answering the medallion's pulse. During the invasion, Elizabeth is captured and invokes parley. Will is punched unconcious when he sees Elizabeth getting taken to the Pearl and when he attempts to rescue her. Not wishing to reveal that she's the governor's daughter, believing that the Pirates are after her, Elizabeth tells Captain Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush) her surname is Turner to avoid being captured. She negotiates for the pirates to cease the attack on Port Royal in exchange for the medallion. Barbossa agrees but, employing a loophole in their agreement, keeps Elizabeth prisoner, believing she is the key to breaking an ancient curse they are under.
When Commodore Norrington refuses to take immediate action, Will, who loves Elizabeth, persuades Sparrow to help him rescue her in exchange for freeing him from jail. Jack agrees after learning Will's last name is Turner believing that he can use Will to get back the Pearl. Commandeering the HMS Interceptor, Jack and Will recruit a crew in Tortuga with help from Jack's old friend, Gibbs, a former boatswain in the Royal Navy. They set sail for Isla de Muerta, an island Jack knows the pirates will go to in order to break the curse.Will learns about Jack's past. He was once the captain of the Pearl, but when he shared the bearings to a hidden chest of Aztec gold coins, First Mate Barbossa instigated a mutiny and marooned Jack. Jack escaped three days later. The pirates spent the treasure, but learned it was cursedturning them into near-immortal skeletal beings whose true forms are revealed in moonlight. The curse can be lifted if every coin and each pirate's blood is returned to the chest. William "Bootstrap Bill" Turner, Jack's only supporter, was infuriated about the mutiny, and sent a coin to his son, Will, believing the crew should remain cursed for what they did to Jack. Barbossa had Bootstrap tied to a cannon and thrown overboard, only to learn that his blood is also needed to break the curse; a Turner relative must take his place.
Lord Cutler Beckett executes anyone associated with piracy and commands Davy Jones to destroy all pirate ships. In response to Becketts assault, the nine pirate lords comprising the Brethren Court have been summoned to convene at Shipwreck Cove. However, the absent Jack Sparrow, pirate lord of the Caribbean, is without a successor, and therefore must be present. Captain Barbossa leads Will, Elizabeth, Tia Dalma and the Black Pearl crew to retrieve Jack from Davy Jones' Locker. Sao Feng, pirate lord of Singapore, possesses the navigational chart to World's End, the gateway to the Locker. Elizabeth and Barbossa bargain with Feng for the chart and a ship, but Feng is furious that Will attempted to steal it and is holding him captive. East India Trading Company soldiers attack Feng's bathhouse. During the chaos, Will bargains with Feng for the Black Pearl in exchange for Sparrow, who Feng wants to barter to Beckett. Will wants the Black Pearl to rescue his father from the Flying Dutchman.
The crew journey through a frozen sea, and studying the chart reveals that a green flash signifies a soul returning from the dead. They sail over an enormous waterfall into the Locker where Jack is aboard the Black Pearl. Stranded there for some time, Jack has been hallucinating. To his amazement, crab-like creatures drag the Pearl to an ocean shore where he is reunited with his shipmates. He is initially reluctant to rejoin a crew that have attempted to kill or mutinied against him. As the Black Pearl crew seek an escape route, they see dead souls floating under the water. Tia Dalma says that Davy Jones was appointed by his lover, Calypso, goddess of the sea, to ferry the dead to the next world. In return, Jones was allowed to step upon land for one day every ten years to be with his love. But when Calypso failed to meet him, the scorned captain abandoned his duty and transformed into a monster. Elizabeth sees her father, Governor Weatherby Swann's soul pass by in a dinghy, murdered by Cutler Beckett. Unable to retrieve him, a distraught Elizabeth vows to avenge his death.The Black Pearl remains trapped until Sparrow deciphers the chart, realizing the ship must capsize to return to the living world. They overturn the ship, and at sunset, upturn back into the living world amid a green flash. Upon their return, Sao Feng attacks. He has betrayed Will and made a deal with Cutler Beckett, but Beckett double-crosses Feng by intending to keep the Black Pearl. In retaliation, Feng gives Sparrow the Pearl in exchange for Elizabeth, who he believes is Calypso. Aboard his warship, the Empress, Feng tells Elizabeth the first Brethren Court entrapped Calypso into human form so they could control the seas. Feng is mortally wounded when Davy Jones attacks his ship. Before dying, he appoints Elizabeth his heir, making her captain and the pirate lord of Singapore. She and the crew are taken prisoner aboard the Flying Dutchman'. Also aboard is Admiral James Norrington, who frees Elizabeth and her crew. They escape back to their ship, although Norrington is killed by a mentally incapacitated Bootstrap Bill. On the Pearl, Will leaves a trail of corpses for Beckett's ship to follow. Sparrow catches him and tosses him overboard, but he first gives him his magical compass, apparently intending for Beckett to find them. Will is picked up by Beckett's ship, and he learns Davy Jones
Calypso. An Old Legend. No. The Goddess herself, bound in human form.. Fury or Favor,you not be knowing, But when the mood strikes her, And its her favor she bestows on a lucky sailor, Well, youve heard Legendary. Sao Feng & Hector Barbossa
During the Brethren Court on Shipwreck Island, the pirate lords dispute Barbossa's proposal to free Calypso. To release her, Barbossa tricks them into yielding their pirate lord insignias. Meanwhile, Elizabeth arrives and is elected "Pirate King" after Sparrows vote breaks a long-standing stalemate. As he anticipated, she orders the pirates to fight Beckett. During parley with Beckett and Jones, Elizabeth and Barbossa trade Sparrow for Will and refuse to surrender. Just before the battle, Barbossa releases Calypso (who is Tia Dalma) in a ritual. Her fury over Jones betrayal unleashes a violent maelstrom as Beckett's massive fleet appears on the horizon. During the battle, Will proposes to Elizabeth, and she insists Barbossa immediately marry them. Barbossa marries Will & Elizabeth while fighting at the same time. When Davy Jones mortally wounds Will aboard the Dutchman, Bootstrap Bill attacks Jones. Jack, who schemed to get himself aboard the Dutchman to steal the heart, wanted it for his own immortality. Instead, he places his broken sabre in Will's hand and helps him stab the heart, killing Jones and making Will the Flying Dutchman's captain. The crew cut out Wills heart and place it into the Dead Mans Chest. Jack and Elizabeth escape the ship as it is pulled into the whirlpool, but it quickly resurfaces with Will at the helm. Will and Sparrow captain the Flying Dutchman and the Black Pearl respectively to destroy Beckett's ship, killing Beckett and causing the armada to retreat.
PIRATES OF THE CARRIBEAN
Although Will has been saved and the Dutchman crew have regained their humanity, he must spend the next ten years at sea. Will and Elizabeth have one day together and consummate their marriage on an island before Will must leave. Will gives Elizabeth the Dead Mans Chest containing his heart for safekeeping. Shortly after, Barbossa again commandeers the Black Pearl, stranding Jack and Gibbs in Tortuga. Having anticipated Barbossas deception, Sparrow has already removed the center of the chart that leads to the Fountain of Youth. In a post-credits scene set ten years later, Will reunites with Elizabeth and their son. As the Dutchman appears, it is accompanied by a green flash, signalling Will's return to the living world.
MOORISH NOBLE PSUEDO MOORS

WHEN TRIPOLI DECLARED WAR ON THE UNITED STATES IN 1801,JOHN ADAMS AUTHORIZED WILLIAM EATONS DRAMATIC MARCH ACROSS THE DESERT TO HELP INSTALL A FRIENDLIER BASHAW-AN EVENT MEMORIALIZED IN THE MARINES HYMN; FROM THE HALLS OF MONTEZUMAN TO THE SHORES OF TRIPOLI, A MINOR INCURSION COMPARED TO THAT OF FRENCH OCCUPATION OF ALGERIA, WHICH BEGAN IN 1830. BY THE TURN OF THE CENTURY, MOST OF THE REGION WOULD BE EUROPEAN COLONIAL TERRITORIES. THOUGH THE UNITED STATES NEVER HAD A GRAND DESIGN TO INVADE NORTH AFRICA,THIS DID NOT PRECLUDE MANY CAPTIVES FROM MUSING ABOUT THE EVENTUAL CONQUEST OF THE BARBARY COAST
WHAT A PITY SUCH A CHARACTER AS NAPOLEAN BONAPARTE WITH ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND MEN UNDER HIS COMMAND, HAD NOT A FOOTING IN BARBARY; WITH THAT FORCE HE WOULD SUBDUE THE WHOLE OF THE BARBARY STATES FROM SALU TO DERNA IN LESS THAN TWELVE MONTHS THE FAMOUS JUDGE & DIARIST SAMUEL SEWALL COMMENTED UPON THE DUPLICITOUS NATURE OF COMPLAINTS MADE AGAINST BARBARY IN THE LIGHT OF AMERICAN SLAVERY; METHINKS, WHEN WE ARE BEMOANING THE BARBAROUS USAGE OF OUR FRIENDS AND KINSFOLK IN AFRICA:IT MIGHT NOT BE UNREASONABLE TO ENQUIRE WHETHER WE ARE NOT CULPABLE IN FORCING THE AFRICANS TO BECOME SLAVES AMONGST OUR SELVES.
IN 1786, AT THE TIME OF THE FIRST POST REVOLUTIONARY CAPTIVITY CRISIS,JOHN JAY,THE SECRETARY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, ISSUED A COMPLAINT AGAINST ENGLISH AUTHORITIES FOR CARRYING AWAY FROM NEW YORK SEVERAL AFRICAN-AMERICANS. IN QUESTIONING THE DENOMINATING OF AFRICANS AS GOODS & CHATTELS, HE INVOKED THE EXAMPLE OF ALGERIAN CAPTIVES: IS THERE ANY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO CASES THAN THIS,THAT THE AMERICAN SLAVES AT ALGIERS WHERE WHITE PEOPLE WHEREAS THE AFRICAN SLAVES AT NEW YORK WERE BLACK PEOPLE?-PG 30 WHITE SLAVES AFRICAN MASTERS IN 1853 THE ARDENT ABOLITIONIST CHARLES SUMNER WROTE A SHORT HISTORY ENTITLED WHITE SLAVERY IN THE BARBARY STATES IN ORDER TO DETAIL THE ANTISLAVERY BATTLE IN AFRICA AND TO ILLUSTRATE THE INJUSTICE OF SUCH PRACTICES IN THE UNITED STATES:THE INTEREST AWAKENED FOR THE SLAVE IN ALGIERS EMBRACED ALSO THE SLAVE AT HOME. SOMETIMES THEY WERE SIAD TO BE ALIKE IN CONDITION;SOMETIMES,INDEED,IT WAS OPENLY DECLARED THAT THE HORRORS OF OUR AMERICAN SLAVERY SURPASSED THAT OF ALGIERS
GALLEY SHIPS
The Execution Dock is located on the Thames in the Wapping area of London, England, United Kingdom. It was used for more than 400 years (as late as 1830) to hang pirates, smugglers and mutineers that had been sentenced to death by Admiralty courts.
EXECUTIONDOCK
EXECUTION DOCK
The Admiralty only had jurisdiction over crimes on the sea, so the dock was placed within their jurisdiction just off-shore beyond the low-tide mark. Those sentenced to death would be taken from Marshalsea Prison and paraded across London Bridge past the Tower of London before being publicly executed at the dock. Prisoners, prior to execution, were paired with a chaplain who encouraged them to confess their sins. They were then led onto the dock for sentence to be carried out. With a particular cruelty, for those convicted of piracy, hanging was done with a shortened rope. This meant a slow death from asphyxiation on the scaffold as the drop was insufcient to break the neck. It was called the Marshal's dance because the body's limbs would often be seen to 'dance'. After execution, the bodies were not cut down, unlike the hangings on land such as at Tyburn. Instead it was customary for the corpses to remain until at least three tides had washed over their heads. The worst offenders were then tarred and gibbeted at Graves Point - the entrance to the River Thames - as a warning to all seafarers about
Condemned prisoners were brought from Marshalsea Prison in Southwark, across London Bridge, and past the Tower of London to Execution Dock. Some prisoners were housed in Newgate prison and they went via Cornhill, Whitechapel Road and Commercial Road to Wapping. The procession to the gallows was led by the Marshal on horseback (or his deputy) carrying a silver oar, representing the authority of the Admiralty. The prisoner travelled in a cart with a chaplain and the hangman (normally the civilian executioner who officiated at Tyburn and Newgate). Crowds lined the shoreline or hired boats moored in the Thames to get a better view of the proceedings. Hangings were carried out in the same way as on land and in later times a New Drop gallows was used. After execution the body(s) were chained to a stake at the low water mark and left there until three high tides had washed over them. Somewhere between 1786 and 1814, this practice ceased. In particularly serious cases of piracy the court could order gibbeting after execution in which case the body was covered in pitch and gibbeted lower down the Thames on the Isle of Dogs or Bugsby's Hole or Reach near Blackwall, as a deterrent to passing merchant sailors. (Gibbeting ceased in 1834 for civil and nautical crimes). In cases of murder, after 1752, the court would order dissection (the same as for civilian murders). The criminal was taken down from the gallows when the tide had come in far enough for the water to touch his feet before being removed and sent to Surgeons Hall. Just as in the procession to Tyburn, those prisoners going to Execution Dock were allowed to stop for a drink and the landlord of The Turk's Head pub supplied them with a quart of ale. Between 1735 and 1830 there were 78 confirmed executions and 6 probable ones, as detailed below.
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In July 1501 Kemal Reis, accompanied by his nephew Piri Reis, set sail from the port of Modon with a force of 3 galleys and 16 fustas and went to the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he took advantage of the war between Jacopo d'Appiano, ruler of Kemal Reis was born in Gallipoli on the Aegean coast Piombino, and the Papal forces under the command of Cesare Borgia. The Ottoman troops landed at the Island of Pianosa and quickly captured it, taking of Ottoman Empire around 1451. His full name was Ahmed Kemaleddin and his father was a Turk[citation many prisoners. From there Kemal Reis sailed to the Channel of Piombino and the needed] named Ali from the city of Karaman in central Ottomans raided the coastal settlements in that area. In August 1501 Kemal Reis and his troops landed at Sardinia and captured several coastal settlements while Anatolia[citation needed]. He became known in Europe, taking around 1,050 prisoners during ghts against the local forces. He engaged particularly in Italy and Spain, with names like Camali several Genoese warships off the coast of Sardinia, which later escaped and Camalicchio. northwards after being damaged by cannon re. Still in August 1501 Kemal Reis Kemal Reis started his career as the commander of the sailed to the Balearic Islands and the Ottomans landed at Majorca, where bitter ghting against the local Spanish forces took place. From there Kemal Reis sailed naval eet belonging to the Sanjak Bey (Provincial to Spain and captured 7 Spanish ships off the coast of Valencia. Aboard these Governor) of Eriboz (present day: Euboea) which was ships he found a strange feather headdress and an unfamiliar black stone. He was under Ottoman control. In 1487 the Ottoman Sultan told by one of his prisoners that both came from newly discovered lands to the Bayezid II appointed Kemal Reis with the task of west, beyond the Atlantic Ocean. The prisoner claimed to have visited these lands defending the lands of Emir Abu Abdullah, the ruler of three times, under the command of a man named Colombo, and that he had in his possession a chart, drawn by this Colombo himself, which showed the newly Granada, which was then one of the nal Muslim strongholds in Spain. Kemal Reis sailed to Spain and discovered lands beyond the Sea of Darkness. This map was to become one of the main source charts of the famous Piri Reis map of 1513 which was drawn by landed an expeditionary force of Ottoman troops at the Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis who was the nephew of Kemal Malaga, capturing the city and the surrounding villages Reis.
KEMAL REIS
and taking many prisoners. From there he sailed to the After leaving Valencia, still in August 1501, Kemal Reis headed south and Balearic Islands and Corsica, where he raided the bombarded the coastal defenses of Andalucia before landing his troops, where coastal settlements, before landing his troops near the Ottomans raided several ports and towns. Kemal Reis later sailed westwards and passed the Strait of Gibraltar and entered the Atlantic Ocean, where he and Pisa in Italy. From Pisa he once again went to Andalucia and in several occasions between 1490 and his men raided the Atlantic coasts of the Iberian peninsula. From there Kemal Reis 1492 transported the Muslims and Jews who wished to sailed southwest and landed on several of the Canary Islands, where the Ottomans faced moderate opposition from the Spanish forces. Piri Reis used the escape Spain to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire occasion, as in other voyages with his uncle, to draw his famous portolan charts which welcomed them. The Muslims and Jews of Spain which were later to become a part of the renowned Kitab- Bahriye (Book of contributed much to the rising power of the Ottoman Navigation). Kemal Reis later turned eastwards, where he followed the Atlantic coastline of Morocco and re-entered the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Empire by introducing new ideas, methods and Gibraltar, landing on several ports of Morocco and Algeria on the way. From there craftsmanship. Kemal Reis continued to land his Kemal Reis headed further east and captured several Genoese ships off the coast troops in Andalucia and tried to stop the Spanish of Tripoli in Libya. He also intercepted several Venetian galleys in the area before advance by bombarding the ports of Elche, Almeria sailing back to Istanbul. and Malaga.
KEMAL REIS
In 1495 Kemal Reis was made an admiral of the Ottoman Navy by Sultan Bayezid II who ordered the construction of his large agship, Gke, which could carry 700 soldiers and was armed with the strongest cannons of that period. Two large galleys of this type were built, one for Kemal Reis and the other for Burak Reis. In October 1496, with a force of 5 galleys, 5 fustas, a barque and a smaller ship, Kemal Reis set sail from Istanbul and raided the Gulf of Taranto. In January 1497 he landed at Modon and later captured several Venetian ships at the Ionian Sea and transported them, along with their cargo, to Euboea. In March 1497 Sultan Bayezid II appointed him with the task of protecting the ships which carried valuable goods belonging to the religious foundations of Mecca and Medina from the frequent raids of the Knights of St. John who were based in the island of Rhodes at that time (in 1522 the Ottomans captured Rhodes and allowed the Knights of St. John to peacefully leave the island, who rst relocated their base to Sicily and later to Malta in 1530.) Kemal Reis set sail towards Rhodes with a force of 2 barques and 3 fustas, and captured a barque of the knights near Montestrato. He later landed at Stalimene (Lemnos) and from there sailed towards Tenedos (Bozcaada) and returned to Istanbul. In June 1497 he was given two more large galleys and in July 1497 he made the island of Chios his base for operations in the Aegean Sea against the Venetians and the Knights of St. John. In April 1498, commanding a eet of 6 galleys, 12 fustas with large cannons, 4 barques and 4 smaller types of ships, he set sail from the Dardanelles and headed south towards the Aegean islands that were controlled by the Republic of Venice. In June 1498 he appeared in the island of Paros and later sailed towards Crete where he landed his troops at Sitia and captured the town along with the nearby villages before sending his scout forces to examine the characteristics of the nearby Venetian castle. In July 1498 he sailed to Rosetta (Rashid) in Egypt with a force of 5 galleys, 6 fustas and 2 barques for transporting 300 Muslim pilgrims heading for Mecca, who also had with them 400,000 gold ducats which were sent to the Mamluk sultan by Bayezid II. Near the port of Abu Kabir he captured 2 Portuguese ships (one galleon and one barque) after erce ghting which lasted 2 days. From there Kemal Reis sailed towards Santorini and captured a Venetian barque, before capturing another Portuguese ship in the Aegean Sea.
TWIRLING DERVISH
Text
DEVSIRME
Devirme or devshirme (Ottoman , Greek , Serbian: and Bulgarian: - tribute in blood) was the practice by which the Ottoman Empire conscripted boys from Christian families, who were taken from their families by force, converted to Islam,[1] trained and enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military. The devirme system humiliated non-Muslim societies controlled by the Ottomans and was resisted.[2][3] The BBC notes the following regarding the devsirme system; "Although members of the devshirme class were technically slaves, they were of great importance to the Sultan because they owed him their absolute loyalty and became vital to his power. This status enabled some of the 'slaves' to become both powerful and wealthy."
The Ottoman Empire, beginning with Murat I, felt a need to "counteract the power of (Turkic) nobles by developing Christian vassal soldiers and converted kapkullar as his personal troops, independent of the regular army." [5] The elite forces, which served the Ottoman Sultan directly, were divided into two main groups: cavalry and infantry.[6] The cavalry was commonly known as the Kapkulu Svari (The Cavalry of the Servants of the Porte) and the infantry were the popular Yeni eri (translated in English to Janissary), meaning "the New Corps". At rst, the soldiers to serve in these corps were selected from the slaves captured during warfare. However, the system commonly known as "devirme" was soon adopted: in this system children of the rural Christian populations of the Balkans were conscripted before adolescence and were brought up as Muslims. Upon reaching adolescence, these children were enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military. Those enrolled in the Military would become either part of the Janissary corps, or part of any other corps.[7] The brightest were sent to the Palace institution (Enderun), and were destined for a career within the palace itself where the most able could aspire to attain the very highest ofce of state, that of Grand Vizier, the Sultan's immensely powerful chief minister and military deputy.
According to Dimitri Kitsikis, the recruiters favoured Greeks who formed the largest part of the rst military units, usually selecting about one boy from forty houses.[16] Bernard Lewis points that the core of the "Ottoman Janissaries were Slavic and Balkanic origin, mostly Albanian."[17] Jews were exempt from this service and until recently Armenians were thought to have been exempt also.[18][19] However, Armenian colophons from the 16th century and foreign travelers of the time indicate that Armenians were indeed not spared from the devirme
Although the inuence of Turkic nobility continued in the Ottoman court until Mehmet II, (See andarl Halil) the Ottoman ruling class slowly came to be ruled exclusively by the Devirme, creating a separate social class.[8] This class of rulers was chosen from the brightest of Devirme and hand-picked to serve in the Palace institution, known as the Enderun.[9] They had to accompany the Sultan on campaigns, but exceptional service would be rewarded by assignments outside the palace.[10] Those chosen for the Scribe institution, known as Kalemiyye were also granted prestigious positions. The Religious institution, lmiyye, was where all Orthodox clergy of the Ottoman Empire were educated and sent to provinces or served in the capital
JANISSARY ARMY
Moulay Ismal is noted as one of the greatest figures in Moroccan history. He fought the Ottoman Turks in 1679, 1682 and 1695/96. After these battles the Moroccan independence was respected. Another problem was the European occupation of several seaports: in 1681 he took al-Mamurah from the Spanish and in 1684 Tangier from the English. Moulay Ismal had excellent relations with Louis XIV of France, the enemy of Spain, to whom he sent ambassador Mohammad Temim in 1682. There was cooperation in several fields. French officers trained the Moroccan army and advised the Moroccans in the building of public works. Moulay Ismal is also known as a fearsome ruler. Moulay Ismal used at least 25,000 slaves for the construction of his capital. His Christian slaves were often used as bargaining counters with the European powers, selling them back their captured subjects for inflated sums or for rich gifts. Most of his slaves were obtained by Barbary pirates in raids on Western Europe. Over 16,000 men from sub-Saharan Africa served in his elite Black Guard. By the time of Ismail's death, the guard had grown tenfold, the largest in Moroccan history. Moulay Ismal is alleged to have fathered 888 children. This is widely considered the record number of offspring for any man throughout history that can be verified. It is thought that Ismal would have had to copulate with an average of 1.2 women per day over 60 years to achieve that number of children. After Moulay Ismal's death at the age of eighty (or around ninety by the 1634 birthdate) in 1727, there was another succession battle between his surviving sons. His successors continued with his building program, but in 1755 the huge palace compound at Meknes was severely damaged by an earthquake. By 1757 his grandson, Mohammad III moved the capital to Marrakech.
The Moroccan Royal Guard is ofcially part of the Royal Moroccan Army. However it is under the direct operational control of the Royal Military Household of His Majesty the King. The sole duty of the guard is to provide for the security and safety of the King and royal family of Morocco. Formerly known as the Sharian Guard, the name was changed to Royal Guard after Morocco gained its independence in 1956. The Guard was also unofcially referred to as the Black Guard because its members were formerly recruited from the Harratines, a black people from the southern part of the Sharian Empire (as Morocco was called before the French colonial period). The Harratines are no longer part of the Royal Guard today. The Guard is currently organized as a Brigade of 6000 troops as follows; 4 Infantry Battalions, each of 25 ofcers and 1000 troops. 2 Cavalry Squadrons. The King is always accompanied by units of the Royal Guard whenever he is on Moroccan soil. All members of the Royal Guard wear a red beret. Red full dress uniforms of traditional style (white in summer) are worn by both cavalry and infantry on ceremonial occasions. The King is also protected by two other units of the Royal Moroccan Army. They are, however, not an ofcial part of the Royal Guard. These are: The Elite Parachute Brigade headquartered in Rabat.(number of troops unknown) The Light Security Brigade of 2000 troops. The Royal Guard traces its origins to the prestigious Black Guard that was created in 1088 by the Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashn as his personal guard. This recruitment tradition was continued by the Almohads through the 15th century. The Alaouite Sultan Moulay Ismail reorganized the Black Guard into permanent infantry and cavalry units at the beginning of the 18th century. He called upon Bambara men who had just converted to Islam, making them take an oath of service on the collection of hadith of the Imam Bukhari. For this reason they were also known as the "Army of Bukhara" or the Boukharis.
BLACK GUARD
The Black Guard (in Arabic, Abid , from a root meaning "slave") were the corps of black-African slave-soldiers assembled by the Alaouite sultan of Morocco, Moulay Ismail (reigned 16721727). The Black Guard descended from black captives brought to Morocco from sub-Saharan Africa, who were settled in a special colony and given wives; their male offspring would be pressed into military careers at the age of sixteen. Considered more reliable than Arab or Berber warriors because of their l ack of tribal loyalties, Ismail's black soldiers formed the bulk of his standing army and numbered 150,000 at their peak[1]. The Black Guard were charged with ghting Ismail's campaigns against the European-controlled fortress enclaves dotting his empire's coast (such as Tangier, taken over after the English withdrew from it and distressed it in 1684 in response) and with patrolling Morocco's unstable countryside: They crushed rebellions against Ismail's rule not only by Moroccan Berber clans but also by Ismail's seditious sons, who defected from service as his provincial governors to insurrection as would-be usurpers of his throne. Moulay Ismail always went about his court surrounded by a bodyguard of eighty black slave-soldiers, with muskets and scimitars at the ready in case of any attempt on the sultan's life. At his throne, Ismail was attended by a slave charged with twirling a parasol above the sultan at all times (a legend says that on at least one occasion, Ismail pulled out his sword and murdered an attendant who had allowed the sun to briey fall upon his skin). Two more slaves fanned the ies away from his face, while a third held a napkin beneath his chin to collect his spittle. Though the Black Guard were ercely loyal, they remained just as vulnerable to their commander's ts of rage as his European slaves and Moorish subjects. When the French ambassador Pidou de Saint-Olon was granted an audience with Moulay Ismail, the latter arrived at this meeting with his sleeves drenched in blood up to the elbows, after having slit the throats of two of his favorite black attendants on a whim. When Ismail's Barbary pirates brought in a Portuguese ship they had just captured, Ismail was presented a beautiful handcrafted hatchet found on board: the sultan immediately struck and killed a Black Guard for no other reason than to test the blade.[citation needed] Despite endless civil wars and civil slaughter, the Black Guard remained brutally loyal and disciplined through the turmoil of Ismail's reign. More than any other factor did they enable the sultan to remain on Morocco's throne for half a century[2]. The Black Guard name was changed to Moroccan Royal Guard after Morocco gained its independence in 1956.
The Barbary Corsairs, sometimes called Ottoman Corsairs or Barbary Pirates, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa from the time of the Crusades (11th century) until the early 19th century. Based in North African ports such as Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Sal, and other ports in Morocco, they sailed mainly along the stretch of northern Africa known as the Barbary Coast.[1] Their predation extended throughout the Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard, and into the North Atlantic as far north as Iceland, and they primarily commandeered western European ships in the western Mediterranean Sea. In addition, they engaged in Razzias, raids on European coastal towns, to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco.[2][3]
Some pirates were renegades or moriscos. They usually used galley ships with slaves or prisoners at the oars. Two examples are Sleyman Reis, "De Veenboer", who became admiral of the Algerian corsair eet in 1617, and his quartermaster Murat Reis, born Jan Janszoon van Haarlem. Both worked for the notorious corsair Simon the Dancer, who owned a palace. These pirates were all originally Dutch. The Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter unsuccessfully tried to end their piracy. Cornelis Hendricksz Vroom, Spanish Men-of-War Engaging Barbary Corsairs, 1615.The rst half of the 17th century may be described as the owering time of the Barbary pirates. This was due largely to the efforts of Simon de Dancer, who had introduced the latest Dutch sailing rigs to the corsairs, enabling them to brave Atlantic waters.[18] More than 20,000 captives were said to be imprisoned in Algiers alone. The rich were allowed to redeem themselves, but the poor were condemned to slavery. Their masters would on occasion allow them to secure freedom by professing Islam. A long list might be given of people of good social position, not only Italians or Spaniards, but German or English travelers in the south, who were captives for a time.[8]Iceland was subject to raids known as the Turkish abductions in 1627. Murat Reis (Jan Janszoon) is said to have taken 400 prisoners; 242 of the captives later were sold into slavery on the Barbary Coast. The pirates took only young people and those in good physical condition. All those offering resistance were killed, and the old people were gathered into a church which was set on re. Among those captured was lafur Egilsson, who was ransomed the next year and, upon returning to Iceland, wrote a slave narrative about his experience. Another famous captive from that raid was Gurur Smonardttir. The sack of Vestmannaeyjar is known in the history of Iceland as Tyrkjarni and is arguably the most horrible event in the history of Vestmannaeyjar.
Pirates destroyed thousands of French, Spanish, and English ships, and long stretches of coast in Spain and Italy were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants, discouraging settlement until the 19th century. From the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured an estimated 800,000 to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves,[2] mainly from seaside villages in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, but also from France, England, the Netherlands, Ireland and as far away as Iceland and North America. The most famous corsairs were the brothers Hayreddin Barbarossa ("Redbeard") and Oru Reis, who took control of Algiers in the early 16th century, beginning four hundred years of Ottoman Empire presence in North Africa and establishing a centre of Mediterranean piracy.
Lieve Pietersz Verschuier, Dutch ships bomb Tripoli in a punitive expedition against the Barbary pirates, c. 1670. The chief victims were the inhabitants of the coasts of Sicily, Naples and Spain. But all traders of nations which did not pay tribute for immunity were liable to be taken at sea. This tribute, disguised as presents or ransoms, did not always ensure safety. The most powerful states in Europe condescended to pay the pirates and tolerate their insults. Religious orders the Redemptorists and Lazarists worked for the redemption of captives, and large legacies were left for that purpose in many countries. The continued piracy was due to competition among European powers. France encouraged the pirates against Spain, and later Britain and Holland supported them against France. In the 18th century, British public men were not ashamed to say that Barbary piracy was a useful check on the competition of the weaker Mediterranean nations in the carrying trade. When Lord Exmouth sailed to coerce Algiers in 1816, he expressed doubts in a private letter whether the suppression of piracy would be acceptable to the trading community. Every power wanted to secure immunity for itself and was more or less ready to compel Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Sale and the rest to respect only its own trade and subjects. In 1655, British admiral Robert Blake was sent to punish the Tunisians, and he gave them a severe beating. During the reign of Charles II, the British fleet made many expeditions, sometimes together with the Dutch. In 1682 and 1683, the French bombarded Algiers. On the second occasion the Algerines blew the French consul from a gun during the action. Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 British treaties with the North African states of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli protected American ships from the Barbary corsairs. Morocco, which in 1777 was the first independent nation to publicly recognize the United States, became in 1784 the first Barbary power to seize an American vessel after independence. That action got the attention the sultan sought; it followed several years of fruitless diplomatic efforts to get an American emissary to come negotiate a treaty. Thomas Barclay, American consul in France, went to Morocco in 1786 and negotiated a very satisfactory treaty based on the draft he had carried from Paris and requiring no future tribute or gifts.[19] Experience with Algiers was different. In 1785 two ships (the Maria of Boston and the Dauphin of Philadelphia) were seized, the ships and cargo were sold and the crews were enslaved and held for ransom.[20] In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, then the ambassador to France, and John Adams, ambassador to Britain, met in London with Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja, a visiting ambassador from Tripoli. The Americans asked Adja why his government was hostile to American ships, even though there had been no provocation. They reported to the Continental Congress that the ambassador had told them it was written in their Koran, that all nations which had not acknowledged the Prophet were sinners, whom it was the right and duty of the faithful to plunder and enslave, but he also told them that for what they considered outrageous sums of money they could make peace.[21]
On Jefferson's inauguration as president in 1801, Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha (or Bashaw) of Tripoli, demanded $225,000 from the new administration. (In 1800, Federal revenues totaled a little over $10 million.) Putting his long-held beliefs into practice, Jefferson refused the demand. Consequently, in May 1801, the Pasha declared war on the United States, not through any formal written documents but by cutting down the flagstaff in front of the U.S. Consulate. Algiers and Tunis soon followed their ally in Tripoli. The American navy went unchallenged on the sea, but still the question remained undecided. Jefferson pressed the issue the following year, with an increase in military force and deployment of many of the navy's best ships to the region throughout 1802. USS Argus, USS Chesapeake, USS Constellation, USS Constitution, USS Enterprise, USS Intrepid, USS Philadelphia and USS Syren all saw service during the war under the overall command of Commodore Edward Preble. Throughout 1803, Preble set up and maintained a blockade of the Barbary ports and executed a campaign of raids and attacks against the cities' fleets. In October 1803, Tripoli's fleet was able to capture USS Philadelphia intact after the frigate ran aground while patrolling Tripoli harbor. Efforts by the Americans to float the ship while under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan naval units were unsuccessful. The ship, its captain, William Bainbridge, and all officers and crew were taken ashore and held as hostages. The Philadelphia was turned against the Americans and anchored in the harbor as a gun battery. On the night of February 16, 1804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a small contingent of the U.S.'s first Marines in the captured Tripolitan ketch rechristened USS Intrepid, to deceive the guards on board the Philadelphia and float close enough to board the captured ship. Decatur's men stormed the vessel and overpowered the Tripolitan sailors standing guard. With support from American ships, the Marines set fire to the Philadelphia, denying her use to the enemy. Subsequently, the bravery in action of Lieutenant Stephen Decatur made him one of the first American military heroes since the Revolutionary War. Preble attacked Tripoli outright on July 14, 1804 in a series of inconclusive battles, including a courageous but unsuccessful attack by the fire ship USS Intrepid under Captain Richard Somers. Intrepid, packed with explosives, was to enter Tripoli harbor and destroy itself and the enemy fleet; it was destroyed, perhaps by enemy guns, before achieving that goal, killing Somers and his crew.
BARBARY WARS
However, the more immediate problem of Barbary piracy was not fully settled. By 1807, Algiers had gone back to taking American ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812, the U.S. was unable to respond to the provocation until 1815, with the Second Barbary War. The story of France's colonial empire truly began on July 27, 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel De Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, but sparsely settled, fur-trading colony of New France (also called Canada). In the beginning of the XIXth century, the Regency of Algiers was nominally under Ottoman sovereignty, and protected the so-called pirates of the Barbary Coast who sailed all over the Mediterranean Sea. In April 1827, France took as pretext to start the conquest the famous "yswatter incident". Dey Hussein (1765-1838), the local ruler of Algiers, hit the French Consul Duval three times in the face with his yswatter for an obscure question of debts. The Dey was asked to apologize, to no avail. Next year, Envoy La Bretonnire could not receive any apologizes and his vessel was targeted by the Dey's cannons.
CONQUEST OF THE BARBARY COAST
On 31 January 1830, an expedition commanded by Admiral Duperre and General de Bourmont was set up to punish the Dey and get rid of the pirates. The expedition, including 350 vessels and 35,000 men, left Toulon on 25 May. On 13 June, the French eet reached Algiers. On 5 July, Hussein capitulated and the eur-de-lis French ag (the ag of the Bourbon Restauration) was hoisted over the Casbah. On 9 July, 101 cannon shots from the Invalides square told the Parisians the conquest was achieved.
The Christian Conquest & Holocaust of Aboriginal Indigenous America
1492-1887
TERROR IN THE NAME OF CHRISTENDOM
CHAMPIONS OF THE SPANISH RECONQUEST,PATRONS OF THE NEW WORLD,UNIFIERS OF THE SPANISH EMPIRE,AND PURIFIERS OF THE CATHOLIC FAITH
QUEEN ISABELLA OF CASTILE
1492 THE CONQUEST OF PARADISE
1492 THE CONQUEST OF PARADISE
SLAVERY WAS QUITE COMMON IN THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES. IN IBERIA ISLAMIC LAWS RECOGNIZED SLAVERY AND MUSLIMS WERE ALLOWED TO HOLD OTHER OTHER MUSLIMS AS SLAVES IF THE LATTER WERE BLACK OR LORO(OF INTERMEDIATE COLOR) IN CHRISTIAN BARCELONA ONE FINDS NUMEROUS SLAVES BETWEEN 1275 & 1288 CLASSIFIED AS MORO LORUM (MUSLIMS OF INTERMEDIATE COLOR) SARACENO BLANCO (WHITE SARACEN) SARRACENUM NIGRIUM (BLACK SARACEN) SARRACENAM LAURAM (SARACEN OF INTERMEDIATE COLOR) AND SARRACENAM ALBAM (WHITE SARACEN). IN THE 13TH CENTURY, BARCELONA HAD MANY TARTAROS (TARTARS), GREEKS, BULGARIANS, BOSNIANS,ALBANIANS, AND SO ON, AS SLAVES, INCLUDING AN ESCLAVA BLANCA TARTARA (WHITE TARTAR SLAVE). IN THE 14TH CENTURY, MUSLIM SLAVES BECAME MORE COMMON AGAIN, AND ONE FINDS MANY WHITE, LORO,AND BLACK SLAVES. IN 1439, SIMON, AN ETHIOPIAN SLAVE, KILLED A RUSSIAN (RUSO) SLAVE. TURKISH & TARTAR SLAVES WERE ALSO PRESENT , ALONG WITH MANY RUSSIANS, BULGARIANS, SARTS (SARDIANIANS) AND OTHERS CALLED ADGUAS, XARQUESES (CIRCASSIANS), AND SO ON, PROBABLY FROM THE CAUCAS MOUNTAINS. IN 1429 TWO RUNAWAY BLACK SLAVES WERE RECAPTURED IN REDOME, FRANCE, BUT OTHERS ESCAPED TO TOLOSA WHERE SLAVERY WAS NOT RECOGNIZED
ORIGINS OF SLAVERY
BUT THE BIRTH OF MULATO IS SHROUDED IN MYSTERY. IT EVOLVED IN A PERIOD IN WHICH ARABIC SPEAKING AND ARABIZED ROMANCE-SPEAKING IBERIANS WERE PASSING FROM ISLAMIC TO CHRISTIAN RULE. IT EVOLVED, UNDOUBTEDLY, AT THE FOLK LEVEL AND PROBABLY EXISTED AS AN ORAL TERM FOR SOME TIME BEFORE IT WAS FIRST WRITTEN DOWN. COROMINAS IN HIS ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE CASTILLIAN LANGUAGE NOTES THAT MULATO POSSIBLY ARE BY COMPARISON OF THE HYBRID ORIGIN OF THE MULATO WITH THAT OF THE MULE THE NEXT REFERENCE TO THE MULO THEORY OCCURS IN JUAN DE SOLORZANOS INDIANUM IURE (WRITTEN IN 1626-36) WHEREIN HE NOTES THAT MIXED BLOODS WERE COMMONLY CALLED MESTIZOS & MULATTOES AND THAT THE LATTER TERM WAS DERIVED FROM THE CONCEPT OF THE MULE. IN HIS 1647 SPANISH LANGUAGE VERSION SOLORZANO ACKNOLEDGED COVARRUBIAS AS HIS AUTHORITY FOR THE MULO THEORY AND ALSO ADDED SOME VERY DISPARAGING REMARKS ABOUT MULATOS BEING THE MOST UGLY AND EXTRAORDINARY MIXTURE
THUS WE HAVE A SEQUENCE IN WHICH FIRST THE EUROPEANS BEGAN WITH VERY GENERAL COLOR TERMS (LORO,PARDO,BACO,ETC); SECOND, WHEN THEY COINED MANY MORE COLOR TERMS (MEMBRILLO COCIDO,MORENO,ETC); THIRDLY, WHEN THEY INVENTED OR ADOPTED TERMS FOR VARIOUS MIXED-BLOODS; AND, FIFTH,WHEN IT ALL BECAME SO VERY COMPLICATED THAT THEY FELL BACK UPON VERY GENERAL TERMS SUCH AS PARDO OR MADE ONES LIKE MESTIZO VERY NEBULOUS. FINALLY, ALL OF THIS OCCURED WITHIN A REALITY WHERE THE GREAT MASS OF COLONIAL PEOPLE PROBABLY USED ALL THESE TERMS IN PRAGMATIC WAYS BASED UPON APPEARANCE AND CULTURE RATHER THAN UPON ACTUAL ANCESTRY. THERE IS , OF COURSE, A CONSIDERABLE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DESCRIPTIVE USE OF LORO AND THE LATER PRESCRIPTIVE USE OF MESTIZO. LOROS WERE NEVER SUBJECT TO SPECIFIC LEGAL LIMITS ON THEIR BEHAVIOR, AS LOROS, IN SPAIN. THE SAME WAS TRUE FOR MOST OTHER COLOR-DESCRIPTIVE TERMS. THE COLONIAL DESIGNATION OF PERSONS AS MESTIZOS,MULATTOS, AND LATER, PARDOS, WAS AN ENTIRELY DIFFERENT MATTER. THE USE OF THESE TERMS IN THE AMERICAS WAS DESIGNED TO IDENTIFY AND TO LIMIT, TO CONTROL, AND , BY LARGE, TO EXCLUDE
JACK FORBES AFRICANS & NATIVE AMERICANS
TUPI INDIANS
NATIVE BRAZILLIANS
QUEEN KALIFA
CALIFORNIANS
ARAWAKS
ARAWAKS
Excerpted from "A People's History of the United States" by esteemed historian and Boston University Professor Emeritus Howard Zinn: Arawak men and women, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the island's beaches and swam out to get a closer look at the strange big boat. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, speaking oddly, the Arawaks ran to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts.
He later wrote of this in his log: "They... brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks' bells. They willingly traded everything they owned. . . They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features. . . They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron. Their spears are made of cane. . . They would make fine servants. . . With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want."
THE BLACK LEGEND
A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census gures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at genocide, the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease such as smallpox (unlike the Spanish, the Amerindians had no immunity to the disease)[9] was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.[10] Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a plaza with a church or cathedral facing an ofcial residence.
The European discovery of the New World had a devastating impact on the Indian peoples of the Americas. Oppressive labor, disruption of the Indian food supply, deliberate campaigns of extermination, and especially disease decimated the Indian population. Isolated from such diseases as smallpox, influenza, and measles, the indigenous population proved to be extraordinarily susceptible. Within a century of contact, the Indian population in the Caribbean and Mexico had shrunk by over 90 percent.
Propagandists from England, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands vilified the Spanish as a corrupt and cruel people who subjugated and exploited the New World Indians, stole their gold and silver, infected them with disease, and killed them in numbers without precedent. In 1580, William I, Prince of Orange (1533-1584), who led Dutch Protestants in rebellion against Spanish rule, declared that Spain "committed such horrible excesses that all the barbarities, cruelties and tyrannies ever perpetrated before are only games in comparison to what happened to the poor Indians.
"The Spanish treated the Indians with such rigor and inhumanity that they seemed the very ministers of Hell, driving them day and night with beatings, kicks, lashes and blows, and calling them no sweeter names than dogs. ... Women who had just given birth were forced to carry burdens for the Christians and thus could not carry infants because of the hard work and weakness of hunger. Innite numbers of these were cast aside on the road and thus perished."
WERE WE IN THE AMERICAS BEFORE SLAVERY???

COLUMBUS & KING FERDINAD QUEEN ISABELLA
In the following decades, the Kingdom of Kongo became a major source of slaves for Portuguese traders and other European powers. The Cantino Atlas of 1502 mentions Kongo as a source of slaves for the island of Maaya Tom. Slavery had existed in Kongo long before the arrival of the Portuguese, and Afonso's early letters show the evidence of slave markets. They also show the purchase and sale of slaves within the country and his accounts on capturing slaves in war which were given and sold to Portuguese merchants. It is likely that most of the slaves exported to the Portuguese were war captives from Kongo's campaigns of expansion. In addition, the slaving wars helped Afonso consolidate his power in southern and eastern border regions.[16] Despite its long establishment within his kingdom, Afonso believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote in to King Joo III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice. Ultimately, Afonso decided to establish a special committee to determine the legality of the enslavement of those who were being sold. A common characteristic of political life in the kingdom of Kongo was a erce competition over succession to the throne. Afonso's own contest for the throne was intense, though little is known about it. However, a great deal is known about how such struggles took place from the contest that followed Afonso's death in late 1542 or early 1543. This is in large part due to detailed inquest conducted by royal ofcials in 1550, which survives in the Portuguese archives. In this inquest one can see that factions formed behind prominent men, such as Afonso I's son, Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba and Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi, his grandson who ultimately overthrew Pedro in 1545. Although the factions declared themselves in the idiom of kinship (using the Portuguese term gerao or lineage, probably kanda in Kikongo) they were not formed strictly by heredity since close kin were often in separate factions. The players included nobles holding appointive titles to provincial governorships, members of the royal council and also ofcials in the now well developed Church hierarchy. King Diogo I skillfully replaced or maneuvered the entrenched after he was crowned in 1545. He faced a major conspiracy led by Pedro I, who had taken refuge in a church, and who Diogo in respect of the Church's rule of asylum allowed to continue in the church. However, Diogo did conduct an inquiry into the plot, the text of which was sent to Portugal in 1552 and gives us an excellent idea of the way in which plotters hoped to overthrow the king by enticing his supporters to abandon him. His attempt at pacifying the restless kingdom of Ndongo in 1556 backred resulting in the latter's independence. Despite this setback, he would enjoy a long reign that ended with his death in 1561. He was immediately succeeded by Afonso II whose rule did not last even a year. Manikongo Bernardo II was put on the throne afterwards and reigned until 1566. From 1567 to 1568, Henrique I came to the throne, and was drawn into a war in the eastern part of the country where he was killed, leaving the government in the hands of his stepson lvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua Mvemba. He was crowned as lvaro I, "by common consent" according to some witnesses.
KINGDOM OF KONGO
OLDEST BONES FOUND 56,000 YEARS OLD BRAZIL ALBERT GOODYEAR UNIV SOUTH CAROLINA
GUA TEMALA
XICLAN/OLMECDYNASTY YUCATANPENINSULA GUATEMALA,MEXICO,COLOMBIA









MEXICO
PHILLIPINES
MEXICANS
THEMURDEROFMONTEZUMAII
AZTEC LEADER CONTROLLED MOST OF MEXICO & CENTRAL AMERICA,THEIR CAPITAL BEING THE GREAT CITY OF TENOTCHITLAN(MEXICO CITY). MURDERED BY HERNANDO CORTEZ,MISTOOK CONQUISTADORS FOR QUEZECOATAL AZTEC GOD
DONA MARINA MALINCHE MALINTIN-LA MALINCHE TRAITOR TO ONES PEOPLE
IS
RA
EL
The Temple of Isis had missionaries all over the world in ancient times. It wasn't necessarily called "Temple of Isis" in all the cultures that adopted that religion. While some of her missionaries were teaching the arts of civilization to the known world, others were out exploring the rest of the world. Pagan religion and genealogy were more widespread in the ancient world than Christianity is now. The religions and cultures of pre-Columbian Central American civilizations were intimately related to the Pagan religion and culture of Egypt. Spanish priests identified the Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas as "Pagans." They burned their books along with any literate people and teachers who were the readers and keepers of the books. Those Spanish priests who identified Mesoamerican Indians as Pagans were correct. The "isolationist" scholars of today who deny pre-Columbian contact between the Americas and Mediterranean civilizations are in deep denial. All of the evidence is clearly there for anyone who wishes to see it. None are so blind as those who choose not to see. According to the Pagan foundation legend, Assur was the first king of the first kingdom on earth. Isis resurrected Assur from the dead. A great world wide religion grew out of the resurrection of Assur. Isis had union with her resurrected king. Their son, Heru was born of the union of Isis and Assur. The royal bloodlines of divine kings the world over sprung from the ancestry of Isis and Heru. That was the Genesis of Isis. According to the foundation legend, Assur raised his own people up from savagery. After he raised his own people up out of ignorance and savagery, he went about teaching the arts of civilization to the "whole world." Assur's legendary travels carried the Genesis of Isis all over the world. It is well to bear in mind that those missionary travels of Assur were going on AFTER Isis resurrected him from the dead. That is to say, those travels of Assur were minions of ISIS carrying the arts of civilization to the rest of the world. When they had gone as far west as they could go on foot, they took to the sea.
"Itzamna is said to have come in his boat across the eastern waters. One of his titles was Kakin-Chan, 'serpent of the East.' . . . " "He is said to have been the founder of the culture of the Itza-Maya. He was the first priest of their religion; invented writing and books. He named all of the localities in Yucatan and divided the land among the people. As a physician he was famous, not only knowing the magic herbs but possessed the power of healing by the laying on of hands, whence came his name Kabul, the Skillful Hand . . ." "He came from the direction of the rising sun and was not alone. He brought with him the captains and followers who became the builders of the first ruined cities of the Yucatan peninsula." (T.A. Willard in Kukulcan, the Bearded Conqueror, quoting Daniel H. Brinton, 1941) As the inventor of writing and books, Itzamna was, by extension, creator of the calendar and chronology.
This is the finest sculptured face yet found in the Maya area, which some claim represents Itzamna. This face has an Egyptian appearance. The pendant bear is strikingly like those shown on the sculptured faces of the Pharaohs of Egypt. The stela on which this face appears was found in the southern area, or what is termed the Old Empire.
The Itza-Maya were one of various semi-independent tribes of Mayas. Chichen Itza was their main religious and cultural center. It seems that Chichen Itza went through a number of declines or "crashes" that may even have left the city deserted. Chichen Itza recovered from one such decline under Toltec influence. Toltec images of Itzamna frequently depict him as an old man with a few jagged teeth and no beard. However, that "toothless old man" imagery ma symbolically represent an old and feeble dynasty that decayed and fell. Later images of the bearded Toltec deity, Kukulcan, may represent a religious renaissance, or a new invigorated ruling dynasty. The Itza-Maya may have brought Toltecs into their genealogy to reinvigorate their royal bloodline. Some people believe that this bearded image represents Itzamna in his prime. It was found outside of the Toltec area of influence. Note the stylized beard of Itzamna and its similarity to the stylized beard of Pharaoh Rameses II. Rameses II was Pharaoh of Egypt at about the time of Itzamna's arrival in Central America and the dawn of the earliest civilizations there. Rameses II, son of Seti I and Queen Tuya, was the third king of the 19th Dynasty. He lived to be 96 years old. He reigned as Pharaoh for 67 years (1279-1213 BC).
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
BORIGINAL TRIBE
ABORIGINALS
ABORIGINALS
MONTEZUMA
CORTEZ&MONTEZUMA, MEXICOCITY
SUN GODS
SUN GODS
SUN GODS
SUN GODS
PAPA VOL HERO TWINS

Charles V King of Aragon,Castile Holy Roman Emperor
PIZARRO IN LIMA 1535
Francis Pizzaro
On 13 February 1502, he sailed from Spain with the newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola, Nicols de Ovando y Cceres, on a eet of thirty ships. It was the largest eet that had ever sailed to the New World. The thirty ships carried 2,500 colonists.[citation needed]
The rst attempt to explore western South America was undertaken in 1522 by Pascual de Andagoya. The native South Americans he encountered told him about a gold-rich territory called Vir, which was on a river called Pir (later corrupted to Per) and from which they came. These reports were related by the Spanish-Inca mestizo writer Garcilaso de la Vega in his famous Comentarios Reales de los Incas (1609). Andagoya eventually established contact with several Native American curacas (chiefs), some of whom he later claimed were sorcerers and witches. Having reached as far as the San Juan River (part of the present boundary between Ecuador and Colombia), Andagoya fell very ill and decided to return. Back in Panama, he spread the news and stories about "Pir" - a great land to the south rich with gold (the legendary El Dorado). These revelations, along with the accounts of success of Hernn Corts in Mexico years before, caught the immediate attention of Pizarro, prompting a new series of expeditions to the south in search of the riches of the Incan Empire. In 1524, while still in Panama, Pizarro formed a partnership with a priest, Hernando de Luque, and a soldier, Diego de Almagro, to explore and conquer the south. Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque later renewed their compact more explicitly, agreeing to conquer and divide equally among themselves the opulent empire they hoped to discover. While historians agree their accord was strictly verbal (no written document exists to prove otherwise), they are known to have dubbed their enterprise the "Empresa del Levante" and determined that Pizarro would command the expedition, Almagro would provide the military and food supplies, and Luque would be in charge of nances and any additional provisions they might need
Second expedition (1526)

Two years after the rst very unsuccessful expedition, Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque started the arrangements for a second expedition with permission from Pedrarias Dvila. The governor, who himself was preparing an expedition north to Nicaragua, was reluctant to permit another expedition, having lost condence in the outcome of Pizarro's expeditions. The three associates, however, eventually won his trust and he acquiesced. Also by this time, a new governor was to arrive and succeed Pedrarias Dvila. This was Pedro de los Ros, who took charge of the post in July of 1526 and had manifested his initial approval of Pizarro's expeditions (he would later join him several years later in Peru). In August 1526, after all preparations were ready, Pizarro left Panama with two ships with 160 men and several horses, reaching as far as the Colombian San Juan River. Soon after arriving the party separated, with Pizarro staying to explore the new and often perilous territory off the swampy Colombian coasts, while the expedition's second-incommand, Almagro, was sent back to Panama for reinforcements. Pizarro's Piloto Mayor (main pilot), Bartolom Ruiz, continued sailing south and, after crossing the equator, found and captured a balsa (raft) of natives from Tumbes who were supervising the area. To everyone's surprise, these carried a load of textiles, ceramic objects, and some muchdesired pieces of gold, silver, and emeralds, making Ruiz's ndings the central focus of this second expedition which only served to pique the conquistadors' interests for more gold and land. Some of the natives were also taken aboard Ruiz's ship to serve later as interpreters. He then set sail north for the San Juan river, arriving to nd Pizarro and his men exhausted from the serious difculties they had faced exploring the new territory. Soon Almagro also sailed into the port with his vessel laden with supplies, and a considerable reinforcement of at least eighty recruited men who had arrived at Panama from Spain with the same expeditionary spirit. The ndings and excellent news from Ruiz along with Almagro's new reinforcements cheered Pizarro and his tired followers. They then decided to sail back to the territory already explored by Ruiz and, after a difcult voyage due to strong winds and currents, reached Atacames in the Ecuadorian coast. Here they found a very large native population recently brought under Inca rule. Unfortunately for the conquistadors, the warlike spirit of the people they had just encountered seemed so deant and dangerous in numbers that the Spanish decided not to enter the land.
The Thirteen of the Fame

After much wrangling between Pizarro and Almagro, it was decided that Pizarro would stay at a safer place, the Isla de Gallo, near the coast, while Almagro would return yet again to Panama with Luque for more reinforcements this time with proof of the gold they had just found and the news of the discovery of an obvious wealthy land they had just explored. The new governor of Panama, Pedro de los Ros, had learned of the mishaps of Pizarro's expeditions and the deaths of various settlers who had gone with him. Fearing an unsuccessful outcome, he outright rejected Almagro's application for a third expedition in 1527. In addition, he ordered two ships commanded by Juan Tafur to be sent immediately with the intention of bringing Pizarro and everyone back to Panama. The leader of the expedition had no intention of returning, and when Tafur arrived at the now famous Isla de Gallo, Pizarro drew a line in the sand, saying: "There lies Peru with its riches; Here, Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian." Only thirteen men decided to stay with Pizarro and later became known as The Famous Thirteen ("Los trece de la fama"), while the rest of the expeditioners left back with Tafur aboard his ships. Ruiz also left in one of the ships with the intention of joining Almagro and Luque in their efforts to gather more reinforcements and eventually return to aid Pizarro. Soon after the ships left, the thirteen men and Pizarro constructed a crude boat and left nine miles (14km) north for La Isla Gorgona, where they would remain for seven months before the arrival of new provisions. Back in Panama, Pedro de los Rios (after much convincing by Luque) had nally acquiesced to the requests for another ship, but only to bring Pizarro back within six months and completely abandon the expedition. Both Almagro and Luque quickly grasped the opportunity and left Panama (this time without new recruits) for la Isla Gorgona to once again join Pizarro. On meeting with Pizarro, the associates decided to continue sailing south on the recommendations of Ruiz's Indian interpreters. By April 1528, they nally reached the northwestern Peruvian Tumbes Region. Tumbes became the territory of the rst fruits of success the Spanish had so long desired, as they were received with a warm welcome of hospitality and provisions from the Tumpis, the local inhabitants. On subsequent days two of Pizarro's men reconnoitered the territory and both, on separate accounts, reported back the incredible riches of the land, including the decorations of silver and gold around the chief's residence and the hospitable attentions which they were received with by everyone. The Spanish also saw, for the rst time, the Peruvian Llama which Pizarro called the "little camels". The natives also began calling the Spanish the "Children of the Sun" due to their fair complexion and brilliant armor. Pizarro, meanwhile, continued receiving the same accounts of a powerful monarch who ruled over the land they were exploring. These events only served as evidence to convince the expedition of the wealth and power displayed at Tumbes as an example of the riches the Peruvian territory had awaiting to conquer. The conquistadors decided to return to Panama to prepare the nal expedition of conquest with more recruits and provisions. Before leaving, however, Pizarro and his followers sailed south not so far along the coast to see if anything of interest could be found. Historian William H. Prescott recounts that after passing through territories they named such as Cabo Blanco, port of Payta, Sechura, Punta de Aguja, Santa Cruz, and Trujillo (founded by Almagro years later), they nally reached for the rst time the ninth degree of the southern latitude in South America. On their return towards Panama, Pizarro briey stopped at Tumbes, where two of his men had decided to stay to learn the customs and language of the natives. Pizarro was also offered a native or two himself, one of which was later baptized as Felipillo and served as an important interpreter, the equivalent of Corts' La Malinche of Mexico. Their nal stop was at La Isla Gorgona, where two of his ill men (one had died) had stayed before. After at least eighteen months away, Pizarro and his followers anchored off the coasts of Panama to prepare for the nal expedition.
PIZARRO THE HITLER OF PERU

PIZARRO THE HITLER OF PERU

Conquest of Peru (1532)

In 1532 Pizarro once again landed in the coasts near Ecuador, where some gold, silver, and emeralds were procured and then dispatched
to Almagro, who had stayed in Panama to gather more recruits. Though Pizarro's main objective was to then set sail and dock at Tumbes like his previous expedition, he was forced to confront the Punian natives in the Battle of Pun, leaving three Spaniards dead and 400 dead or wounded Punians. Soon after, Hernando de Soto, another conquistador that had joined the expedition, arrived to aid Pizarro and with him sailed towards Tumbes, only to nd the place deserted and destroyed. Their two fellow conquistadors expected they had disappeared or died under murky circumstances. The chiefs explained the erce tribes of Punians had attacked them and ransacked the place. As Tumbes no longer afforded the safe accommodations Pizarro sought, he decided to lead an excursion into the interior of the land and established the rst Spanish settlement in Peru (third in South America after Santa Marta, Colombia in 1526), calling it San Miguel de Piura in July 1532. The rst repartimiento in Peru was established here. After these events, Hernando de Soto was dispatched to explore the new lands and, after various days away, returned with an envoy from the Inca himself and a few presents with an invitation for a meeting with the Spaniards. Pizarro and his followers in Lima in 1535 Following the defeat of his brother, Huascar, Atahualpa had been resting in the Sierra of northern Peru, near Cajamarca, in the nearby thermal baths known today as the Baos del Inca (Incan Baths). After marching for almost two months towards Cajamarca, Pizarro and his force of just 106 foot-soldiers and 62 horsemen arrived and initiated proceedings for a meeting with Atahualpa. Pizarro sent Hernando de Soto, friar Vicente de Valverde and native interpreter Felipillo to approach Atahualpa at Cajamarca's central plaza. Atahualpa, however, refused the Spanish presence in his land by saying he would "be no man's tributary." His complacency, because there were fewer than 200 Spanish as opposed to his 80,000 soldiers sealed his fate and that of the Incan empire. Atahualpa's refusal led Pizarro and his force to attack the Incan army in what became the Battle of Cajamarca on 16 November 1532. The Spanish were successful and Pizarro executed Atahualpa's 12-man honor guard and took the Inca captive at the so-called ransom room. Despite fullling his promise of lling one room (22feet (7m) by 17feet (5m) [2]) with gold and two with silver, Atahualpa was convicted of killing his brother and plotting against Pizarro and his forces, and was executed by garrote on 26 July 1533. Pizarro wished to nd a reason for executing Atahualpa without angering the people he was attempting to subdue. A year later, Pizarro invaded Cuzco with indigenous troops and with it sealed the conquest of Peru. It is argued by some historians that the growing resistance from the new Inca, Manco Inca Yupanqui, prolonged the conquest. Manco Inca Yupanqui was the brother of the puppet ruler, Tupac Huallpa. During the exploration of Cuzco, Pizarro was impressed and through his ofcers wrote back to King Charles I of Spain, saying: "This city is the greatest and the nest ever seen in this country or anywhere in the Indies... We can assure your Majesty that it is so beautiful and has such ne buildings that it would be remarkable even in Spain." After the Spanish had sealed the conquest of Peru by taking Cuzco in 1533, Jauja in the fertile Mantaro Valley was established as Peru's provisional capital in April 1534. But it was too far up in the mountains and far from the sea to serve as the Spanish capital of Peru. Pizarro thus founded the city of Lima in Peru's central coast on 18 January 1535, a foundation that he considered as one of the most important things he had created in life.
Conquistadors getting Crowned By Aboriginal Tribal Leaders to Avoid War/Conflict

Without waiting for the amount offered by the Inca to be completed, the Spaniards began melting the gold and silver pieces: jugs, plates, goblets, pans, braziers, vases, drums, figures of men and animals, "monstrous pieces". After melting them down, they marked the bars with the royal stamp and noted down their weight and assay value. They only left some pieces that amazed them for the quality of the workmanship, which went to complete the royal fifth. On 17th June, Pizarro ordered the distribution of the silver and gold of the most fabulous ransom ever to be paid in history, slightly more than 6,080 kilograms of "good gold" (22 carats) were melted down and 11,872 kilograms of silver. But the treasure was distributed in parts. After separating one fifth for the Crown and one tenth for the Church, Pizarro took thirteen parts and the customary "Governor's jewel", no less than the gold seat of Atahualpa's litter. Wednesday, July 25, 2012
Atahualpa, who had trusted Pizarro's word, noticed the deception when he saw that the treasure was being distributed and he was still a prisoner. Gomara says that it was agreed to establish a court presided over by the Governor, which found the Inca guilty of treason, because having promised a ransom he was doing all he could to finish with the Spaniards. It was said that he had ordered Ruminahui to advance towards Cajamarca and attack his captors; he was found guilty of usurping the throne of the Empire and having ordered the death of his brother Huascar, according to them the legitimate monarch; he was accused of having ordered the slaughter of the Cusco nobles without bearing in mind sex or age; he was condemned for having committed incest, by having his sister for his wife and for adultery for having many wives and children with them. Finally, he was declared a heretic in contempt for refusing to recognize Christ's faith and proclaiming himself Son of the Sun. The court found all the accusations valid and Atahualpa was sentenced to die burned at the stake. Hernando Pizarro and Hernando de Soto opposed the Inca's execution, considering it a tremendous injustice. They were of the opinion that he should be taken to Spain to be tried by the king and that the Governor had no competence to sentence a sovereign prince in his own dominions.
Soon discords arose between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro concerning their leadership in the newly conquered land of the Incas. As a result, Almagro left Cuzco in 1534 and was given the honor of Spanish King Charles I to explore the southern part of Peru (modern-day Chile) and look for more treasures there. Upon his departure, Gonzalo and Juan were appointed by Francisco as garrisons of Cuzco without Almagro knowing it. Gonzalo and Juan Pizarro both looked after the settlements in Cuzco, while their eldest brother Francisco explored the west coast of northern Peru and founded the city of Lima in 1535. Gonzalo, Juan and his younger brother Hernndo ruled Cuzco with dictatorship, greed, corruption, and brutality, torturing and executing those who refused to accept Spanish rule. Their corrupt rule also brought a rebellion by the Incas under Manco Capac, who began to fight for equal rights and demanded freedom from harsh Spanish rule. The Incas fought the Spaniards in a number of sieges and battles for control of the land and temporarily captured Cuzco in May 6, 1536. The Incas were later defeated by the heavily armed Spanish soldiers led by Gonzalo and Juan. Smallpox was also spread among the natives and many perished. When Almagro returned from Chile disappointed in not finding any gold, he captured and imprisoned Gonzalo and Hernndo in 1537. They eventually managed to escape and re-join Francisco Pizarro on their return to Lima. When Gonzalo and Hernndo noticed that Almagro also wanted to take control of Cuzco, they fought against him in the Battle of Las Salinas in April 1538. In the course of these events, Almagro left for Lima for a negotiation with Francisco on who would control Cuzco. Gonzalo and Hernndo heard of Almagro's threatening intentions and led an army against him, defeating his forces and later condemning him for treason. Almagro was executed on July 8, 1538, under Hernndo's orders. Expeditions with Francisco de Orellana In 1541, Gonzalo was declared the governor of Quito. Not satisfied and at the urging of Francisco Pizarro, he led an expedition east of Quito with Francisco de Orellana in search of the fabled city of El Dorado and of The country of cinnamon ("Pas de la Canela"). In Quito, Gonzalo was able to recruit 220 Spaniards and 4,000 Native Americans. The second-in-command, Orellana, was sent to Guayaquil to recruit more troops and horses. Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers left Quito on February 1541, a month before Orellana, who was able to bring 23 men and several horses. By March both met at the valley of Zumaco and started their march towards crossing the Andes. After following the courses of the Coca and Napo rivers, the expedition started running out of provisions. About 140 of the 220 Spaniards and 3,000 out of 4,000 natives had died. On February 1542, they decided Orellana would continue sailing down the Napo river in search of food along with 50 men. After a brief time, Gonzalo thought the expedition was a whole failure and decided to take a route north back to Quito with 80 of the remaining men, unknowingly relinquishing the success to Orellana, who ended discovering and exploring the entire length of the Amazon River. Upon his return to Quito, Gonzalo learned that the Almagristas (as the followers of Almagro were called) had assassinated his brother Francisco Pizarro on June 26, 1541 in retaliation for Almagro's execution. By this time the Crown's representative, Cristbal Vaca de Castro, had arrived in Peru amidst the confusion after Pizarro's death. Gonzalo Pizarro offered to help capture those responsible for his brother's death, but was refused. The Almagristas were finally defeated in the battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542, and their leader, Diego Almagro El Mozo, was executed. Gonzalo turns against the Spanish King Emperor Charles V then appointed Blasco Nez Vela as Peru's first viceroy in 1544. Nez introduced the New Laws, which were framed by Bartolom de Las Casas to protect the Indigenous. Many of the conquistadors living in Peru were against these laws since they could no longer exploit the natives. This prompted Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisco de Carvajal to organize an army of followers with the intent of suppressing the New Laws. Many conquistadors turned against the Viceroy and joined Gonzalo's side, as his surname provided an effective rallying point. The rebel army defeated Nez in 1546 at Aaquito near Quito. Although some, such as Carvajal, advised Gonzalo to proclaim himself King of Peru and to disown any further claim by the King of Spain to the land, Gonzalo refused.
After the nal effort of the Inca to recover Cuzco had been defeated by Almagro, a dispute occurred between him and Pizarro respecting the limits of their jurisdiction. This led to confrontations between the Pizarro brothers and Almagro, who was eventually defeated during the Battle of Las Salinas (1538) and executed. Almagro's son, also named Diego and known as "El Mozo", was later stripped of his lands and left bankrupt by Pizarro.
Pizarro's death
Pizarro's cofn in the Lima Cathedral In Lima , Peru on 26 June 1541 "a group of twenty heavily armed supporters of Diego Almagro II stormed Pizarro's palace, assassinated him, and then forced the terried city council to appoint young Almagro as the new governor of Peru", according to Burkholder and Johnson.[3] "Most of Pizarro's guests ed, but a few fought the intruders, numbered variously between seven and 25. While Pizarro struggled to buckle on his breastplate, his defenders, including his half-brother Alcntara, were killed. For his part Pizarro killed two attackers and ran through a third. While trying to pull out his sword, he was stabbed in the throat, then fell to the oor where he was stabbed many times."[4] Pizarro (who now was maybe as old as 70 years, and at least 62), collapsed on the oor, alone, painted a cross in his own blood and cried for Jesus Christ. He reportedly cried: Come my faithful sword, companion of all my deeds.[citation needed] He died moments after. Diego de Almagro the younger was caught and executed the following year after losing the battle of Chupas. Pizarro's remains were briey interred in the cathedral courtyard; at some later time his head and body were separated and buried in separate boxes underneath the oor of the cathedral. In 1892, in preparation for the anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the Americas, a body believed to be that of Pizarro was exhumed and put on display in a glass cofn. However, in 1977 men working on the cathedral's foundation discovered a lead box in a sealed niche, which bore the inscription "Here is the head of Don Francisco Pizarro Demarkes, Don Francisco Pizarro who discovered Peru and presented it to the crown of Castile." A team of forensic scientists from the United States, led by Dr. William Maples, was invited to examine the two bodies, and they soon determined that the body which had been honored in the glass case for nearly a century had been incorrectly identied. The skull within the lead box not only bore the marks of multiple sword blows, but the features bore a remarkable resemblance to portraits made of the man in life.[5][6]
In Cuzco in 1589, the last survivor of the original conquerors of Peru, Don Mancio Serra de Leguisamo, wrote in the preamble of his will the following in parts: "We found these kingdoms in such good order, and the said Incas governed them in such wise [manner] that throughout them there was not a thief, nor a vicious man, nor an adulteress, nor was a bad woman admitted among them, nor were there immoral people. The men had honest and useful occupations. The lands, forests, mines, pastures, houses and all kinds of products were regulated and distributed in such sort that each one knew his property without any other person seizing it or occupying it, nor were there law suits respecting it the motive which obliges me to make this statement is the discharge of my conscience, as I find myself guilty. For we have destroyed by our evil example, the people who had such a government as was enjoyed by these natives. They were so free from the committal of crimes or excesses, as well men as women, that the Indian who had 100,000 pesos worth of gold or silver in his house, left it open merely placing a small stick against the door, as a sign that its master was out. With that, according to their custom, no one could enter or take anything that was there. When they saw that we put locks and keys on our doors, they supposed that it was from fear of them, that they might not kill us, but not because they believed that anyone would steal the property of another. So that when they found that we had thieves among us, and men who sought to make their daughters commit sin, they despised us."
TUPAC AMARU
ATAHUALPA
INCAN KINGS KILLED BY CONQUISTADORS

Tupac Amaru was the last indigenous leader of the Inca state in Peru. He was the fourth son of Manco Capac, the Inca emperor who was initially allied with the Spaniards, then tried a war against them but wasn t succesful. Manco Capac founded an independent state to the north east of Cusco called Vilcabamba. It was a place with very difficult access (upper amazon). In 1544 there was an Spanish attack to Vilcabamba and Manco Capac was killed. He was succeded by his son Sayri Tupac who died , probably poisoned in Cusco 1558. His brother Titu Cusi then was in charge of Vilcabamba for about twelve more years, he died in 1571. Tupac Amaru, another brother of the two previous indigenous leaders, was crowned as the new Vilcabamba Emperor. The Spanish viceroy of Peru, Francisco de Toledo, wanted to get rid of the remnants of the Inca Empire in Vilcabamba at the time so in 1572 Spanish soldiers and their indigenous allies attacked the Vilcabamba empire and captured Tupac Amar and his followers. He was taken to Cuzco held by a chain of gold round his neck and sentenced to death convicted of the murder of Friar Diego Ortiz and others, of which he was probably innocent. He was decapitated in the towns main plaza on November 14, 1572, in front of thousands of natives and Spanish crowd. The military leader of the Incan army, Wallpa Yupanki was also decapitated. The last words of the Inca were: "Ccollanan Pachacamac ricuy auccacunac yahuarniy hichascancuta." "Mother Earth, witness how my enemies shed my blood." Tupac Amar is a powerful symbol of resistance in Peru and Latin America. The 18th-century Peruvian rebel, Jos Gabriel Condorcanqui adopted the name Tupac Amar II and took the leading role on a two-year rebellion against the Spanish colonial rule in the 1780s.
Tupac Amaru Shakur is a powerful symbol of resistance in America and Worldwide

TUPAC AMARU SHAKUR
TUPAC AMARU
Tupac Amar is a powerful symbol of resistance in Peru and Latin America.
INCAN NOBILe Lineage of rulers WITH CONQUISTADORS
AMERUUS OF PERU
"Regional blackness as a force of self-liberation in Ecuador begins in Esmeraldas, and its origin occurs during a violent tropical storm and a movement of African rebellion. The documented history of Ecuador establishes the beginnings of Afro-Hispanic culture in what is now Esmeraldas, Ecuador, where a Spanish slaving ship ran aground in 1553. There a group of twenty-three Africans from the coast of Guinea, led by a black warrior named Antn, attacked the slavers and liberated themselves. Not long after, this group, together with other blacks entering the region, led by a ladino (Hispanicized black person) named Alonso de Illescas, came to dominate the region from northern Manab north to what is now Barbacoas, Colombia. At this time (late sixteenth century) intermixture with indigenous peoples, to whom black people ed to establish their palenques (villages of self-liberated people - some fortied, some not), was such that their features were described as zambo (black-indigenous admixture), synonyms of which were negro (black) and mulato (mixed or hybrid black-white). ... ... By 1599 black people were clearly in charge of what was called "La Repblica de Zambos" or "Zambo Republic". Zambo refers to people of colour who are descendants of Native Americans and African-Americans. In that year a group of Zambo chieftains, said to represent 100,000 or more Zambo people of Esmeraldas, trekked to Quito to declare loyalty to Spain. An oil painting of these chiefs from the emerald land of the Zambo Republic is portrayed by the "Indian artist" Adrin Snchez Galgue [sic]; it is reportedly the earliest signed and dated painting from South America."
The Spanish colonization of the Americas was the exploration, conquest, settlement and political rule over much of the western hemisphere. It was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries with a heavy reliance on auxiliaries,[1] for the real needs of wealth and trade and perceived need of indigenous conversions, that existed for a period of over four hundred years. Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus, over nearly four centuries the Spanish Empire would expand across: most of present day Central America, the Caribbean islands, and Mexico; much of the rest of North America including the Southwestern, Southern coastal, and California Pacic Coast regions of the United States; and though inactive, with claimed territory in present day British Columbia Canada; and U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, and Oregon; and the western half of South America.[2][3][4] In the early 19th century the wars of independence liberated all the Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico later in 1898. Spain's loss of the last two in the Spanish-American War politically ended Spanish colonization in the Americas. The cultural inuences remain.
These Arawaks of the Bahama Islands were much like Indians on the mainland, who were remarkable (European observers were to say again and again) for their hospitality, their belief in sharing. These traits did not stand out in the Europe of the Renaissance, dominated as it was by the religion of popes, the government of kings, the frenzy for money that marked Western civilization and its first messenger to the Americas, Christopher Columbus. Columbus wrote: "As soon as I arrived in the Indies, on the first Island which I found, I took some of the natives by force in order that they might learn and might give me information of whatever there is in these parts." "With my own eyes I saw Spaniards cut off the nose, hands and ears of Indians, male and female, without provocation, merely because it pleased them to do it. . . . Likewise, I saw how they summoned the caciques and the chief rulers to come, assuring them safety, and when they peacefully came, they were taken captive and burned."
"When the Spaniards had collected a great deal of gold from the Indians, they shut them up in three big houses, crowding in as many as they could, then set re to the houses, burning alive all that were in them, yet those Indians had given no cause nor made any resistance." These descriptions of Christian behavior in Central America are eye witness accounts of Don Frey Bartolom De Las Casas (1552). Frey De Las Casas, was a Catholic priest who was appalled at the behavior of his countrymen in the "Indian lands of the west." He wrote books and numerous letters pleading for fairer treatment of the "Indians" and denouncing the atrocities he witnessed being inicted upon them. Bartolom De Las Casas began his career in America as a soldier and encomendero. He sailed to the "Indies" with Nicolas de Ovando's eet in 1502. He returned to Europe where he was ordained a deacon in Rome. In 1512, he was the rst Catholic priest to be ordained in the new world. He served as a chaplain in the armies of Diego de Valesquez and Panlo de Narvaz in their conquest of Cuba. He was awarded lands and slaves for his service. As a land owning, slave owning, encomendero he had a spiritual awakening. He freed his slaves and began to campaign for the abolition of slavery and repatriation of the Indians. His critics accused him of treason. (References) Bartolom De Las Casas, The Devastation of the Indies, (Original publication 1552) Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 1992. Bartolom De Las Casas, History of the Indies, translated by Andre M. Collard, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1971 Bartolom De Las Casas, In Defense of the Indians, , translated by Stafford Poole, C.M., Northern Illinois University, 1974. John Grier Varner & Jeannette Johnson Verner, Dogs of the
vindictive Amerindians lay exemplary punishment upon captured Spanish soldiers, forcing them to drink the molten gold they so shamelessly coveted, literalizing their appetite for the precious metal in such a way as to provide the Iberians their poetical just deserts.
NEW SPAIN
It was originally a jocular analogy to the Spanish Reconquista of Moorish Iberia, since the areas of greatest Mexican immigration and cultural diffusion are conterminous with northern New Spain and former Mexican territories.[4] The concept, but not the term "reconquista" itself, has been advanced by Chicano nationalists of the 1970's to describe plans for the creation of a mythical Aztec homeland called Aztln. No historical "Aztlan" ever actually existed. The map used to illustrate the made up "Aztlan" has nothing at all to do with the "Aztec" (or "Mexica") tribe, which lived far south in what is now central Mexico, but it is rather, a map of land explored by the Spanish, and claimed by the Spanish, for Spain (New Spain) after their arrival from Europe, land which covers the homelands of a multitude of native tribes, which were never "Aztec."
RECONQUISTA OF MEXICO
NEW GRANADA
The Viceroyalty of New Granada (Spanish: Virreinato de la Nueva Granada) was the name given on 27 May 1717,[1] to a Spanish colonial jurisdiction in northern South America, corresponding mainly to modern Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Later, 1739, the territory correspondig to Panam was incorporated. Before the 19th century independence struggles, the Viceroyalty of New Granada existed as a political and administrative entity which also extended to include oversight over local authorities in
Ecuador, Guyana, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, as well as small parts of Brazil, Peru, Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
Colonial history
After the establishment of an Audiencia (a "court of hearing") at Santa F de Bogot (today capital of the republic of Colombia) and of the New Kingdom of Granada in the 16th century, whose governor was loosely dependent upon the Viceroy of Peru at Lima, the slowness of communications between the two capitals led to the creation of an independent Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717 (and its reestablishment in 1739 after a short interruption); other provinces corresponding to modern Ecuador, the eastern and southern parts of today's Venezuela,[2] and eventually Panama, until then under other jurisdictions, came together in a political unit under the jurisdiction of Bogota, conrming that city as one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City. Sporadic attempts at reform were directed at increased efciency and centralized authority, but control from Spain was never very effective. The rough and diverse geography of northern South America and the limited range of proper roads made travel and communications inside the Viceroyalty difcult. The establishment of a Captaincy General in Caracas in 1777 and the preservation of the older Audiencia of Quito, nominally subject to the Viceroy but for all purposes independent, was a response to the necessities of effectively governing their surrounding regions, and some analysts consider that it was also reecting a degree of local traditions that, much later, eventually contributed to creating differing political and national differences between the newly independent territories that the unifying efforts of Simn Bolvar could not overcome. [edit]
THE VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN
Esteban, the Moor Discovered New Mexico

1536-The most famous Moor in the hemisphere proper was Esteban de Dorantes (a Black Arab, a Native of Azemmour, Morocco), a survivor of the Narvaez Expedition to La Florida, who discovered what was (New Spain) and is now Southern New Mexico. He returned to Culiacan, Mexico with stories of having seen the Seven Cities of Cibola (Seven Cities of Gold). He was an eslavo ladino of Andres Dorantes of Bejar del Castanar, Salamanca.Eslavo Ladino, means a Slave and converted Christian. Esteban, as he was now known, accompanied Dorantes. King Charles V of Spain granted him authority to settle all of La Florida, a territory that stretched from the southern tip of the Florida peninsula westward to the Rio de las Palmas, which is todays Soto de la Marina River in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. Esteban (also, Estebanico) began his ascent into the Aboriginal Indian Country as one of only four survivors of the 600 members of the Narvaez Expedition in 1527-1528 to colonize La Florida.Estebans survival of the Expedition and subsequent discovery of New Mexico is nothing short of miraculous and should be shouted from the rooftops and shared by other Moors. According to Cabeza de Vaca, we enjoyed a great deal of authority and dignity among [the Indians], and to maintain this we spoke very little to them. The black man always spoke to them, ascertaining which way to go andall the other things we wanted to know.Note: [Black ArabNative of Azamor by Kitty Morse, Saudi Aramco World, Volume 53, Number 2, March/ April 2002].] Al Zemmouris town is a Berber word for wild olive tree. In 1539 Estebans purpose during this mission was to lead De Niza from the Island of Malhado (near the Bay of Galveston) to Cibola. Their personalities clashed, as De Niza did not relish the freedom the Moor felt in the Aboriginal Indian Country, nor the pleasant reception he received from the Indians. Esteban rode ahead of the Spaniard and disappears within the connes of the Zuni Pueblo. De Niza does not reach Zuni but is met by Indians who notify him of the death of Esteban.European His-Story accounts contend that the New Mexico Indians killed Esteban (for various reasons) although his death was never observed, even those reporting it merely speculated that he had been killed and that is what they told the Spaniards. Did Esteban the Moor slip away as did De Sotos Moors? Coincidently, but apparently unrelated to Esteban the Moor, killed in their Pueblo (according to European His-Story);1. There is an actual Cibola County (not a rumor);2. The Acoma Pueblo is officially San Esteban del Rey de Acoma (literally, Saint Stephen the King of Acoma)3. They too have an El Morro National Monument (the Moor National Monument), and4. Participate in an ancient Annual Feast honoring San Estevan. Numerous Structures, including Missions of Moorish Architecture were described, painted and ultimately photographed as a testamentto their style, inuence and rightful place in this hemisphere bearing Colonies, Settlements and Communitiesinhabited by thesubjects of the Kings of Morocco in this hemisphere. To banish this type of Architectural style is an arrogant insult to their memory, as well as the remnant of their host Nations. The foregoing are but a mere sampling of my various works presented for your edication.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884
In the early 1880s, European interest in Africa increased dramatically, due to Africa's abundance of valuable resources such as gold, spices, tea, opium and slaves. Henry Morton Stanley's charting of the Congo River Basin (18741877) removed the last bit of terra incognita from European maps of the continent. In 1878, King Lopold II of Belgium, who had previously founded the International African Society in 1876, invited Stanley to join him. The International African Society had the goal of researching and 'civilizing' the continent. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, having more economic goals, but still closely related to the former society. Lopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the African Society serving primarily as a philanthropic front. From 1879 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, this time not as a reporter, but as an envoy from Lopold with the secret mission to organize a Congo state, which would become known as the Congo Free State. At the same time, the French marine ofcer Pierre de Brazza traveled into the western Congo basin and raised the French ag over the newly-founded Brazzaville in 1881, in what is currently the Republic of Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the Kongo Empire, made a treaty with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic. At the same time, other European countries gained colonial footholds in Africa. France occupied Tunisia and today's Republic of the Congo in 1881 which partly convinced Italy to become part of the Triple Alliance and also Guinea in 1884. In 1882, the United Kingdom occupied nominally Ottoman Egypt, which in turn ruled over the Sudan and what would later become British Somaliland.
WORLD WAR 1
DETROIT,MICHIGAN
ST LOUIS DETROIT ONTARIO
FRENCH
SEATTLE,WASHINGTON
MANIFEST DESTINY
Columbia
The Mississippian Culture was a MOUND BUILDING Native American Culture that ourished in what is now the MidEastern,Eastern and Southerneastern United States from Approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE
MOUND BUILDER GIANTS

1880 "A skeleton which is reported to have been of enormous dimensions" was found in a clay coffin, with a sandstone slab containing hieroglyphics, during mound explorations by a Dr Everhart near Zanesville, Ohio. (American Antiquarian, v3, 1880, pg61). 1880 An excavation in Brush Creek Township, Muskingurn County yielded the bones of men and women, buried in couples . The length of their skeletons exceeding eight and even nine feet! The excavation was started in early December 1870. The Brush Creek Tablet was found among skeletons of people over
8 and 9 feet tall
in Muskigum County, Ohio, in the early 1880's. The whereabouts of the Tablet today are unknown.
1881 "In digging the cellar of the house, nine human skeletons were found, and, like such specimens from other ancient mounds of the country, they showed that the Mound Builders were men of large stature. The skeletons were not found lying in such a manner as would indicate any arrangement of the bodies on the part of the entombers. In describing the tomb, Mr. Albert Harris said: "it looked as if the bodies had been dumped into a ditch. Some of them were buried deeper than others, the lower one being about seven feet below the surface." When the skeletons were found, Mr. Harris was twenty years of age, yet he states that he could put one of the skulls over his head, and let it rest upon his shoulders, while wearing a fur cap at the same time. The large size of all the bones was remarked, and the teeth were described as "double all the way round." ... History of Medina County
1883 "Two miles from Mandan, on the bluffs near the junction of the Hart and Missouri Rivers, says the local newspaper, the Pioneer, is an old Cemetery of fully 100 acres in extent filled with bones of a giant race. This vast city of the dead lies just east of the Fort Lincoln road. The ground has the appearance of having been filled with trenches piled full of dead bodies, both man and beast, and covered with several feet of earth. In many places mounds from 8 to 10 feet high, and some of them 100 feet or more in length, have been thrown up and are filled with bones, broken pottery, vases of various bright colored flint, and agates ... showing the work of a people skilled in the arts and possessed of a high state of civilization. This has evidently been a grand battlefield, where thousands of men ... have fallen. ...Five miles above Mandan, on the opposite side of the Missouri, is another vast cemetery, as yet unexplored. We asked an aged Indian what his people knew of these ancient grave yards. He answered: "
We know nothing about
them. They were here before the red man."
The Scientific American
Ten skeletons "of both sexes and of gigantic size" were taken from a mound at Warren, Minnesota, 1883. (St. Paul Pioneer Press, May 23, 1883) A skeleton 7 feet 6 inches long was found in a massive stone structure that was likened to a temple chamber within a mound in Kanawha County, West Virginia, in 1884. (American Antiquarian, v6, 1884 133f. Cyrus Thomas, Report on Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology, 12th Annual Report, Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology, 1890-91). In Minnesota, 1888, were discovered remains of seven skeletons 7 to 8 feet tall. (St. Paul Pioneer Press, June 29, 1888). 7 skeletons, placed in a sitting position, were uncovered from a burial mound near Clearwater, Minnesota. The highly unusual skulls had double rows of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. It was also noted that the foreheads were low and sloping, compared to "normal" human skulls.
1892 "Where Proctorville now stands was one day part of a well paved city, but I think the greatest part of it is now in the Ohio river. Only a few mounds, there; one of which was near the C. Wilgus mansion and contained a skeleton of a very large person, all double teeth, and sound, in a jaw bone that would go over the jaw with the flesh on, of a large man; The common burying ground was well filled with skeletons at a depth of about 6 feet. Part of the pavement was of boulder stone and part of well preserved brick." Ironton Register 1895 A mound on the outskirts of Toledo, Ohio, yielded 20 skeletons, seated and facing east with jaws and teeth "twice as large as those of present day people," each skeleton had a large bowl with "curiously wrought hieroglyphic figures." (Chicago Record, Oct. 24, 1895; cited by Ron G. Dobbins, NEARA Journal, v13, fall 1978).
The skeleton of a huge man was uncovered at the Beckley farm, Lake Koronis, Minnesota; while at Moose Island and Pine City, bones of other giants came to light. (St. Paul Globe, Aug. 12, 1896).
In 1903, at Fish Creek, Montana, Professor S. Farr and his group of Princeton University students came across several burial mounds. They unearthed the skeleton of a man about 9 feet long. Next to him lay the bones of a woman, who had been almost as tall Roy Norvill, Giants : The Vanished Race Of Mighty Men
After around 1500 BC the cultures of Western Europe were disrupted by Celtic invasions, causing a great migration to North America. It is at this point in time in the archaeological record, Berber cultural traits appear suddenly and mysteriously all across the eastern United States and in the Caribbean. North African bent-stick and split-stick hafting techniques for grooved stone axes, for example, spread throughout the region. Agriculture, pottery.... and earthen mounds. In Central America, pottery dating from this period is virtually identical to that being produced by North African Berbers (Kennedy 1971, 270f). All over the northeastern part of North America, the dominant "Vinette 2" style of pottery shows clear Iberian Beaker influence (Kehoe, 290f). At the same time, The Old Copper Berbers in southeastern Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois and Indiana begin to employ the use of red ochre in their burial rites in large quantities. Archaeologists often refer to this stage of Berber development as a "Red Ochre Culture"). But it is important to note that the Old Copper and Red Ochre "cultures" were in truth a single entity. This use of red ochre in burial rites is, needless to say, a well-known feature of Berber culture (Camps 1974, .. Berber inscriptions are found on the Cape Verde Islands, far out in the Atlantic (Mercer, 64), while Berber potters brought their techniques to Central America. Pottery from El Salvador, dated to around 1500 BC, is virtually identical to Berber pottery of the same period found in Morocco, near the Canary Islands (Kennedy 1971, 270f). After 1100 BC the Urnfield Celts invaded Spain and began eradicating the last Beaker civilization. Without a doubt, this disrupted what was left of the Beaker trade with the New World, and at roughly the same time, "for reasons not yet understood," the Isle Royale copper mines were abandoned and there occurred in the New World a notable decline in the use of copper to manufacture everyday tools (Bailey, 23; WA 67:227). .. The chronological "coincidences" are too much for chance. In both Europe and the New World, at the very same time, Megalithic cultures arise around 4500 BC; then on both continents, at the very same time, copper-using Beakerinspired cultures arise in 3000 BC. Next, the Beaker Groups flee from conquest in 1500 BC, and their Beaker cultural traits begin to be widespread in North America; finally in both Europe and the New World, at the very same time, Beaker-derived cultures collapse in 700 BC.
Gunnar Thompson writes in his AMERICAN DISCOVERY, Seattle, 1994, on p. 148, "Recent assays reveal that some of the copper artefacts found in N American burial mounds were made from zinc-copper alloys used in the Mediterranean . Ancient metal crafters added zinc to harden copper into a bronze alloy. The shapes of the copper tools found in American archaeological sites are identical to those of the ancient Mediterranean, including chisels, dagger blades, wedges, hoes, scythes, axes and spear points. These tools often have specific modifications, including the use of rivets, spines and sockets, all of which were characteristic of Mediterranean tools." And he includes an illustration on p. 149 portraying side by side copper tools from America and from the Mediterranean, including the above mentioned chisels, dagger blades, wedges, hoes, scythes, axes and spear points, and also adzes, chisels, draw knifes, spuds, sleeves, barbs, stems, and decorative pins. Attributions for these drawings are provided. The tools on both sides of the Atlantic look remarkably similar.
Evidence for the occupation of this region before the appearance of the red man and the white race is to be found in almost every part of [Marion] county, as well as through the northwest generally. In removing the gravel bluffs, which are numerous and deep, for the construction and repair of roads, and in excavating cellars, hundreds of human skeletons, some of them of giant form, have been found. A citizen of Marion County estimates that there were about as many human skeletons in the knolls of Marion County as there are white inhabitants at present! The History of Marion County, Ohio Mastodonic remains are occasionally unearthed, and, from time to time, discoveries of the remains of Indian settlements are indicated by the appearance of gigantic skeletons, with the high cheek bones, powerful jaws and massive frames peculiar of the red man, who left these as the only record with which to form a clew to the history of past ages. The History of Brown County, Ohio Three skeletons were found at the mouth of the Paw Paw Creek many years later, while Nim (Nimrod) Satterfield was justice of the peace. Jim Dean and some men were digging for a bridge foundation and found these bones at the lower end of the old buffalo wallow. She thought it was Dr. Kidwell, of Fairmont, who examined them and said they were very old, perhaps thousands of years old. She said that when the skeletons were exposed to the weather for a few days, their bones turned black and began to crumble, that Squire Satterfield had them buried in the Joliffe graveyard (Rivesville). All these skeletons, she said, were measured, and found to be about eight feet long. Now and Long Ago: A History of the Marion County Area 2
Throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth, and even the twentieth century, amateur excavators routinely found giant skeletons in mounds and caves from the upper northeast to the southeast, the Midwest, and scattered throughout North America. Discoveries of giant skeletons appear to have been concentrated around the Ohio Valley, however, the area that is now known for its numerous mound structures. The Ohio Valley, as we
have seen, was the epicenter of Native American life for many thousands of years during the Archaic and Woodland periods of ancient American history. It was here, according to the original eyewitness accounts, that numerous giant skeletons and countless irreplaceable artifacts were discovered by intrepid settlers interested in discovering the true history of the New World. However, though many of these giant skeletons simply mouldered away into the soil days or even hours after they were exposed to the elements, many other giant skeletons, some with strands of blond or red hair still clinging tenaciously to their skulls, were covered up, spirited away or destroyed as part of an ongoing "holocaust" of America's true history.
MOUND BUILDER GIANTS

1880 "A skeleton which is reported to have been of enormous dimensions" was found in a clay coffin, with a sandstone slab containing hieroglyphics, during mound explorations by a Dr Everhart near Zanesville, Ohio. (American Antiquarian, v3, 1880, pg61). 1880 An excavation in Brush Creek Township, Muskingurn County yielded the bones of men and women, buried in couples . The length of their skeletons exceeding eight and even nine feet! The excavation was started in early December 1870. The Brush Creek Tablet was found among skeletons of people over
8 and 9 feet tall
in Muskigum County, Ohio, in the early 1880's. The whereabouts of the Tablet today are unknown.
Portals to the Underworld

In Celtic mythology, the ancient mounds or sidhe were portals to the other world, accessed by astral flight or perhaps - in the case of TIME TRAVEL ..actual travel within an electromagnetic field where the ley lines converge creating powerful vortices. According to Greek mythology. After the war between the Titans and Olympians, Hades and his two brothers decided to divide the universe between them. Zeus received the sky , Poseidon became lord of the sea and Hades became the ruler of the Underworld. The mound builders placed monoliths, dolmens and henges (gateways) at locations that form interlocking grids. By connecting the mound sites on a map, a pattern develops revealing geometric patterns in the shape of five pointed stars . (See five pointed star on helmet of 'time traveler known to us as Green Man ' ) They also seem to map out star constellations .
An Extinct Race
History of Wisconsin, by C.W. Butterfield, Wisconsin Antiquities Copyright 1879 , The Western Historical Company, Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington D.C. The first explorers of the valleys of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi and its tributaries seem not to have noticed, to any considerable extent, the existence within these vast areas of monuments of an extinct race. Gradually, however, as the tide of emigration broke through the barriers of the Alleghanies and spread in a widely extended flow over what are now the states of the Northwest, these prehistoric vestiges attracted more and more the attention of the curious and the learned, until, at the present time, almost every person is presumed to have some general knowledge, not only of their existence, but of some of their striking peculiarities. Unfortunately, these signs of a long since departed people are fast disappearing by the never ceasing operations of the elements, and the constant encroachments of civilization. The earliest notices of the animal and vegetable kingdom of this region are to be found in its rocks; but Wisconsins earliest records of men can only be traced in here and there a crumbing earth-work, in the fragment of a skeleton, or in a few stone and copper implements - dim and shadowy relics of their handicraft. The ancient dwellers in these valleys, whose history is lost in the lapse of ages, are designated, usually, as the MOUND BUILDERS; not that building mounds was probably their distinctive employment, but that such artificial elevations of the earth are, to a great extent, the only evidences remaining of their actually occupation of the country. As to the origin of these people, all knowledge must, possibly, continue to rest upon conjecture alone. Nor were the habitations of this race confined to the territory of which Wisconsin now forms a part. At one time, they must have been located in many ulterior regions. The earth-works , tumuli, or mounds, as they are generally designated, are usually symmetrically raised and often inclosed in mathematical figures, such as the square, the octagon, and the circle, with long lines of circumvallation. Besides these earth-works, there are pits dug in the solid rock; rubbish heaps formed in the prosecution of mining operations; and a variety of implements and utensils, wrought in copper or stone, or molded in clay. Whence came the inhabitants who left these evidences to succeeding generations? In other words, who were the Mound Builders? Did they migrate from the Old World, or is their origin to be sought for elsewhere? And as to their manners and customs and civilizations - what of these things? Was the race finally swept from the New World to give place to the Red men, or was it the one from which the latter descended? These momentous questions are left for the ethnologist, the archeologist and the antiquarian of the future to answer - if they can.
A RACE OF GIANTS
7-12 FOOT SKELETONS
ALIEN SKULLS
GIANTS ON EARTH
06
THE THREE KINGS
SERPENT MOUND,OHIO
ALLEGHANY CHOCTAW BLACKFOOT

SERPENT MOUND
SERPENT MOUND OHIO

OCMULGEE MOUNDS
Ocmulgee National Monument preserves traces of over ten millennia of Southeastern Native American culture, including major earthworks built more than 1,000 years ago by Mississippian culture peoples: the Great Temple and other ceremonial mounds, a burial mound, and defensive trenches. They represented highly skilled engineering techniques and soil knowledge, and the organization of many laborers. The site has evidence of "17,000 years of continuous human habitation
ETOWAH MOUNDS
Late 20th century studies showed the mounds were built and occupied by prehistoric indigenous peoples of the Mississippian culture of eastern North America. They were ancestors of the historic Muskogean language-speaking Muscogee (Creek) people of the area.[4] Etowah is a Muskogee word derived from italwa meaning "town". The federally recognized Muscogee (Creek) Nation and Poarch Band of Creek Indians consider Etalwa to be their most important ancestral town. In the 19th century, the mounds were mistakenly believed to be built by the Cherokee, who occupied the region; however, the Iroquoian-speaking tribe did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century and could not have built the mounds.
North Georgia Mountains/

The mountains in this region are in the Blue Ridge mountain chain that ends in Georgia. At over 1 billion years of age, the Blue Ridge mountains are among the oldest mountains in the United States and sometimes mistaken to be the oldest mountains in the world (in fact they are only about one third of the age of South Africa's 3.6 billion year old Barberton greenstone belt.). The mountains in this region are also a part of the vast system of North American mountains known as the Appalachian Mountains that spans most of the United States longitudally along the eastern areas of the nation and terminates in Alabama. The region is known for its ruggedness and scenic beauty. The Cherokee who lived in these mountains called them Sah-ka-na'-ga - "The Great Blue Hills of God." Large portions of the North Georgia mountains are included in the more than 750,000 acres (3,000km2) that comprises the Chattahoochee National Forest. When Europeans rst stepped foot in Florida and Georgia they all recorded eye-witness accounts of Native Americans in possession of gold. The Spanish expedition of Narvaez saw a Native American wearing gold trinkets in northwest Florida and inquired about the origins of the gold. The Indian told Narvaez that it came from a far-away province called Apalachen in mountains north of Florida obviously a reference to the Apalachian mountains that begin in north Georgia. Coincidentally, these same mountains were the site of America's rst gold rush.
PEORIA,ILLINOIS
The Peoria are Algonquian-speaking people, whose ancestors came from what is now Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio.[1] They were once thought to be descendants of the Cahokia Mississippian culture of Moundbuilders.[2] The Peoria were one of the many Illinois tribes encountered by the explorers, Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet. French Jesuit missionaries converted tribal members to Roman Catholicism.[2] Father Jacques Gravier, superior of the Illinois mission, compiled the most extensive dictionary of Kaskaskia Illinois-French terms, nearly 600 pages and 20,000 entries.[3] The Peoria migrated south into Missouri Territory after 1763.[2] In 1818, the Treaty of Edwardsville included the cession of Peoria lands in Illinois to the United States.[4] By the 1832 Treaty of Lewisville, they ceded Missouri lands in exchange for land in Kansas, near the Osage River.[2] Infectious disease, to which they had no natural immunity, and wars drastically reduced the tribe's numbers. Members of the Kaskaskia, Peoria, Piankeshaw, and Wea tribes formed a confederacy under the Peoria name. After the Civil War, most of the confederated tribe signed the 1867 Omnibus Treaty.[1] By this means, the US government purchased land from the Quapaw tribe and relocated the majority of the Peoria tribe to Indian Territory.[2] Under the Dawes Act and Curtis Act of 1898, the US government attempted to make individual allotments of land to heads of families, to allow separate ownership and cultivation of land, and break up the common landholdings of the tribes. It was part of an effort to have the tribes assimilate to European-American ways. At the same time, tribal governments were dismantled. In 1939 the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act and re-established its traditional government.[1] During the 1950s, the US government pursued a policy of Indian termination, ending its special relationship with tribes, and dissolved the Peoria tribal government. As a result, the tribe lost federal recognition in 1959. Tribal members objected and sought successfully to regain federal recognition in 1978.[2]
CAMPO COLORADO
Original American contact
See also: Paleo-Indians The rst Americans (Paleo-Indians) who arrived to the Great Plains were successive indigenous cultures who are known to have inhabited the Great Plains for thousands of years, perhaps 10,000 years. Humans entered the North American continent in waves of migration, mostly over Beringia, the Bering Straits land bridge. Historically, the Great Plains were the range of the bison and of the culture of the Plains Indians, whose tribes included the Blackfoot, Crow, Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and others. Eastern portions of the Great Plains were inhabited by tribes who lived in semipermanent villages of earth lodges, such as the Arikara, Mandan, Pawnee and Wichita. Between one-half and two-thirds of the Plains Indians had died of smallpox by the time of the Louisiana Purchase.
[4]
[edit]
European contact
With the arrival of Francisco Vzquez de Coronado, a Spanish conquistador, the rst recorded history of encounter between Europeans and Native Americans in the Great Plains occurred in Texas, Kansas and Nebraska from 1540-1542. In that same time period, Hernando de Soto crossed a west-northwest direction in what is now Oklahoma and Texas. Today this is known as the De Soto Trail. The Spanish thought the Great Plains were the location of the mythological Quivira and Cbola, a place said to be rich in gold. Over the next one hundred years, founding of the fur trade brought thousands of ethnic Europeans into the Great Plains. Fur trappers from France, Spain, Britain, Russia and the young United States made their way across much of the region, making regular rendezvous with Native Americans and fur traders. After the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and conducted the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804-1806, more information about the Plains became available and various pioneers entered the areas. Manuel Lisa, based in St. Louis, established a major fur trading site at his Fort Lisa on the Missouri River in Nebraska. Fur trading posts were often the basis of later settlements. Through the 19th century, more European Americans and Europeans migrated to the Great Plains as part of a vast westward expansion of population. New settlements became dotted across the Great Plains.
Burrows Ca ve
Burrows Ca ve
Burrows Ca ve
Tightly Knit Nomadic Community of African,Native American & Poor White Descent. Ishmael campsites formed the Nuclei of present day Black Communities and Ishmaelites of the Diaspora participated in the rise of BLACK NATIONALISM, contributing to the New Black Muslim Movements. Ben Ishmael preceded Drew Ali,Fard Muhammed,Malcolm X & Elijah Muhammad as an Early Islamic Saint in America. Founding Mecca,Morocco,Mahomet in Illinois
Targeted by Eugenic Advocates for Termination

Reservation Rolls 1817: A listing of those desiring a 640 acre tract in the east and permitted to reside there. Emigration Rolls 1817-35: Those who filed to emigrate to Arkansas country, and after 1828 to Oklahoma. Henderson Roll 1835: A census of over 16,000 Cherokee residing in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee and North Carolina who were to be removed to Oklahoma under the Treaty of New Echota (1835). Mullay Roll 1848: A census of 1,517 Cherokee people who remained in North Carolina after the Removal of 1838. John C. Mullay took the census, pursuant to an act of Congress in 1848. Siler Roll 1851: A listing of some 1,700 Eastern Cherokee who were entitled to a per capita payment, pursuant an act of Congress in 1850. Chapman Roll 1852: Prepared by Albert Chapman as a listing of those Cherokee actually receiving payment based on the Siler Census. Swetland Roll 1869: Prepared by S. H. Swetland as a listing of those Cherokee and their descendents who were listed as remaining in North Carolina by Mullay in 1848. Made pursuant to an act of Congress (1868) for a removal payment authorization. Hester Roll 1883: Compiled by Joseph G. Hester as a roll of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in 1883. This roll is an excellent source of information, including ancestors, Chapman Roll number, age, English name and Indian name. Churchill Roll 1908: Taken by Inspector Frank C. Churchill to certify members of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. Like the Hester Roll, it includes a lot of information, including degree of blood. Rejectees also are included. Guion Miller Roll 1909: Compiled by Mr Miller of all Eastern Cherokee, not Old Settlers, residing either east or west of the Mississippi. Ordered by Court of Claims as a result of a suit won by the Eastern Cherokee. See Guion Miller Roll West for more details. Baker Roll 1924: This was supposed to have been the final roll of the Eastern Cherokee. The land was to be alloted, and all were to become regular citizens. Fortunately, the Eastern Cherokee avoided the termination procedures, unlike their brothers of the Nation to the west. The Baker Roll Revised is the current membership roll of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina.
Cherokee Rolls: West of the Mississippi

Old Settler Roll 1851: A listing of Cherokee still living in 1851 who were already residing in Oklahoma when the main body of the Cherokee arrived in the winter of 1839--as a result of the Treaty of New Echota (1835). Approximately one third of the Cherokee people at that time were Old Settlers and two thirds were new arrivals. Drennen Roll 1852: The first census of the new arrivals of 1839. The New Echota Treaty group--"Trail of Tears." The Dawes Roll 1898-1914: The final roll for allotting the land and terminating the Cherokee nation of Oklahoma. Senator Henry L. Dawes was the commission's chairman and consequently, the name Dawes is associated with the final roll. The roll turned out to not be as final as it was expected to be. Upon the reorganization of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma in the 1970's, the Dawes Roll became the only means of certifying membership.
Many Treaties were initially signed granting Europeans to rights to TRADE & DO COMMERCE on Indian Land..Warring Tribes were known to Sell One another Out in the Interests of the Occupiers..
King Philip's War joined the Powhatan wars of 1610-14, 1622-32 and 1644-46[16] in Virginia, the Pequot War of 1637 in Connecticut, the Dutch-Indian war of 1643 along the Hudson River[17] and the Iroquois Beaver Wars of 1650[18] in a list of ongoing uprisings and conicts between various Native American tribes and the French, Dutch, and English colonial settlements of Canada, New York, and New England. In response to King Philip's War and King William's War (1689 97), many colonists from northeastern Maine relocated to Massachusetts and New Hampshire to avoid Wabanaki Indian raids
COCOA LEA VES
FLORIDA CHIEF
The two groups led an independent life in the wilderness of northern Florida, rearing several generations of children in freedomand they recognized the American settlers and slave owners as their common enemy. The Americans called the Florida Indians "Seminoles," from the Spanish word cimarron, meaning "wild" or "untamed"; and they called the runaway Gullahs "Seminole Negroes" or "Indian Negroes." Modern historians have called these free Gullah frontiersmen the "Black Seminoles." The Seminole settlements in Spanish Florida increased as more and more runaway slaves and renegade Indians escaped southand conict with the Americans was, sooner or later, inevitable. There were skirmishes in 1812 and 1816. In 1818, General Andrew Jackson led an American army into Florida to claim it for the United States, and war nally erupted. The blacks and Indians fought side-by-side in a desperate struggle to stop the American advance, but they were defeated and driven south into the more remote wilderness of central and southern Florida. General Jackson (later President) referred to this First Seminole War as an "Indian and Negro War." In 1835, the Second Seminole War broke out, and this full-scale guerrilla war would last for six years and claim the lives of 1,500 American soldiers. The Black Seminoles waged the ercest resistance, as they feared that capture or surrender meant death or return to slaveryand they were more adept at living and ghting in the jungles than their Indian comrades. The American commander, General Jesup, informed the War Department that, "This, you may be assured, is a negro and not an Indian war"; and a U.S. Congressman of the period commented that these black ghters were "contending against the whole military power of the United States." When the Army nally captured the Black Seminoles, ofcers refused to return them to slaveryfearing that these seasoned warriors, accustomed to their freedom, would wreak havoc on the Southern plantations. In 1842, the Army forcibly removed them, along with their Indian comrades, to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) in the unsettled West The Black Seminoles, exiled from their Florida strongholds, were forced to continue their struggle for freedom on the Western frontier. In Oklahoma, the Government put them under the authority of the Creek Indians, slave owners who tried to curb their freedom; and white slave traders came at night to kidnap their women and children. In 1850, a group of Black Seminoles and Seminole Indians escaped south across Texas to the desert badlands of northern Mexico. They established a free settlement and, as in Florida, began to attract runaway slaves from across the border. In 1855, a heavily armed band of Texas Rangers rode into Mexico to destroy the Seminole settlement, but the blacks and Indians stopped them and forced them back into the U.S. The Indians soon returned to Oklahoma, but the Black Seminoles remained in Mexico, ghting constantly to protect their settlement from the marauding Comanche and Apache Indians. In 1870, after emancipation of the slaves in the United States, the U.S. Cavalry in southern Texas invited some of the Black Seminoles to return and join the Armyand it ofcially established the "Seminole Negro Indian Scouts." In 1875, three of the Scouts won the Congressional Medal of HonorAmerica's highest military decorationin a single engagement with the Comanche Indians on the Pecos River. The Black Seminoles had ed the rice plantations, built their own free settlements in the Florida wilderness, and then fought almost continuously for fty years to preserve their freedom. It is little wonder they should provide some of the nest soldiers in the U.S. Cavalry.
Secret Articles, Treaty of New York Manuscript, 1790, National Archives. The fugitive slaves of Florida were so prominently troublesome that in 1790 George Washington concluded the first treaty in U.S. history, the Treaty of New York, for the express purpose of enlisting Creek Indians to hunt down the black fugitives. The treaty failed, but over the next four decades a long list of government initiatives took aim at the Black Seminoles. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Andrew Jackson -- in all, 10 of first 12 U.S. presidents led policies dealing with the group.
1813-14 THE CREEK WARS

The Creek War was instigated by General Andrew Jackson who sought to end Creek resistance to ceding their land to the US government. The Creek Nation was defeated and at the Treaty of Fort Jackson, the Creek lost 14 million acres, or two-thirds of their tribal lands. To count the Creek dead, whites cut off their noses, piling 557 of them. They also skinned their bodies to tan as souvenirs. This was the single largest cession of territory ever made in the southeast.
WASHITAW MASSACRE
Introduction On the morning of November 28, 1864, troops commanded by Colonel John M. Chivington attacked a band of Plains Indians of the Cheyenne tribe under Chief Black Kettle while the Indian village was camped on Sand Creek in Colorado Territory. The camp was just outside a reservation established in 1861 by the treaty of Fort Wise. Two months earlier on September 28, 1864, Black Kettle and White Antelope had met with Colorado Governor John Evans and Colonel Chivington at Camp Weld near Denver to discuss peace. While no formal peace arrangement had been made, the Indians had turned in their arms at Fort Lyon, camping along Sand Creek. When Black Kettle saw the soldiers charging his camp that morning, he raised an American ag plus a white ag in front of his tent to demonstrate his peaceful intent. The United States ag had been given to the Cheyenne by the government during treaty negotiations. White Antelope yelled in English, "Stop! Stop!" then, seeing that they did not stop their charge, stood with his arms folded as the troops galloped toward him, refusing to ght. The soldiers killed about 150 Indian men, women and children, including White Antelope. It had been an orgy of killing. Many of the victims had been physically mutilated by the soldiers. According to Congressional testimony, White Antelope's scrotum had been cut off, later to be used as a tobacco pouch. Soldiers had cut out the vaginal area from slain Indian women. Clusters of women had been shot trying to surrender. Children had been shot and clubbed to death. Their village was burned and several hundred horses captured. (Hoig, 1981, p. 66) (United States Congress, 1865, p. 96) On January 10, 1865, the House of Representatives directed the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War to investigate the attack, generating a report that charged Chivington of deliberately planning and executing "a foul and dastardly massacre." (Prucha, 1976, p. 12) The attack on Black Kettle's band was ofcially recognized by the United States government as "gross and wanton outrages" against the Indians. In the treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho of 1865 a number of chiefs, including Black Kettle, were individually granted parcels of land in an attempt to repudiate Chivington's actions. Article VI of the treaty read:
The United States being desirous to express its condemnation of, and, as far as may be, repudiate the gross and wanton outrages perpetrated against certain bands of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians by Colonel J.M. Chivington, in command of United States troops, on the twenty-night of November, A.D. 1864, at Sand Creek, in Colorado Territory, while the said Indians were at peace with the United States, and under its ag, whose protection they had by lawful authority been promised and induced to seek, and the government being desirous to make some suitable reparation for the injuries then done, will grant three hundred and twenty acres of land by patent to each of the following named chiefs of said bands, viz: Moke-ta-ve-to, or Black Kettle... (Fay, 1971, p. 19) Almost four years later to the day on November 27, 1868, the 7th Regiment of United State Cavalry, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, attacked Black Kettle's band again, but this time while the village was camped on the Washita River in Indian Territory, now the state of Oklahoma. The village was about 100 miles from Fort Cobb. Black Kettle and Little Robe had just returned from that fort the day before following a meeting with Colonel W.B. Hazen in an attempt to surrender. However, Hazen refused to accept their surrender and the chiefs were told to discuss peace directly with General Philip Sheridan, who, he informed the chiefs, was in the eld at that time. Immediately following the chiefs' return to their band, Sheridan's troops, under the command of Custer, charged the Cheyenne village at dawn, killing more than a hundred men, women and children of the tribe, including Chiefs Black Kettle and Little Rock. The village was burned and 800 of the Indian horses shot. (Hoig, 1976)
"The ght in the village lasted only a few minutes, although several hours were required to nish off isolated warriors who hid in gullies and underbrush. Custer's tally listed 103 ghting men killed. In truth, only 11 could be so classied... The other 92 were squaws, children, old men. A New York Tribune story by an unidentied witness compared the devastated camp to a slaughter pen littered with the bodies of animal and Indians smeared with mud, lying one on top of another in holes and ditches. It sounds as though Black Kettle's [Washita] camp lay in the path of Ghengis Khan. "Custer [then] turned to the herd of mules and ponies. Ofcers and scouts were allowed to keep any they wanted, after which ftythree captive women and children were instructed through interpreter Romero - known inevitably as Romeo - to choose mounts so they would not have to walk sixty or seventy miles to the base camp. Custer next detailed Lt. Godfrey with four companies to kill the remaining animals because he did not want the Cheyennes to recover them and it would have been difcult or impossible to drive such a herd. Godfrey's executioners at rst tried to cut their throats, but this turned out to be increasingly difcult because they [the horses] could not abide the odor of white men and struggled desperately whenever a soldier approached. After a while, says Godfrey, his men were getting tired, so he sent for reinforcements and the creatures were shot. Even with extra men it took some time because there were about eight hundred ponies and mules, and when the job was done the snowy Oklahoma eld bloomed with dark owers."
Son of the Morning Star, Evan S. Connell] Traditionally, the attack on Sand Creek has been referred to as the Sand Creek Massacre, while the attack on the Washita River has been known as the Battle of the Washita. At face value, both engagements appear to be unusually similar, yet one is known as a massacre and one as a battle. What caused this difference in terminology? Because a Congressional investigation termed the attack on Sand Creek a massacre, this appellation will not be challenged. In fact, most - if not all - historians accept the Sand Creek incident as a massacre. However, the military strike on the Washita River has been a subject of controversy. Some historians, such as Stan Hoig, say it was, indeed, a massacre, while others, such as Paul Hutton, claim it was not. The task of this investigation will be to attempt to determine whether the attack was a battle, as traditionally portrayed, or a massacre. If it were a battle, the preponderance of evidence must show that the attack was a "hostile encounter between opposing military forces," the denition of a battle according to the Random House Webster's College Dictionary (1991). On the other hand, if the attack was a massacre, evidence must demonstrate that the attack was "the wanton killing of a large number of unresisting human beings."
HEADQUARTERS SEVENTH U. S. CAVALRY,} IN THE FIELD ON THE WASHITA RIVER } November 28, 1868. } Major-General P. H. Sheridan, Commanding Department of the Missouri: GENERAL.--On the morning of the 26th inst., this command, comprising eleven troops of the Seventh Cavalry, struck the trail of an Indian war party, numbering about one hundred (100) warriors. The trail was not quite twenty-four hours old, and was rst discovered near the point where the Texas boundary line crosses the Canadian river. The direction was toward the southeast. The ground being covered by over twelve inches of snow, no difculty was experienced in following the trail. A vigorous pursuit was at once instituted. Wagons, tents, and all other impediments to a rapid march were abandoned. From daylight until 9 o'clock at night the pursuit was unchecked. Horses and men were then allowed one hour for refreshment, and at 10 P. M. the march was resumed and continued until 1.30 A. M., when our Osage traders reported a village within less than a mile from our advance. The column was countermarched and withdrew to a retired point to prevent discovery. After reconnoitring with all the ofcers of the command the location of the village, which was situated in a strip of heavy timber, I divided the command into four columns of nearly equal strength; the rst, consisting of three companies, under Major Elliott, was to attack in the timber from below the village; the second column, under Lt. Col. Myers, was to move down the Washita and to attack in the timber from above; Brevet Col. Thompson, in command of the third column, was to attack from the crest north of the village, while the fourth column was to charge the village from the crest overlooking it on the left bank of the Washita. The hour at which the four columns were to charge simultaneously, was the rst dawn of day, and, notwithstanding the fact that two of the columns were compelled to march several miles to reach their positions, three of them made the attack so near together as to make it appear like one charge, The other column was only a few moments late. There never was a more complete surprise. My men charged the village, and reached the lodge before the Indians were aware of our presence. The moment the charge was ordered, the band struck up "Garrey Owen," and, with cheers that strongly reminded me of scenes during the war, every trooper, led by his ofcer, rushed toward the village. The Indians were caught napping for once, and the warriors rushed from their lodges and posted themselves behind trees and in the deep ravines, from which they began a most determined defense. The lodges and all their contents were in our possession within a few minutes after the charge was ordered; but the real ghting, which has rarely, if ever, been equaled in Indian warfare, began when attempting to clear out or kill the warriors posted in ravines and underbrush; charge after charge was made, and most gallantly too, but the Indians had resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible. After a desperate conict of several hours, our efforts were crowned with the most complete and gratifying success.
The entire village, numbering forty-seven lodges of Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes, two lodges of Arapahoes, and two lodges of Sioux--fty-one lodges in all, under command of their principal chief Black Kettle--fell into our hands. By a strict and careful examination, after the battle, the following gures give some of the fruits of our victory: The Indians left on the ground, and in our possession, the bodies of 103 of their warriors, including Black Kettle himself, whose scalp is now in the possession of one of our Osage guides. We captured, in good condition, 875 horses, ponies and mules. 241 saddles, some of very ne and costly workmanship; 523 buffalo robes, 210 axes, 140 hatchets, 35 revolvers, 47 ries, 535 pounds of powder, 1,050 pounds of lead, 4,000 arrows, 90 bullet-molds, 35 bows and quivers, 12 shields, 300 pounds of bullets, 775 lariats, 940 buckskin saddle-bags, 470 blankets, 93 coats, 700 pounds of tobacco. In addition, we captured all their winter supply of dried buffalo meat, all their meal, our, and other provisions, and, in fact, everything they possessed, even driving the warriors from the village with little or no clothing. We destroyed everything of value to the Indians, and have now in our possession, as prisoners of war, fty-three squaws, and their children. Among the prisoners are the survivors of Black Kettle's and the family of Little Rock. We also secured two white children held captive by the Indians. One white woman, who was in their possession, was murdered by her captors the moment we attacked. A white boy held captive, about ten years old, when about to be secured, was brutally murdered by a squaw, who ripped out his entrails with a knife. The Kiowas, under Satanta, and Arapahoes, under Little Raven, were encamped six miles below Black Kettle's village, and the warriors from these two villages came to attempt the rescue of the Cheyennes. They attacked my command on all sides about noon, hoping to recover the squaws and herds of the Cheyennes. In their attack they displayed great boldness, and compelled me to use all my force to repel them, but the counter-charge of the cavalry was more than they could stand; by three o'clock we drove them in all directions, pursuing them several miles. I then moved my entire command in search of the village of the Kiowas and Arapahoes, but after a march of eighty miles, discovered they had taken alarm at the fate of the Cheyenne village, and had ed.
I was then three days march from where I had left my train of supplies, and knew that wagons would not follow me, as the trail had led me over a section of country so cut up by ravines and other obstructions that cavalry could with difculty move over it. The supplies carried from the train on the persons of the men were exhausted. My men, from loss of sleep, and hard service, were wearied out; my horses were in the same condition for want of forage. I therefore began the return march about 8 P. M., and found my train of supplies at this point, it having only accomplished sixteen miles since I left it. In the excitement of the ght, as well as in self-defense, it so happened that some of the squaws and a few children were killed and wounded. The latter I have brought with me, and they have received all the needful attention the circumstances of the case permit. Many of the squaws were taken with arms in their hands, and several of my command are known to have been wounded by them. The desperate character of the combat may be inferred from the fact that after the battle the bodies of thirty-eight dead warriors were found in a small ravine near the village in which they had posted themselves. I now have to report the loss suffered by my own command. I regret to mention among the killed, Major Joel H. Elliott and Capt. Louis McLane Hamilton, and nineteen enlisted men; the wounded include three ofcers and eleven enlisted men--in all thirty-ve. Of the ofcers, Brevet Lieut.-Col. Barnitz, Capt. Seventh Cavalry, is seriously, if not mortally wounded. Brevet Lieut.-Col. J. W. Custar and Second Lieut. J. Z. March, Seventh Cavalry, are slightly wounded. Brevet Lieut.-Col. F. W. Benteen had his horse shot under him by a son of Black Kettle, whom he afterward killed. Col. Barnitz, before receiving his wound, killed two warriors. I cannot sufciently commend the admirable conduct of the ofcers and men. This command has marched constantly ve days, amidst terrible snowstorms, and over a rough country covered by more than twelve inches of snow. Ofcers and men have slept in the snow without tents. The night preceding the attack, ofcers and men stood at their horse's heads for hours, awaiting the moment of attack, and this, too, when the temperature was far below the freezing point. They have endured every privation, and fought with unsurpassed gallantry against a powerful and well armed foe, and, from rst to last, I have not heard a single murmur; but on the contrary, the ofcers and men of the several squadrons and companies seemed to vie with each other in their attention to duty, and their patience and perseverance under difculties. Every ofcer, man, scout and Indian guide, did their full duty. I only regret the loss of the gallant spirits who fell in the battle of the Washita. Those whose loss we are called upon to deplore were among our bravest and best. Respectfully subscribed. G. A. Custar, Lieut-Col. Seventh Cavalry, Brevet Major-General U. S. A.
The slave rebellion the country tried to forget
GULLAH WARS
1836 wood engraving printed for Blanchard's narrative of the war. Caption reads: "The above is intended to represent the horrid Massacre of the Whites in Florida, in December 1835, and January, February, March and April 1836, when near Four Hundred (including women and children) fell victim to the barbarity of the Negroes and Indians.
DENMARK VESSEY CONSPIRACY
On May 30, 1822, George Wilson, "a favourite and condential slave" informed his master of a planned insurrection that involved thousands of free and enslaved blacks who lived in and around Charleston. Charleston authorities subsequently uncovered evidence of the most extensive black insurrection in American history, planned for July, 1822. The city's suppression of the African Church, which boasted a membership of over three thousand in 1820, provided the catalyst for revolt; Denmark Vesey began using his position as a respected free man and Methodist leader to organize other free and enslaved blacks. Among Vesey's co-conspirators was Gullah Jack Pritchard, an African priest from Mozambique. Monday Gell, another of his lieutenants, wrote two letters to the president of Santo Domingo seeking support for the insurrection. Once the plot was betrayed, Charleston ofcials moved quickly to arrest and question the leaders. Following a lengthy trial, Vesey and thirty-six others were hanged. On the day of Vesey's execution, state militia and federal troops had to be called out to contain a demonstration by black supporters. Despite arrests and beatings, many blacks deed authorities by wearing mourning black as they witnessed the executions of the chief co-conspirators
LEGENDARY SEMINOLE WAR WARRIORS
OSCEOLA
WILD CAT
MICANOPY
WITHLACOOCHEE RIVER BATTLE
As soon as the word of Major Dade's defeat was known in early 1836, General Gaines started a campaign to strike a blow against the Seminoles. He rushed a command of about 1100 regulars and volunteers from New Orleans to Tampa Bay. Reaching Fort Brooke, the command marched north, where they found and buried the remains of Dade's command. After that, they went to free Fort King from Osceola's blockade. They found no Indians, and were short of supplies; Fort King having little to give. They could only get a short supply northeast at Fort Drane. Gaines' command was left with only two days provisions, and decided to march his men back to Tampa Bay. But, this time return on the west side of the Withlacoochee River; to strike a blow against the Seminoles in their stronghold known as, "the Cove of the Withlacoochee." Getting to the Withlacoochee River, they found the Seminoles in force, and had a running skirmish for about two days. Gaines sent for General Clinch's forces to back him up, while he kept his command on one side of the river to keep the Seminoles in the area amused until Clinch arrived. This is when things went wrong for Gaines. General Scott had arrived to take command of all forces in Florida. Scott believed that Gaines had spoiled the chance for any surprise strike against the Seminoles, and ordered Clinch to remain at Fort Drane. Gaines was thus trapped and surrounded by a larger sized Seminole and Miccosukie force. Lieutenant Izard was shot in the head while at the river bank, and suffered a few painful days until his death. The site was named Camp Izard in his honor by Gaines. There was a fort at this crossing during the war, and later a community named Fort Izard. Gaines himself was shot in the mouth, losing two teeth. The army command was there for over a week, and the men were out of supplies and starving. Finally, the Seminoles under Micanopy, Jumper, and Osceola, decided to call a truce and hold a talk with the general. Unknown to everyone, General Clinch had decided to disobey General Scott's orders, and ordered a force to rescue Gaines. (It is said that Clinch's men at Fort Drane could even hear Gaines' cannon re, but were helpless to do anything about it.) Clinch arrived and red on the negotiating Seminole party, chasing them away, and ruining any chance of talks to end the war.
From 1835-1838 in Florida, the Black Seminoles, the African allies of Seminole Indians, led the largest slave rebellion in U.S. history.[1] The uprising peaked in 1836 when hundreds of slaves fled their plantations to join the rebel forces in the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). At the heights of the revolt, at least 385 slaves fought alongside the black and Indian Seminole allies, helping them destroy more than twenty-one sugar plantations in central Florida, at the time one of the most highly developed agricultural regions in North America.[2]
Three enemies, one war

During the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), the U.S. fought rebels from three distinct communities: Seminole Indians: The largest enemy force and the only one the South preferred to acknowledge. Black Seminoles: Black allies with established ties to the Indians, known as maroons or Seminole Negroes. Plantation slaves: Recent recruits who fled plantations at the outset of the war. Amazingly, one would hardly know any of this from the country's textbooks. For over 150 years, American scholars have failed to recognize the true size and scope of the 1835-1838 rebellion. Historians have focused on the Indian warriors of the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), with some attention to the maroon fighters (the Black Seminoles) but almost none to the plantation-slaves.[3] Though Southern slaveholders dared not say it, the Florida uprising had mushroomed into the largest slave rebellion that the country had ever seen. By April of 1836, at least 385 field slaves had defected to the Seminoles. These plantation rebels joined 500-800 Black Seminole maroons already prominent in the Seminole ranks. Based on the number of plantation rebels alone, the rebellion was far and away the largest in U.S. history.
GULLAH WARS
Black SeminolesGullahs Who Escaped From Slavery

Abraham, a Black Seminole Leader in the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). The Indians called him "Souanaffe Tustenukke," a title indicating membership in the highest of the three ranks of war leaders. He is wearing typical Seminole dress and holding a rifle.
The Black Seminoles are a small offshoot of the Gullah who escaped from the rice plantations in South Carolina and Georgia. They built their own settlements on the Florida frontier, fought a series of wars to preserve their freedom, and were scattered across North America. They have played a signicant role in American history, but have never received the recognition they deserve. Some Gullah slaves managed to escape from coastal South Carolina and Georgia south into the Florida peninsula. In the 18th century Florida was a vast tropical wilderness, covered with jungles and malaria-ridden swamps. The Spanish claimed Florida, but they used it only as a buffer between the British Colonies and their own settled territories farther south. They wanted to keep Florida as a dangerous wilderness frontier, so they offered a refuge to escaped slaves and renegade Indians from neighboring South Carolina and Georgia. The Gullahs were establishing their own free settlements in the Florida wilderness by at least the late 1700s. They built separate villages of thatched-roof houses surrounded by elds of corn and swamp rice, and they maintained friendly relations with the mixed population of refugee Indians. In time, the two groups came to view themselves as parts of the same loosely organized tribe, in which blacks held important positions of leadership. The Gullahs adopted Indian clothing, while the Indians acquired a taste for rice and appreciation for Gullah music and folklore. But the Gullahs were physically more suited to the tropical climate and possessed an indispensable knowledge of tropical agriculture; and, without their assistance, the Indians would not be able to effectively cope with the Florida enviroment.
The fate of the Black Seminoles took a serious downturn in 1829 with the inauguration of Andrew Jackson as the seventh president of the United States. Jackson, their personal nemesis, had already waged one war on the Seminole allies. His policy of Indian Removal would soon spark another.
Faced with the prospect of forced emigration from Florida to the West, the Seminole allies stood firm during negotiations in 1834-1835. American officers attributed Seminole resolve to the influence of black warriors and Osceola, an "Indian" chief who had strong English ancestry and a large number of African American followers.
In their pleas for help, Florida's leaders emphasized the terror of the Black Seminoles, "better disciplined and more intelligent than [the Indians], to whom there is a daily accession of runaway Negroes from the plantations.
Throughout John Horse's youth, Black Seminoles lived in separate, well-armed black communities. Many individual blacks were considered slaves of the leading Indian chiefs, like the principal chief Micanopy, and yet the blacks were able to retain firearms, live apart from their masters, and select their own leaders. Observers in the 1820s and 1830s described Seminole slavery as a mild system, much closer to feudalism than the South's peculiar institution. The system would change in later years, creating serious conflicts between blacks and their Indian masters.
William McIntosh, the Coweta Creek chief who colluded with Andrew Jackson to wage war on the Seminoles and lead slave raids against the maroons. Handcolored lithograph from the McKenney-Hall History of the Indian tribes of North America (1858)
Under the protection of black warriors and British arms, a community began to flourish. Situated just 60 miles from Georgia, the fort attracted upwards of 1,000 black refugees. Fugitives and maroons took up residence in the surrounding fields. By 1816, they were cultivating crops and pastures for 45 miles up and down the river.
"The force of the Negroes was daily increasing, and they felt themselves so strong and secure that they commenced several plantations on the fertile banks of the Apalachicola." -- Commodore Daniel Patterson
By taking women, children, and blacks as hostages, and by burning settlements like that of the Black Seminole leader Abraham, Jesup convinced the Seminole allies to negotiate for peace. In March of 1837, Jesup and Abraham brokered a deal -- but it quickly became controversial
Jesup held John Horse, Osceola, and the leading Indian chiefs as prisoners in Fort Marion, the strongest fort in Florida (known to the Spanish, and known again today, as el Castillo de San Marcos). Faced with desperate circumstances, with their resistance dying, John Horse and his allies dreamed of the impossible, then achieved it, staging a daring escape to renew the war.
TECUMSEH
Tecumseh, a Shawnee, is perhaps the best known of all Indian participants of the War of 1812.
The Shawnee probably originated in the Ohio Valley, although there is much doubt as to their ancestral home. Their name is a Delaware word meaning Southerners. They had at one time or another villages in South Carolina, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Alabama, and Ohio. They were considered a roving people although they practiced agriculture wherever they located their villages. They spoke an Algonquin dialect and were woodland in their culture and habits. By the early nineteenth century the Shawnee were living in three separate locations. Some were with the Creek in Georgia and Alabama, some were on the Cumberland River in Tennessee and some were with the Delaware on the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania. Due to white pressure on the lands and intertribal disputes the Cumberland and Susquehanna Shawnee joined together north of the Ohio River in the 1750s. The Shawnee were allies of the French during the French and Indian War, fought in 1763 with Pontiac against the British; and some were involved in Lord Dunmore's War of 1774. They became British allies during the American Revolution and led many forays against American settlements in Kentucky. Not all of the Shawnee were enthusiastic supporters of the war effort. During the 1770s and 1780s a large group left the Ohio valley and moved across the Mississippi River into Missouri. This group eventually became known as the Absentee Shawnee. They split again after 1803 with a large faction moving south to Texas. The Ohio or Eastern Shawnee continued their resistance until the defeat of the allied Indian nations at Fallen Timbers in 1793. At the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 they were forced to cede most of their land to the American government. The Ohio Shawnee split into three groups, two of which stayed in Ohio. The third group, the Anti-Greenville faction, moved west to the Wabash River in Indiana. It was during this time that the Shawnee warrior Tecumseh emerged as a commanding figure among the Ohio River tribes.
Tecumseh was born of a Shawnee father and Creek mother about 1768 near the Mad River of Ohio. As a teenager he fought against the Americans during the Revolution and was a participant at Harmars defeat, St. Clairs defeat (Kekionga), and the Battle of Fallen Timbers. He was against the signing of the Greenville treaty and was part of the faction that moved west to the Wabash River.About 1805 Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa, The Prophet, began their effort to organize all of the Indian tribes into a confederacy that would resist any further sale of Indian land to white governments. The Prophet preached a return to the traditional Indian way of life and a rejection of all things white, including liquor. Tecumseh traveled from Indian nation to Indian nation trying to unite them into a single front opposing white land aggression. With some tribes he was very successful, and with others he received little support. By 1811 Tecumsehs main village, located on the Tippecanoe River, contained over 700 warriors, mostly Kickapoo and Potawatomie tribes, with some Delaware, Sauk, Winnebago, Wyandot, and Creek. Very few Shawnee followed the preachings of Tecumseh or the Prophet. This large village posed such a potential threat to American expansion that the Indiana Territorial Governor, William Henry Harrison, led an expedition against it in the fall of 1811. Harrison was trespassing on unceded land and forced the united warriors to resist his trespass. The ensuing battle was a draw, but Harrison did destroy the village at Tippecanoe. Harrison struck while Tecumseh was far to the south preaching to the Creek. When Tecumseh returned, his confederacy was shattered and he led his followers to Canada. During the War of 1812, Tecumseh led his warriors during the campaigns at Detroit and Fort Meigs. Most of his forays were successful and as victory followed victory, more warriors joined him in Canada. At one point before the British retreat back into Canada Tecumseh led over 3000 Indian warriors. When British General Henry Proctor decided to lift the siege of Fort Meigs and return to Canada, many of the Indian allies deserted. Tecumseh forced the British to make a stand along the Thames River and during the ensuing battle, he was killed. About 700 Indian allies followed the British retreat to the east and Lake Ontario. They played little role during the final months of the war. Many eventually returned to their homes in the Ohio valley. Except for the few Shawnee who followed Tecumseh at Tippecanoe the nation generally adopted a neutral stance during the war. The Ohio faction declared their neutrality early in the war and were able to remain on their lands until 1831, when they were forced to move to Kansas and Oklahoma. The Shawnee living in Missouri were largely neutral, but some did assist the Missouri militia against northern Indians who were raiding into Missouri. They too eventually were forced to move west to Kansas and Oklahoma. The nation has remained separated until this day.
General Jackson, in his official report of this battle, refers to the desperation with which the negroes fought, and says they left many dead upon the field, but does not mention their number. He entered the town and set fire to the buildings, and burned all the villages in the vicinity. He also captured some three hundred Indian women and children, while those belonging to the Exiles had been carefully removed beyond the reach of the American army. This superior caution and provident care appears to mark the character of the Exiles in all their conduct; while the Indiana appear to have practised none of these precautions. But the allied forces, defeated, and their warriors scattered in various directions, were pursued by McIntosh and his Creek warriors, who had accompanied General Jackson, until fearing the Seminoles might rally in force against them, they returned and again united with the American army. This battle substantially closed the war of 1818. It had been commenced for the destruction of the Exiles; they had shared in its dangers, and by their energy and boldness, had given intensity to its conflicts. From the time they united in the expedition for the destruction of Lieutenant Scott and his party, in November, 1817, until the close of the battle of Suwanee, they had been active participants in every skirmish, and had uniformly displayed great firmness; bearing testimony to the truth of those historians who have awarded to the African race the merit of great physical courage. General Jackson appears to have spoken as little of the Exiles as duty would permit, when communicating with the Secretary of War; yet he was more free to complain of them in his correspondence with the Governor of Pensacola. In a letter to that officer, dated a few days after the battle of Suwanee, he says: "Negroes who have fled from their masters, citizens of the United States, have raised the tomahawk, and, in the character Of savage warrior have spared neither age nor sex. Helpless women have been massacred, and the cradle crimsoned with blood."
1818 BATTLE OF SUWANEE
NEGRO FORT
The ruined fort was built by the British during the War of 1812 and left to their black allies (300 African Americans and 30 Seminole and Choctaw Indians) when they departed in 1815. The were left with a substantial artillery, ammunitions, including 700 kegs of gunpowder. The fort attracted as many as 800 black fugitives, some from as far away as Tennessee and the Mississippi Territory, who settled in the surrounding area. The fort was under the command of a black man named Garson and a Choctaw chief (whose name is not known). They often launched raids across the Georgia border. Negro Fort was perceived as a threat to white slaveholders in Georgia. In July of that year, Major General Jackson gave the order to Col. Clinch to destroy Negro Fort and to return the blacks to their white owners. On July 27, 1816 during the insuing warfare, an American "hot shot" shell hit the open magazine within the fort, killing approximately 300 men, women, and children. The eyewitness accounts of the event reveal "arms and legs and bodies spewed all over the area" and thousands of muskets and other rearms found. The few survivors were taken prisoner and turned over to Georgia slaveholders. Garson was shot on the spot and the Choctaw chief was killed and scalped by the Creek Indians, American allies. Andrew Jackson himself said the war was designed to destroy the "escaped slave" black towns in Florida depriving them of places of refuge. Fort Gadsden(later a confederate fort) was constructed over the site of the ruins of Negro Fort.
Between 1790 and 1830 the population of Georgia increased six-fold. The western push of the settlers created a problem. Georgians continued to take Native American lands and force them into the frontier. By 1825 the Lower Creek had been completely removed from the state under provisions of the Treaty of Indian Springs. By 1827 the Creek were gone. Cherokee had long called western Georgia home. The Cherokee Nation continued in their enchanted land until 1828. It was then that the rumored gold, for which De Soto had relentlessly searched, was discovered in the North Georgia mountains.
In 1838 the United States began the removal to Oklahoma, fulfilling a promise the government made to Georgia in 1802. Ordered to move on the Cherokee, General John Wool resigned his command in protest, delaying the action. His replacement, General Winfield Scott, arrived at New Echota on May 17, 1838 with 7000 men. Early that summer General Scott and the United States Army began the invasion of the Cherokee Nation.
In his book Don't Know Much About History, Kenneth C. Davis writes: Hollywood has left the impression that the great Indian wars came in the Old West during the late 1800's, a period that many think of simplistically as the "cowboy and Indian" days. But in fact that was a "mopping up" effort. By that time the Indians were nearly finished, their subjugation complete, their numbers decimated. The killing, enslavement, and land theft had begun with the arrival of the Europeans. But it may have reached its nadir when it became federal policy under President (Andrew) Jackson. The Cherokees in 1828 were not nomadic savages. In fact, they had assimilated many European-style customs, including the wearing of gowns by Cherokee women. They built roads, schools and churches, had a system of representational government, and were farmers and cattle ranchers. A Cherokee alphabet, the "Talking Leaves" was perfected by Sequoyah. "I would sooner be honestly damned than hypocritically immortalized" Davy Crockett His political career destroyed because he supported the Cherokee, he left Washington D. C. and headed west to Texas. In 1830 the Congress of the United States passed the "Indian Removal Act." Although many Americans were against the act, most notably Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett, it passed anyway. President Jackson quickly signed the bill into law. The Cherokees attempted to fight removal legally by challenging the removal laws in the Supreme Court and by establishing an independent Cherokee Nation. At first the court seemed to rule against the Indians. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, the Court refused to hear a case extending Georgia's laws on the Cherokee because they did not represent a sovereign nation. In 1832, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee on the same issue in Worcester v. Georgia. In this case Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokee Nation was sovereign, making the removal laws invalid. The Cherokee would have to agree to removal in a treaty. The treaty then would have to be ratified by the Senate.
Painting by Robert Lindneux
Woolaroc Museum
In one of the saddest episodes of our brief history, men, women, and children were taken from their land, herded into makeshift forts with minimal facilities and food, then forced to march a thousand miles(Some made part of the trip by boat in equally horrible conditions). Under the generally indifferent army commanders, human losses for the first groups of Cherokee removed were extremely high
In 1838 the United States began the removal to Oklahoma, fulfilling a promise the government made to Georgia in 1802. Ordered to move on the Cherokee, General John Wool resigned his command in protest, delaying the action. His replacement, General Winfield Scott, arrived at New Echota on May 17, 1838 with 7000 men. Early that summer General Scott and the United States Army began the invasion of the Cherokee Nation. Painting by Robert Lindneux Woolaroc Museum In one of the saddest episodes of our brief history, men, women, and children were taken from their land, herded into makeshift forts with minimal facilities and food, then forced to march a thousand miles(Some made part of the trip by boat in equally horrible conditions). Under the generally indifferent army commanders, human losses for the first groups of Cherokee removed were extremely high
WEST INDIAN WARRIORS
HAITI
MISSISIPPI
NEGRO LEAGUES
EL MALIK SHABAZZ
EL MALIK SHABAZZ
EL MALIK SHABAZZ
EL MALIK SHABAZZ
EL RUKN
While many people are familiar with Madame H.P. Blavatsky and G.I. Gurdjieff, few are aware of the mystic teacher who is credited with laying the foundation for the spread of Islam among Black Americans. Early in the twentieth century, Noble Drew Ali (born Timothy Drew), the self-taught son of former Black slaves, took a job as a merchant seaman and found himself in Egypt. According to one legend, Noble Drew Ali traveled around the world before the age of twenty-seven, in an effort to discover all he could about the heritage of his people and the tenets of Islam. It is commonly believed he received a mandate from the king of Morocco to instruct Black Americans in Islam. At the Pyramid of Cheops he received initiation and took the Muslim name Sharif [Noble] Abdul Ali; in America he would be known as Noble Drew Ali. On his return to the United States in 1913 he founded the Moorish Science Temple, to uplift fallen humanity by returning the nationality, divine creed and culture to persons of Moorish descent in the Western Hemisphere. A charismatic leader, Noble Drew Ali taught that the true origin of Black Americans was Asiatic, and Islam their original religion. The fallen sons and daughters of the Asiatic Nation of North America, he wrote, need to learn to love instead of hate; and to know of their higher self and lower self. Allah, the one true God, has been known by many names, but everywhere His is the causeless cause, the rootless root from which all things have grown. Noble Drew Ali acknowledged Prophet Muhammad as the founder of the reuniting of Islam and the promised one foretold by Jesus. All prophets came with basically the same message, and Islam was the original divine faith to which Muhammad called people to return. Through his message thousands of Black Americans were exposed to Moorish history, culture, religion, as well as the Islamic principles of Love, Truth, Peace, Freedom, and Justice. But his meteoric success brought disaster. Noble Drew Ali died in 1929, in the words of one commentator, some say from severe police beatings, others say he was assassinated by his rivals in the movement. In his sincerity and undoubted innocence, Noble Drew Ali met a martyrs end.
NOBLE DREW ALI

Mysticism is the science of removing mental limitations. A mystic is one who learns through practice to be able to look behind the veil of limitations and sees more clearly with more senses awakened.
MIGHTY MOORISH EMPIRE
ONE WOULD THINK THAT AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS WOULD HAVE REJECTED THE RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE & SPIRITUAL RELIEF. YET HISTORICALLY SPEAKING RELATIVELY FEW AFRICAN AMERICANS HAVE TURNED AWAY FROM TRADITIONAL CHRISTIANS CIRCLES IN ORDER TO FIND A GREATER UNDERSTANDING OF THEMSELVES AND THE WORLD IN WHICH THEY LIVE.BUT ONE ALTERNATIVE HAS BEEN THE MOORISH SCIENCE TEMPLE WHICH EMERGED IN THE EARLY 1900S
THE MOORISH SCIENCE TEMPLE OF AMERICA BEGAN FIRST AS THE CANAANITE TEMPLE IN1913. THE CANAANITE TEMPLE AND THE SUBSEQUENT MOORISH HOLY TEMPLE OF SCIENCE AND FINALLY MOORISH SCIENCE TEMPLE OF AMERICA BASED UPON TEACHINGS OF NOBLE DREW ALI.
MOORISH ZIONIST TEMPLES OF HARLEM CIRCA 1920
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., National Hero of Jamaica (17 August 1887 10 June 1940[1]) was a publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, Black Nationalist, PanAfricanist, and orator. Marcus Garvey was founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL).[2] Prior to the twentieth century, leaders such as Prince Hall, Martin Delany, Edward Wilmot Blyden, and Henry Highland Garnet advocated the involvement of the African diaspora in African affairs. Garvey was unique in advancing a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement focusing on Africa known as Garveyism.[2] Promoted by the UNIA as a movement of African Redemption, Garveyism would eventually inspire others, ranging from the Nation of Islam, to the Rastafari movement (which proclaims Garvey as a prophet). The intention of the movement was for those of African ancestry to "redeem" Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave it. His essential ideas about Africa were stated in an editorial in the Negro World titled African Fundamentalism
GARVEY
WORLD FAIRS
The World's Columbian Exposition is the ofcial shortened name for the 'World's Fair: Columbian Exposition,'[1] also known as The Chicago World's Fair was a World's Fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492. Chicago bested New York City; Washington, D.C.; and St. Louis, Missouri, for the honor of hosting the fair. The fair had a profound effect on architecture, the arts, Chicago's self-image, and American industrial optimism. The Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in large part, designed by Daniel Burnham and Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French Classical Architecture principles based on symmetry, balance and splendour.
THE GREAT EXHIBITION

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations or The Great Exhibition, sometimes referred to as the Crystal Palace Exhibition in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held, was an international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851. It was the rst in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to become a popular 19th-century feature. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the spouse of the reigning monarch, Victoria. It was attended by numerous notable gures of the time, including Charles Darwin, members of the Orlanist Royal Family and the writers Charlotte Bront, Lewis Carroll, and George Eliot.
A "Negro village" (village ngre) where 400 indigenous people were displayed constituted the major attraction.[4] Matching closely opening day of the Exposition, the Opra Comique premiered on 14 May 1889, a work especially composed for that event: Jules Massenet's Esclarmonde (debuting American soprano Sybil Sanderson, attracting and entertain crowd of visitors for more that 50 evenings while the Exposition lasted. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy rst heard Javanese gamelan music, performed by an ensemble from Java. David Toop, a modern musical critic, denotes Debussy's experience at the fair to mark the start of an ambient music, one which has since grown through a tree of successive musical innovators, including Sun Ra, John Cage, and innumerable others. Toop expounds upon Debussy's importance in his 1995 exegesis on ambient sound, Ocean of Sound. William Stroudley, locomotive superintendent of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway died whilst at the exhibition, where he was exhibiting one of his locomotives. Heineken received the Grand Prix (English: Grand Prize) at the exposition. Buffalo Bill recruited American sharpshooter Annie Oakley to rejoin his 'Wild West Show', which performed for packed audiences throughout the Exposition. Other prominent visitors included the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) and his wife, Princess Alexandra; artists James McNeill Whistler, Edvard Munch, Rosa Bonheur, Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh; U.S. journalist and diplomat Whitelaw Reid; author Henry James; Filipino patriot Jose Rizal; and inventor Thomas Edison A central attraction in the French section was the Imperial Diamond, at the time the largest brilliant in the world[5].
Santa Maria
Santa Maria Pinta & Nina Replicas
HUMAN ZOOS
Human zoos (also called "ethnological expositions" or "Negro Villages") were 19th and 20th century public exhibits of humans, usually in a "natural" or "primitive" state. The displays often emphasized the cultural differences between Europeans of Western civilisation and non-European peoples. Ethnographic zoos were often predicated on unilinealism, scientic racism, and a version of Social Darwinism. A number of them placed indigenous people (particularly Africans) in a continuum somewhere between the great apes and humans of European descent. Ethnographic zoos have since been criticized as highly degrading and racist.
In the Western Hemisphere, one of the earliest-known zoos, that of Moctezuma in Mexico, consisted not only of a vast collection of animals, but also exhibited unusual humans, for example, dwarves, albinos and hunchbacks. [1] During the Renaissance, the Medicis developed a large menagerie in the Vatican. In the 16th century, Cardinal Hippolytus Medici had a collection of people of different races as well as exotic animals. He is reported as having a troup of "Barbarians", speaking over twenty languages and there were also Moors, Tartars, Indians, Turks and Africans. [2] One of the rst modern public human exhibitions was P.T. Barnum's exhibition of Joice Heth on February 25, 1835[3] and, subsequently, the Siamese twins Chang and Eng Bunker. These exhibitions were common in freak shows. However, the notion of the human curiosity has a history at least as long as colonialism. For instance, Columbus brought indigenous Americans from his voyages in the New World to the Spanish court in 1493.[4] Another famous example was that of Saartjie Baartman of the Namaqua, often referred to as the Hottentot Venus, who was displayed in London and France until her death in 1815. During the 1850s, Maximo and Bartola, two microcephalic children from Mexico, were exhibited in the US and Europe under the names "Aztec Children" and "Aztec Lilliputians" [5]. However, human zoos would become common only in the 1870s in the midst of the New Imperialism period.
Exhibitions of exotic populations became popular in various countries in the 1870s. Human zoos could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York, and Warsaw with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. In Germany, Carl Hagenbeck, a merchant in wild animals and future entrepreneur of many European zoos, decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoan and Sami people as "purely natural" populations. In 1876, he sent a collaborator to the Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. The Nubian exhibit was very successful in Europe and toured Paris, London, and Berlin. He also dispatched an agent to Labrador to secure a number of "Esquimaux" (Inuit) from the settlement of Hopedale; these Inuit were exhibited in his Hamburg Tierpark. Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two ethnological spectacles that presented Nubians and Inuit. That year, the audience of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled to one million. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty ethnological exhibitions were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation.Both the 1878 and the 1889 Parisian World's Fair presented a Negro Village (village ngre). Visited by 28 million people, the 1889 World's Fair displayed 400 indigenous people as the major attraction. The 1900 World's Fair presented the famous diorama living in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) also displayed humans in cages, often nude or seminude.[7] The 1931 exhibition in Paris was so successful that 34 million people attended it in six months, while a smaller counter-exhibition entitled The Truth on the Colonies, organized by the Communist Party, attracted very few visitorsin the rst room, it recalled Albert Londres and Andr Gide's critics of forced labour in the colonies. Nomadic Senegalese Villages were also presented. Native people of Suriname were displayed in the International Colonial and Export Exhibition in Amsterdam held behind the Rijksmuseum in 1883.
Similar human displays had been seen at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition [8] and at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, where Little Egypt performed bellydance, and where the photographers Charles Dudley Arnold and Harlow Higginbotham took depreciative photos, presenting indigenous people as catalogue of "types," along with sarcastic legends [9]. To increase the number of visitors, the Cincinnati zoo invited one hundred Sioux Native Americans to establish a village at the site in 1896. The Sioux lived at the zoo for three months [10]. "Idaho Building," a demonstration building for the 1893 Chicago World's Fair designed by architect Kirtland Cutter. In 1904, Apaches, Igorots (from the Philippines) and the famous Ota Benga were displayed, dubbed as "primitive", at the Saint Louis World Fair. The USA had just acquired, following the Spanish-American War, new territories such as Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, allowing them to "display" some of the native inhabitants [11]. According to the Rev. Sequoyah Ade,
To further illustrate the indignities heaped upon the Philippine people following their eventual loss to the Americans, the United States made the Philippine campaign the centrepoint of the 1904 World's Fair held that year in St. Louis, MI [sic]. In what was enthusiastically termed a "parade of evolutionary progress," visitors could inspect the "primitives" that represented the counterbalance to "Civilisation" justifying Kipling's poem "The White Man's Burden". Pygmies from New Guinea and Africa, who were later displayed in the Primate section of the Bronx Zoo, were paraded next to American Indians such as Apache warrior Geronimo, who sold his autograph. But the main draw was the Philippine exhibit complete with full size replicas of Indigenous living quarters erected to exhibit the inherent backwardness of the Philippine people. The purpose was to highlight both the "civilising" inuence of American rule and the economic potential of the island chains' natural resources on the heels of the Philippine-America War. It was, reportedly, the largest specic Aboriginal exhibit displayed in the exposition. As one pleased visitor commented, the human zoo exhibit displayed "the race narrative of odd peoples who mark time while the world advances, and of savages made, by American methods, into civilized workers.
In 1906, socialite and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, had Congolese pygmy Ota Benga put on display at the Bronx Zoo in New York City alongside apes and other animals. At the behest of Grant, a prominent eugenicist, the zoo director William Hornaday placed Ota Benga displayed in a cage with the chimpanzees, then with an orangutan named Dohong, and a parrot, and labeled him The Missing Link, suggesting that in evolutionary terms Africans like Ota Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans. It triggered protests from the city's clergymen, but the public reportedly ocked to see it.[6][13] Benga shot targets with a bow and arrow, wove twine, and wrestled with an orangutan. Although, according to the New York Times, "few expressed audible objection to the sight of a human being in a cage with monkeys as companions, controversy erupted as black clergymen in the city took great offense. Our race, we think, is depressed enough, without exhibiting one of us with the apes, said the Reverend James H. Gordon, superintendent of the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn. We think we are worthy of being considered human beings, with souls.[14] New York Mayor George B. McClellan, Jr. refused to meet with the clergymen, drawing the praise of Dr. Hornaday, who wrote to him, When the history of the Zoological Park is written, this incident will form its most amusing passage.[14] As the controversy continued, Hornaday remained unapologetic, insisting that his only intention was to put on an ethnological exhibit. In another letter, he said that he and Madison Grant, the secretary of the New York Zoological Society, who ten years later would publish the racist tract The Passing of the Great Race, considered it imperative that the society should not even seem to be dictated to by the black clergymen.[14] Still, Hornaday decided to close the exhibit after just two days, and on Monday, September 8, Benga could be found walking the zoo grounds, often followed by a crowd howling, jeering and yelling.
OTA BENGA
HEALTH AND WEALTH KNOWLEDGE OF SELF

Moors Part 1

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Wednesday, July 25, 2012

YOU ARE NOW ROCKING WITH THE BEST

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

MOORS IN ANTIQUITY THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK

THE DIVINE MOVEMENT

THE MOORISH EMPIRE

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

THE MOORISH EMPIRE

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

THE MOORISH EMPIRE

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

THE MOORISH EMPIRE

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

PAVING THE WAY FOR EUROPES RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTMENT

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

MICHELLE OBAMA IN MOORISH SPAIN

MICHELLE OBAMA IN MOORISH SPAIN

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MOORISH BERBERS NORTH AFRICA

ABORIGINAL COLOR OF MOORS

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MOORS INVADED & CONQUERED SPAIN 711-1492

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

MOORS INVADED & CONQUERED SPAIN 711-1492

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

MOORS INVADED & CONQUERED SPAIN 711-1492

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

MOORS INVADED & CONQUERED SPAIN 711-1492

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

The Visigoths (Latin: Visigothi,

VANDALS ALANS SUEVI

Moorish Control of Spain from 711 to 1492

GIBRALTAR PILLARS OF HERCULES

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WARRIORS & ROYAL GUARDS

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