Integrated Plan For Chad's Water Development and Management (SDEA) - (Avril 2003)

MAIN DOCUMENT
EXECUTING AGENCY: UNDESA
AN INTEGRATED STRATEGIC APPROACH TOWARDS MDG
FUNDING AGENCY: UNDP
HCNE - REPUBLIC OF CHAD - MEE
I N T E G R AT E D
PLAN FOR CHADS
WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2 0 0 3 2 0 2 0
NOTE The names used in this document and the presentation of the data included therein shall not in any way be construed as a reflection of the position of the Secretariat of the United Nations Organisation with regard to the legal status of the countries, territories, towns or zones, or their authorities, nor in respect of the outline of their frontiers or limits.The reproduction of the texts of this document, as well as the figures, maps or photographs not covered by copyright, is permitted on condition that the source is clearly defined in a readable manner as follows: From Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management, 2003. HCNE-MEE-UNDP-UNDESA. DESIGN & EDITING LIN D.A. DURAND INC. lin.d.a@sympatico.ca
. 2003 2020
TO ACHIEVE THE
MILLENNIUM
GOALS AND ENSURE
INTEGRATED
AND PARTICIPATORY
MANAGEMENT
OF WATER AND ITS INFRASTRUCTURE
MAIN DOCUMENT
INTEGRATED PLAN FOR WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
CHAD TCHAD
Plateau du Djado
15
ar i -r
20
25
Ti ba st i
ARAB J LIBYAN AMAHI RIYA JAMAHIR ARABE LIBYENNE
GYPTE EGYPT
t
Aozou
d e
Barda
T
20
i
e b y L i
20
Zouar Sgudine
ilm
BORKOU - ENNEDI - TIBESTI

u
Bilma
nd
Er
de
o
Dp
re ssion
ra
du M o urd
N IGER NIGER
ur Djo Erg du Koro Toro
Faya-Largeau E
n
e Fada
ab
Ouadi Haw
ach
al
15
KANEM
Gh
(S
or
o)
Arada
Nokou
hr
az
BILTINE
Biltine
s as N M ur o k r K e Iriba
if ou du re ne
H di
ow
ar
15
Gurda
Nguigmi LAC
Mao Bol
Ngouri
Salal
BATHA
Djdaa
ha
Am Zoer
SO UDAN SUDAN
Ba
el
Abch
Oum OUADDA Hadjer Massif de Marfa Am Dam
Moussoro
t Ba Lac Fitri
Ati
Lac Tchad
Massakory
NI GRI A NIGERIA m
Maiduguri
Yed ser
N'Djamena
Bokoro
Mangalm
N g ad d a
CHARI-BAGUIRMI
Massenya
Bah rE
Mongo
Massif de Gura
Goz Beda
TCHAD CHAD
Abou Dea
Ba
hr
Melfi
Sa
la m
at
Glengdeng
C h a ri
GUERA
Lac Iro
Am Timan
10
ig rg
10
Bongor
Fianga
KE OTANDJILE MAY Lai Pala Klo Lo

ne go
Haraz Mangueigne
SALAMAT
BI
MOYEN-CHARI
Koumra Maro
Mossala
Sarh B ah r Aouk
Kyab
ORIENTAL Ngaoundr Vina
LOGONE
Gor
Ba mi
ui ng
CAMEROUN CAMEROON
Lac-rservoir de M'Bakaou 15
Map No. 3788 (F) Rev. 3 United Nations October 2003
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC R P U BLI QUE CE NT RAF RI CAI N E

The and et place names indiqus indicated et and the denominations used on Lesborders frontires les noms les dsignations employes this not n'impliquent imply any official recognition or acceptance by the sur map cettedo carte pas reconnaissance ou acceptation United Nations Organisation des Nations Unies. officielle par l'Organisation
20
Moundou
LOGONE OCC.
Doba
Ba ng or a
n
Capital Chief town of prefecture Chef-lieu de prfecture Ville, village Town, village Aroport Airport Frontire internationale International border Prefecture limit Limite de prfecture Main road Route principale Road Routeor outrack piste
100 200 300 km
G r i bin g u i
25
Department of Public Information Cartographic Section
THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT (SDEA)
CONSISTS OF EIGHT ADAPTABLE DOCUMENTS
This main document
An atlas of maps (GIS)
Six thematic volumes: Water resources and the environment Village water supply Urban and semi-urban water supply Sanitation Pastoral water supply Agricultural water supply
Each thematic volume has adopted an integrated approach. The institutional, human, physical, technological and financial constraints and perspectives have been studied in each one. The thematic volumes should be referred to for detailed information concerning these issues. This main document includes and summarises the results from these thematic volumes according to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of the water sector, which is vital to sustainable development.This has led to the definition of a policy and a costed action plan. Chad is striving to overcome the identified constraints, with well-proportioned, gradual external support, in order to achieve the national objectives of the SDEA and the Millennium Development Goals.
The SDEA, an adaptable document on water policy in Chad, was validated by the nation and approved by the Council of Ministers (HCNE) on 30 April 2003
SUMMARY - CONCLUSIONS
The first Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management
The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management (SDEA) is a multisectoral and strategic master plan providing guidelines for the sustainable development and management of water resources in Chad, with a view to meeting the populations basic needs and promoting the economic and social development of the country while protecting the environment. It complies with the objectives set by the Chadian Government to reduce poverty and, in terms of the deadline of 2015, is consistent with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as specified and completed during the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development. The SDEA constitutes an adaptable reference instrument to be used by all internal and external stakeholders who are, or will be, involved in the Chadian water sector. It contains: a detailed analysis of the current situation in order to learn the lessons of past projects and approaches;

Chads new water policy; the general implementation strategies defined for the sustainable development of each water-related subsector, as well as the general strategies defined for the accompanying measures. These notably include: the organisation and national capacity-building strategy of the sector; the strategy for mobilising internal funds (involving the users and the Chadian governments policy; the country will begin exploiting oil in 2004); the strategy for mobilising external funds (financial aid); the indicator-based strategy for monitoring the SDEA programmes and their impacts; a strategy for assessing and updating the SDEA based on a national unit equipped with modern resources for managing information on the SDEA and its shared data base, including its gradual extension to decentralised levels. a costed action plan for each set of physical or accompanying programmes in order to encourage shortterm priority actions aimed at reaching the objectives set for 2010 and 2020. This action plan is based on the fundamental framework of all the projects and programmes which are either in progress or to be approved for the next five years.
The SDEA integrates the basic human needs, economic options for development, environmental constraints and water resources into a single overall approach to sustainable development. Therefore, the SDEA is not restricted to drinking water and sanitation issues; its integrated approach encompasses all the other economic uses (industrial, agricultural, pastoral, fisheries) and environmental uses of water (rain water, surface water and groundwater), a resource which is vital, unique, shared, limited in quantity and vulnerable to pollution.
The SDEA consists of eight adaptable documents based on an updatable GIS

The complete SDEA comprises a main document (the present document) and six thematic volumes (one for each subsector): village water supply, urban and semi-urban water supply, pastoral water supply, agricultural water supply, water resources and the environment, and sanitation. It also includes an eighth document: an atlas of the main adaptable maps (GIS) produced during the project.
The SDEA is the result of a national participatory approach

These documents are the result of a wide national consensus that involved all the stakeholders who are active in the Chadian water sector. They were discussed in detail by the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE), a technical and operational consultation mechanism presided by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs at the Ministry of the Environment and Water. The entire SDEA has also been validated in the regions and at national level, with support from another multi-stakeholder consultation mechanism, the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) consisting of general managers, a few elected
INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 HCNE MEE UNDESA UNDP
members of the National Assembly and a representative of the mayors. The consultation mechanism has been placed by decree under the Prime Ministers authority, in his capacity as president of the High National Council for the Environment, the political body that approves the SDEA.
The SDEA documents were drawn up in Chad according to a strategic, integrated approach
More than 30 national consultants were called upon to partitipate in the process of drawing up the SDEA. They were selected and trained in the basic concepts of participatory planning, and made aware of the impact of water in the fight against poverty through equitable, sustainable access to clean water, sanitation and income-generating activities dependent on water. They were supported when necessary by eight international consultants also recruited by UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). The reports produced by these various consultation teams were discussed by the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE). Following this first series of reports, each volume was finalised by carrying out additional studies and work in order to produce comprehensive documents covering each water and sanitation subsector. During the second stage, the UNDESA (executing agency) team from the support project (funded by the UNDP) produced an overview of each volume for subsequent analysis and discussion at the subsector workshops organised in April and May 2002 in NDjamna. These workshops, operating under the aegis of the CTIE, brought together the institutional stakeholders and civil society representatives (users, private sector, associations, etc.) by subsector; the remarks and observations that they contributed were incorporated in the final version of each thematic volume. A general overview of these subsector documents, accompanied by additional studies of macroeconomic aspects, the link between access to water and poverty reduction, the financial aspects (notably the users contribution to the water service cost and the contribution from the States budget during the oil boom era) coupled with a study of sector organisation and the indicator-based monitoring-assessment of the SDEA, were all used to draw up the initial version of the main SDEA document. This initial version was validated, under the aegis of the National Water Management Committee (CNGE), during regional workshops held in Abch, Moundou and Mao in late June and the first two weeks of July 2002. The remarks and recommendations made during the regional validation workshops were included in the second version of the main document, which was validated nationally in early November 2002. The third version includes the recommendations from the national validation workshop and, lastly, the fourth and final version (the present one) includes the recommendations from the High National Council for the Environment that were set forth when the Government gave its final political approval to the SDEA on 30 April 2003.
The main SDEA document consists of five chapters

Chapter 1 gives an assessment-diagnosis of each water and sanitation subsector. The main conclusions of this assessment are as follows (see each thematic volume for detailed information):
Chad has considerable reserves of water. However, this should not hide the major constraints involved in mobilising water resources, in particular the unequal distribution of rainfall and surface water both geographically and in time, and the lack of knowledge about how the main aquifers work. As a general conclusion, it is clear that water resources are no hindrance to the economic and social development of Chad. However, a prerequisite to developing these water resources will be to carry out detailed studies in order to provide more information on the relations between the main hydrological and hydrogeological systems in the country. The drinking water supply rate for the population of Chad as a whole was only 23% in 2001. It was a mere 17% in rural areas, 25% in towns in the non-concessionary area and 40% in towns in the STEE concessionary area. Major efforts need to be made in order for the entire population of Chad to have equitable and widespread access to drinking water and also to achieve the Millennium targets (an overall access rate of 60%). The absence of essential basic data, such as livestock numbers and fodder resources, is a major constraint in evaluating water requirements and appropriate facilities in the field of pastoral water supplies, and in developing the entire stock-rearing sector.
II
The average increase in cereal production has been only 2% per annum over the past 20 years in spite of major investment in the agricultural water supply sector, while the annual population growth rate over the same period has been 2.5%. Current cereal production satisfies only a little over 55% of requirements. Significant efforts must be made to increase the productivity of the existing irrigation areas and to develop new schemes in order to maintain and in particular to increase the level of satisfaction of cereal requirements for the population as a whole. There is practically no basic sanitation infrastructure, in either rural or urban areas. Everything needs to be done in this field. In addition, there are numerous institutional stakeholders involved in sanitation, working with almost no financial resources and too often without being able to coordinate their activities and programmes. However, in recent years, initiatives have been taken by neighbourhood organisations to make up for the shortcomings of this subsector, but on a very local scale. The legal and regulatory framework is very scant. The Water Code is the only law governing water. However, the decrees bringing this law into force had still not been promulgated in 2001. This hampers harmonious development in this area, especially with regard to defining and sharing responsibilities among the various stakeholders and managing the facilities for exploiting water resources. There are many stakeholders ranging from private to public. To develop and strengthen the private sector, it seems essential to encourage partnerships between national and international companies. With regard to the public sector, it seems important to clarify the role and responsibilities of the various stakeholders in the water sector and to define the legal and regulatory framework in detail. National capacity-building in all sectors is a priority and a necessity in order to ensure the sustainable development of water resources and guarantee socio-economic development for present and future generations.
Chapter 2 is devoted to forecasting the basic needs of each subsector in terms of water, equipment and accompanying measures. These forecasts of needs are based on the Millennium Declaration, completed in Johannesburg (WSSD-2002), notably with regard to sanitation. This universal declaration now constitutes the common reference document used by all developing and developed countries. It sets out concrete goals to be achieved by 2015. The following extracts are related to water: ... We also resolve to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the worlds people whose income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safe drinking water. ... By the same date, to have reduced under-five child mortality by two thirds of current rates; We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development including those set out in Agenda 21, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and, as first steps, we resolve to stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies. Taking this declaration as a reference, the drinking water requirements of villages (with populations ranging from 300 to 2000) are estimated at 10 300 new water points (hand pump equivalents), which will supply 60% of these populations by 2015. In urban areas, in the non-concessionary sector, it is estimated that a further 488 basic supply units1 (BSU) will be needed to satisfy 62% of the resident population. In the STEE concessionary area (11 towns), priority must be given to upgrading and extending the existing networks. However, to perpetuate this new infrastructure and guarantee that it will be sustainable, it is essential to create a favourable environment for the management and maintenance of the equipment (capacitybuilding, strengthening of the institutional framework).
1Basic supply unit: drinking water supply system consisting of a borehole, pumping equipment (solar or thermal), a water tower and a small distribution network comprising 3 to 5 stand-pipes.
III
As far as pastoral water supply is concerned, before starting any major water point construction programmes, it is essential to improve the basic knowledge required, such as livestock numbers and fodder production capacity. These data can then be used to plan spatial distribution more efficiently, in an environmentally-friendly manner and to calculate the number of pastoral water points (currently estimated at about 4000) more accurately. Capacity-building is another priority for the pastoral water supply sector. In agricultural water supply, the target to be reached is the development of an additional 100 000 hectares of land. Other measures to be carried out in parallel include the repair of existing equipment (large and small irrigation areas, etc.), as well as increasing productivity and capacity-building. In sanitation, everything needs to be done. In urban and semi-urban areas, this will involve gradually implementing individual sanitation by building latrines geared to the different contexts, setting up waste collection systems and training the populations in basic sanitation practices. In rural areas, health education programmes will be disseminated among the village populations as well as in schools and health centres. Basic infrastructure, such as ventilated and improved pit latrines, filtering wells, etc., will be developed in villages. In terms of water resources and the environment it will be necessary to obtain better knowledge of the mechanisms behind the aquifer systems, river systems, aquatic ecosystems and their interactions. Capacitybuilding will play a key role in this respect, as will the creation of data collection and processing procedures. Chapter 3 discusses water policy and implementation strategies. Having defined the national objectives, compatible with the Millennium Development Goals and those of the WSSD action plan, Chads water policy consists of twelve major founding principles, which will guide the measures to be carried out to achieve sustainable development of water resources and associated services. These principles are listed below.
Water policy of Chad:

Principle 1 Water in the nations public domain: All water resources within the boundaries of the national territory are in the public domain. In this capacity, they form an integral part of the States public domain, which is inalienable and imprescriptible (Article 1, Water Code). Human health and access to water and sanitation: The priority that has been defined for the Chadian populations health requires that they have extensive, reliable access to drinking water, hygienic living conditions, sanitation, and sufficient, nutritionally balanced food. Water mobilisation must contribute to this priority, while ensuring that no subsectors, notably sanitation and food production, are neglected. Integrated management and use of water resources to promote sustainable socio-economic development: Water is a vital resource for the population, for the countrys socio-economic development and for biodiversity. Resources must be identified, protected and managed in an integrated manner, in terms of both quality and quantity. The State services must continuously improve knowledge, not just of water resources, considered as a whole, but also the manner in which these resources are used. Gradual refocusing of the States role: The States services must gradually withdraw from construction and maintenance operations and refocus on their role as a public utility responsible for monitoring and inspection, as well as for promoting best practices. This must take place gradually, as a national private sector emerges and becomes capable of running these operations on a long-term basis. Nevertheless, regardless of the method used for managing the drinking water utility, the State (or the Decentralised Local Authority in the event of delegation) shall guarantee smooth operation (Article 41, Water Code). Water governance as close as possible to the user: An integrated system for managing water as close as possible to the end user shall gradually be set up as decentralisation progresses, notably based on delegation of the public drinking water, pastoral water and sanitation service to the Decentralised Local Authorities and of the future devolved government structures.
Principle 2
Principle 3
Principle 4
Principle 5
IV
Principle 6
Institutional framework strengthening: The functions and obligations of public and private stakeholders as well as operators and associations concerning local water development measures must be clearly identified in a legislatory and regulatory framework. Any development action involving the control of water, whether national or carried out by an external partner, must fall within the institutional and regulatory framework of the water sector. Participation of stakeholders and integration of water subsector policies: There must be an institutional consultative mechanism at all territorial levels enabling the main stakeholders, and notably the users, to participate in the design, planning and monitoring of development measures and the management of hydraulic equipment, water resources and their uses. A fair, transparent water price: The water transfer and distribution equipment and the water operation service have a cost, which must be known to the users. The proportion of any subsidies must be transparent and known. The real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service must, as a minimum, cover all operating charges and renewal costs for equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. Equity must be the rule when fixing the price of the drinking water service within a homogeneous area. Thus, at a lower level of service, the unit cost of the water service must not exceed that of a higher level of service. Collecting and sharing information: The public manager responsible for water shall be obliged to collect and publish information on water resources, all their uses and all discharges into the environment. Information on management data subject to control by the public service for drinking water, productive water (for agriculture, pasture-land, industry) and sanitation is collected in the context of a compulsory declaration system and laid down by law. In this context, the public service responsible for water must ensure that this information is collected, organised and processed to make it accessible, subject to certain conditions, to as many users as possible, with help from new technologies. Water management and environmental protection: The impacts of economic activity in the area of water, as well as the impacts of developing the mobilisation and use of water as a natural resource, must be examined and dealt with from the perspective of protecting the aquatic ecosystems of Chad and the environment in general. The polluter-pays principle must be applied. Strengthening subregional cooperation on shared water: Water must be a source of regional economic integration. Managing the use of shared water resources and protecting their quality must be agreed through subregional consultation and carried out in accordance with agreements signed with the existing basin authorities. National capacity-building is necessary to promote the sustainable management of water: Capacity-building at national, regional and local levels is necessary in order to promote the sustainable use of water resources. Each project implemented in one of the subsectors must include a significant proportion of capacity-building at national, regional and local levels. In addition, partnerships between the regional and international training institutes and the Chadian institutes will be encouraged.
Principle 7
Principle 8
Principle 9
Principle 10
Principle 11
Principle 12
Subsectoral strategies have subsequently been defined. These strategies concern capacity-building, strengthening of the institutional, legal and statutory framework and the type and quantity of physical infrastructure to be developed. These subsector strategies are described in detail in section 1.4 of chapter 3 and in each thematic volume.
Chapter 3 also presents a macroeconomic analysis of the water sector. It highlights the fact that the three main economic activities in Chad (excluding the oil sector), i.e., agriculture, stock-rearing and fisheries, representing over 40% of GDP, are closely dependent on water. Moreover, considering that water is first and foremost a shared, limited and vulnerable resource, essential to all forms of life, it is clear that water is a strategic lever in the economic development of Chad and the reduction of poverty. This analysis also emphasises the fact that, in spite of oil revenue, Chad needs its development partners in order to develop the water sector on a sustainable basis and to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as stated and completed in Johannesburg (WSSD). However, given the scale of financial needs, it is important for the Government to increase its contribution to the sector over the next few years, since it currently represents only about 3% of the funds. For this purpose, oil funds should be reallocated rapidly to assist the Chadian water and sanitation sector. Chapter 4 proposes an action plan that is related to the subsector strategies defined and also takes account of the objectives to be reached. In addition, the expected impacts of each project are described. These projects are spread over an initial period from 2000 to 2010, followed by a second period from 2011 to 2020. Moreover, in addition to the construction of physical infrastructure, the proposed projects include capacitybuilding, strengthening the institutional framework and improving knowledge. The table below summarises, in billions of FCFA, the investments that need to be found in the field of water, according to a balanced scenario and a voluntarist scenario.
2
One billion FCFA = 1.52 million euros
Summary of investments to be found in billions of FCFA2 in the field of water (per year)
Subsector 2000-2010 Voluntarist scenario Urban DWS Concessionary area Urban DWS Non-concess. area Urban sanitation Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Village water supply Sanitation in rural areas Water resources Total3
Source: SDEA 2002
3 The annual total of investments for each period has been rounded up to the nearest unit.
2011-2020 Voluntarist scenario 3.00 1.90 7.40 5.00 3.20 7.10 0.90 0.73 30.00 Balanced scenario 3.00 1.90 6.70 5.00 3.20 1.00 0.90 0.73 23.00
Balanced scenario 5.90 0.50 1.40 5.00 5.20 3.20 0.70 0.73 23.00
5.90 0.50 1.50 5.00 5.20 3.20 0.70 0.73 23.00
In the balanced scenario case, these investments to be found represent: 1.5% of GDP in 2003 and 0.6% of GDP in 2011;
about 16% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015, i.e., investments compatible with the countrys major economic equilibria as analysed above.
According to the voluntarist scenario, these investments represent: 1.5% of GDP in 2003 and 0.8% of GDP in 2011;
about 22% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015.
It is certain that these scenarios will have to be rebalanced after the first update of the SDEA, notably because of the weighty areas of irrigation and concessionary urban DWS, over which a large amount of uncertainty still reigns. However, the projects proposed to donors remain relevant in that they represent a guideline integrated plan that will provide a basis for study and more detailed programming.
VI
Investments are way behind schedule in the following areas:

sanitation; DWS in the concessionary area; agricultural water supply to small village irrigation areas; accompanying measures.
The issue of accompanying measures is fundamental. These govern the efficiency and local ownership of management and maintenance structures, and hence the sustainability of the physical investments. Too many projects do not include sufficient capacity-building to manage installations. Little effort is devoted to providing support for surface and groundwater management or for integrated water management. Lastly, chapter 5 discusses the measurable performance of SDEA implementation, the economic and social justification of the plan, the indicator-based performance monitoring method and, lastly, methods for coordinating and updating the SDEA. In accordance with the Millennium Declaration and the Johannesburg Summit report, implementation of the SDEA will contribute to the fight against poverty and environmental protection by promoting:
a consensus and national coordination based on a voluntarist but realistic policy of extensive, efficient, fair and affordable access to drinking water and basic sanitation; education, training and awareness-raising for public and private groups of stakeholders and associations, whether national, regional or local, men, women or young people, for sustainable water management; basic activities and investments that will have impacts on the sustainable improvement of the populations health; the implementation of strategies for the integrated management of water resources and uses in order to protect the aquatic ecosystems upon which biodiversity conservation, agricultural production, fisheries and stock-rearing depend.
Next stages
Beyond producing basic documents to support a water policy and its means of implementation, the SDEA is a dynamic process for constantly accompanying its subsequent development. Water is now considered on its own as a priority sector of national development in order to reduce poverty. The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management has already helped to redirect aid and draw up international aid programmes which are either in progress or scheduled. The consultation mechanism is functioning and will continue after the SDEA document has obtained political approval. In 2003 and 2004, the Chadian government will begin setting up the central, regional and local (public, private and association-based) management procedures laid down in the SDEA. These efforts to rationalise investments will be undertaken in close collaboration with the donors and technical organisations in the field of water in Chad, and will need to be supported and renewed for many years to come.
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 11 2 Institutional framework for drawing up the integrated plan for water development and management and its consultation domains ................................................................................................................. 14 3 Goals of the integrated plan for Chads water development and management and of the millennium declaration ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 1 PRESENT SITUATION OF CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

1 Context and demography ...................................................................................................................................................... 21 2 The need to develop hydraulic infrastructure in Chad and the fight against poverty ................... 26 2.1 Economic diversification ................................................................................................................................................ 26 2.2 The fight against poverty .............................................................................................................................................. 26 2.3 The place of water in the economy of Chad .................................................................................................. 27 2.3.1 Water and peoples well-being ................................................................................................................ 27 2.3.2 Water and economic development...................................................................................................... 27 3 Analysis of the basic hydraulic infrastructure situation in 2000 ................................................................... 28 3.1 The situation regarding village water supply schemes................................................................................. 3.1.1 Drinking water supply facilities in villages........................................................................................... 3.1.2 Equipment management and maintenance methods ................................................................. 3.1.3 Village water supply stakeholders........................................................................................................... 3.2 The situation of urban and semi-urban water supplies .............................................................................. 3.2.1 Equipment and estimates of drinking water supplies.................................................................. 3.2.2 Management of urban facilities................................................................................................................. 3.2.3 The cost of water ............................................................................................................................................ 3.2.4 The major stakeholders in urban water supplies .......................................................................... 28 29 31 32 36 36 36 39 39
3.3 The situation with regard to sanitation................................................................................................................ 40 3.3.1 Urban sanitation facilities ............................................................................................................................. 41 3.3.2 Stakeholders in the field of sanitation.................................................................................................. 41 3.4 The situation with regard to pastoral water supplies.................................................................................. 3.4.1 Pastoral systems ................................................................................................................................................ 3.4.2 Livestock and pastoral resources............................................................................................................ 3.4.3 Pastoral water supply facilities .................................................................................................................. 3.4.4 Management of pastoral water points................................................................................................. 3.4.5 Conflicts connected with access to water points ......................................................................... 3.4.6 Pastoral water supply stakeholders ....................................................................................................... 42 42 45 45 46 47 48
3.5 The situation with regard to agricultural water supplies ........................................................................... 48 3.5.1 The physical context of agricultural water supplies..................................................................... 48 3.5.2 Agricultural water supply facilities and assessment ...................................................................... 49
3.5.3 3.5.4
Summary of agricultural water consumption .................................................................................. 52 Stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supplies ............................................................. 53
3.6 The situation with regard to fishing........................................................................................................................ 53 3.7 The situation with regard to hydroelectricity................................................................................................... 53 3.8 The situation with regard to river and lake transport ................................................................................ 54 3.9 The situation with regard to tourism.................................................................................................................... 54 4 Water resources and demand satisfaction .................................................................................................................. 54 4.1 Surface water....................................................................................................................................................................... 4.1.1 Rainfall ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4.1.2 River systems ...................................................................................................................................................... 4.1.3 Summary of surface water uses .............................................................................................................. 4.2 Groundwater resources ................................................................................................................................................ 4.2.1 The aquifers of Chad..................................................................................................................................... 4.2.2 Groundwater uses: total figures ............................................................................................................... 4.3 Water resources and use in 2000: total figures .............................................................................................. 55 55 55 59 59 62 65 66
5 The environment and health of aquatic ecosystems ............................................................................................ 67 5.1 Plant cover, desertification and water points .................................................................................................... 67 5.2 Aquatic ecosystems.......................................................................................................................................................... 67 5.3 Environmental risks and their prevention ........................................................................................................... 68 5.3.1 Risks of natural origin..................................................................................................................................... 68 5.3.2 Risks of human origin..................................................................................................................................... 68 6 Major shared international watercourses .................................................................................................................... 71 6.1 The River Niger.................................................................................................................................................................. 71 6.2 The Lake Chad basin ...................................................................................................................................................... 71 6.3 The Nubian sandstone aquifer.................................................................................................................................. 72 7 Legal and institutional framework..................................................................................................................................... 73 7.1 Existing legislation.............................................................................................................................................................. 73 7.2 Existing regulations ........................................................................................................................................................... 74 7.3 General institutional context of the water sector ......................................................................................... 75 7.4 The consultative mechanism....................................................................................................................................... 77 8 Main conclusions, lessons and constraints to be overcome ............................................................................ 77
CHAPTER 2 FORECASTING BASIC NEEDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

1 Development policy in Chad ................................................................................................................................................ 89 2 Evaluation of requirements in the different subsectors ..................................................................................... 90 2.1 Village water supply requirements .......................................................................................................................... 90 2.1.1 Evaluation of drinking water point requirements in 2000 ....................................................... 90 2.1.2 Evaluation of village drinking water point requirements for 2020...................................... 93 2.2 Urban and semi-urban water supply requirements ...................................................................................... 94 2.2.1 Equipment requirements for the non-concessionary sector.................................................. 95 2.2.2 Concessionary sector equipment requirements............................................................................ 96 2.3 Sanitation requirements................................................................................................................................................. 2.3.1 Sanitation requirements in rural areas................................................................................................. 2.3.2 Sanitation requirements in urban and semi-urban environments........................................ 2.3.3 Sanitation requirements in industrial areas ....................................................................................... 97 97 98 99
2.4 Pastoral water supply requirements.................................................................................................................... 100 2.4.1 Assessment of pastoral water supply requirements................................................................. 100 2.4.2 Assessment of pastoral water point requirements ................................................................... 100 2.5 Agricultural water supply requirements............................................................................................................ 106 2.5.1 Changes in food needs .............................................................................................................................. 106 2.5.2 Agricultural water and equipment requirements ....................................................................... 107 3 Balance between water requirements and resources and environmental impacts of implementing the SDEA ................................................................................................................................................. 108 3.1 Constraints arising from mobilisation of water resources ..................................................................... 108 3.1.1 Surface water ................................................................................................................................................... 108 3.1.2 Groundwater.................................................................................................................................................... 109 3.2 Summary of water resources by large climatic zone................................................................................ 113 3.3 Conclusions on the water resource and environmental impact assessment.............................. 115
CHAPTER 3 WATER POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

1 Water policy................................................................................................................................................................................. 123 1.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................................................... 123 1.2 Principles of the water policy.................................................................................................................................. 123 1.3 Specific objectives........................................................................................................................................................... 125 1.4 Subsectoral strategies................................................................................................................................................... 1.4.1 Strategic components of drinking water ......................................................................................... 1.4.2 Strategic components of pastoral water supply.......................................................................... 1.4.3 Strategic components of agricultural water supply ................................................................... 1.4.4 Strategic components in the water resources field .................................................................. 1.4.5 Strategic components in sanitation..................................................................................................... 125 125 126 127 128 128
2 Macroeconomic analysis and analysis of the water sector development strategy in light of the identified needs ............................................................................................... 129 2.1 Economic forecasts........................................................................................................................................................ 130 2.1.1 Analysis of the long-term performance of the Chadian economy .................................. 130 2.1.2 The oil economy............................................................................................................................................ 131 2.2 Strategy for mobilising funds.................................................................................................................................... 134 2.2.1 Ability of the population to pay the cost of water ................................................................... 134 2.2.2 Mobilising international aid....................................................................................................................... 137 2.3 Water 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 sector funding strategy................................................................................................................................ Urban water supply...................................................................................................................................... Urban sanitation ............................................................................................................................................. Village water supply...................................................................................................................................... Village sanitation............................................................................................................................................. Pastoral water supply .................................................................................................................................. Agricultural water supply .......................................................................................................................... Water resources ............................................................................................................................................ 138 138 140 142 144 145 145 146
2.4 Summary of investments to be found in the field of water ................................................................. 147 3 Possible equipment and management scenarios and scenario selected ............................................... 148 3.1 Scenarios of possible future changes in drinking water supply ........................................................... 148 3.2 Sanitation scenario......................................................................................................................................................... 150 3.3 Pastoral water supply scenario............................................................................................................................... 150 3.4 Agricultural water supply scenario....................................................................................................................... 150 4 Organisational framework, decentralisation and the new water governance system ................. 151 4.1 Local level: locally-generated development and local stakeholder structuring with organised support .................................................................................................................... 151 4.2 Intermediary and central levels: participation from public stakeholders and services .......... 151 5 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
CHAPTER 4 ACTION PLAN

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 159 2 Village water supply action plan ...................................................................................................................................... 161 3 Semi-urban and urban water supply action plan .................................................................................................. 168 4 Pastoral water supply action plan .................................................................................................................................. 174 5 Agricultural water supply action plan .......................................................................................................................... 181 6 Water resources action plan ............................................................................................................................................. 185 7 Sanitation action plan ............................................................................................................................................................. 192
CHAPTER 5 FUNDING - MONITORING - ASSESSING - UPDATING

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 199 2 Fund mobilisation .................................................................................................................................................................. 200 2.1 Internal fund mobilisation .......................................................................................................................................... 200 2.1.1 The users contribution .............................................................................................................................. 200 2.1.2 The States public investments (excluding external aid)......................................................... 201 2.2 External fund mobilisation......................................................................................................................................... 201 3 Monitoring of SDEA implementation................................................................................................................... 201 3.1 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA implementation ............................................................................. 201 3.2 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA impacts ............................................................................................... 202 3.3 Monitoring of methodological consistency .................................................................................................... 203 3.4 Monitoring the mobilisation of funds ................................................................................................................. 204 3.5 Monitoring the impact of human activities on water resources......................................................... 204 4 Assessing the performance of SDEA implementation .......................................................................... 205 5 Updating the SDEA ............................................................................................................................................................. 205
Appendix 1 : List of participants ............................................................................................................................................ 207 Appendix 2 : Macro-economic context of the PRSP ................................................................................................ 217 Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 223
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11: Table 12: Table 13: Table 14: Table 15: Table 16: Table 17: Table 18: Table 19: Table 20: Table 21: Table 22: Table 23: Table 24: Table 25: Table 26: Table 27: Table 28: Table 29: Table 30: Table 31: Table 32: Table 33: Table 34: Table 35: Table 36: Table 37: Table 38: Population distribution according to administrative breakdown............................................ 24 Population distribution by geoclimatic zone ...................................................................................... 25 Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000.................................................................................................................................... 33 Population growth in concessionary and non-concessionary areas..................................... 36 Distribution of modern wells per geoclimatic zone...................................................................... 46 Characteristics of agricultural water supply facilities (2000) .................................................... 51 Summary of agricultural water abstraction in 2000...................................................................... 52 Surface water in Chad: abstraction for each type of use (2000) .......................................... 60 Renewable resources (main aquifers).................................................................................................... 62 Exploitable reserves (main aquifers)....................................................................................................... 62 Main characteristics of hydrogeological units ......................................................................................63 Estimated theoretical abstraction from the various aquifers.................................................... 66 Total water resources and uses in 2000 .............................................................................................. 66 Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors .......... 82 Drinking water point requirements (HP equivalent) in village centres in 2000........... 90 Summary of drinking water points for 2020..................................................................................... 93 Specific water consumption hypotheses .............................................................................................. 94 Estimated urban and semi-urban water requirements ................................................................ 95 Urban and semi-urban water supply objectives to be met by 2020 .................................. 97 Assessment of pastoral water supply requirement per geoclimatic zone..................... 100 Estimated number of pastoral water points to be installed .................................................. 105 Estimated production in 2001................................................................................................................. 106 Estimated change in consumption per inhabitant between 2000 and 2020............... 106 Estimate of requirements for various food products between 2000 and 2020 ....... 106 Predicted rise in the consumption of dates, milk and meat in the Saharan zone (in tonnes) ........................................................................................................................... 107 Changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020 .......................... 108 Summary of water resources and estimated abstraction by use ....................................... 114 Public Investment Programme as a % of the donor and State totals.............................. 132 Public Investment Programme in millions of FCFA..................................................................... 132 Cost of a basic supply unit ........................................................................................................................ 135 Ongoing and proposed urban water supply programmes..................................................... 139 Ongoing and proposed urban sanitation projects....................................................................... 141 Ongoing and proposed village water supply programmes..................................................... 143 Ongoing and proposed rural sanitation programmes............................................................... 144 Ongoing and proposed pastoral water supply programmes ................................................ 145 Ongoing and proposed agricultural water supply programmes.......................................... 146 Ongoing and proposed water resources programmes............................................................ 147 Summary of investments to be found in FCFA billion in the field of water (per year)......................................................................................................................................... 147
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Administrative breakdown by prefecture................................................................................................ 23 Administrative breakdown by department............................................................................................ 23 Rural population density in the year 2000............................................................................................. 30 Locations of the main towns of the departments and sub-prefectures............................. 38 Pastoral systems ..................................................................................................................................................... 43 Agricultural water supply schemes ............................................................................................................. 50 Orohydrography .................................................................................................................................................... 56 Main watercourses in Chad ............................................................................................................................ 56 Long-term rainfall variability............................................................................................................................ 57 Annual flow rates of the Chari at Lake Chad ...................................................................................... 57 The main hydrogeological units in Chad................................................................................................. 61 Main environmental components ................................................................................................................ 70 Village drinking water point requirements (HP equivalents) in the year 2000 ................ 92 Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Saharan zone ...................................... 101 Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Sahelian zone...................................... 102 Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Sudanian zone.................................... 103 Interpolation of static level depth............................................................................................................. 110 Specific discharge interpolation ................................................................................................................ 110 Conductivity interpolation............................................................................................................................. 111 pH interpolation.................................................................................................................................................. 111 Groundwater accessibility by borehole................................................................................................. 112 Groundwater exploitability ........................................................................................................................... 112 Resources/Requirements summary........................................................................................................ 117 Overview of water resources in Chad.................................................................................................. 118 Consultative mechanism................................................................................................................................. 154
One billion FCFA = 1.52 million Euros
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADB: AFD: BADEA: BELACD: BET: CNGE: CTIE: DGRHA: DH: DLA: DREM: DWP: DWS: EDF: EU: FAC: GDP: GNP: HCNE: HP: IFAD: LCBC: LRVZF: ME: MEE: MDG: MISD: MWP: NBA: NGO: ONDR: PRSP: PWP: SDEA: SECADEV: SIA: SODELAC: STEE: STI: TLU: UNDESA: UNDP: UNICEF: UNO: URP: WHO: WPMC:
Source: SDEA 2001
African Development Bank Agence Franaise de Dveloppement Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa Bureau dtude et de Liaison dAction Caritative et de Dveloppement Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti National Water Management Committee Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water Directorate of Rural Engineering and Agricultural Hydraulics Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs Decentralised Local Authorities Direction des Ressources en Eau et de la Mtorologie Drinking water point Drinking water supply European Development Fund European Union Fonds dAide et de Coopration Gross domestic product Gross national product High National Council for the Environment Hand pump International Fund for Agricultural Development Lake Chad Basin Commission Farcha Veterinary and Zootechnical Research laboratory Ministry of Stock-Rearing Ministry of the Environment and Water Millennium development goals Ministry of the Interior, Security and Decentralisation Modern water point Niger Basin Authority Non-governmental organisation National Rural Development Office Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Pastoral water point Integrated plan for Chads water development and management Secours Catholique Dveloppement Small irrigation area Socit de Dveloppement du Lac Socit Tchadienne dEau et dlectricit Swiss Tropical Institute Tropical livestock unitl United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Development Programme United Nations Childrens Fund United Nations Organization Urban reference plan World Health Organization Water Point Management Committee
1 INTRODUCTION
The Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management (SDEA) is a multisectoral and strategic master plan providing guidelines for sustainable development and management of water resources in Chad, with a view to meeting the populations basic needs and guaranteeing the economic and social development of the country while protecting the environment. This document, stemming from a wide national consensus, proposes concrete measures forming part of a long-term vision, and may be viewed as both a process and a product. The multi-stakeholder process that was instigated while the SDEA was being drawn up will continue to provide a vital forum for intersectoral consultation and will gradually infiltrate right down to local management level. It will also adapt constantly to changes while being guided by the long-term vision of the water sector set out by the SDEA. As a product, following a detailed analysis of each water-using subsector, the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management defines a clear and consistent strategic framework for all the tasks to be implemented in order to attain a large number of development goals set out in the Millennium Declaration1 and the Johannesburg action plan. It also includes an institutional and financial framework as well as a detailed, costed programme. For the next fifteen years, the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management will constitute a major operating instrument that will contribute to the fight against poverty and to sustainable development in Chad. In Chad, the proportion of the population with permanent access to safe water in rural areas was 17% in 2000; the proportion implementing environmental health measures was 7%. In towns equipped with a drinking water supply (DWS), only 9.7% of the population have a connection, while 27.5% obtain water from a public stand-pipe and 63% have to draw water from (often traditional) wells. On the whole, permanent access to drinking water is limited to 23% of the Chadian population. None of the towns has a functioning wastewater sewerage system and the collection networks are dilapidated. Less than 2% of city-dwellers have sanitary facilities with running water, while latrines are almost non-existent in rural areas. The poor are vulnerable to chronic diseases related to poor living conditions and lack of access to water and sanitation. Women and girls from villages without access to a drinking water point devote a great deal of time to fetching water (up to several hours each day in some bedrock areas) which, along with other chores, is often one of the factors depriving them of their right to education (the basic education-level school-attendance rate among girls in Chad was 35.6% in 1999) and preventing them from acquiring skills that would enable them to become involved in more productive and rewarding activities. Two thirds of Chad is desert, and over the past thirty years the country has suffered the consequences of a persistent drought that has speeded up the desertification process and reduced the surface area of agropastoral land. Population growth and environmental damage linked to anthropogenic and climatic pressures have extended pastureland areas southwards to the detriment of agricultural land, which regularly creates conflicts between farmers and stock rearers, while agricultural output per inhabitant and mean consumption in calories are currently decreasing. From the economic point of view, the agriculture, stock-rearing and fishery sectors, which currently represent 40% of Chad's GDP, fundamentally depend on decisions made regarding water access levels (quantity and quality), spatial distribution of hydraulic networks within a homogeneous area or basin, national, regional and local water management methods, provision of management training and conservation of healthy basin aquatic ecosystems. This severe lack of basic infrastructure and the multiple water-related issues prompted the Government to draw up a national water policy and integrated management strategies, defined in a plan setting out guidelines and planning investments and the rational use of national water resources in order to meet the population's basic needs more effectively. At the Government's request, the first Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management was drawn up entirely in Chad, under UNDP2 funding and with methodological and technical support from UNDESA3. This reference document should contribute to making food crops less vulnerable to climatic variations, while reducing sources of conflict. It will also contribute to protecting the aquatic and basin ecosystems upon which the country's main economic sectors and rich biodiversity depend. In light of these needs the SDEA covers sanitation, a natural extension of any water supply system, as a specific important subsector.
2
Declaration of Heads of State who gathered at United Nations Headquarters in New York in 2000, which defines quantified development goals to be reached in all countries by 2015. This declaration constitutes a joint commitment from the countries to provide international aid, and is universally recognised and referred to for all cooperation projects. It was completed and made more specific, notably with regard to basic sanitation, at Johannesburg in September 2002 during the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
1
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme. UNDESA: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (United Nations secretariat).
INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 HCNE MEE UNO-DESA UNDP
11
The participatory, comprehensive approach (see appendix 1 for the list of participants and the bibliography) which was adopted to draw up the SDEA made it possible simultaneously to consider water resources, human, institutional and financial resources, technological, ecological and economic aspects, and social and cultural factors, in order to ensure that they are integrated.
World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002. Chad National Report, May 2002.
4
This study is being carried out just at the right time since Chad is entering the crude oil era and 72% of its oil revenues will be allocated to expenditure in declared priority sectors4 in Chad, i.e., education, healthcare and water, by virtue of law 001/PR/99 of 11 January 1999. A great deal of work has been carried out over three years to draw up an inventory and assessment of the existing situation and predict future needs for infrastructure and local capacity-building in order to meet the goals that have been set. These efforts have resulted in a water policy, strategies for mobilising financial, institutional and human resources and an action plan, covering a ten- and twentyyear period. This participatory approach to planning has also enabled the administrations of various sectors to reach a consensus on specific strategies for monitoring water resources (both surface and groundwater) and aquatic ecosystem resources, notably how they are protected and used by five subsectors: village water supply, urban and semi-urban water supply, sanitation, pastoral water supply and agricultural water supply (not forgetting fisheries, hydropower, tourism and natural or anthropogenic risk management). Throughout the national process of drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management, the recommended strategies and action and development plans were checked for consistency by continuously comparing them with the Government's general development policy and with policies governing other water-related sectors. However, the limits of the SDEA must be made quite specific in order to be clearly understood: the factors for developing an economic sector are not limited to good access to water and the sound management thereof. The aim of the SDEA is rather to complement and harmonise the other sectoral plans with the resources available within the framework of the Government's macroeconomic policy. Thus, the SDEA is not intended to replace a master plan, such as the food production master plan, which depends on several other factors. Nevertheless, the SDEA diagnoses the current situation and the past performance of irrigation systems, and indicates constraints relating to the mobilisation and local management of water, before proposing areas for coordinated action at local level. Because of its transverse nature, the management of water and basic facilities can, indeed, be a potent factor for integrating local actions. The SDEA thus responds to a priority for the Chadian Government which, given the lack of harmonised approaches and the poor coordination of participants observed during the sectoral consultation on rural development and the environment in 1999, considered it essential to revise the design and working methods in order to turn resolutely towards integrating activities within the framework of a comprehensive development approach. The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management responds to one of the countrys basic needs, since it presents a coherent policy, strategy and action plan for the water sector in a holistic and integrated manner. The SDEA takes account of the recommendations made at United Nations conferences, notably Rio de Janeiro in 1992, set out in the Agenda 21 reference document and, in particular, those concerning the integrated management of water resources (Harare, 1998) which undertook to draw up national strategies and costed action plans for development and integrated water management by the end of 2002. This need was emphatically restated in Johannesburg during the World Summit on Sustainable Development (September 2002). The Chad SDEA is, in fact, a pioneering document in subsaharan Africa. It has anticipated the recommendations made at this recent summit, to develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005, with support to developing countries, through actions at all levels.
12
The SDEA sets great store by local action. An investment programme spread over twenty years, including an initial phase completed in ten years, is presented for a joint, gradual mobilisation of internal resources and aid from the international community. In compliance with the international communitys Millennium Declaration (UN-NY-2000), implementation of the SDEA will thus contribute to the fight against poverty and protection of the environment by:
ensuring a consensus and national coordination based on a deliberate yet realistic policy of extensive, efficient, fair and affordable access to drinking water and basic sanitation; educating, training and increasing the awareness of stakeholder groups, whether public, private, associations, national, regional or local, men, women or young people, in the field of sustainable water management; organising basic activities and investments that will influence the sustainable improvement of the populations health; implementing strategies aimed at the integrated management of water resources and their uses in order to protect the aquatic ecosystems upon which conservation and biodiversity, agricultural production, fisheries and stock-rearing depend.
The final version includes observations from the SDEA political approval meeting that took place on 30 April 2003 under the aegis of the HCNE (High National Council for the Environment). It also includes remarks and observations made during the national validation workshop that took place in November 2002 and observations from the three regional validation workshops that took place in July 2002 under the aegis of the CNGE (National Water Management Committee). It was drawn up taking account of the results of the six subsectoral validations carried out under the aegis of the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) in April and May 2002. Given the complexity of the aspects dealt with, the various technical validations were greatly simplified by the fact that the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, with support from the UNDESA, kept up a constant dialogue with all the administrations concerned (ten ministries) throughout the two years of studies for the subsector documents. Chapter 1 of the main document is devoted to an analysis of the current situation, taking into account the economics of water, basic infrastructure and its management (sanitation and village, semi-urban, urban, agricultural and pastoral water supplies), water resources, the environment, water shared with neighbouring countries, and the institutional context. This analysis draws on the lessons learned from past experience and reveals the constraints to be overcome. Basic needs are predicted in chapter 2. Thus, the needs for village, urban and semi-urban, pastoral and agricultural water supplies, water resources and sanitation are analysed. The third chapter notably examines investment deficits that have either already been recorded or are forecast for various goals. A study of (internal and external) financial capacities and local implementation, management and maintenance capacities enabled an optimum scenario to be defined for each subsector. Previous studies were drawn on to define the water policy and to specify all the subsector strategies to be implemented in order to reach the national water policy objectives. These subsector strategies are complemented by a financial mobilisation strategy, a water resources and information strategy and a strategy for human and institutional capacity-building, all of which are transverse themes that are vital to implementation of the SDEA. Chapter 4 groups together the action plans for 2000-2010 and 2011-2020. Finally, chapter 5 deals with measurable performances stemming from SDEA implementation, the economic and social justification of the plan, the indicator-based performance monitoring method, and resources for coordinating and updating the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management.
13
2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR DRAWING UP THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT AND ITS CONSULTATION DOMAINS
The institutional framework for drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is provided by the ministry responsible for water: the Ministry of the Environment and Water (MEE), through the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs. The institutional framework of the intersector consultation process has been set up on three levels (see organisation chart below), under the Prime Ministers supervision: 1 2 the intersectoral technical level (Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water - CTIE), which rules on the technical aspects of each subsector document; the administrative and strategic level (National Water Management Committee - CNGE including several elected representatives of civil society), which gives opinions to the HCNE (High National Council for the Environment) on the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management; the political level (HCNE), which is placed under the authority and arbitration of the Prime Minister, and whose secretariat is provided by the MEE. Finally, the decision-making level, which refers to the Council of Ministers at the HCNEs request.
The Ministry of the Environment and Water acts as both the permanent secretary of the HCNE and the president of the CNGE and the CTIE. The Ministry of Economic Promotion and Development (MPAT) acts as vice-president of the HCNE and the CNGE and thus guarantees that the process is integrated and that the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is drawn up in a manner which is consistent at all levels with sectoral policies, the objectives of the national economy and with regional development and the environment. Mechanism for drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management
PRIME MINISTER PROJECT SUPPORT UNDP/UNDESA CHD 98 004 UNDP, funding agency. NATIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (CNGE) DG of 10 ministries. Representatives of elected officials. Representatives of users. INTERSECTORAL TECHNICAL COMMITTEE FOR WATER (CTIE) Intersectoral meetings of technical Directorates concerned by water.
Decree No. 034/PM/MEE/99
MPAT
HCNE 16 ministries.
MPAT
UNDESA, executing agency. DG/MEE Project authority. Chief Technical Advisor National expert in planning and water management, technical coordinator and CTA counterpart. International consultants. National consultants. National engineering consultants
DG/MPAT
DH/MEE Acting project authority.
14
This flexible consultation framework, institutionalised by Prime Ministers decree5, is also intended to be devolved, at a later date, into smaller subsidiary mechanisms for local and regional intersectoral consultation. This consultation domain will have to remain in place and deal with all the strategic issues and projects related to integrated water management, after completion of the support project on preparation of the SDEA. No parallel structures have been created; preference was given to strengthening existing institutions and capacity-building.
5 Decree 034/PM/MEE/99 signed by the Prime Minister on 3/9/99 concerning the creation and organisation of a National Water Management Committee.
3 GOALS OF THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT AND OF THE MILLENNIUM DECLARATION
In addition to providing a unique, updatable national reference frame, as well as policies and guidelines for short-, medium- and long-term investments in numerous key sectors in Chad, the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is a vital stage on the road to sustainable development and part of Chads response to the reciprocal commitments it has made with the international community over the past few years. The specific extracts of the Millennium Declaration concerning water are quoted in the box below.
MILLENNIUM DECLARATION In September 2000 the heads of State and Government met at the UN in New York, to discuss and adopt the Millennium Declaration, which now constitutes the common reference document used by all developing and developed countries. This universal declaration sets out concrete goals to be achieved by 2015; the following extracts are related to water: ...We also resolve to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the worlds people whose income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safe drinking water; ... By the same date, to have reduced under-five child mortality by two thirds of current rates; We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development including those set out in Agenda 21, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and, as first steps we resolve to stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies.
Source: General Assembly of Heads of State and Government - UN Headquarters 8 September 2000 - A/RES/55/2
The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management should make a significant contribution to reaching the main goals of the Millennium Declaration through:
Sustainable access to drinking water: the SDEA defines the means, equipment and management methods to be implemented over the next twenty years in order fully to achieve this declarations goal in terms of access to drinking water, and above all to maintain its performance in village areas (effective access rate in 2000: 17%; target rate for 2015: 60%) as in all urban and semi-urban areas with more than 2000 inhabitants (situation in 2000: 33%; target rate for 2015: 60%). In accordance with the recommendations of the SDEA, the total access rate in Chad should increase from 23% in 2000 to over 60% in 2015, thus reaching the goals that have been set.
15
6 For Chad, the recommended daily calorie intake (FAO,1985) is 2095 calories in urban areas and 2175 calories in rural areas.
Food production: at present, according to the national poverty reduction strategy, the level of food poverty, i.e., the proportion of households that cannot meet all their food requirements6, is about 54% in Chad. This should be reduced to 27% in 2015. Efficient use of water resources and land over an additional 100 000 ha, the improvement of productivity and yields brought about by training farmers and through income-generating activities should make a large contribution to reaching the goal of reducing hunger. Health: in a country where the main causes of death are related to water-borne diseases7 and hygiene, implementing the SDEA should contribute to speeding up the reduction in the death rate, which is very high in Chad (maternal mortality: 827/100 000 births over the period 19911997; under-5 mortality rate: 198/1000, almost one in five). This contribution (because there are complementary policies to be implemented) will be made through strategies and action plans aimed at significantly improving conditions of access to sanitation (currently almost non-existent in all towns) and to drinking and domestic water, associated with increased awareness of hygiene and the need to protect the quality of water as it is conveyed and stored, not forgetting nutrition issues. Biodiversity, integrated water resource management and cooperation on shared water: the SDEA defines, among other things, strategies and actions to both promote the sustainable optimum use of water resources and preserve these resources, the aquatic ecosystems and the biodiversity upon which most human activities depend (fisheries, pastures, receding-flood farming, etc.), in other words, most of the Chadian economy. Moreover, the SDEA constitutes the first step towards integrated water resource management as recommended in Agenda 21 (chapter 18), and subsequently specified during the international meeting of United Nations experts in Harare (Zimbabwe - 1998), as well as in the context of the recent meetings of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg - September 2002) and major international conferences on water (Paris - 1998, The Hague - 2000, Bonn - 2001, Kyoto - 2003).
For deaths occurring between 1 and 59 months, the main identified cause is seen to be diarrhoeal diseases (44% of identified causes and 3.5 times more than from acute malnutrition). Source: EDST 96-97 DSEED/DHS).
7
Finally, given the issues raised by the SDEA in relation to regional development and the protection of aquatic ecosystems, this document is a key component in the fight against desertification, the protection of biodiversity and concerted management of the shared water of the Lake Chad basin (LCBC), the river Niger basin (NBA) and aquifer ecosystems.
16
1 CONTEXT AND DEMOGRAPHY

With 7.8 million inhabitants in 2002, spread over an area of 1 284 000 km2, Chad is the 25th largest country in Africa in terms of population and the 5th in terms of total surface area. Chad is one of the poorest countries in the world, with a GNP/inh/year of USD 2200 and 54% of the population living below the world poverty threshold1. Chad was ranked 155th out of 162 countries in 2001 according to the UNDP human development index. The mean life expectancy at birth is 45.2 years. For 1000 live births, the infant mortality rate is 118 and that for children under 5, 198. In spite of a difficult situation, the trend in these three health indicators appears to have been improving slightly over the past 30 years (in 1970-1975, they were respectively 39 years, 149/1000 and 252/1000)2. In contrast, with an annual population growth rate of nearly 2.5% and insufficient growth in agricultural production, the trend in terms of nutrition (both quantitatively and qualitatively) has been a constant concern. It was believed that 38% of the population suffered from malnutrition in 1996. Only 13 countries of sub-Saharan Africa have a higher rate. The net primary school attendance rate is 52.1%; however, only 38.8% of girls attended school in 1997-1998. According to the Human Development Report (HDR), it was estimated that only 27% of the population had access to a developed water point. The detailed studies carried out in the context of the integrated plan for Chads Water Development and Management (SDEA)3 show that the overall rate of access to drinking water guaranteed throughout the year was in fact only 23% for the population of Chad as a whole in 2000. Chad is a land-locked country with three major geoclimatic zones (Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian) from north to south, in which the very different distribution of natural water resources, cultivable land and biomass has always determined the spatial distribution of the population. Regional planning in the SDEA is based on this breakdown for the following reasons: 1) This breakdown is consistent in terms of both natural and socio-economic regions; 2) These large zones are quite consistent from the point of view of hydraulic development and their method of management; 3) The breakdown is compatible with a large-basin approach as, according to the breakdown adopted for the SDEA, the Sudanian zone covers practically all of the only major active basin in the country, that of the Chari-Logone, limited downstream by NDjamna; 4) Lastly, as far as possible, and for obvious planning reasons, the contours of these zones are based on the major administrative entities. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the spatial distribution of the major geoclimatic zones, the administrative breakdown per prefecture and department. Main towns are also shown. The Saharan zone, covering 780 000 km2, concerns the entire northern part of Chad. The frontier with the Sahelian zone corresponds more or less to the 250 mm isohyet. From the climatic point of view, therefore, it corresponds to the Saharan and Saharo-Sahelian climate, the main characteristics of which, in addition to low rainfall, are the almost permanent occurrence of dry winds, the low humidity (<50%) and high day-time temperatures, all of which contribute to producing intense evaporation. From the administrative standpoint, the zone covers the entire prefecture of Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti (BET), most of the prefecture of Kanem, about half that of Batha and the western third of Biltine prefecture. From the physical standpoint, there are four major entities:
ECOSI survey, 95-96. Human poverty index: proportion of households that cannot financially meet their own needs in terms of essential food and other commodities. This is in fact rather a monetary poverty index as in reality basic hydraulic infrastructure for drinking water (an unquestionably essential requirement) is still insufficient for 77% of the population of Chad.
1 2
Population and Health Survey (EDS), 96-97. 17% of the population of Chad living in villages of less than 200 inhabitants have access to a hydraulic structure capable of guaranteeing permanent supplies of safe drinking water. This proportion is nearly 35% in urban and semi-urban areas with more than 2000 inhabitants source: SDEA 2002.
in the centre, a vast depression, the centre of which corresponds to the greatest extent of Lake Chad. It is filled with Continental Terminal formations (sand, sandstone and clay) buried under soft Quaternary sediments (sand and clay) of varying thickness. The altitude is below 500 m; to the east, the Ennedi range, a vast Paleozoic sandstone plateau culminating at 1450 m; to the north-east, the Erdi plateaux, a succession of low sandstone tablelands dating from the Secondary era, cut by sand-filled depressions; to the north-east, the lofty Tibesti range (maximum altitude: 3415 m), formed from a chain of volcanoes and basalt plateaux covering the Paleozoic sandstones and Precambrian granites.
21
The Sahelian zone, covering 374 000 km2, corresponds to the portion of Chad located between the Saharan zone and the Chari-Logone catchment area situated between NDjamna and Bongor. Mean annual rainfall is between 300 and 650 mm. From the climatic standpoint, the Sahelian zone corresponds to the Sahelian climate in the strict sense. From the administrative standpoint, the Sahelian zone includes the Lac prefecture. It covers the southern parts of the prefectures of Kanem and Batha and most of the prefectures of Biltine, Gura, Ouadda and Chari-Baguirmi. From the physical point of view, the Sahelian zone is divided into two contrasting units: a vast plain that extends the Saharan depression southwards; this is filled with essentially loose sedimentary formations (sand and clay). The altitude is below 500 m;
a rocky region with broken relief, consisting of the Ouadda range to the east and the Gura mountains to the south, forming a sort of belt around the above plain.
The Sudanian zone, covering 130 000 km2 corresponds to that portion of the catchment area of the Chari and its main tributary the Logone lying within Chad. It covers the entire southern region of the country as far as a boundary situated between Bongor and NDjamna. Mean annual rainfall is between 650 and 1000 mm. From the climatic standpoint, it therefore covers the Sudanian zone, bounded by the 800 mm isohyet, the Sudano-Sahelian zone, with rainfall averaging between 650 and 800 mm, and the Sahelian zone in the strict sense, characterising the small downstream area below Bongor. From the physical standpoint, it corresponds to a vast sedimentary basin rising at the edges on the borders of Sudan and Cameroon. This vast plain nevertheless has a slight meso-relief marked by two contrasting situations during high-water periods: areas that are above water, underlain by sandy formations where most of the housing and rainfed agriculture is concentrated, and inundated areas covered by heavy soils and characterised by multiple activities centred on flood-recession agriculture, migratory stock-rearing and fishing, the rhythm of which is dictated by the naturally occurring cycles of rains and flooding. From the administrative standpoint, the zone includes the prefectures of Logone Oriental, Logone Occidental, Moyen-Chari, Tandjil, Mayo-Kebbi, the southern parts of the prefectures of Ouadda, Chari-Baguirmi and Gura and the northern part of Salamat. It should be noted that the main area of oil drilling in Chad is at Doba, in the Sudanian zone. Oil drilling, which began at Doba in 2004 for a period expected to run to 2015 (one billion barrels of crude), represents a real opportunity but also a challenge to development in this region and for the country as a whole. Demography Table 1 shows the population distribution in Chad according to the administrative breakdown and also its expected growth over the period 2000-2020. These data are taken from an SDEA study concerning the population and based on 1993 census figures. The demographic forecasts were processed using the DEMPROJ software. Three assumptions were made with regard to fertility rates:
A low-case hypothesis for the period from 1993 to 2000, to take into account the low rate of contraceptive use in the country as a whole and also the Chadians desire to have children. Over this period, it is assumed that the fertility rate would remain constant. A medium hypothesis for the period from 2000 to 2015, during which it is assumed that the fertility rate will gradually fall, taking into account the various measures taken by the Government and development partners aimed at controlling population growth via a reduction in the fertility rate. This reduction is estimated at 0.5 children for each 5-year period, corresponding to a reduction of 1.5 children per woman for the 2000-2015 period.
22
Republic of Chad Figure 1: Administrative breakdown by prefecture
Republic of Chad Figure 2: Administrative breakdown by department (unofficial breakdown)
Libya
Libya
Legend
Prefecture chief town Saharan Zone Sahelian Zone Sudanian Zone 1980-2000 isohyet
Legend
Department chief town Saharan Zone Sahelian Zone Sudanian Zone 1980-2000 isohyet
Niger
Niger
Sudan Nigeria Nigeria
Sudan
Ca me ro un
Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA
Ca me ro un
23
Table 1: Population distribution according to administrative breakdown

Estimated population in 2000 Estimated population in 2010 Estimated population in 2020 Villages Towns of Total Villages Towns of Total Villages Towns of Total less than 2000 inhab. population less than 2000 inhab. population less than 2000 inhab. population 2000 inhab. and over 2000 inhab. and over 2000 inhab. and over 143 455 195 753 43 553 33 163 10 865 211 964 268 677 149 079 375 300 309 866 221 902 81 309 288 545 438 415 237 375 146 700 201 020 367 541 296 409 109 773 217 833 411 138 135 797 244 522 177 663 183 080 185 735 286 700 0 5 973 132 14 508 31 118 10 405 3 816 0 23 665 47 793 29 715 64 401 68 073 17 822 19 130 22 345 154 053 48 283 20 208 37 474 48 801 73 758 16 773 113 058 81 444 9 689 75 364 8 065 45 768 35 778 65 809 639 000 1 826 116 157 963 226 871 53 958 36 979 10 865 235 629 316 470 178 794 439 701 377 939 239 724 100 439 310 890 592 468 285 658 166 908 238 494 416 342 370 167 126 546 330 891 492 582 145 486 319 886 185 728 228 848 221 513 352 509 639 000 7 799 248 175 852 239 960 53 661 40 860 13 388 275 956 333 657 185 132 466 063 373 075 255 632 93 669 347 744 562 620 297 370 183 773 248 633 444 367 358 363 135 726 269 332 508 334 161 711 291 217 211 565 221 640 229 838 354 785 0 7 333 922 19 969 43 191 11 034 7 583 0 30 678 72 102 37 545 106 083 106 230 20 262 23 285 39 343 230 309 84 535 23 405 53 293 82 354 147 231 28 693 162 379 129 408 14 494 92 111 11 949 72 879 56 941 97 200 818 600 2 623 086 195 821 283 151 64 695 48 443 13 388 306 634 405 759 222 677 572 146 479 305 275 894 116 954 387 087 792 929 381 905 207 178 301 926 526 721 505 594 164 419 431 711 637 742 176 205 383 328 223 514 294 519 286 779 451 985 818 600 9 957 008 212 667 290 201 64 678 49 250 16 134 343 535 409 805 227 400 572 465 442 974 284 910 104 396 409 789 706 222 366 146 226 180 300 950 537 869 433 772 164 610 326 648 616 510 187 218 337 150 244 939 262 170 281 749 434 918 0 8 855 255 24 529 57 978 11 678 15 381 0 45 580 92 490 47 041 126 757 141 829 21 783 26 618 54 169 343 435 125 606 28 161 63 106 149 406 243 495 54 895 211 698 200 679 19 251 123 143 15 365 93 614 76 711 136 593 1 024 000 237 196 348 179 76 356 64 631 16 134 389 115 502 295 274 441 699 222 584 803 306 693 131 014 463 958 1 049 657 491 752 254 341 364 056 687 275 677 267 219 505 538 346 817 189 206 469 460 293 260 304 355 784 358 460 571 511 1 024 000
Prefecture Batha BET
Department Batha Est Batha Ouest Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Biltine Baguirmi Dabada Hadjer Lamis Gura Kanem Barh El Gazal Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Monts de Lam Mayo Boneye Kabia Mayo Dala Lac Iro Barh Kho Mandoul Assongha Ouadda Sila Salamat Tandjil Est Tandjil Ouest N'Djamna
Biltine Chari-Baguirmi
Gura Kanem Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Mayo-Kebbi
Moyen-Chari
Ouadda
Salamat Tandjil N'Djamna Total Source: SDEA 2001
3 574 991 12 430 246
Population according to administrative breakdown Rpartition distribution des populations selon le dcoupage administratif
1 200 000 Logone occidental N'Djamna Ouadda Assongha Sila Salamat
Population 2020 Population 2020
Hadjer Lamis
1 000 000
Estimated Estim depopulation la population
Logone oriental
Mayo Dala
Kabia
Mandoul
Baguirmi
Mayo Boneye
Batha Ouest
Barh Kho
800 000
Batha Est
Borkou
0 Legend Lgende:
Tibesti
200 000
Ennedi
Dpartement Department
Source: SDEA 2001
24
Lac Iro
400 000
Barh El Gazal
Monts de Lam
600 000
Dabada
Kanem
Tandjil Est
Biltine
Lac
Tandjil Ouest
Gura
A high-case hypothesis for the period from 2015 to 2020. During this period, it is assumed that the aim of controlling the birth rate would be reached by 2015 and that the level obtained would be satisfactory. Consequently, the fertility rate would be stabilised at the level achieved in 2015.
With regard to mortality, an analysis of the various indicators revealed a distinct tendency for the rate to fall. However, over the past few years, given the effects of the AIDS pandemic, there is no doubt that these indicators will rise once again. On the basis of these considerations, the following assumptions were made: A low-case hypothesis for the period from 1993 to 2010. Life expectancy at birth will fall by 0.5 years for each 5-year period, giving a fall in life expectancy at birth of 1.5 years. This hypothesis is based on contraceptive use of less than 10% and chronic poverty that prevents certain people from obtaining suitable medication.
A medium hypothesis for the period from 2010 to 2015, during which life expectancy will fall relatively little in comparison with the preceding period. The fall is estimated at 0.3 years. A high-case hypothesis for the 2015-2020 period, during which life expectancy at birth will remain constant at the level achieved in 2015. This hypothesis is based on the fact that from 2015 onwards, sexually transmitted diseases will be largely under control.
Table 1 separates people living in villages of less than 2000 inhabitants (using village water supply systems) and those in towns of 2000 and more (using urban and semi-urban water supply systems), while table 2 shows the population distribution in the main geoclimatic zones. Thus, in 2000, 76.6% of the people of Chad lived in villages of less than 2000 inhabitants. This figure will fall to less than 70% by 2020. Table 2: Population distribution by geoclimatic zone
Geoclimatic zone Saharan Sahelian Sudanian N'Djamna Total Population in 2000 Population % 219 480 2 694 760 4 246 008 639 000 7 799 248 2.81 34.55 54.44 8.19 100.00 Population in 2010 Population % 276 218 3 403 196 5 458 994 818 600 9 957 008 2,77 34,18 54,83 8,22 100,00 Population in 2020 Population % 338 122 4 189 378 6 878 746 1 024 000 12 430 246 2.72 33.70 55.34 8.24 100.00
Source: SDEA 2001. N.B. the city of NDjamna lies within the Sahelian zone.
The mean population growth rate applied to the estimated population of Chad is of the order of 2.5%. However, it should be pointed out that certain recent studies speak of a population growth rate of the order of 3.1%. In table 2, which does not take into account movements from one department to another, it can be seen that the Sudanian zone accounts for more than 50% of the total population and the Saharan zone less than 3%.
25
2 THE NEED TO DEVELOP HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE IN CHAD AND THE FIGHT AGAINST POVERTY 2.1 Economic diversification
Chads medium-term development strategy is characterised by the aim of entering the post-oil boom era so that the non-oil sector can take over from the oil sector. Indeed, sustainable economic growth stimulated during the oil boom era (a decade) will only be possible in future decades if there is greater diversification in the economy, which in Chad is essentially agricultural and rural. The main sectors of activity in the country at present are: agriculture;

stock-rearing; fishing.
ECOSIT, 95-96 (including non-monetary income)

4
These sectors (accounting for 40% of GDP) involve 80% of the active population and provide more than 59% of the average income4 of households in rural areas, along with 80% of exported products. They govern economic growth and constitute the essential source of foreign currency for the country and the main source of food for its inhabitants. Diversification can only marginally affect development in the industrial sector. If it succeeds, it will concern essentially agriculture, stock-rearing, fishing and services (the consumption of business services in fact follows business development). The three main diversification activities outside the oil sector, namely, agriculture, stock-rearing and fishing, are highly dependent on water and hydraulic infrastructure. Controlling water is at the centre of the diversification sought. Investing in hydraulic infrastructure and its management is therefore a strategic economic choice.
2.2 The fight against poverty

5 Education concerning environmental health via operations focused on water points is of fundamental importance.
This sustainable, planned and necessary economic growth will eventually help to improve health, education and peoples incomes. However, this growth is not sufficient because economic development can only be fully and safely achieved if the human capital is strengthened at the same time. This must be done, in particular, via better public health and acceptable living conditions. It is necessary to invest, first and foremost, in basic infrastructure geared towards the essential needs of the population, wider and reliable access to drinking water and sanitation, and of course, education and access to knowledge5, as poverty cannot be seen merely in economic and monetary terms. Indeed, the lack of access6 to safe and sufficient drinking water supplies and the lack of sanitation are directly or indirectly linked to most of the causes of the various aspects of poverty:
In terms of basic modern hydraulic facilities, for which initial investment cannot usually be completely covered by poor people with little money available.
6
Health - scarce access to safe water and an environment with little or no sanitation are often the causes of the major pathologies: malaria, diarrhoea (which accounts for 44% of the cases of mortality in children under 5), schistosomiasis, meningitis, cholera, etc. These factors result in a drop in productivity and number of days worked (and hence in income-earning potential) in people affected, together with a significant shortening of life expectancy. Income and consumption - the absence of reliable drinking water supplies means that: a large proportion of the household budget is spent on medical treatment or in buying and treating water at a higher cost, reducing the net household income in proportion,
much time is wasted in looking for, collecting and transporting water, thus reducing the possibility of generating income and the chances of economic and social integration, especially for women.
Education - the lack of hygiene and adequate sanitation increases the number of days taken up by sickness and fetching water, which also helps to reduce school attendance, in particular among girls.
26
If one adds to this the fact that water is a shared, vital, limited and vulnerable resource, plus the fact that it is an essential contributor to economic diversification as seen above, two conclusions cannot be avoided: water is clearly a strategic sector of diversified development and poverty reduction, and it is de facto a sector in its own right in the Governments priorities.
2.3 The place of water in the economy of Chad

The question of water in the economy of Chad arises in several respects: the well-being of the population,

its effects on economic growth; as an economic activity.
These various points of view are not independent. For example, greater availability of drinking water improves peoples health, which has an effect on both well-being and growth. 2.3.1 Water and peoples well-being At the time of preparing the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), enquiries were conducted in December 2000 and January 2001 among people living in the 14 prefectures of Chads 7 regions. These enquiries asked participants to rank a number of themes or aspects (around 20 in all) in order of importance for them. Drinking water was ranked third in terms of peoples expectations. If one adds to this the fact that health, ranked second, depends to a great extent on water and that reliable food supplies and agricultural development also depend to a great extent on water, it is clear that the question of water is a priority for the population as a whole. Naturally, water has a cost. More specifically, given the major groundwater reserves in Chad, mobilising water has a cost. When it is a question of improving peoples well-being, expenditure cannot be evaluated in terms of profitability but rather in terms of political choice. Nevertheless, the political decision must be taken in view of the costs of the various possible solutions. It is therefore important to back such a decision with complete information. 2.3.2 Water and economic development Before being a factor of economic development, water is a vital resource without which there is no life. Towns and villages are created around water points. The availability of water has always been an unavoidable requirement for regional development. Water is involved in economic development in several ways, either as an input for production processes, or as an element in the overall capacity of the economy. It thus combines the two roles of consumer good and infrastructure. Perhaps more fundamentally, water is a commodity whose multiple uses mean that it has to be analysed as an aquatic system. Indeed the same resource, e.g., a river, can:

supply the population with drinking water, enable fish to live and fishing to take place, irrigate and/or flood cultivated land, serve as a means of communication for local and international transport and as a factor of regional integration.
Any decision concerning the use of water, for example the creation of a flood-spreading dam intended for agriculture, must take into account this characteristic of water of being a multiple-use system. Water is also a permanent feature of a countrys economic life, whereas oil is a very temporary resource. Sustainable management is of fundamental importance.
27
Water as an input to production processes Water is an input to many production processes, notably: agriculture;

stock-rearing; many types of industrial production.
Plant production, animal production and fishing depend largely on the extent and health of aquatic ecosystems (wetlands, rivers, large flood plains and lakes). Their operation depends on water resources (in terms of distribution and variability) but also on choices regarding hydraulic development schemes, on the management and protection of water. Production may therefore be increased by means of various types of investment. In contrast to the improvement of well-being, investments in productive sectors raise the issue of profitability. This is often difficult to measure, but certain types of information may be of use in reaching decisions. For example, the per-hectare cost of agricultural development is a good indicator. In many cases it is preferable to lay emphasis on schemes with a low per-hectare cost. The price billed to the user is linked to the cost of producing water. Water as an element in the overall capacity of the economy A number of types of physical and abstract infrastructure cannot be analysed as inputs to the production system but as elements of the economic environment in which economic agents operate, such as: road infrastructure;

courts; administrative services.
From this point of view, water is an indirect element of the overall capacity of the economy via the well-being of the people, and in particular their state of health. Lastly, water production, like any other economic activity, generates added value and thus contributes to the GDP. The water industry uses items of intermediate consumption, employs labour, invests, makes profits and pays taxes.
3 ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE SITUATION IN 2000 3.1 The situation regarding village water supply schemes
Village water supply schemes aim to give access to water to people living in villages of less than 2000 inhabitants. In addition to increasing the supply rate, the Governments policy in this area involves in particular encouraging local initiatives in order to increase the development of private organisations for maintaining equipment, on one hand, and to involve users in the management and payment of equipment maintenance and renewal costs on the other. In the villages, the current (2001) standards for allocating water points defined by the Government are as follows: the population must be over 300,
villagers must accept the conditions of participation, i.e., the creation of a management committee and the setting up of a water fund.
In 2000, the number of people in Chad living in villages was estimated at around 6 million, i.e., 77% of the total population of the country. This figure will rise to 7 350 000 by 2010 and 8 855 000 by 2020 (see table 1).
28
These people live in nearly 28 500 villages of less than 2000 inhabitants. Thus, in 2000, 35% of the population lived in villages of less than 300 inhabitants, 53% in villages of between 300 and 1200 and 12% in villages of between 1200 and 2000. According to the current criteria for allocating drinking water points, 35% of the rural population of Chad is therefore ineligible to benefit from any of the major hydraulic infrastructure construction programmes. The village population is also unequally distributed over the country. The Sudanian zone, covering around 12% of the total surface area of the country, accounts for 62% of the rural population. The Sahelian zone (28% of the country) is home to 35% of the population and the Saharan zone (60%) has only 3% of the population. Figure 3 illustrates the rural population density. It is clear that the village population is concentrated in the south-western departments of the country. 3.1.1 Drinking water supply facilities in villages Village water supply facilities include traditional water points and modern water points (MWP). In all, 6871 MWPs have been inventoried, comprising 3467 wells and 3404 boreholes. However, it should be noted that nearly 74% of households draw drinking water from traditional water points, which are often vectors of illnesses such as diarrhoea and cholera. Modern reinforced concrete wells are generally built according to standard codes of practice. However, they are not closed and mechanised means are not used for drawing the water. Traditional methods (using buckets and ropes) are used. In addition, these wells are often used for two purposes: supplying water to the villagers, on one hand, and watering cattle and other livestock (goats, sheep), on the other. Because of the way in which these wells are operated, the type of equipment used to draw water and the well construction method (open well), the water is often of dubious quality. The wells may be listed as sustainable, permanent modern water points but, unless regular treatment is provided (i.e., disinfection by various processes), they cannot guarantee permanent supplies of safe drinking water, and because of this their impact on villagers health is limited and sometimes negative. For these reasons, these structures cannot be considered as drinking water points. The drinking water supply rate7 is evaluated by taking into account only hydraulic structures that always guarantee safe water. These structures include 2580 boreholes equipped with a hand pump (HP), 44 equipped with a solar-powered pumping station and 6 equipped with a thermal pumping station. These facilities are all located in villages with populations of 2000 or less. Table 3 shows the percentage of the village population that has access to a drinking water point in each department. It can be seen from the table that: only 17% of the rural population in Chad has access to a hydraulic structure capable of guaranteeing safe drinking water on a permanent basis,
Supply rate: the percentage of the population that is supplied or has access to a hydraulic infrastructure defined as such in terms of technical characteristics of the structure used and recognised consumption standards.
7
generally speaking, villages with 300-2000 inhabitants are the ones best supplied with drinking water (22% of the population in this group of villages) whereas only 7% of those with less than 300 inhabitants have supplies of this kind. This confirms the fact that the current standard for awarding drinking water points in the village water supply programmes is being applied; certain departments are better provided with water points than others. For example, more than 30% of the inhabitants in the departments of Hadjer Lamis, Lac, Logone Oriental, Monts de Lam, Mayo Boneye, Bahr Kho and Tandjil Est have access to drinking water points. In contrast, more than 95% of the population in 15 departments (Salamat, Assongha, Gura, etc.) have no access to this type of water point.
It should be pointed out that the departments in which the drinking water supply rate is relatively high are those in which the major hydraulic infrastructure construction programmes have been implemented. Three main reasons may partly explain the low drinking water supply rate in certain departments. These are: drinking water points have been created, but without setting up an environment in which they can be maintained (absence of spare parts for pumps, few if any trained stand-pipe managers, etc.), which has led the villagers to abandon them;
29
Republic of Chad Figure 3: Rural population density in the year 2000
Libya
Sudan
Inhabitants/km2 Cameroon
More than 20 10 to 20 5 to 10 2.5 to 5 Less than 2.5
30
departments with high concentrations of villages of under 300 people, which therefore do not meet the standards for being eligible for modern drinking water points; departments which, for various reasons, including certainly insufficient planning/scheduling of structures, have never benefited from programmes to construct drinking water supply systems. Often, the construction of new hydraulic structures is undertaken in accordance with available funding in departments selected by the funding agencies as a function of their preferences, without necessarily taking into account the priority drinking water requirements of the various regions.
A major conclusion emerges from this analysis: considerable efforts need to be made to increase the drinking water supply rate in village areas in an equitable manner. Future programmes to construct hydraulic infrastructure must be geared towards departments that have few if any such structures. 3.1.2 Equipment management and maintenance methods In line with Government policy, which aims to empower users, the system for managing and maintaining modern water points equipped with hand pumps (HP) is based on the following components: Water Point Management Committees (WPMC), the network of pump repairmen, the spare parts marketing network and the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs. Responsibility for managing boreholes equipped with hand pumps lies with the WPMC, an entity that has no legal status and comprising 5-7 voluntary members. Their main duties are to make sure the equipment operates correctly, manage the funds obtained by selling pumped water and ensuring that the water point is kept clean and hygienic. Solar and thermal equipment is also managed by the WPMC. The main observations arising from an assessment of the management and maintenance of the various types of pumping equipment (solar, thermal, HP) are the following:
To ensure efficient maintenance, the design and type of pumping equipment to be installed in a village must correspond to the villages real water requirements, to the planned uses of the water point and the peoples ability to take responsibility for it (from the financial, organisational and technical standpoints). Creating a WPMC and taking on responsibility for maintenance are the commitments required of villagers by the DH and funding agencies before a drinking water point is created in a village. In 2002, the operation of the WPMC relied primarily on the goodwill of a few local leaders and in many cases on the supervision provided by the projects. Thus, in sectors that had benefited from regular support from the main projects and where a suitable maintenance environment had been created (with available spare parts, repairmen, maintenance companies, etc.), the field enquiries showed that more than 90% of the pumping equipment was operational. In contrast, in sectors where such support had not been available, less than 10% of the pumping equipment was operational, a situation which had led people to abandon most of the water points. In order to guarantee the working life and sustainability of the equipment, it therefore appears essential to promote a local water point management organisation that is legally recognised, functional, aimed at the long term and for which the users feel responsible, and also to set up well-organised maintenance networks that are suited to specific regional features. The spatial distribution of water points must be taken into account right from the beginning of programme definition and during the implementation stage so that they are sufficiently concentrated to ensure the technical and financial viability of the equipment maintenance network.
31
Project implementation methods, notably with regard to coordination and the creation of a suitable environment for structure maintenance, have a major impact on equipment management and maintenance and on the working life of the infrastructure, yet these methods are not always mutually consistent and vary depending on the funding agencies, NGOs and those responsible for their implementation. Hence it is of paramount importance to improve cooperation between the various ministries, funding agencies and project managers in order to harmonise methodologies for implementing hydraulic infrastructure development schemes at national level while at the same time taking into account specific local features.
3.1.3 Village water supply stakeholders The various stakeholders involved in village water supplies may be grouped under several headings, namely institutions, funding agencies, local people, NGOs and charitable organisations, the private sector and the craftsman or informal sector. The Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH) of the Ministry of Environment and Water is the main institutional stakeholder. It comprises a central level, the Water Office, a Design and Planning Division, an Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Division, a Village and Pastoral Water Supply Division and a Maintenance and Equipment Division. The DH also includes an Administrative and Equipment Department. It is theoretically represented by a delegation in each prefecture and by a head of department but it should be pointed out that this type of representation was not effective in 2001. The system should therefore be introduced as part of the state decentralisation process currently underway. Most of the funds allocated to the village water supply subsector (FCFA 96 billion) are provided by the major bilateral and multilateral funding agencies. The main provider from 1985 to 2000 was France, via the Agence Franaise de Dveloppement (AFD) and Fonds dAide et de Coopration (FAC). The European Union (EU), via the European Development Fund (EDF), was in second place. However, from 2002 onwards, the EU will become the main funding agency in the field via the 8th and 9th EDF projects that provide for the construction of more than 5000 drinking water points in village areas. Local people are both partners and users, acting as the Governments main correspondent during the project. After the hydraulic infrastructure has been completed, they become both users and managers. They must take responsibility for repairs and maintenance and must participate financially in any renewal operations. They thus have a vital role to play in ensuring the working life and sustainability of modern hydraulic infrastructure. Twelve NGOs and charitable organisations have been identified working in the village water supply subsector. They provided a total of FCFA 3502 million in funds for various operations, including the construction of 2138 hydraulic structures (mainly wells) over the 1973-2000 period. The two major players in terms of both number of structures built and funding are the BELACD and SECADEV. The private sector consists of national and international companies working on design studies, supervision and implementation of works. Companies specialising in the distribution of spare parts for pumping equipment are also active in the subsector. According to the enquiry conducted among these national companies, all expressed the need for staff training and company management. It should be noted that they have difficulty obtaining money from the major international funding agencies. The craftsman sector includes small companies, craftsmens associations and cooperatives involved in digging wells and boreholes manually or using augers (boreholes) and in making local pumping facilities, in particular small hand pumps for boreholes and various pumping systems for wells (wheels, drums, buckets, etc.).
32
Pourcentage d'accs l'eau potable Percentage access to drinking water 60,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 0,00
Source: SDEA 2001
Batha Est Batha Ouest Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Biltine Baguirmi Dabada Hadjer Lamis Gura Kanem Barh El Gazal Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Monts de Lam Mayo Boneye Kabia Mayo Dala Lac Iro Barh Kho Mandoul Assongha Ouadda Sila Salamat Tandjil Est Tandjil Ouest
Dpartement Department
Table 3: Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000 (part 1)
33
Table 3: Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000 (cont.)
Section 1: villages with a population of under 300 % population with access to drinking water No. of boreholes
Section 2: villages with a population of between 300 and 1200 No. of boreholes 3 2 2 2 2 14 79 12 207 17 23 4 245 166 121 97 98 57 19 0 208 164 0 17 3 2 97 85
Total population
No. of villages with a borehole
No. of villages with population under 300
No. of villages with population 300 to 1200
Population with drinking water supplies
Prefectures Batha
Departments Batha Est Batha Ouest Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Biltine Baguirmi Dabada Hadjer Lamis Gura Kanem Barh El Gazal Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Monts de Lam Mayo Boneye Kabia Mayo Dala Lac Iro Barh Kho Mandoul Assongha Ouadda Sila Salamat Tandjil Est Tandjil Ouest
863 1 042 142 79 64 1 428 1 406 366 2 038 932 2 435 800 2 118 697 677 723 533 236 156 195 651 749 836 925 792 320 378 583 22 164
0 0 0 0 0 0 53 7 140 0 0 0 14 35 39 32 48 28 10 0 58 45 0 0 0 0 35 30 574
0 0 0 0 0 0 53 7 140 0 0 0 14 35 39 32 48 28 10 0 58 45 0 0 0 0 35 30 574
0 0 0 0 0 0 13 250 1 750 35 000 0 0 0 3 500 8 750 9 750 8 000 12 000 7 000 2 500 0 14 500 11 250 0 0 0 0 8 750 7 500
61 456 83 830 12 324 6 909 6 073 102 483 152 729 57 145 229 288 101 613 156 949 50 173 132 288 78 996 34 223 41 492 55 187 32 138 23 493 36 744 69 717 95 807 91 205 108 067 87 617 54 500 41 384 63 893
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.68 3.06 15.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.65 11.08 28.49 19.28 21.74 21.78 10.64 0.00 20.80 11.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 21.14 11.74 6.94
101 170 53 34 17 187 223 180 300 287 180 67 250 506 330 256 149 333 266 110 233 392 115 201 139 150 230 355 5 814
3 2 2 2 2 14 38 12 150 17 23 4 200 140 91 73 73 42 14 0 115 92 0 17 3 2 74 65
BET
Biltine Chari-Baguirmi
Gura Kanem
Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental
Mayo-Kebbi
Moyen-Chari
Ouadda
Salamat Tandjil
Total Source : SDEA 2001
143 500 2 067 723
1 270 1 746 710 400
34
Population with drinking water supplies 1 200 800 800 800 800 5 600 31 600 4 800 94 800 6 800 9 200 1 600 98 000 66 400 48 400 38 800 39 200 22 800 7 600 0 83 200 65 600 0 6 800 1 200 800 38 800 34 000
Tableau 3: Estimation du pourcentage de la population rurale ayant accs l'eau drinking en 2000. (Suite)
Section 2: villages with a population of between 300 and 1200 % population with access to drinking water
Section 3: villages with a population of between 1201 and 2000 No. of villages with population 1201 to 2000 hab. % population with access to drinking water No. of boreholes No. of boreholes
Total % population with access to drinking water 0.84 0.41 1.84 2.41 7.36 2.64 21.46 4.39 39.28 2.19 4.33 1.97 42.39 20.24 29.72 33.81 29.65 9.20 3.81 0.00 49.99 20.83 0.00 2.78 0.68 0.44 31.20 18.38 16.57
Total population
Total population
74 286 101 402 25 038 20 543 4 792 97 016 99 752 76 352 124 543 173 840 52 803 26 174 120 704 300 734 141 791 101 256 117 728 234 966 176 988 59 564 128 706 252 429 40 737 120 961 87 348 107 480 117 418 181 226 3 166 577
1.62 0.79 3.20 3.89 16.69 5.77 31.68 6.29 76.12 3.91 17.42 6.11 81.19 22.08 34.13 38.32 33.30 9.70 4.29 0.00 64.64 25.99 0.00 5.62 1.37 0.74 33.04 18.76 22.43
5 9 5 3 0 8 10 9 13 23 8 4 23 39 47 3 20 60 55 8 16 37 3 10 2 13 20 30 483
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 11 0 1 0 7 23 24 2 8 5 3 0 11 8 0 0 0 0 12 11 134
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 22 0 1 0 46 34 31 7 15 10 3 0 28 22 0 0 0 0 18 16 261
0 0 0 0 0 0 12 800 0 17 600 0 400 0 20 800 13 600 12 400 2 800 8 400 4 000 1 200 0 11 200 8 800 0 0 0 0 10 400 11 200 135 600
7 713 10 521 6 191 5 711 0 12 465 16 196 15 582 21 469 34 413 12 150 4 962 35 553 58 685 61 361 3 952 28 105 100 437 95 928 13 465 19 410 62 902 3 855 15 494 2 698 21 100 26 933 41 581 738 832
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 79.03 0.00 81.98 0.00 3.29 0.00 58.50 23.17 20.21 70.85 29.89 3.98 1.25 0.00 57.70 13.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 38.61 26.94 18.35
969 1 221 200 116 81 1 623 1 639 555 2 351 1 242 2 623 871 2 391 1 242 1 054 982 702 629 477 313 900 1 178 954 1 136 933 483 628 968
3 2 2 2 2 14 99 19 301 17 24 4 221 198 154 107 129 75 27 0 184 145 0 17 3 2 121 106
3 2 2 2 2 14 140 19 369 17 24 4 305 235 191 136 161 95 32 0 294 231 0 17 3 2 150 131 2 581
1 200 800 800 800 800 5 600 57 650 6 550 147 400 6 800 9 600 1 600 122 300 88 750 70 550 49 600 59 600 33 800 11 300 0 108 900 85 650 0 6 800 1 200 800 57 950 52 700
143 455 195 753 43 553 33 163 10 865 211 964 268 677 149 079 375 300 309 866 221 902 81 309 288 545 438 415 237 375 146 700 201 020 367 541 296 409 109 773 217 833 411 138 135 797 244 522 177 663 183 080 185 735 286 700
28 461 1 978
989 500 5 973 132
Total population
No. of villages with borehole
Total number of villages
35
3.2 The situation of urban and semi-urban water supplies

Urban and semi-urban drinking water supply systems concern towns of 2000 inhabitants and more. The Socit Tchadienne dEau et dElectricit (STEE) works in 11 centres (concessionary area) while the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs is responsible for providing drinking water supply systems in other urban and semi-urban areas (non-concessionary area) that include both the main towns of the Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA) and villages with more than 2000 inhabitants. Table 4 shows the population growth in the concessionary and non-concessionary areas. Table 4: Population growth in concessionary and non-concessionary areas
Areas Population of concessionary area excl. N'Djamna Population of N'Djamna Total population of concessionary area Population of non-concessionary area Total population in urban/semi-urban areas Source: SDEA 2001 2000 404 061 639 000 1 043 061 783 055 1 826 116 2010 503 426 818 600 1 322 026 1 301 060 2 623 086 2020 601 900 1 024 000 1 625 900 1 949 091 3 574 991
In addition, in 2000 there were 175 urban areas with populations of over 2000. There will be 289 of them by 2010 and 462 by 2020. At national level, administrative organisation is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior, Security and Decentralisation (MISD), whose duties are defined by decree 399/PR/MISD/97 of 10 September 1997. The institutional provisions are currently being modified after adoption on 16 February 2000 of law 002/PR/2000 concerning the status of Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA). Because of this, the term DLA now covers the regions, departments, a few communes that are to benefit from the moyen exercice and rural communities. Figure 4 shows the main towns of the DLA departments and sub-prefectures. 3.2.1 Equipment and estimates of drinking water supplies The only urban drinking water supply (DWS) networks in 2002 were those operated by STEE serving the cities/towns of NDjamna, Abch, Sarh, Moundou, Bongor, Doba, Faya, Fianga, Klo, Mao and Moussoro. All these urban centres have a developed distribution system consisting of public standpipes and individual connections. In all other cases, it is more a question of embryonic networks, based on the design of a village water supply system. These generally include a tapping structure, a solar or thermal pumping station, a water tower, a distribution network running for a few kilometres and 3-5 public stand-pipes. In certain cases, there are individual connections. In addition to existing in the 11 urban concessionary centres operated by the STEE, facilities are spread over 85 of the 175 urban areas of over 2000 inhabitants. The field enquiries also showed that no more than 40% of the population in each urban area use or have access to water distributed via these systems. On this basis, about 417 000 people were supplied in 2000 by a DWS system in the concessionary area, while 204 000 people had access to an embryonic network in the nonconcessionary area. In 2001, it was estimated that the water supply rate for the entire population of Chad in towns of more than 2000 people was nearly 35%. 3.2.2 Management of urban facilities At present, there are two main types of DWS system management in Chad. The Socit Tchadienne dEau et dElectricit manages and operates 11 centres in the concessionary area; all the other centres with a DWS system in DLA and other areas are managed by a management committee.
36
3.2.2.1 STEE management The STEE is currently undergoing thorough reorganisation. The following were signed on 28 February 2000: first, a public service concession agreement for producing, conveying and distributing water and electricity between: 1 the public authority, the Republic of Chad, represented by the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Crafts, the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, the Ministry of the Environment and Water, and the Ministry of Finance; 2 the concessionary operator, the STEE, represented by the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil.
second, as part of the privatisation of water supply and sanitation services in Chad, a general STEE licensing and management contract between: 1 the State, the Republic of Chad, represented by the Ministry of Industry,Trade and Crafts, the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of the Environment and Water, 2 the contractor, the STEE, represented by the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, 3 and the manager the Vivendi/Dietsman consortium.
The Republic of Chad stated that it wished eventually to withdraw from the capital of the STEE and in this respect invited tenders from international companies with a view to selecting a consortium to take its place. This would involve two phases: The first phase would consist of private management, without any involvement by the consortium in the STEEs capital. The aim was to hand over part of the management of its operations to a third party without losing control of the conceded services. This phase in turn included two stages: a general management concession signed the same day. This stage was to be completed with the commissioning of Farcha thermal power plant associated with the oil refinery for the Sdigui field or any other means for reducing fuel costs on a lasting basis, all operating risks would then be transferred to a company via an operating contract for which the contractual provisions (essentially management at its own risk) were defined in an annex (annex no. 21).
A second phase in which the consortium would take a majority shareholding in the registered capital of the concessionaire, the STEE.
In the present situation, it is difficult to assess the planned new management system and the chances of all these stages being implemented. However, a watchdog committee to monitor the new company would be a guarantee that the mutual commitments of the concessionaire (STEE SA) and manager (Vivendi/Dietsman) were met, in particular with regard to the results and extensions expected of the service. Monitoring must be carried out effectively in return for the STEEs newly autonomous management. Independent, high-level back-up for the watchdog committee appears to be a prerequisite if monitoring is to be successful, minimising what is usually referred to as the information dissymmetry between that which is directly accessible to the private manager (and future concessionaire) and that which is actually controlled by the public authority. In addition, it would seem essential to clarify the legal framework for carrying out such monitoring, as provided for in the Water Code, in order to maintain consistency between the overall mechanism for monitoring sector performance levels and to anticipate the shortcomings that are always possible with such arrangements, in the interest of the Chadian consumer and in particular the poorest sectors of the population. In contrast, the control maintained by the State over STEE tariffs may be a source of conflict when assessing the targets fixed in the introduction to the agreement.
37
Republic of Chad Figure 4: Locations of the main towns of the departments and sub-prefectures (Decree No. 354 dated 01/09/99)
Libya
Type of town
Capital Department Sub-prefecture Department limit Geoclimatic limit Main road
Sudan
Cameroon
38
3.2.2.2 Management committees The management system is of the community type, drawn from the experience of the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs. Water management committees consist of 7-10 members who are responsible for the various management functions. They are assisted by a technical team responsible for maintaining the equipment. The main conclusion with regard to DWPs run by a management committee is usually that the management systems set up recently are not functioning properly. Operating, regular management and monitoring functions are not clearly dissociated. All village chiefs and dignitaries are directly involved in a manner which is inconsistent with their position and institutional role as arbiters. In addition, there is a regrettable absence of regular technical reporting, recording of elementary indicators and precise accounting. Under-billing also occurs, as the price of water is fixed without taking into account real running costs. Free and unrestricted delivery of water to dignitaries and public services is all too common. There is little or no maintenance, with servicing being limited to oil changes and lubrication. 3.2.3 The cost of water The basic prices of water and connections differ from one system to another. The management committees sometimes charge STEE rates when new connections, repairs or upgrades are carried out, in the absence of any real calculation of local cost prices and customer market studies. Generally, the price of water is broken down into three levels. The price of the first, so-called social level (15 m3/month) is fixed at FCFA 105. The price of the second level (15 m3/month to 100 m3/month) varies from one town to another; it is FCFA 230/m3 for towns covered by the STEE and may reach as much as FCFA 490/m3 (at Pala). Lastly, the price of the third level is FCFA 110/m3. Generally speaking, the prices charged do not reflect the real costs borne by the owners. STEE prices have remained unchanged since 1984. Many towns are content to apply these rates, having no serious economic analyses that they can use as a reference. When they do not apply them, the prices they charge do not take into consideration the cost of replacement and major overhauls. However, whereas prices are fixed when it comes to the basic producers (the STEE and management committees), this is not the case with resale prices. The least privileged sections of society may pay dealers 15-25 times more than subscribers who have an individual connection. This situation is a major obstacle to achieving extensive, equitable access to drinking water for people in urban areas in the concessionary area. 3.2.4 The major stakeholders in urban water supplies The various stakeholders involved in urban and semi-urban water supply can be grouped under several headings. These include institutions, producers, funding agencies, craftsmen and associations, the private sector and users. In 2001, the main institutional stakeholders in the field of urban water supplies were the Ministry of the Environment and Water via the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, which works in the nonconcessionary area, and the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, which is responsible for the STEE that operates exclusively in the concessionary area. The main producers were the Water Point Management Committees in towns with thermal or solar DWSs (in the non-concessionary area) and the STEE (in the concessionary area). The main funding agencies involved in urban and semi-urban water supply systems over the past 25 years have been China/Taiwan (FCFA 15 346 billion), Germany (FCFA 10 756.6 billion), the EIB (FCFA 1486.8 billion), the EDF (FCFA 1395.3 billion), France (FCFA 985.8 million), Italy (FCFA 835.2 million), the IDB (FCFA 105 million) and the World Bank (FCFA 54 million). There are no NGOs working in the field of urban and semi-urban water supplies.
39
Craftsmen and associations include stand-pipe vendors and managers, who often act as intermediaries (in a way as wholesalers) between network owners and water carriers (retailers) or consumers who have no subscription. The private sector consists of national and international companies involved in design studies, monitoring and implementation of works. Companies distributing spare parts for pumping equipment are also active in this subsector. Just as in the field of village water supplies, these companies have expressed the need for training and back-up. Citizens are still the main consumers of water in urban and semi-urban areas. With 300 companies formally registered in Chad, there is little abstraction for industrial needs, but no accurate survey has been carried out so far in this respect. However, it should be noted that water used in industry is not recycled and wastewater is generally discharged into the environment with no prior treatment.
3.3 The situation with regard to sanitation

In village areas, leaving aside isolated efforts by a few projects, very few villages are equipped with improved traditional latrines or ventilated pit latrines or solid waste and wastewater collection systems. 10.6% of households use a rudimentary latrine, 0.6% use an improved traditional latrine and 88.5% defecate in open areas. There is no waste collection in the villages and household animals are left free to wander. Lastly, 65-70% of rural households draw water from traditional wells while only 17% of the rural population have access to a drinking water point. One notable feature of Chad is that past and present major village water supply projects are not always accompanied by a village sanitation component, which is not expensive but calls for specific local coordination and mobilisation programmes. The health situation is characterised by very high infant and maternal morbidity and mortality rates. They are among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa and indeed in the world. Health statistics for Chad show that the lack of drinking water and the unsuitable hygiene conditions are the main causes of mortality and sickness within the population. The main illnesses that represent public health problems are malaria (49% of children), schistosomiasis, diarrhoea (44% of children), meningitis, tetanus, measles, etc. Cholera epidemics often occur. It is clear, therefore, that certain illnesses are directly related to the lack of a basic health infrastructure, which leads people to adopt habits and behaviour patterns that are contrary to hygienic, healthy living. None of the towns has a functioning wastewater disposal system. The collection networks are outdated. Fewer than 2% of townspeople have sanitary installations with running water. There are no systems for removing excreta and household waste or for treating solid waste, and no systems (or very few) for disposing of rain water. Water stagnating in pools encourages the proliferation of mosquitoes, which are vectors of malaria, yellow fever and encephalitis. Flooded latrines and pits, as well as abandoned litter, increase the risks of infectious diseases spreading. In the centres and suburbs of urban areas, this situation may lead to serious problems of sanitation and pollution of the aquifers that are traditionally used for domestic needs (including, in certain cases, drinking water). Consequently, there is a high rate of diarrhoeal diseases and serious risks of epidemics, including cholera. Only the cities of NDjamna, Moundou, Sarh and Abch drew up Urban Reference Plans (URP) in February 1997. These plans locate housing construction areas, define major road layouts and set out the main options for stormwater drainage. The infrastructure (incinerators, treatment plants, etc.) operated by hospitals and health centres is far from being in perfect working order and these centres do not have well-defined procedures for treating and eliminating biomedical waste. Often, such waste can be found in the streets where it can be picked up by children or anyone who wishes to collect it. Wastewater from health establishments is rarely treated and is discharged into the environment, often into natural watercourses. In certain cases, these are reused for various purposes (watering small market gardens, etc.). All wastewater from NDjamna hospital, containing microbes, bacteria, chemicals, etc., is released into the river without any prior treatment. This practice poses an obvious risk for human health and for the environment in general.
40
As far as industrial sanitation is concerned, there were no regulations in 2000 and no standards regarding industrial waste, especially liquid effluent. Chad has no developed industrial estates. In addition, it was noted that most industries discharged their effluent without any treatment into the main rivers such as the Chari and Logone. 3.3.1 Urban sanitation facilities Only the four main cities (NDjamna, Moundou, Sarh and Abch) have a more or less organised secondary network of open channels for removing rain water. These channels are rarely in good condition. Often, they do not appear to have been built within the framework of an overall rain water disposal plan. Waste collection systems can be found, but they all appear to be hardly operational. In the other main towns of Chad, there are no working sanitation facilities in good condition. Everything needs to be done in this area. From the industrial standpoint, no document referring to national policy refers to industrial pollution control as a priority or major concern. Chad has few industries. They are concentrated in Moundou, Sahr and NDjamna. Wastewater is treated without any form of control. As stated above, all these industries discharge their wastewater into the Chari and Logone. 3.3.2 Stakeholders in the field of sanitation The institutional framework with regard to urban sanitation in 2001 was more complex than that of the other subsectors, as several institutional stakeholders have a role to play. The main organisation involved is the Ministry of Public Health, which is responsible in particular for promoting environmental health, sanitation and the quality of water for consumption, and for drawing up legislation and regulations concerning hygiene and sanitation. The Ministry of Public Works, Transport, Housing and Urban Planning is responsible for regulations concerning development, planning and construction and for defining levels of service access depending on type of neighbourhood. The Ministry of the Environment and Water is responsible for coordinating and managing all activities connected with urban water supplies and sanitation, in particular identifying, designing and implementing sanitation programmes (wastewater, stormwater, solid waste, excreta) in collaboration with the other departments involved in this sector and with those responsible for health awareness and education campaigns directed at the population. The Ministry of the Interior, Security and Decentralisation, via the sanitation department, is responsible for exterminating insects and rats and disinfecting homes, for intervening in the event of disasters (epidemics, floods, etc.) and for removing solid and liquid waste and excreta from towns and cities using hygienic processes. The towns also play a role in the sanitation sequence, as do the townspeople; in certain places they have organised Sanitation Committees that work to maintain and lay stormwater drainage pipes, collect waste and repair streets after the rainy season. In 2000, few NGOs were involved specifically in the field of sanitation. The main ones included the Institut Tropicale Suisse (ITS), CARE, BELACD and SECADEV. CARE provides assistance in particular for the Sanitation Committees in NDjamna. The private sector is very small and funding for the sanitation subsector is almost always a component of projects where the main aim is to build hydraulic infrastructure. However, it should be noted that UNICEF stresses sanitation aspects in all its operations in the field of drinking water supply; in fact, these two operations are closely linked. There are thus a great many institutional stakeholders involved in the field of sanitation, usually working with virtually no funding and often unable to coordinate their work and programmes. In recent years, initiatives by neighbourhood organisations have attempted to make up on a very small scale for the shortcomings of this subsector, where nearly everything remains to be done in rural, urban and semi-urban areas alike. Theoretically, the risk of epidemics breaking out is greater in the last two areas.
41
3.4 The situation with regard to pastoral water supplies

The pastoral areas of Chad in fact include all land below an altitude of 1000 m, above which the herds of goats never go (except in the case of a few water points in the Tibesti mountains) and excludes flood-prone areas. This part of the country corresponds to the edges of the Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian zones that are the permanent or seasonal home of stock-rearers and farmer-herders, and to the southern regions that they cross on their way to winter pastures (linked to rains and floods) in accordance with the distribution of water points in these regions. Water is therefore a decisive factor in the movement of pastoralists. Consequently, decisions concerning the location of new pastoral water points are essential in combating desertification, preventing conflicts and promoting regional development as a whole. If the exceptional movements triggered by climatic disasters such as droughts are taken into account, there is scarcely any area of Chad that is not crossed by seasonal migrations. 3.4.1 Pastoral systems In order to have an operational ranking suited to the aims of an integrated plan for water development, the pastoral systems were distinguished according to the preferred type of access to water resources, taking into account the geoclimatic breakdown. Adopting this classification principle gives a total of 12 pastoral systems spread over the three main zones. Figure 5 summarises and illustrates the main pastoral systems. Saharan zone Two pastoral systems were distinguished in the Saharan zone. These are the piedmont type, connected with water resources concentrated near relief and in the immediate vicinity of piedmont areas, and the western Kanem type, in which stock-rearers limit their movements to the wadis that they exploit and where they cultivate rainfed cereals and sometimes keep gardens. Sahelian zone These pastoral systems become increasingly extensive the nearer they approach the border with Sudan. Movements range from a few kilometres a year in the case of herds in the large wadis of south Kanem to several hundred kilometres in the eastern part of Chad. Six pastoral systems coexist in the Sahel. They are often differentiated by regional flow patterns and the annual distribution of pastoral resources. These systems are as follows: The lake sector pastoral system: around Lake Chad, cattle rearers exploit the hundreds of floodrecession grazing areas left on the islands and archipelagos that emerge as the lake water level falls. The eastern Kanem pastoral system: rearers movements within this system can be likened to annual oscillations along the Bahr-El-Ghazal route. At the end of the dry season, they move southwards to the Massakory road at Ati and wait till the rainfall front overtakes them. When they feel that there are sufficient ponds in the Saharan rangeland, they move back up to these areas following the surface water that concentrates in the Bahr-El-Ghazal valley. The western Batha pastoral system: the rearers spend at least nine months of the year at Lake Fitri, where their herds graze on bourgou grass, complying with the traditional rules of the sedentary population. The eastern Batha pastoral system: depending on the year, rearers spend 9-10 months away from their administrative main town, Oum-Hadjer, travelling south to avoid having to draw water from the wells in their own prefecture, as they possess very large herds. Depending on their starting position, they reach the lakes and large ponds of the Salamat by travelling east or west around the Gura. They return quickly at the start of the winter season in order to avoid the floods on the main wadis, which would prevent them from reaching the grazing land further north.
42
Republic of Chad Figure 5: Pastoral systems

Legend
Seasonal migr. & transhumance Seasonal migration & salt cure Peuls (Chari-Baguirmi) Foreigners Western Kanem Western Batha Lake River Piedmont Eastern Chad Eastern Batha Eastern Kanem
LIBYA
Geoclimatic zones Saharan Zone Sahelian Zone Sudanian Zone

Normal Lake Chad before 1973 Lake Chad Petit Tchad 1999
SUDAN
CA ME RO O N
43
The eastern Chad pastoral system: the migration distances are as great as those of the preceding systems. When rearers begin to move southwards, they often abandon hardly exploited grazing land because the wells in these regions, which are dug into hard and badly faulted formations, quickly dry out. Lastly, the seasonal migration and transhumance pastoral system: in all villages with a sedentary population, there are stock-rearers who often possess large herds of zebus and small ruminants. During the dry season, they travel away from the villages searching for pasture. During the rainy season, the owners entrust their livestock to migratory rearers for the summer migration period, so that they can devote themselves to agrarian activities. Sudanian zone This part of the country is dedicated mainly to cotton growing, which is predominant in all the regions situated west of the river Chari. However, four pastoral systems are found there simultaneously. These are: A generalised system of village stock-rearing and farming using animal-drawn equipment, (seasonal migration and transhumance). The closer one gets to the main provincial towns, the more one finds small herds raised for speculative purposes. These agro-pastoral situations are limited by the volume of locally available water resources. The river pastoral system occurring along the main rivers and consisting of large zebu herds, as the animals are able to drink all year round from the permanent rivers. Very often during the rains, rearers migrate short distances. The main reason is to move the animals away from the crops and this cannot therefore really be called rainy season migration. The Peul pastoral system, which is specific to the Chari-Baguirmi region. This follows regional dry-season movements but includes migrations to the bourgou grass areas around Lake Chad before the start of the rainy season. The longer the dry season, the earlier the migration begins. Foreign pastoral systems, originating in Cameroon and the Central African Republic and involving sheep rearers and Peul cattle rearers. These pass through the southern sub-prefectures, entering Chad as soon as the first rains occur, and then head up to the Sahelian zone and even to the edges of the Saharan zone during rainy years. This foreign transhumance was reckoned in 1988 to represent one third of the animals in western Chad, but they do not use hydraulic infrastructure as they advance in accordance with the rainy season ponds. The systems described above are a summary of the main types of movement by pastoralists in each major region. They do not reflect the true complexity of seasonal movements in each sub-prefecture and canton, but rather a regional overview. As an example, it would be possible to define a camelrearers sub-group in each of the Sahelian pastoral systems described above. Such a sub-group would have its own types of movement in terms of time and direction, even though in most cases the route would be virtually the same as that taken by cattle-rearers. The herds would simply move less further south and return earlier. In addition, before the first drought in 1969-1974, it was rare for rearers to move further south than the 13th parallel during the rainy season migration. Only those of eastern Batha and the prefectures of Ouadda and Biltine would go further south, as the places where they watered their herds dried out in November. After the dry season, the modification in the vegetation meant that all journeys shifted to different latitudes. Whereas previously most camps moved their herds in order to exploit three ecosystems (edges of the Sahara, Sahel and Sahelo-Sudanian regions), from 1975 onwards with the lack of grazing land, most camps stayed within the Sahel and Sudanian regions where they spent most of the time, preferring to make the most of their journey south to strike various types of contract with the villagers that they met at the end of the dry season. At the present time, the Dourbali parallel appears to be the southernmost limit of normal seasonal journeys. A similar type of shift has occurred in movements in the Saharan zone, where the herds of dromedaries in turn spend more time in the Sahelian zone.
44
3.4.2 Livestock and pastoral resources There is currently little information on livestock numbers and fodder resources, which is a serious limitation in developing the subsector and accurately evaluating water requirements and the hydraulic structures that need to be built. Thus, in 2000, the total livestock numbers varied from 9 million to 16 million tropical livestock units (TLU). In addition, the available data concerning fodder resources give between 600 and 1200 kg of dry matter/ha/year for the Sudanian zone, 400-900 kg of dry matter/ha/year for the Sahelian zone and 200-300 kg of dry matter/ha/year for the Saharan zone Unfortunately, these values were determined on the basis of surveys carried out before the last drought in 1984-1985 and therefore need to be revised. Also, they concern only part of Chad up to the 17th parallel, and therefore give a very incomplete view of the Saharan zone. Several authors of recent works estimate that in numerous regions the situation has hardly worsened since the last climatic disaster, even if there are signs of over-grazing in certain areas. The most recent forecasting documents concerning the management of pastoral resources in Chad consider that fodder resources may still support an increase in livestock of between 2.4 and 4.7 million TLU, i.e., increases of 40% and 78% respectively. 3.4.3 Pastoral water supply facilities Depending on the season, rearers use two types of facility to water their herds: fixed water points with varying levels of equipment, and catch pits and ponds that appear after the first rains, some of them remaining for several months. However, one important point should be stressed straight away: whatever artificial structure they use, even when it is a pumping station where they have to make no effort to water their herds, as soon as they can gain access to surface water, they immediately do so, however small the ponds created by the first rains. By doing this, they shorten the exhausting pumping work that they have been obliged to carry out during the dry season. The water points where herders water their animals are grouped into three categories depending on the level to which they are developed, namely traditional water points consisting of traditional wells, sanis and oglats, on one hand, and modern water points (MWP) including modern cemented wells, boreholes equipped with pumping stations and developed ponds on the other. Lastly, there are also undeveloped water points, namely natural ponds, lakes and permanent rivers and streams. There is no inventory or data base concerning traditional water points. However, this type of structure appears to be the water point most commonly used by rearers, with groundwater abstraction. There is also no inventory concerning temporary or permanent ponds in the country. The surveys indicate that in many regions stock-rearers water their herds at ponds and marigots for periods ranging from 3 to 10 months. However, these reserves of water are so variable from one year to the next, rainfall so erratic and the differences in topography so great in Chad that it is pointless to imagine obtaining an exhaustive document covering these natural reserves of water. However, an empirical method of evaluating the quantity of surface water used for livestock is to multiply the quantity of water consumed each day by the number of livestock. Using this calculation method, the estimated consumption of surface water by livestock in Chad is of the order of 57 milllion m3 per annum, which satisfied about 25% to 30% of livestock water requirements in 2000. It should be noted that a small proportion of livestock in Chad drinks every day from the permanent rivers, the Logone and Chari. In the calculation carried out above, no account was taken of this aspect. In all, 23 pumping stations used for pastoral water supply purposes were inventoried. These stations are located for the most part in the Sahelian zone to the north and east of NDjamna. An enquiry carried out in 1999 showed that only four stations were still operating, while the others had been abandoned or were completely out of use. Another study showed that 17 of these pumping stations could be rehabilitated and brought back into operation. In 2001, no rehabilitation work had been undertaken. The number of modern wells (cemented, reinforced concrete wells) throughout Chad is estimated at 3485. The distribution of these structures per geoclimatic zone and per use is shown in table 5 below.
45
Table 5: Distribution of modern wells per geoclimatic zone

Prefecture Saharan Sahelian Sudanian Total
Source: SDEA 2000
Pastoral use 96 525 73 694
Village use 15 697 1 416 2 128
Mixed use 23 478 162 663
Total 134 1 700 1 651 3 485
It can be seen from this table that 694 wells are used essentially for pastoral purposes. Combining wells used for pastoral purposes and those used for mixed purposes, 1357 modern water points distributed throughout Chad were used to water livestock in 2000. These wells are centred mainly in the western part of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones. At present, the distribution of pastoral water points is very poor and does not correspond to the real needs of the subsector. The west is over-equipped and the east, where most major migration routes are found, is under-equipped. 3.4.4 Management of pastoral water points Generally speaking the traditional wells do not pose any problem in terms of use and management as their usage is determined by the stock-rearer or group of users that ordered or built it. Similarly, the sanis, which are several centuries old, do not give rise to any significant conflicts. Usually, the manner in which they are used has been fixed by custom for centuries. However, the drawback of the sanis is that they require large amounts of wood for their lining, which unnecessarily harms an environment made fragile by drought. The use of cemented wells is carefully codified by usage and local custom. Often, the people living in one or more cantons share water turns according to the number of chibs available. Surface water and rainy period ponds pose no particular problems in terms of use or management as in general, and especially in the Sahelian zone, they are used on a first come, first served basis, particularly when they are small. If they are larger, sufficient numbers of herders are accustomed to camping there each year for customary usage to have been established and respected. In 2002, there were three major types of modern pastoral water point management. The procedure recommended by the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production and Pastoralism involves operating in an organised environment in such a way as to transfer the management and maintenance of the structure to users organised in groups. The fact that the group is now responsible for the structure does not, however, exclude other users who are required to comply with the rules of access. In eastern Chad, the management of pastoral water supply structures is based on discussion and negotiation between stakeholders rather than ownership of water points by a group or association. The pastoral water supply structures that exist (wells and ponds) are common property owned by all rearers whether they are sedentary or migratory. Two levels of management have been created: at water point level, a joint management committee involving sedentary and migratory rearers, which has enabled rules for using the structures (wells or ponds) and surrounding resources to be defined, and at sub-prefecture level a joint committee consisting of traditional chiefs (of both sedentary and migratory communities) and local government representatives. The aim of the latter is to solve conflicts between sedentary and migratory rearers and to define and mark out migration routes in the field.
46
A third type of management is currently being tried out in western Chad. Starting with the realisation that rearers in Kanem are already well-organised, the system for managing pastoral water supply structures provided within the framework of the Kanem Pastoral Water Supply Programme (PHPK) is based on the traditional system of pastoral well management. Each well has an owner or manager, who decides on its use and opening it up to migratory rearers. This type of management is also found in the geographical Ouadda. These three experiments in pastoral water point management are relatively recent. Lessons should be learned from them for setting up future management systems which, while respecting customs and specific regional and local features, will guarantee the permanence of the structures and access to water for rearers and livestock. 3.4.5 Conflicts connected with access to water points Generally speaking, and traditionally, users in a given region share access to water resources according to various combinations of criteria that through long usage have come to satisfy all native users. In certain regions, drinking time is allocated according to the canton from which the herders come, and in others according to the users types of activity, while other communities of agropastoralists prefer to opt for time-sharing. If conflicts should break out, they affect only small groups limited to a few families. They are generally very localised and short-lived. Most serious conflicts arise when the spatial distribution of grazing and/or cropping activities is hampered or upset by new arrivals or passing rearers who, because of their numbers, try and impose themselves by creating faits accomplis. Although such conflicts are sometimes violent and last several years, they are usually completely controlled by customary lawgivers, who have all the necessary means for settling such matters. In contrast, conflicts that originate in clashes between two different strategies followed by groups that have decided to increase or shift their grazing areas are more difficult to solve, as long as the underlying motives of those involved is not clearly apparent. The main reason for such clashes is not always the water point(s), even if it is at such places that they break out. Sometimes, one or more groups may start a conflict that serves their interest in one way or another, depending on how they see the situation. Such conflicts generally occur between rearers when the grazing land of one group has been reduced following repeated droughts or fires (which may be lit deliberately). When a serious conflict breaks out over a well, the matter is brought to justice. However, whatever the settlement, the group that is foreign to local usage, but a party to the conflict, is almost always granted access to the water point. This is why some cantons have developed extremely aggressive strategies for occupying certain wells to which they had no right of access through either usage or custom. Equally intentional clashes also occur between sedentary farmers and rearers when the rearers consider that the farmers fields enclose the water points. Fields and gardens become so interconnected that they gradually form tight mazes through which it is quite impossible to lead even a small herd. When such practices spread, rearers always try provocation, driving their animals into the fields of crops when they have the least opportunity. For their part, farmers intentionally block off certain paths and areas of land that they know to be unproductive but which would allow herds to pass through easily. The only ponds over which conflicts arise are those in Mortcha. Here, it is not the ponds themselves that are at stake but the grazing land to which they give access. As they are used only once every 67 years, there is no clearly defined usage. So, when early heavy showers fall, making it possible to exploit a given sector, those benefiting from this brief advantage take the opportunity to spill over on to land that they do not usually graze. However, once the rains have filled all the ponds, rearers who have been affected last by the rains hastily try to redefine the boundaries of the grazing areas as they see fit. The result depends to a great extent on the balance of power existing between them.
47
3.4.6 Pastoral water supply stakeholders The main institutional stakeholders in the pastoral water supply subsector are the Ministry of StockRearing via the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production and Pastoralism, which is in particular responsible for defining and organising local joint management policies for pastoral resources including hydraulic infrastructure, in liaison with the parties concerned, and the Ministry of the Environment and Water via the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, which is responsible for planning and scheduling urban, village and pastoral water supply activities and sanitation. There is also a para-public stakeholder involved in pastoral water supplies, the Farcha Veterinary and Zootechnical Research Laboratory (LRVZF). This is a public establishment of an industrial and commercial nature, with its own legal status and financial autonomy, supervised by the Ministry of Stock-Rearing. The LRVZF carries out scientific and technical research required to preserve, develop and improve the countrys livestock and develop its by-products. With regard to the donors, the main stakeholder in the field of pastoral water supply is France via the Agence Franaise de Dveloppement (AFD) and Fonds dAide et de Coopration (FAC), followed by the Saudi and Kuwait Funds. Between 1985 and 2000, a total of FCFA 53.60 billion was invested in this subsector. The main organisations in pastoral areas are health protection associations, pastoral interest groups and joint management committees. Few NGOs are directly involved in pastoral water supplies, while the private sector consists of national and international companies involved in studies, monitoring and construction work on water points.
3.5 The situation with regard to agricultural water supplies

3.5.1 The physical context of agricultural water supplies The Saharan zone The Saharan zone covers the entire northern part of Chad, representing some 60% of the countrys area. From the climate point of view, it therefore corresponds to the Saharan climate in the strict sense, and to the Saharo-Sahelian climate. Because of its climatic characteristics, the Saharan zone is of limited agricultural potential in comparison with the Sahelian and Sudanian zones. By definition, it is the area in which date palms grow. The Sahelian zone From the agricultural point of view, the economy of the Sahel is based traditionally on cereals (millet) and oilseeds (groundnuts). Nevertheless, the long dry period that the region has experienced over the past three decades has led to a severe regression of groundnuts with a corresponding expansion of millet, without there being any apparent increase in yields. On the contrary, the frequent shortages of rainfall and impoverishment of the soil related to the abandonment of groundnut cultivation, not to mention the influx of cattle from the north, quickly put pay to any gains in production expected from the increase in cultivated land. But in any event, there is no avoiding the two main limiting factors for agriculture inherent in the climatic characteristics of the Sahelian zone, namely that the range of rainfed crops is and will always remain limited, and no significant intensification in production can be expected without irrigation. The Sudanian zone There is intense and varied agricultural activity in the Sudanian zone. The area cultivated each year with rainfed crops is of the order of 1.2 million ha, while flood-recession crops cover about 100 000 ha. The main crops, outside irrigated areas, are: cotton: covering more than 200 000 ha, this is the main cash crop and consequently the main source of foreign currency for the country. Nevertheless, it should be noted that cotton growing is one of the major factors contributing to the countrys chronic food insecurity, owing to the increasing areas devoted to this crop and the deterioration of the soils resulting from its repetitive character;
48
oilseed and legume crops, including groundnuts, cowpeas, sesame, earth peas and more recently soya, covering an area that fluctuates between 200 000 and more than 300 000 ha; cereals, the staple food of the country; annual production is subject to the whims of nature and is generally well below requirements. The area of land devoted to cereals covers between 450 000 ha and 800 000 ha; root vegetables (manioc, sweet potatoes, yams, taro), which are essential additional foodstuffs, occupy several thousand hectares; market garden crops.
3.5.2 Agricultural water supply facilities and assessment Water is used for agricultural purposes in many different ways, depending on the environmental context. Most are traditional, possibly combining the use of surface water and groundwater. However, there are also areas that are quite modern in design and others that might be termed improved insofar as they feature limited innovations in comparison with traditional systems. Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of these various facilities throughout Chad. With reference to the classification criteria in use in Chad, i.e., the size of the area, the level of water control and the type of crops, the following seven irrigation systems will be adopted: flood-recession agriculture, depression rice-growing, traditional small-scale irrigation with complete water control, modern small-scale irrigation with complete water control, large irrigation areas with partial water control, large irrigation areas with complete water control and oasis systems. Table 6 summarises the characteristics of the various types of irrigation facilities found in Chad. Leaving aside traditional schemes which, it should be remembered, nonetheless represent most of the irrigated land, Chad currently has only four modern irrigation schemes that are soon (2002) to be improved by the flooding of Mamdi polder (1600 ha). However, it should be noted that these large modern irrigation areas all have a serious drawback: the cost price is high (over FCFA 14 million/ha) which is difficult to justify from the economic standpoint. In principle, the States withdrawal from production activities should put an end to this type of public investment, which has given rise to more disappointment than satisfaction, though this does not rule out the possibility of private investors taking its place. The State may also take pride in the construction of four large irrigation areas with partial water control along the Logone, covering a total of about 4600 ha, and an improved traditional polder of 600 ha to the north-east of Lake Chad. Even so, the difficulties encountered in supplying water and managing the areas along the Logone suggest caution with regard to subsequent renewal of this type of scheme. In contrast, the low cost of the development works needed to transform a classical traditional polder into an improved traditional one (of the order of FCFA 1 million/ha) has led the Government to launch a huge project of this kind covering more than 8000 ha, with work scheduled to start in the coming months. In addition to these State-initiated schemes that are important for institutional development, some of which (the polders) are still under its authority, there has been enormous public investment in the development of small communal water supply schemes of which little remains, unfortunately. Most of the 70 schemes implemented over the past three decades have in fact disappeared or are in such a state of dilapidation that they cannot be used rationally. Only about ten of the most recent, totalling some 350 ha, can still justifiably be termed small irrigation areas (SIA). One positive aspect of the subsector is the success of small private irrigation schemes in the NDjamna region, although these areas are of marginal importance and it remains to be seen whether they can be reproduced.
49
Republic of Chad Figure 6: Agricultural water supply schemes
Legend
Main town Main road Department Watercourse Traditional irrigation with total control of water Traditional polders Scattered private irrigation areas Flood-recession agriculture Palm grove Normal Lake Chad before 1973 Lake Chad Petit Tchad 1999 Large irrigation area w/ total control Small irrigation area w/ total control Large irrigation area with partial control
Libya
Sudan
50
Ca m er oo n
Table 6: Characteristics of agricultural water supply facilities (2000)

Type of irrigation Name or type of scheme Area (ha) Crop area (ha) 125 000 Type of produce Production (t/year) Water consumption (m3/year) 4000 m3/ha or 600 million m3/year Unknown Comments
Flood-recession agriculture Rice-growing in depressions Small-scale traditional irrigation with complete water control Small-scale modern irrigation with complete water control Large-scale irrigation with partial water control
Extensive agriculture in river overflow areas Depressions submerged by floods and runoff
1 700 000 (estimate)
Berbr, maize
110 000
Water consumption not abstraction, as it would evaporate Cannot be determined in present conditions Irrigation using chadouf, or bucket from springs and surface water Chari-Logone water
A few thousand tonnes
15 000
Vegetables, fruit and sometimes cereals Rice, vegetables, fruit, condiments Rice Rice Rice Wheat, maize Wheat, maize Sugar cane Rice Wheat, maize Date palm, vegetables, cereals, fruit
Vegetables: 165 000; Fruit: 10 000
150 million
2000
Rice: 3500. Vegetables: 6550. Fruit: 2900 3000 700 Wheat: 950/Maize: 2650 Maize: 750 330 000 2500 Wheat: 3500/ Maize: 3 500 Dates: 15 000 Vegetables: 1000 Cereals: 300
24 million
Satgui-Dressia Section A Section B Traditional polders Improved traditional polders Banda sugar-growing area Section B Modern polders at Bol Essentially in Saharan zone
2100 2000 300 1800 600 3700 500
1500 200 300 Unknown Unknown 3700 420 2500 5900
13.5 2.7 17 3.5
million million million million
Logone water Logone water Lake Chad water Lake Chad water Chari water Logone water Lake Chad water Water abstracted from aquifers
Large-scale irrigation with complete water control
40 million 8 million 26 million 96 million
Oasis systems
Source: SDEA 2000
51
3.5.3 Summary of agricultural water consumption Table 7 summarises the volumes of water abstracted to meet agricultural water requirements in 2000, for each geoclimatic zone and each origin. Table 7: Summary of agricultural water abstraction in 2000
Geoclimatic zone Saharan zone Sahelian zone Sudanian zone Total Source: SDEA 2001 Surface water (million m3/year) 117 683 800 Groundwater (million m3/year) 127 63 20 210 Total (million m3/year) 127 180 703 1010
Agricultural water consumption in 2001 was estimated at a little over 1 billion cubic metres. About 80% of this consisted of surface water. Agricultural water requirements in the Saharan zone are met entirely by groundwater, whereas in the Sahelian zone 35% of requirements are met by groundwater and 65% by surface water. Lastly, almost 100% of agricultural water requirements in the Sudanian zone are met by surface water. 3.5.4 Stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supplies The Directorate of Rural Engineering and Agricultural Hydraulics (DGRHA) of the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible, among other things, for planning, programming, coordinating and managing studies and development works relating to irrigation schemes in the public and parapublic sectors, and for studying and carrying out (or supervising implementation of) agricultural water use programmes, including works carried out by the Soil Protection and Rehabilitation service. Its duties, which in principle cover the entire spectrum of agricultural water supply operations, are nonetheless highly theoretical, as the DGRHA has neither the staff nor the financial resources to perform them in full. The nine regional subdivisions are those of Chari-Baguirmi, Gura-Batha, Ouadda-Biltine, BET, Lac-Kanem, Salamat, Logone occidental and Logone oriental, Mayo-KebbiTandjil, and Moyen-Chari; (the subdivisions in bold italics were not operational in 2001). There are also two major stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supply, namely the National Rural Development Office (ONDR), responsible for implementing agricultural development programmes, and the Socit de Dveloppement du Lac (SODELAC), responsible for overall development of the Lac prefecture. The African Development Bank (ADB), European Development Fund (EDF), Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (BADEA) and International Fund for Agricultural Development are the major donors in the field of agricultural development in Chad. More than 90% of the sums invested in the agricultural sector (FCFA 102.5 billion between 1985 and 2000) came from loans. There are various types of peasant organisation. The main ones are village cooperatives. Their aim is to promote economic and social development in each village through the development and selfmanaged operation of each irrigation area. A second type of organisation is the Village Association (VA), which acts a go-between between members of the group and the Management Committee. A third form of organisation is the Economic Interest Group (EIG), the aim of which is to promote activities that have a general interest for the village, such as small businesses, cereal banks, exploitation of wadis. There is no type of formal organisation of farmers in private irrigation areas. However, the three types of organisation described below may be found: direct operation, where the owner invests his own resources, farms his plot and harvests his produce, share-cropping, where the owner rents his plot to a farmer who cultivates it, with the produce being shared equally between the owner and the farmer, and tenant farming, where the owner provides inputs and hires local labour; the harvest is then shared on the basis of the net produce, with the owner deducting the quantity corresponding to his investment and the rest being shared equally among the labourers and the owner.
52
3.6 The situation with regard to fishing

Fishing is also an activity that requires water. The figure normally taken for the production potential of Chad is 80 000 tonnes per year. A recent report concerning Chad quoted this figure, acknowledging that fishing is a dynamic sector but that reliable statistics are lacking. It ranks 4th in the economic activities of the primary sector, after cotton, stock-rearing and gum arabic, with an annual production of the order of 40 000 tonnes worth FCFA 20 billion and employing 250 000 people directly or indirectly. Fish reproduction is linked essentially to the annual level of flooding and water quality. Flooding in the large flood plains is virtually uncontrolled at present, as there are almost no storage structures upstream and the effect of local diking is quite limited. There is considerable variation in flows and hence in major flooding, from one year to the next. In the long term, this is seen in the alternation of dry and wet pseudo-cycles, and over the past 20 years by the persistence of a long series of dry years. Existing flow conditions in Chad are naturally favourable to fishing activities, which represent both an important economic activity and a major source of food for the countrys inhabitants. Fish resources are often essential in the means of subsistence of the poorest people, especially those in the ChariLogone and Lake regions.
3.7 The situation with regard to hydroelectricity

Early on, the Chadian part of the Mayo-Kebbi attracted attention, partly because of the suggestion of an offtake from the Logone via the Mayo Kbi river and partly because of the existence of the 45 m high Gauthiot Falls, that were suited to hydropower production. The annual mean discharge at Mbourao just upstream of the falls was estimated at around 10 m3/s for the 1964-1986 period. There are considerable seasonal variations in spite of the existence upstream of the Toubouri lakes, with discharge falling to less than 2 m3/s for nearly half the year. The hydropower that could be produced by a plant would be less than 3.2 MW on average, with less than 1 MW during dry periods if the river was not regulated by a dam. Furthermore, the valleys of the upper Logone are deep and narrow, cutting into steeply sloping granite formations, and therefore suited to the construction of hydropower dams. A project was put forward around 1968-1970 with the twofold aim of regulating the Logone in order to provide water for irrigation during dry-weather flow periods and also to produce electricity. Two dams were suggested: Koumban, on the Vina upstream of the confluence with the Mbr in Cameroon; this dam would be 57 m high, 2100 m long and have a capacity of 5 billion m3;
Gor, on the Pend about 20 km after its point of entry into Chad; this dam would be 31 m high, 3400 m long and have a capacity of 2.8 billion m3.
The volume of these dams represents about the annual discharges of their tributaries. Total electricity production would be about 100 million kWh/year and the discharge of the Logone at La would be: 150 m3/s during dry-weather flows and 2600 m3/s during flood peaks with a dam built at Koumban;
250 m3/s during dry-weather flows and 1500 m3/s during floods with both dams built.
These evaluations were based on hydraulic conditions during the wet period. In the present situation, the estimated hydropower production and flood and dry-weather flows would need to be lowered. The annual mean volume of flow of the Pend at Gor was 4.6 km3 between 1956 and 1972, and only 2.4 km3 between 1972 and 1999. In Chad, as in the upstream part of the Chari-Logone basin in the Central African Republic and Cameroon, water resources are not exploited for hydropower production. However, it should be noted that a master plan for the electricity subsector was drawn up for Chad in June 1996.
53
3.8 The situation with regard to river and lake transport

Extract from the Geneva-IV Round Table document. Sectoral meeting on transport, housing and urban planning. Assessment and development strategies for the transport sector in Chad: NDjamna, November 1999
8
River traffic is essentially limited to floating firewood on the Chari upstream of NDjamna8. In spite of its informal character, this activity is organised. The traffic is spread among several groups in accordance with rules based on customary law. There is more traffic on Lake Chad than on the rivers owing to its special geographical position, but it remains informal. There is no river transport industry worthy of the name or any Government department responsible for shipping, even partial or seasonal, on the two main rivers or on Lake Chad.
3.9 The situation with regard to tourism

National Action Plan for the Environment. Cahier du PNAE du Tchad No. 9 Transport and Tourism; September 2002.
9
Tourism covers activities carried out by people during their travel and while staying in places other than their normal place of residence for more than 24 hours and less than 4 months for leisure, business or other purposes9. Chad has several tourist attractions. More specifically with regard to water, the lakes of the BET region and the Lake Chad area with its floating islands, aquatic and terrestrial fauna that can easily be reached from Douguia tourist centre are worthy of mention. Lake Fitri is a wetland of international importance, designated a biosphere reserve. The various types of natural areas such as national parks and wildlife reserves feature ecosystems that are also tourist attractions. However, the lack of hotel infrastructure, coupled with ill-trained staff, high prices and the often defective state of the facilities, hinder the development of the tourist industry in Chad. The authorities have given no significant support to this activity. Development has been sporadic and isolated.
4 WATER RESOURCES AND DEMAND SATISFACTION

Chad covers the Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian climate zones. Rainfall therefore varies considerably both geographically, with a steep latitudinal gradient, and in time, with strong seasonal fluctuations and very significant differences from one year to another. Accessible surface water is concentrated mainly in the southern part of the country (see figures 7 and 8), particularly in the Chari-Logone basin, where there are extensive flood-prone areas. However, following the drop in rainfall, mean inflows on the Chari at NDjamna fell from 39 billion cubic metres a year during the 1950-1970 period to 21.8 billion cubic metres between 1972 and 2000. In addition, following successive years of drought, Lake Chad has split into two separate hydrological units, shrinking in area from 19 000 km2 at the end of the 1960s to a mean flooded area that is currently estimated at 7500 km2. Chad has significant groundwater resources spread throughout the country. These are located in continuous aquifers covering about 75% of the country and discontinuous ones formed by the bedrock, particularly in the east of the country with small fractions in the south. Renewable groundwater resources are evaluated at nearly 20 billion m3 a year, whereas exploitable resources in the major aquifers are estimated at between 260 billion m3 and 540 billion m3. However, it should be emphasised that based on the current state of knowledge concerning the hydrogeological systems, it is only possible to discuss the operation of the aquifers in broad outline (in particular with regard to recharge levels) and describe their approximate characteristics. Water resources have many functions and uses. While surface water is essential in preserving biodiversity, it also plays a major role in agriculture, fishing and stock-rearing, key components of food security and also major segments of the countrys economy. Groundwater is just as important, as in addition to making a significant contribution to stock-rearing and agriculture, it is used by nearly 90% of Chadians as drinking water.
54
4.1 Surface water

4.1.1 Rainfall Rainfall is the origin of running or stagnant surface water. The distribution and movement of isohyets are shown on figure 9. Three periods are analysed: 1950-1970, 1971-1980 and 1981-2000. There is a clear southwards shift in the isohyets of the order of 120-150 km, corresponding to a decrease of 100-130 mm throughout the country south of the 14th parallel. This applies to the average interannual rainfall intensity values and would have little meaning for a given year in a specific spot, in view of the spatio-temporal variability in rainfall distribution. Lake Chad may be considered to give a good indication of the climatic changes that have occurred in the basin, closely reflecting the changes in the regional rainfall indices used up to 1990. The variations in the lake level and inflow from the Chari therefore give a good idea of the climatic variations that have occurred in the recent period. After a very low point in 1984-1985, there was an increasing trend that was confirmed in 1998 and 1999 (see figure 10). With regard to surface water, the general consensus is that a period of relative drought has occurred throughout the basin since 1972-1973, reaching a low point in 1984. In comparison with the previous relatively wet period, there has thus been a general trend towards more arid conditions. However, there has been no clear trend over the past 30 years. 4.1.2 River systems The main hydrographic units fall within the Chad basin, which is bounded by a series of mountain ranges: the Tibesti, Ennedi and Ouadda to the north and east, the Central African ridge to the south and the Adamaoua mountains to the south-west (see figures 7 and 8). These comprise the basin of the Chari and Logone, with their flood plains and Lake Chad, the Batha basin with Lake Fitri, the Mayo Kbi basin with the Toubouri lakes and the basins of temporary rivers in the desert to sub-desert regions north of the 14th parallel. In addition to these major units are smaller but sometimes numerous and locally important bodies of water: the wadis of Kanem and Ouadda, natural and artificial ponds, a few artificial reservoirs and the oases and lakes in the BET. 4.1.2.1 The Chari-Logone basin The rivers At the point where it enters Chad, the Chari is formed by the combination of the Bamingui, Gribingui and Bangoran, which drain an 80 000 km2 basin situated in the Central African Republic (CAR). It is joined on the right bank by the Bahr Aouk, which forms the boundary between Chad and the CAR, and drains a very gently sloping basin covering 100 000 km2 that floods over large areas. From the confluence with the Bahr Aouk as far as Lake Chad, the mean gradient of the river is 0.10 m/km, which results in pronounced degradation of the river bed, with flood plains and effluents. The Logone is also formed by the combination of two rivers flowing down from the Adamaoua range in Cameroon: the Vina and the Mbr, which join at the frontier between the two countries. The Logone is joined on the right bank by the Lim (4500 km2) downstream of Babokoum. Further downstream, the Logone is joined on the left bank by the Nya (3000 km2) and again on the right bank by the much larger Pend (15 000 km2). The Continental Terminal flood plains then begin, with a highly degraded river bed and an average gradient of 0.25 m/km at La and 0.14 m/km between La and NDjamna. The mean annual volume of flow of the Chari at NDjamna was respectively 39.1 billion m3 for the 1950-1971 period and 21 billion m3 from 1972 to 2000. There is therefore significant long-term and interannual variability in discharge. At NDjamna there has been a tendency for flows to decrease since around the early 1960s, with a low point being reached in 1984-1985. Recently, however, it is worth noting that the trend has been for maximum and minimum levels and discharges to increase.
55
SUDAN
Republic of Chad Figure 7: Orohydrography
AN RIC F LA RA T N CE
LIBYA
IC BL PU E R
Republic of Chad Figure 8: Main watercourses in Chad
Flood-prone zones Secondary rivers Main rivers and lakes

Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 Govt of Chad with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA
56
Normal Lake Chad before 1973
Lake Chad Petit Tchad 1999
Intense sand accumulation
Flood-prone zone
CA ME R O O N
Republic of Chad Figure 9: Long-term rainfall variability

1950-1970 average 1971-1980 average 1981-2000 average
Figure 10: Annual flow rates of the Chari Figure 10: Dbits annuels du Chari et niveau du at LacLake TchadChad
600
Maximum lake Cote maximale du level Lac
Annnual flow Dbit annuel du rate Chariof the Chari
4000
3500 500 3000
Cotes maximale en cm Maximum levels in m
400 2500
300
2000
1500 200 1000 100 500
07 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94 97 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 -19 06 09 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 96 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
Annes Year
Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 Govt of Chad with UNDP funding with the support of UNDESA Source: DREM, November 2001
3/s 3 Annnual flow rate in m Dbit annuel en m /s
57
The flood plains A feature of the Chadian basin is the extraordinary extent of the flood plains, resulting from the combination of tropical river flow conditions, with heavy annual floods, and the very gentle relief of the Chadian plain. The total floodable area is estimated at 95 000 km2, including 50 000 km2 for the Salamat basin. These data were valid for the rather wet period of the 1960s and need to be updated, but they give an idea of the order of magnitude involved. The data do not include the Grand Yar of northern Cameroon, which covers about12 000 km2 and forms part of the same Chari-Logone unit. Lake Chad Because of the endoreic situation of Lake Chad, its water level depends to a great extent on the climate and rainfall over its catchment area. The Normal Lake Chad that existed at the end of the 1960s covered 19 000 km2 with a water level at 281.5 m, and formed a single body of water. Following successive years of drought in the Chari and Logone basins, the lake has split into sections with different types of hydrological behaviour and shallow areas drying out in the Grande Barrire between Baga Kawa and Baga Sola and between the open water in the south-east and the archipelagos in the east and south-east. This situation has been termed the Little Lake Chad. The current landscape in the Little Lake Chad area is the result of the topography and its recent history:
the open water areas in the southern basin correspond to its deepest parts, which did not dry out at the beginning of the drought period. The average flooded area in the basin is 7500 km2. It consists of three main bodies of water: one to the south-east upstream of the Chari delta, one to the south, in the south-west part of the basin and one to the south-west, between Baga Sola and Baga Kawa, on the southern side of the Grande Barrire; areas covered with marshy vegetation, which are flooded seasonally or permanently and areas that are flooded in a very irregular manner in the northern basin depending on season and year, and have a very different appearance: marsh vegetation, cultivated land or semi-desert steppe. The annual maximum area of water in the northern basin therefore ranges depending on year from 0 (in1985, 1987 and 1988) and 7000 km2 (in 1979, 1989 and 2000).
In addition, the areas uncovered during the annual cycle of Little Lake Chad and potentially accessible for grazing and flood-recession crops amount to 4000 km2 for the southern basin and between 0 and 6000 km2 depending on year for the northern basin, including about 2000 km2 for the Chadian part of this basin. These values should be compared with those of Normal Lake Chad, where the seasonal variations are less pronounced (about 1 m), corresponding to uncovered areas of 2500 km2 for the entire lake at its mean level of between 280 and 282 m. 4.1.2.2 The Mayo Kbi basin The Mayo Kbi is a right-bank tributary of the Benue and forms part of the Niger basin (see figure 8). It is at present the only link between the Chad and Niger basins. Its water supplies come mainly from left-bank flood overflows of the lower Logone, in particular around Er, which spread over large areas. This water is drained by the rivers Kabia and Loka towards the lakes in the Toubouri depression (Fianga,Tikem, NGara). Depending on the quantity of rainfall and the volumes of water spilling over, flow between lakes Tikem and Fianga make take place in either direction. The Toubouri lakes, a succession of marshes and shallow lakes, give rise to the Mayo Kbi, a river with a wide bed flowing westwards. At MBourao, the river crosses a rocky area through a series of falls, the main one, the Gauthiot Falls, drops about 45 m. It then flows through lakes Trn and Lr before reaching its confluence with the Benue. 4.1.2.3 The Batha and Lake Fitri basin
The upper Batha basin is situated in the east of the country, in the Ouadda range. Its boundary is situated approximately along the Gurda-Adr line and its downstream point is Lake Fitri. It covers about 46 000 km2 (see figure 8).
58
The Batha is an important temporary river that flows for about three months a year, from August to October, and carries a volume of around 1-2 km3 into Lake Fitri. This quantity varies considerably on an interannual basis. Lake Fitri is an endoreic lake supplied essentially by the Batha. It also receives significant inflows from the wadis running from the Aboutelfan. With an average surface area of 800 km2, surface inflows must be at least a billion cubic metres. The lake operates in a similar way to Lake Chad. The considerable seasonal variations in inflows lead to seasonal variations in water level of the order of 2 m, giving rise to extensive recession areas that are used for grazing and cultivation. The same is true of the floodspreading areas of the lakes main tributaries, both east, upstream of the dunes, and west. 4.1.2.4 Basins with temporary flows in desert and sub-desert areas north of the 14th parallel Given the very irregular rainfall in this region, data concerning the recent period are insufficient to detect any significant variation in climate since the beginning of the 1970s. Discharges depend on the geological nature of the substratum, the relief of the basin and the degree of hydrographic degradation, which usually increase the surface area. Two rivers (enneris) divide the Tibesti into the eastern and western sections. The Enneri Yebbigue runs northwards and is lost in a fossil plain. Major oases and gueltas are located on this river, namely: Yebbi Bou,Yebbi Souma and Omchi, the biology and ecology of which are still largely unknown. The main river running south is the Enneri Miski, which is joined from the east by the enneris draining the western side of the Emi Koussi, and from the west by the enneris Korom and Aoui. It infiltrates in the Gurg depression and then supplies the ponds and springs of the Borkou area. The vast Ennedi plateau is mostly bare and desert, which contrasts with the numerous deep valleys resulting from collapses and from ancient and recent erosion, and which have lush vegetation. There are two main series of lakes. Archi, 50 km south-east of Fada, is a deep valley. Its aquatic system consists of six main gueltas and strips of marsh. Permanent springs are situated at the head of the valley. 110 km south-east of Fada is Beskr, a 2 km long gorge with a sandy mouth covered with a forest of doum palms. At the head of the valley are some 30 springs that supply one of the largest gueltas in the Ennedi, which has a system of permanent ponds and marshes. Discharges have been estimated at 600 m3/day at Archi and 1000 m3/day at Beskr. These systems are still poorly understood and even though humans have been there for a considerable time, at present there are only temporary camps of stock-rearers. The altitude of the Borkou sandstone plateau drops progressively from 600 m in the north to 250 m in the south (at the Angamma). When rainfall occurs, it is mainly in August and the result of monsoons. Totally dry years are not exceptional. These local rains are not sufficient to supply the many ponds and springs in the Borkou. 4.1.3 Summary of surface water uses The uses of surface water are not limited to abstraction. They may also be extended to the benefits provided by aquatic ecosystems and even to uses for activities such as navigation and energy production. Table 8 summarises the quantities of surface water abstracted for the various types of use.
59
Table 8: Surface water in Chad: abstraction for each type of use (2000)
Surface water abstraction (million m3/year) Indicative forecasts Year 2020 0 0 3,5 120 1 727 1 850
Use Village water supply Urban water supply Industrial water supply Pastoral water supply Agricultural water supply TOTAL Source: SDEA 2001
Surface water abstraction (million m3/year) in 2000 1 1 2 57 800 861
However, it should be noted that the figures given in the above table do not take into account abstraction in neighbouring countries, Central African Republic, Nigeria and Cameroon, which also exploit surface water flowing into Chad upstream or in Lake Chad. Lastly, these figures do not take into account in situ consumption of rain water for traditional rainfed crops, which is included in the operation of the various river systems observed and is not likely to change in any significant way.
4.2 Groundwater resources

Chad possesses major groundwater reserves. There are vast regions consisting of sedimentary formations (sand and sandstone), containing continuous aquifers of various forms: unconfined aquifers (often referred to as water tables), deep confined or semi-confined and artesian aquifers in certain hydraulic and topographical conditions. Continuous aquifers represent almost three-quarters of the total surface area of the country. They are distributed over the three main geoclimatic zones but are found mainly in the north, west and south of Chad. They include in particular the aquifers of the Continental Terminal, Paleozoic Sandstones, Nubian Sandstones and Plio-Quaternary water-bearing system of the Chad basin (Pliocene, Ogolian Sands, Pleistocene, Modji Series). Figure 11 shows the locations of the main hydrogeological units in Chad. Other regions are less fortunate as their substratum consists of eruptive and/or metamorphic rocks often dating from the Precambrian, where groundwater can only be found in weathered areas and fracture systems affecting the bedrock (discontinuous bedrock aquifers). The area concerned by this type of aquifer represents 340 000 km2, i.e., about a quarter of the total area of Chad. These aquifers are found mainly in the Tibesti range, the central range (Gura) and Ouadda; they are also found in the south of the country.
60
Republic of Chad
Figure 11:The main hydrogeological units in Chad
Libya
Main hydrogeological units

Marine Carboniferous Northern Continental Terminal Southern Continental Terminal Nubian sandstones Paleozoic sandstones Eastern Pleistocene Western Pleistocene Pliocene Ogolian sands Modji series Eastern basement SW basement Tibesti basement Tibesti volcanic formation
Sudan
Ca me roo n
61
4.2.1 The aquifers of Chad Tables 9 and 10 summarise the potential of the main aquifers in terms of renewable resources and exploitable reserves. Table 11 summarises their main characteristics. Table 9: Renewable resources (main aquifers)
Renewable resources (extreme values) (mm/year) 0 - 100 25 - 150 0 - 25 0 - 10 0 - 10 0 - 10 Volume renewable resources (billion m3/year) 3 500 12 000 0 0 0 0 3 700 19 200 Equivalent theoretical mean depth of infiltration (mm/year) 15 83 00 00 00 00 14 (N); 55 (S)
Water-bearing formations Plio-quaternary Southern CT Northern CT Nubian sandstones Marine Carboniferous Paleozoic sandstones Crystalline basement Total Source: BRGM 1987
Area (km2) 235 000 145 000 130 000 73 000 19 000 115 000
Table 10: Exploitable reserves (main aquifers)

Storage coefficient (x10-2) 1 - 10 0.2 - 0.8 5 - 10 5 - 10 2-5 5 - 10 Exploitable reserves (billion m3/km2) 0.28 - 0.6 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 0.5 - 1.0 0.1 - 0.25 0.5 - 1.0 Exploitable volume (billion m3) 66 000 141000 26 000 65 000 72 500 145 000 36 500 73 000 1 900 4 750 57 500 115 000 260 400 543 750
Water-bearing formations Plio-quaternary Quaternary, unconfined Lr Pliocene, confined Southern CT Nubian sandstones Marine Carboniferous Paleozoic sandstones Total Source: BRGM 1987
Drawdown (m) 1/3 satur. thickness 100 m/soil 10 10 05 10
Area (km2) 235 400 130 000 145 000 73 000 19 000 115 000
The following observations may be made from these tables and figures: Annually renewable resources are estimated at nearly 20 billion m3. Only the Plio-quaternary and southern Continental Terminal aquifers are recharged. The aquifers in the Sahelian zone and northern Continental Terminal are not recharged or at least if there is any recharge it is minimal considering the existing climatic conditions.
Exploitable reserves are considerable, amounting to between 260 billion and 550 billion m3 of water with relatively little drawdown of the piezometric surface.
62
Table 11: Main characteristics of hydrogeological units

Aquifer Area (km2) Lithology Thickness (m) Type of aquifer Hydraulic parameters Hydrochemistry Piezometry Recharge Discharge Observations
NUBIAN SANDSTONE
73 000 (Erdis plateau)
Heterogeneous 700-1500 alternating sandstone and clay Essentially sandstone 800-1200
Unconfined to confined
Qs: 0.5-6 m3/h/m
Springs RS: 300 mg/l calciumsodium-bicarbonated RS< 0.3 g/l calcium-sodium-bicarb pH ~6; sometimes excess iron RS: probable 0.3 - 0.5 g/l, calcium-sodiumbicarbonated
Flow: SW
Little (rainfall: <100 mm/year)
Springs; to Paleozoic sandstones Springs; to low-lying areas
PALEOZOIC SANDSTONE
115 000 (outcrop)
Regional aquifer; permeability due to fissuring; unconfined to confined* Alluvium: unconfined Basement: confined Alluvium: unconfined Granites: confined
T: ~200 m2/day; Qs: 3-30 m3/h/m; porosity (unconfined): ~5 to 10 %
Artesianism (Faya); Flow: SW
Little (rainfall: <100 mm/year); from Nubian sandstones Little (rainfall: 2050 mm/year), flood infilt. Limited (rainfall: 1001000 mm/year)
TIBESTI AQUIFERS 50 000 (small (basement and discontinuous volcanic) aquifers)
Eruptive, metamorphic, volcanic rock, alluvium Regolith alluvium Fissured granite
Alluvium 10-20
Springs; to Paleozoic sandstones
Weathered and fissured basement drained by alluvium
EASTERN BASEMENT (fissured Ouaddai and Gura aquifer) OGOLIAN SANDS
140 000 (discontinuous aquifers)
Alluvium 9-33 m Alterites 0-50
Alluvium Qs: 2-10 m3/h/m Granites: Qs: 0.5-2 m3/h/m Permeability high T: 300-1000 m2/day Qs: 10 m3/h/m
RS: 0.1-0.5 g/l calciumsodium-bicarbonated, NO3 content sometimes excessive RS: < 0.4 g/l, calcium-sodiumbicarbonated
Springs; evaporation exploitation
40 000
Eolian sands
20-60
Unconfined
10-15 mm/year on piezometric domes
To north-east and south
Regular piezometric monitoring recommended
Source: SDEA 2000
63
Table 11: Main characteristics of hydrogeological units (cont.)

Aquifer Area (km2) Lithology Thickness (m) Type of aquifer Hydraulic parameters Hydrochemistry Piezometry Recharge Discharge Observations
MODJI SERIES
20 00
Limestones, marls, 10-20 sandstones (lateral variability)
Semi-confined to unconfined
Low permeability
RS: often 5 g/l, may sometimes reach 8 g/l, sodium sulphated
Limited
Little information on aquifer
PLEISTOCENE (east and west)
235 000
River sand and clayey bands
30-70
Unconfined to semi-confined
T: 100-600 m2/day Qs: 2-8 m3/h/m
RS: 0.3-05 g/l
Rainfall and infiltration of surface water Infiltration
Evaporation exploitation
Piezometric monitoring recommended
PLIOCENE
130 000
River sand interbedded with clay
30-70; Unconfined at 70-200 sides and confined to north-west of in centre Lake Batha: Lenses 6-15 Semi-confined
T: 60-450 m2/day; Qs: 2-9 m3/h/m
RS: 0.4-1.6 g/l Flow: to lowSodiumlying areas, bicarbonated/suphated artesianism
Evaporation exploitation
CONTINENTAL TERMINAL NORTH
80 000
Sand lenses between clay
Low permeability Qs: <1-3 m3/h/m, Exceptional. jq 5-16 m3/h/m
Low-lying areas: RS: 0.2-3 g/l Mortcha, Batha: RS: low. calciumsodium-bicarbonated (i) RS: < 0.1 g/l calcium bicarbonated to calcium-sodiumbicarbon; sometimes excessive iron, pH 6 RS : < 0.3 g/l Flow: towards rivers and north (ii) artesianism
Limited to very limited; Low-lying areas: from south of Paleozoic sandstones Rainfall; flood spreading
Low-lying areas: evaporation
CONTINENTAL TERMINAL SOUTH
145 000
(i) water table, sand lens, heterogeneous; (ii) depth massive sands Alluvium, regolith, Fractured granites
(i) 70-260 (ii) Doba, Salamat: 150-900 Bousso: 50-300 Alluvium 10-25
(i) unconfined to semi-confined (ii) confined
(i) Qs: 4m3/h/m (jq. 25) (ii) T, porosity probably high
Rivers Chari and Logone
(ii) insufficient knowledge of geometry and hydraulic conditions Weathered and fissured basement drained by alluvium
SW BASEMENT
10 000
Alluvium: unconfined Basement: confined
Qs alluvium : 1-8 m3/h/m Qs granites : 0.1-1 m3/h/m
Infiltration (rainfall 900-1 300 mm/year) Infiltration of floods
To CT, springs, exploitation
Source: SDEA 2000
64
However, these observations should not hide the fact that current hydrogeological and hydrodynamic information concerning the aquifers of Chad is insufficient to do more than give the main regional outlines of aquifer recharge conditions and the potential for mobilising water resources. There are few and only isolated quantitative data concerning estimated rainfall infiltration into the aquifers, which is often the main source of recharge. However, generally speaking, it is considered that south of the 500 mm isohyet, which in Chad includes the Sudanian zone and the southern third of the Sahelian zone, the balance between rainfall and evapotranspiration is usually positive so that aquifer recharge occurs through the infiltration of rainfall. One study in fact evaluates the fraction of rainfall infiltrating into the southern Continental Terminal aquifer at between 50 and 150 mm/year, i.e., 5-13% of rainfall. North of the 500 mm isohyet, in the semi-arid Sahelian zone, the balance between rainfall and evapotranspiration on predominantly clayey soils is usually negative, which means that the rains do not infiltrate. Water losses through evaporation from the water table appear to be between 0 and 2 mm/year in these areas, which can be explained by the strong capillary forces in clayey materials. In predominantly sandy areas, such as the Ogolian Sands aquifer, where rainfall is of the order of 150350 mm/year, infiltration may be of the order of 10-15 mm/year. In the Sahelian zone, renewable resources in the regional aquifers (Plio-quaternary, discontinuous bedrock aquifers) by infiltration of rainfall are generally limited to the southern part, between the 10th and 12th parallels. They are estimated at 3.5 billion m3/year in the case of the Plio-quaternary aquifers with infiltration of 15 mm/year. In the crystalline basement area (north), infiltration is estimated at 14 mm/year. In the Saharan zone, with annual rains amounting to less than 200 mm and a severely negative balance, it may be assumed that there is no aquifer recharge by infiltration of rainfall. 4.2.2 Groundwater uses: total figures Table 12 gives figures for groundwater abstraction for each aquifer and type of use. Abstraction is estimated indirectly, by estimating the water requirements of each of the subsectors concerned and identifying the origin of the water supplies. An annual quantity of nearly 409 million m3 of water is abstracted from groundwater resources to meet the various types of requirement. The Paleozoic Sandstones aquifer (non-renewable resources) is the one with the highest abstraction rate, the water being used mainly for agricultural purposes. The Pleistocene and Continental Terminal aquifers are also used, but mainly to help satisfy human and pastoral water supply requirements. The water currently abstracted from aquifers in Chad represents only about 2.1% of renewable groundwater resources. However, it should be noted that the above abstraction figures do not take into account the quantities removed in neighbouring countries (Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and Libya), which also exploit these various aquifers.
65
Table 12:
Aquifers Ogolian sands Modji Pleistocene Pliocene Northern CT Southern CT Nubian sandst.
Estimated theoretical abstraction from the various aquifers (million m3 in 2000)

Village water supply 2.90 0.08 8.60 0.40 0.63 20.00 0.07 0.10 2.90 7.90 0.03 43.61 Urban water supply 0.36 0.00 22.20 0.00 0.03 8.50 0.00 0.19 0.85 2.60 0.01 34.74 Industrial water supply 0.00 0.00 0.7 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.30 Agricultural water supply 28.3 0.0 0.8 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 133 0.0 33.6 14.0 210.0 Pastoral water supply 14.4 0.8 30.9 5.5 3.5 19.8 0.0 1.6 1.3 36.7 4.5 119.0 Total 45.96 0.88 63.20 6.2 4.16 48.90 0.07 134.89 5.05 80.80 18.54 408.65
Paleozoic sandst. Southern basement Eastern basement Tibesti basement Total Source: SDEA 2001
4.3 Water resources and use in 2000: total figures

Table 13 gives the total figures for surface water and groundwater uses in 2000. Table 13:
Type of resource Surface water Groundwater Total
Total water resources and uses in 2000

Village Urban Industrial Pastoral Agricultural Renewable water supply water supply water supply water supply water supply Total used resources (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (billion m3/an) 1 43.6 44.6 1 34.7 35.7 2 1.3 3.3 57 119 176 800 210 1 010 861.00 408.60 1 269.60 26 700.00 19 200.00 45 900.00 % renewable resources used (2000) 3.22 2.13 2.77
Source: SDEA 2001
These figures are an upper limit for real consumption, as the amounts for drinking water and domestic consumption in particular were calculated on the basis of theoretical per capita allocations, and pumped or diverted water that is not consumed and is returned to the river systems was not taken into account.
10
Total current abstraction10 of all water resources to satisfy the various types of use, without taking into account the requirements of aquatic ecosystems, was estimated at 1.269 billion m3 in 2000. Of this quantity, 408 million m3 of water was abstracted from the various aquifers and 861 million m3 was obtained from surface water. This represents only about 2.8% of the average renewable water resources estimated over the past series of 20 dry years. In overall terms, therefore, Chad has considerable renewable water resources in comparison with its needs. However, these resources are distributed over the entire country and are extremely variable and fragile. The aquatic ecosystems, particularly the large natural flood plains and peripheral areas around the different lakes, require natural annual flooding by the rivers that supply them in order to guarantee their corresponding ecological, economic and social functions.
66
5 THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 5.1 Plant cover, desertification and water points
The plant and forest cover in Chad is estimated at 21 million hectares, i.e., 18% of the national territory. In the absence of affordable alternative energy resources, rural and also often urban dwellers use firewood as their main source of energy. This has major consequences in terms of degradation of vegetation, soil quality and its ability to withstand wind and rain erosion. Combined with natural causes (droughts), the rate of deforestation has reached 2000 km2 per year, i.e., less than 0.9% per year. If this rate of deforestation were doubled and in the absence of any impact of the measures already begun to combat desertification (in particular those aimed at poverty reduction), it would in theory take about 60 years before the countrys entire shrub and forest cover disappeared. Concentrations of people and livestock have a decisive impact on the health of the fragile plant cover. In Chad, such concentrations of rural activities, including sedentary and nomadic extensive agricultural practices, are highly dependent on the distribution of water points. It must be recognised that, in the present situation, decisions relating to the locations of water points are generally taken in the context of fragmented projects without there being any overall vision or policies for positioning and regulating water points.
5.2 Aquatic ecosystems

The surface aquatic systems of Chad, most of which are still in their natural state, provide society with many services, of which fishing is the most obvious example. Their operation is controlled for the most part by hydrological conditions and by seasonal rhythms. The seasonal and interannual variability of environmental conditions, which is a drawback in terms of usage, should be considered as a factor of biodiversity. Plant and animal populations in the various regions of Chad are the product of their environment and its variability. With regard to aquatic biocoenosis, which is largely regulated by hydrological conditions, less seasonal and interannual variability would enable some species to dominate the populations while others would disappear. The reproductive cycle of many species of fish is regulated by river floods and the growth of their young is guaranteed by the flood plains. When floods are insufficient to inundate the plains, stock renewal is severely reduced. Fish reproduction depends on the existence of the river more than on that of the lake, to the extent that, from the ecological standpoint, Lake Chad is more like the flood plains of the tropical rivers than a true lake. The river-lake system (Lake Chad, ChariLogone) should therefore be considered as the spatial unit for fish stocks. In the climatic conditions existing in Chad, a mean value for production in the flood plains is of the order of 50 kg/ha per year (this figure concerns the flood plains directly linked with a river system). For a total flooded area of 20 000 km2, connected with the rivers during the current period of relative drought, potential annual fish production from flooded areas in Chad would be of the order of 100 000 tonnes. Similarly, variations in the extent of flooding in the northern Lake Chad basin, between 0 km2 in a dry year and about 5000 km2 in a wet year, may result in variations in fish production of 0-25 thousand tonnes. These indicative values depend on the good health of the ecosystems (absence of pollution), their correct hydrological operation and the degree to which they are connected. Significant regulation of the river, as in the case of the lower Senegal valley, would seriously disturb the fish population. There would be a decrease in biomass and in the diversity of the population. The diversity of the aquatic species therefore depends on ensuring that the natural operation of the river systems is maintained, and this is regulated primarily by the hydrological cycle. The aquatic systems also help to preserve the terrestrial wildlife living in large numbers in these biotopes, which provide ample grazing. Many birds, especially waders, reproduce in the flood plains. In the Saharan zone, the presence of water on or near the surface supports plant and animal species that are far from their normal range and are sometimes endemic. The Sahelian zone is particularly rich in species reliant on aquatic environments, with Lake Chad (about 160 species of fish) and the Lake Fitri Biosphere Reserve, which is covered by the Ramsar Convention, hosting migratory aquatic birds.
67
5.3 Environmental risks and their prevention

Figure 12 shows the main environmental components of Chad: protected areas, wildlife reserves, the river system, the flood plains and the major components that are likely to have an impact on their operation (oil pipelines, current or likely future mining operations, etc.). Two main types of risk have been identified: those of natural origin and those of human origin. 5.3.1 Risks of natural origin Natural risks are due essentially to climate variations. Several time and space scales should be considered, as follows: Climate change The longest scale is that of climate change. The persistence and modification of the climate are decisive factors in the use of water resources. Human activities are modified in accordance with the climate and water resources, and they in turn affect it and the associated natural resources via the continuation of activities or the adoption of new practices using other resources. These medium-term climatic changes and their effect on water resources are in the present case natural risks that must be taken into account in a food security and development strategy. Interannual variations in rainfall distribution Interannual variations in overall rainfall through the country result in river floods of varying size, and large variations in the areas flooded and lake levels, in particular in Lake Chad. While such variability helps to maintain plant biodiversity by preventing a small number of species from taking over, rainfed agriculture is also very much affected by it, especially in the Sahelian zone. At smaller time and space scales, rainfall distribution over a single season may result in local inequalities within areas that are considered to be homogeneous from the climate point of view. Rural people partly protect themselves against this type of variability by diversifying their practices and moving (at last part of the family) to areas where conditions are better. Protection against floods and intense rains The damage caused by water in towns is often due to heavy rains that cannot be disposed of by suitable stormwater relief structures, especially when housing is put up on land not suitable for building. As in the case of river floods, this risk is caused less by nature than by man. In normal conditions, the floods on the Chari and Logone are damped by spreading over the surrounding flood plains. These plains therefore have an important hydraulic role if flood levels are to remain compatible with the current state of urban development. This damping function must be at least maintained for NDjamna and the possibility of increasing it in the case of severe floods should be investigated. An increase of this kind could be achieved by excavating sills that would enable flood waters to overflow into adjoining plains, if the topography is suitable. In the event of exceptional floods such as those that occurred in the 1960s, solutions of this kind provide no security and emergency plans need to be introduced. 5.3.2 Risks of human origin The question of urban, domestic and industrial wastewater and stormwater is only considered here as a chronic pollution factor affecting the natural aquatic systems or flood-prone depressions. Urban wastewater The WHO considers that there is a direct relation between access to good-quality water and infant survival, and more generally public health. The development of drinking water supplies in villages and urban communities, including the poorest that pay the most for water, is a priority in this respect. Wastewater sanitation in villages can be separated from the supply of drinking water because of the low local population density. The same is not true of larger towns, where domestic wastewater and stormwater stagnate in certain places, leading to risks of malaria, cholera, parasitic diseases and diarrhoea when this water is used.
68
Industrial wastewater In towns with industrial establishments, wastewater is discharged either directly into the rivers, which has a possible impact on the natural environment and the inhabitants who frequent it, or on to the ground, which may pollute the aquifer used for drinking water supplies. Pollution from mining Leaving aside oil, there is little mining activity in Chad. The main activities are diamond mining near the frontier with the Central African Republic and gold washing in the Tandjil and Mayo Kbi regions. The search for diamonds increases the sediment load in rivers in places, and this could affect the migration or reproduction of fish in the temporary rivers in south-eastern Chad. Recently, gold-mining has begun at two sites (see figure 12). Depending on the extraction processes used (leaching), this activity may potentially contaminate surface water and groundwater resources very seriously if appropriate and effective measures are not taken to treat the effluent and attenuate the corresponding impacts. Another type of risk that may be considered as industrial and/or mining pollution concerns the extraction of sediment and aggregates from rivers, in particular the Chari and Logone. In addition to disrupting aquatic life and significantly increasing the suspended particle load in the water, this activity contributes to bank erosion. Contamination risks attributable to oil accidents Figure 12 shows the routes of the oil pipelines. The first runs along Lake Chad as far as NDjamna; the second concerns the Doba-Kribi section in the southern part of Chad and northern part of Cameroon. Detailed environmental impact studies have been carried out for the oil exploitation projects, leading to the preparation of specifications for operations on site and conveyance via the pipeline. At Doba, the impacts identified as representing a risk for the aquatic environments are linked mainly with erosion caused by surface levelling and work to lay the pipeline, domestic and industrial wastewater from the site, process water and works to carry the pipeline across rivers. Measures are planned to provide protection against erosion and to retain particles before they enter the rivers. The Doba site is to be provided with a domestic wastewater protection installation, perhaps the only one in Chad. Settling tanks are planned to separate the oil contained in industrial water. Residual water with the highest pollutant load is reinjected with the process water. Lastly, pipelines are buried under river beds to avoid disrupting their course. Where oil pollution is concerned, zero risk does not exist, as can be seen regularly in many places in the world. The risk of massive accidental oil pollution in the rivers and in Lake Chad, due for example to a pipeline burst, needs to be considered and emergency plans drawn up in partnership with the oil companies and civil defence organisations.
69
Republic of Chad Figure 12: Main environmental components

Mineralisation index
Uranium Titanium Salt Oil Gold Natron Protected area Proposed protected area Reserved natural forest Wild animal reserve Biosphere reserve Flood-prone area Oil pipeline Kaolin Tin/Tungsten Diatomites Diamonds Copper, Lead & Silver
SITES CURRENTLY EXPLOITED
Normal Lake Chad before 1973 December 2001 Lake Chad Petit Tchad 1999
70
Agricultural pollution The cultivated land in Chad is relatively flat, except in the east of the country, which considerably limits the risks of erosion and transport of particles by water (this is not true of wind erosion in dry regions). In contrast, a significant proportion of fertilisers and phytosanitary products used in the various types of industrial and other cultivation systems is carried by water. It may be washed through the soil in to the aquifers and rivers, where it is a cause of long-term pollution or eutrophication. The existing state of pollution by metals and pesticides Hitherto, the degree of pollution of surface water in Chad due to metals and pesticides was unknown. In the framework of the SDEA, UNDESA therefore took the initiative to carry out a limited survey to determine whether there were indications of pollution by pesticides or by mercury in the water of Lake Chad opposite the Chari delta. A fish sampling campaign was carried out in November 2000. The results obtained from this survey represent the baseline situation with which later analyses may be compared. In terms of practical conclusions, the following points should be borne in mind: mercury concentrations are very low, increasing slightly according to level in the food chain. None of the fish analysed came anywhere near the limits indicated by the WHO;
chlorinated organic pesticide concentrations in the two species analysed were also low. No risk for human health was identified in the event of normal or even heavy consumption of these fish.
6 MAJOR SHARED INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES 6.1 The River Niger

The Niger Basin Authority (NBA), based in Niamey, is represented by a focal point at the Directorate of Water Resources and Meteorology. The NBA works in the basin of the Mayo Kbi, a tributary of the Benue, which forms part of the Niger basin.
6.2 The Lake Chad basin

Lake Chad basin covers part of the territory of six countries: in first position Chad (1 046 196 km2), followed by Niger (691 473 km2), Central African Republic (219 410 km2), Nigeria (179 282 km2), Sudan (101 048 km2), Algeria (93 461 km2) and finally Cameroon (50 775 km2). The Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC), created in 1964, currently includes the member states concerned by the various active hydrological sub-basins: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Niger, Nigeria and Chad. A Strategic Action Plan (SAP) was adopted by the member states in 1988 (see box on next page). With the SDEA and its national consultative mechanism, Chad is probably the first LCBC member state to implement at national level the recommendations of the SAP with regard to integrated management and water policy applied in each national sub-basin. In addition, there is also the Cameroon-Chad Joint Committee. The main aim of this institution is to facilitate discussions between the two countries regarding the use of water resources in the River Logone, which form part of the resources of the Lake Chad basin. The Commission meets periodically. Recently, the two parties recommended actively engaging development of the Logone basin, and creating an expert technical committee to study, among other things, the feasibility of Foumbang dam in Cameroon and Gor dam in Chad.
71
STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN OF THE LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (LCBC) Lake Chad, situated in the east of the African Sahel region and at the southern edge of the Sahara, is a vast expanse of fresh water shared between Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad. Lake Chad, the fourth largest lake in Africa and the third largest endoreic lake in the world, occupies a closed, shallow basin. It therefore has little depth, a relatively small volume and an area that changes considerably with each years rainfall. It is supplied by a huge catchment area covering 2 381 635 km2, which itself comprises numerous wetlands and vast flood plains of economic and environmental importance. Given the exceptional importance of protecting the lakes environment, as well as that of the rivers and aquifers in its basin, and the need for concrete action in this field, the preparation of a Strategic Action Plan (SAP) was initiated in May 1996 following a request for assistance from the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) to the UNDP-GEF. The SAP was drawn up and validated during national and regional workshops with back-up from LCBC specialists and UNDESA support. The SAP in fact provides support for the LCBCs first target, which is to exploit water in the Lake Chad basin for the well-being of the people concerned. The aim of the SAP is to define a regional framework for environmental protection and sustainable development of the various resources throughout the Lake Chad basin. This framework includes preventive and curative measures. The SAP aims to set up and at the same time organise a permanent process for reaching regional agreement on environmental changes, on real threats and on priorities to be considered at regional level. The SAP was adopted by the Council of Ministers of the LCBC in May 1998 and thus constitutes the reference document for LCBC member states strategy regarding the protection of groundwater and surface water in the Lake Chad basin. A project to assist with the implementation of the first stages of the SAP was to be funded by the GEF at the request of the member states. Assessment of the various cross-border problems led to the definition of a long-term strategic plan: AIM OF THE SAP: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAKE CHAD BASIN Main objective: Lake Chad is protected in the long term by concerted and integrated management of the resources in its basin, ensured by getting all stakeholders in the basin to take responsibility and cooperate. Objective 1: Concerted management of shared international watercourses, relying on regional cooperation and harmonised national policies applied in each sub-basin. Objective 2: Integrated management of the use of the finite, vulnerable resources of the basins ecosystem, based on better knowledge of these resources. Objective 3: Stakeholders in the basin assume responsibility for protecting their shared heritage.
6.3 The Nubian sandstone aquifer

The sedimentary formation of the Nubian sandstones consists of essentially sandy and clayey continental deposits. This formation extends over a considerable geographical area. It covers the east and south of Libya, most of Egypt, the north and north-west of Sudan and the extreme north-east of Chad. Although it is composed of alternating clay and sandstone horizons, the Nubian sandstone aquifer forms a considerable reservoir of water. In the present state of knowledge and owing to the extremely arid conditions that reign in these regions, the aquifer is said to be fossil, i.e., it is not recharged.
72
An aquifer of this size that provides good-quality water in such arid areas is of strategic interest for the socio-economic development of these regions. Aware of these challenges, the countries that share this resource have decided to combine their efforts in order to draw up a programme for monitoring and exploiting the aquifer. Thus Libya, Sudan, Egypt and Chad have set up a joint committee with its head office in Tripoli. Its aim is to put in place the necessary instruments for ensuring sustainable operation of the aquifers resources. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System project (NSAS) currently in progress is carrying out activities in this respect.
7 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 7.1 Existing legislation

There was little regulation of the water sector in general until the National Assembly passed law no. 016/PR/99 concerning the Water Code in 1999. This code is characterised by a determination to regulate the sector in the context of the decentralisation process, including widespread involvement of the private sector and associations via the principle of public service delegation. However, it should be noted that the delay in drawing up a land tenure code seriously affects the legislative framework.
WATER CODE Law 016/PR/99 setting up the Water Code was promulgated on 18 August 1999, after being discussed and adopted by the National Assembly on 2 July 1999. The law was prepared and adopted in the context of delegation of the public drinking water service so that services previously provided by the STEE could thenceforth be provided by a private consortium working within an appropriate legal framework. This explains why the Water Code in its present form is much more detailed with regard to drinking water services in urban areas. The Water Code deals with all questions relating to state ownership, restriction on private ownership, particular conditions relating to the abstraction, treatment, storage and supply of drinking water and sanitation, conditions for using water, protection of water quality, the use of water and water-related problems, the national water fund, procedures for approving hydraulics works contractors, infringements and sanctions. With regard specifically to drinking water and sanitation, the Code defines: the procedures for operating the public water service and public service obligations, public service monitoring and the regulatory body, the supply of drinking water and tariffs, public service delegation contracts, the legal conditions relating to structures, monitoring of the operators activities, the drinking water and sanitation development fund and prerogatives and easements.
The main laws governing the sector are the following:
Law no. 4 of 1 October 1959 outlining regulations concerning nomadism in the territory of the Republic of Chad. Law no. 23 of 22 July 1967 concerning the status of state-owned property. This law stipulates that national land comprises all property belonging to the State, public land and private land. Law no. 25 of 22 July 1967 concerning the limitation of land ownership rights. This law defines expropriation procedures and defines the principle of compensation fixed by mutual agreement. Law 14/PR/99 of 17 August 1998 defining the general principles of environmental protection; this deals with all aspects of the environment and cultural property.
73
Law 016/PR/99 of 18 August 1999 concerning the Water Code. This law stipulates that all water resources are communal property and that their exploitation is subject to declaration or authorisation, in the framework of the law and compliance with customary law. The laws of 16 February 2000, namely no. 2 concerning the status of Decentralised Local Authorities and no. 3 concerning the electoral procedures relating to Decentralised Local Authorities. Order no. 23 of 22 September 1975 concerning the status of the commune of NDjamna. Order no.17/PR/85 of 24 July 1985 outlining the organisation of communes de moyen exercice. Order no. 025/PR/92 outlining the general status of i) professional groups; ii) cooperative-type professional groups; and iii) cooperatives in the Republic of Chad.
7.2 Existing regulations

The political decision for the State to withdraw from the water and electricity sector helped to speed up the adoption of the Water Code, but it did prove to be an opportunity for widespread consultation with the main stakeholders in the sector, in keeping with its importance. It is therefore regrettable that there are a number of oversights in a text that was drawn up essentially in the context of privatisation of the drinking water supply systems managed by the STEE. The Water Code therefore concentrated on dealing more exhaustively with public drinking water services in urban areas. Given certain gaps and inconsistencies, in particular with regard to subsectors not concerned by drinking water, the Code should be supplemented and improved. Furthermore, the decrees concerning enforcement of the Water Code and governing the regulatory framework are not yet all up to date and this delay means that the regulatory framework is not fully operational. Delegation of public drinking water services to decentralised local authorities and corresponding management procedures: decree 249/PR/MEE/02 of 28 May 2002. Presidential decree 249/PR/MEE/02 was signed on 28 May 2002. This defined the procedures and conditions whereby the State temporarily11 handed over its authority to the Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA) with regard to the delegation of public drinking water services. In particular, this decree recalled that the hand-over was to encourage the introduction of a participatory operation and management method involving users of the public drinking water service and that a contract had to be signed between the DLA and the delegated manager and operator of the drinking water supply system (water users associations or, failing this, independent operators) throughout the territory of the DLA in question. This decree also described the new role of the State, focusing on its prerogatives with regard to regulation and monitoring. In addition, the general framework of public drinking water service management procedures is defined on an industrial- and commercial-type basis with infrastructure operation managed in accordance with real direct running costs involving all expenses to cover supply, distribution and management functions and replacement costs. The other main regulations concerning this sector are the following:

11 Pending adoption of the law concerning the hand-over of authority as part of the decentralisation process.
Decree no. 12/PR/INT of 06/05/1970 outlining the status of the chefferie. Decree no. 399/PR/MISD/97 of 10 September 1997 concerning decentralisation. Decree no. 249/PR/MEE/02 defining the procedures and conditions whereby the State temporarily handed over its authority with regard to the delegation of public drinking water services to the Decentralised Local Authorities. Order no. 0292/MEHP/SE/220/DONHPV/88 of 02/05/88 fixing taxes on water consumption from ONHPV pumping stations. Order no.138/MEHP/86 of 01/03/86 fixing taxes on water consumption from pumping stations. Order no. 034/PM/MEE/99/02 outlining the creation and organisation of a National Water Management Committee.
74
Order no. 028/MEE/ defining the form of special agreement for handing over the power to delegate a public drinking water service from the State to a Decentralised Local Authority. Order no. 029/MEE/DG/2002 defining the form of special contract for delegating a public drinking water service to a users association or private tenant. Order no. 030/MEE/DG/02 outlining the methods for setting up, organising and operating drinking water users associations (DWUA). Circular no. 012/MISD/SE/DIAT/00, relating to the formal prohibition of the fees known as zakat and management of pastoral wells by tribal chiefs.
The water police: the Agence pour la Rgulation du Secteur de lEau (ARE - Water Sector Regulation Agency) According to article 42 of the Water Code, this Agency is placed under the responsibility of the Minister in charge of water. Its principal duty is to ensure that regulations relating to the water sector are applied impartially and to put forward water tariffs for approval by the State. The decree referred to in the Code concerning the organisation and operation of the Agency has not yet appeared.
7.3 General institutional context of the water sector

Management of the water sector is a public prerogative in Chad. Consultation of the various stakeholders (public and private organisations and associations) is institutionalised at central level via three committees (political, strategic and technical) placed under the authority of the Prime Minister (HCNE), the Ministry of the Environment and Water (CNGE) and Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (CTIE). Prime Ministers office Two institutions at the Prime Ministers office are primarily concerned with water and water management: High National Council for the Environment (HCNE) The role of the HCNE is to make sure that the recommendations of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 are effectively applied. The National Water Management Committee (CNGE) is under the authority of the HCNE. Secretarial functions are carried out by the MEE. Ministry in charge of Decentralisation This new ministry is responsible for implementing the decentralisation policy that will enable participation and decision-making to take place at the lowest possible level. Ministry of the Environment and Water According to chapter 1 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001 of 30 March 2001, the Ministry of the Environment and Water is responsible for defining and implementing policies with regard to environmental protection, the fight against desertification, management of natural resources, application of policies concerning urban, village, agricultural and pastoral water supplies and sanitation, meteorology and hydrology. At central level, the Ministry is responsible for five directorates: Hydraulic Affairs (DH), Water Resources and Meteorology (DREM), Fisheries and Aquaculture (DPA), Wildlife Protection and National Parks (DPFPN) and Forest Protection and the Fight against Desertification (DPFLCD). At decentralised level, eight regional Directorates of the Environment and Water were set up in 2001 (decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2 001).
75
Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH) This Directorate is responsible for all activities relating to groundwater. These include planning urban, village and pastoral water supply and sanitation activities, conducting studies and centralising their results, inventorying and classifying aquifers, carrying out water supply and sanitation works on a direct labour basis, monitoring the maintenance of hydraulic facilities, checking the quantity and quality of groundwater abstraction. The Directorates organisation and duties are set out in detail in order no. 9/MEE/DG/DH/98 of 3 July 1998. At central level, the DH comprises a Water Office, a Studies and Planning Division, an Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Division, a Village and Pastoral Water Supply Division and a Facilities Maintenance Division. The DH also has an Administrative and Equipment Section. It is in principle represented in the various prefecture branch offices by a head of department. However, the prefecture branch offices had not been set up in 2001. Most of the divisions do not yet completely fulfil their roles, especially the Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Division and Studies and Planning Division. The lack of sufficient well-trained middle managers prevents the Directorate from fulfilling its role in terms of designing and monitoring studies and works in the field. The Directorate also lacks sufficient means and an organisational framework for collecting the information that is essential for it to function correctly. Directorate of Water Resources and Meteorology (article 20 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001) This directorate is responsible in particular for planning and programming the exploitation of surface water and for promoting studies connected with determining surface water reserves and changes therein. Its only office is in NDjamna (hydrology department). The hydrology teams only work out of NDjamna, covering a fairly vast area with few logistical resources. Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture (article 11 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001) This directorate is responsible for developing and promoting fish resources and aquaculture, implementing national regulations and regional/international agreements relating to the fisheries and aquaculture sector and the corresponding biodiversity. It is represented via the fisheries department and hydrobiology department at central level and the fisheries sectors at the main lakes (Lakes Chad, Lr, Iro and Fitri). It lacks adequate logistical and human resources to carry out its activities. The directorate also lacks the resources for carrying out its supervisory duties and for collecting hydrobiological data. Directorate of Forest Protection and the Fight against Desertification (DPFLCD) Via the Environmental Protection Division, this directorate is in theory responsible for pollutionrelated issues. It is the directorate with the widest representation throughout the country. However, it lacks logistical resources and equipment, as well as a conceptual framework for carrying out its duties effectively. Directorate of Wildlife Protection and National Parks (article 14 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001) The role of this directorate is to implement and monitor national policy in terms of development and sustainable management of wildlife and biodiversity, plan and programme related activities, and apply national regulations in regional/international agreements concerning wildlife and biodiversity. Since Chad adhered to the Ramsar Agreement on wetlands, the Directorate of Wildlife Protection and National Parks has assigned a focal point for the Ramsar Agreement. It is responsible for monitoring all questions relating to wetlands. The directorate is represented in NDjamna via the Parks and Wildlife Reserves Division and in the regions with parks (Zakouma, Manda). Its capabilities are limited owing to its lack of logistical and human resources.
76
7.4 The consultative mechanism

Order 034/PM/MEE/99 signed by the Prime Minister on 3 September 1999, at the time of initiating the SDEA, was the first document aimed at organising an intersectoral, participatory consultative mechanism for protecting and managing water resources in Chad on an integrated basis, and at ensuring rational local exploitation of these resources by the many subsectors concerned. The consultative mechanism is organised under the supervision of the High National Council for the Environment (HCNE), with the creation of the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) concerning strategic questions and at the level of the major administrative departments - and the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) at the level of the technical directorates (10). These two consultative committees do not have the power to make or veto decisions but they are operational and demonstrated their vital importance during the preparation of the SDEA. Elected representatives and federations of users associations are members of these committees by right. External resources may be brought in and external persons may be invited to take part in meetings and works. These committees should play a compulsory key consultative role with regard to major projects of general and strategic importance concerned by water and with regard to discussions on the introduction of a complete water governance system in Chad.
8 MAIN CONCLUSIONS, LESSONS AND CONSTRAINTS TO OVERCOME

The main conclusions of this assessment are as follows: Chad has considerable reserves of water. However, this should not hide the major constraints involved in mobilising water resources, in particular the unequal distribution of rainfall and surface water both geographically and in time, and the lack of knowledge about how the main aquifers work. As a general conclusion, it is clear that water resources are no hindrance to the economic and social development of Chad. However, a prerequisite to developing these water resources will be to carry out studies in order to provide more information on the relations between the main hydrological and hydrogeological systems in the country.
The drinking water supply rate for the population of Chad as a whole was only 23% in 2001. It was a mere 16.5% in rural areas, 25% in towns in the non-concessionary area and 40% in towns in the STEE concessionary area. Major efforts need to be made for the entire population of Chad to have equitable and widespread access to drinking water and also to achieve the Millennium targets. The absence of essential basic data, such as livestock numbers and fodder resources, is a major constraint in evaluating water requirements and appropriate facilities in the field of pastoral water supplies, and in developing the entire stock-rearing sector. The average increase in cereal production has been only 2% per annum over the past 20 years in spite of major investment in the agricultural water supply sector, while the annual population growth rate over the same period has been 2.5%. Current cereal production satisfies only a little over 55% of requirements. Significant efforts must be made to increase the productivity of the existing irrigation areas and to develop new schemes in order to maintain and in particular to increase the level of satisfaction of cereal requirements for the population as a whole. There is practically no basic sanitation infrastructure, in either rural or urban areas. Everything needs to be done in this field. In addition, there are numerous institutional stakeholders involved in sanitation, working with almost no financial resources and too often without being able to coordinate their activities and programmes. However, in recent years, initiatives have been taken by neighbourhood organisations to make up on a very local scale for the shortcomings of this subsector.
77
The legal and regulatory framework is very scant. The Water Code is the only law governing water. However, the decrees bringing this law into force had still not been promulgated in 2001. This hampers harmonious development in this area, especially with regard to defining and sharing responsibilities among the various stakeholders and with regard to managing the facilities for exploiting water resources. There are many stakeholders ranging from private to public. To develop and strengthen the private sector, it seems essential to encourage strategic partnerships between national and international companies. With regard to the public sector, it seems important to clarify the role and responsibilities of the various stakeholders in the water sector and to define the legal and regulatory context in detail. National capacity-building in all sectors is a priority and requirement in order to ensure the sustainable development of water resources and guarantee socio-economic development for present and future generations.
The main lessons to be learned from this assessment are as follows. Village water supply programmes: success dependent on the quality of accompanying measures to support physical investments The village water supply projects conducted in Chad over the past 10 years have proved to be very efficient, with the effective involvement of the people concerned via Water Point Management Committees, which guarantee to a certain extent that local people take responsibility for the schemes, and in particular ensure that they will be managed and maintained on a sustainable basis. An essential lesson is that, to be efficient and sustainable, any local development programme must necessarily involve the people concerned right from the moment of designing and choosing the technology to be used. Moreover, facilities must be managed by the users organised legally into management committees or associations, following clear and standardised contractual rules agreed upon with the State departments and private service providers, setting out the respective roles and responsibilities of everyone involved. Better geographical distribution of hydraulic facilities in order to reduce the regional imbalances revealed by the SDEA through improved knowledge of the existing situation, and harmonisation of project approaches following a single strategy and in particular with procedure and coordination guides, are aims that should be achieved in the next 5 years thanks to ongoing discussions and the methodological improvements made within the DH since 2000. Urban and semi-urban water supply projects: a subsector that is lagging behind Concessionary area Lessons have already been learned concerning the chronic shortcomings in management of the STEE. The solution adopted is to delegate the public service to a private concessionaire. As a prerequisite, the private consortium demanded that the STEEs accounts should be cleared. A large part of the windfall from oil that the Government received in April 2000, i.e., FCFA 4.9 billion, was used to clear the STEEs debts. However, considerable uncertainty remains with regard to the funding of operations, network maintenance, rehabilitation and extension work, and the feasibility of the chosen solution. The price of water services is low and has not changed since 1984. The States control over STEE tariffs is a constraint and could become a source of conflict over the understanding of the targets set out in the introduction to the agreement with the consortium. Discussions must be initiated to reach a consensus on adopting a progressive price structure that is equitable with regard to levels of services, socially acceptable and economically viable for the targets set. The absence of any move towards a viable solution has created an inefficient, unfair situation and, given the population growth, is leading to a drop in the rate of access to drinking water in certain large towns in the country.
78
The STEE has initiated integrated planning studies for drinking water supplies in 11 towns in the concessionary area. To reach the Government and Millennium development goals in this area (40% rate of access in 2000 and 70% by 2015), major investment must be made and these integrated plans should examine them in light of the above target figures (to be included in the terms of reference for the studies). It is logical and fair to aim at goals that are to apply in principle to the entire country, as rural areas and towns of more than 2000 inhabitants in the non-concessionary area will be organised in accordance with these performance levels. For reasons of good governance and transparency, it would be appropriate for the STEE SA to take an active part now in the consultative process concerning water management, via the CTIE and CNGE. This would enable it to present and discuss the main strategic options as a semi-public concessionary company that is to be privatised at a later stage. In the present situation, it is difficult to make any prediction regarding the planned new management system and the chances of all stages being implemented. Furthermore, operational control of the new company by the monitoring committee provided for in the contract would be an additional guarantee that the concessionaire (STEE SA) would fulfil its obligations, in particular with regard to the expected extensions. It would also be advisable for the contract-monitoring mechanism to be harmonised with the stipulations expected in this respect under the Water Code, in order to maintain a consistent overall mechanism for monitoring the implementation of activities throughout the sector by the public service. Towns of more than 2000 people outside the concessionary area The lessons to be learned from the innovative experiments carried out in the context of the projects entitled Water and Services in the peripheral neighbourhoods of NDjamna12 and Drinking Water Supplies to Secondary and Semi-Urban Centres are vital in organising the future maintenance and management of hydraulic structures in urban and semi-urban environments. These projects are in fact a starting-point for setting up a structure maintenance and management organisation based essentially on users and the private sector, with the role of the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs being gradually shifted to supervision and regulation activities. This is all the more justified as the lessons learned from the management systems recently set up by the DH in centres outside the STEE area and from existing embryonic networks often reveal malfunctions. The roles of operation, regular management and control are not clearly dissociated, while local dignitaries and officials are all directly involved in ways that are hardly suited to their function and institutional role as arbiters. Accurate accounts, records of elementary indices and regular technical reports do not always exist. However, there are serious constraints linked with the introduction of a new operational management system for drinking water supply systems based on the empowerment of users, and these should not be underestimated. They entail concrete changes in or clarification of: the responsibility of the communes (competency with regard to public water services); the role of local dignitaries, committee chairmen and canton chiefs; local organisations (small companies, associations, etc.) that are often inexperienced and inadequately trained to take over management and operation from the Government; payment of water bills by State departments; the readiness of users to pay for the service, and the institutional framework. Lastly, the projects proposed by the donors should be analysed in detail by the DH right from the design stage so that they can be adapted to the countrys strategy defined by the SDEA and to the procedural guides that still need to be studied, tested and validated once concrete management procedures that have proved successful in the field have been assessed and adopted. The public service could ensure the consistency of the various works, projects and cooperative ventures but, given the scope of the planned programmes, this means a capacitybuilding programme for managers and a recruitment and training plan for young people. Pastoral water supplies: the absence of a clear institutional framework and inadequate knowledge of basic data in the subsector mean there is a lack of consistency in programmes and the distribution of pastoral water points.
12
In fact, inside the concessionary area, but with autonomous management.
79
There are at least two major institutional stakeholders, belonging to two different ministries, involved in the pastoral water supply subsector. These are the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs of the Ministry of the Environment and Water, and the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production and Pastoralism of the Ministry of Stock-Rearing. In the past, this has been a source of needless tensions as their functions are complementary and much would be gained by clarifying the duties of these organisations and the manner in which they should work together in operational programmes. Insufficient basic knowledge of fodder resources and in particular of livestock numbers has led to discrepancies observed on one hand between the major transhumance patterns and areas to be protected, and on the other in the spatial distribution of modern pastoral water points built in the past. Poor knowledge of these basic data also hampers the development of this sector and regional development in a wider sense, especially in pastoral areas. Water resources: they are abundant and generally do not represent a restriction on development, but they need to be better known, protected and used rationally. It is essential to manage the resources rationally in order to guarantee the health of the aquatic ecosystems on which most of the countrys economic activities depend, as well as the biodiversity of Lake Chad. In semi-arid piedmont areas, such as oasis ecosystems, the fragile balance between water resources and uses could be jeopardised by the lack of integration of support operations or by the massive introduction of motor pumps. Vigilance is called for and appropriate measures must be defined and put into effect with regard to risks connected with floods and industrial (especially oilrelated) pollution. On the other hand, the mobilisation of water resources may be a constraint at local level owing to the investment costs involved for exploitation systems and the corresponding running costs. Both these types of cost depend on the accessibility of the water resources. User funding and management capability are a decisive factor in choosing each type of equipment to be installed. Management of knowledge on water resources Chad has paid much more attention to infrastructure for mobilising and exploiting its water resources than to managing knowledge of them. It is estimated that less than 1% of the total funding in the water sector between 1985 and 2000 was allocated to monitoring water resources. Not even minimal piezometric monitoring of the aquifers was carried out owing to the lack of resources. The same is true of hydrological measurements and processing. The water yearbook for Chad has not been published for several years because the small number of gauging operations limits the validity of the rating curves and the quantity and quality of water level measurements are insufficient, mainly as a consequence of the inadequate logistical resources. This subsector also suffers most from a lack of managers in relation to the other countries in the sub-region. However, what is probably most lacking in the institutions concerned is a clear view of the countrys development priorities, enabling them to define on the basis of demand (and not supply) a work programme that is suited to requirements and available resources. With such an economic valuation of work carried out and in light of the results obtained, it would be advisable to increase the share of the budget devoted to these institutions progressively on the basis of a programme covering several years. This attempt at rationalisation should be based on the requirements defined by the SDEA for the next 20 years, starting by identifying, collecting, processing, interpreting and computerising the considerable quantity of hydrological and hydrogeological data existing within the country, that are so far unused. Specific requirements can be identified. For example, in the irrigation subsector, activities concerning among other things the potential for spreading floods on the Salamat, the hydrology of each event in arid piedmont areas, infiltration capacity and subsurface dams, could be initiated, not to mention everything concerning the pastoral water supply subsector and an inventory and study of the natural functioning of the main seasonal ponds. With regard to the consistency of operations, it is certain that separating surface water and groundwater monitoring activities between two agencies (DREM and DH) has an adverse effect on the knowledge, modelling and integrated management of the same single resource involved in the water cycle.
80
Regional cooperation on shared international watercourses At regional level, the Lake Chad Basin Commission enables regular discussions to take place between the member States that share the watercourses of the Lake Chad basin. Since May 1977, the Government has had a Ministry of the Environment and Water. If one adds the High National Council for the Environment (HCNE), the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) and the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) to assist in the field of water, the Government of Chad has a complete framework for controlling its water and environmental policy with a view to achieving a truly integrated approach. This complies with the recommendations of the LCBC Strategic Action Plan of May 1998. However, the fact that the LCBC is only motivated by project approaches and that the Ministry of the Environment and Water of Chad has not been represented on it so far limits the continuity and efficiency of regional cooperation efforts. Water policy: absence of a clear policy and single reference framework for developing and managing water Table 14 summarises the contents of recent documents containing recommendations or a strategic order for the various water subsectors. For want of a reference framework, these objectives have often been produced without any analysis of the subsector concerned and without knowing the initial situation, or the costs and resources that can be mobilised, and obviously without being in a position to consider the characteristic interdependence of water and water management within each subsystem and between sub-systems, due to lack of information. Approaches fragmented into subsectors and projects, that the SDEA needs to coordinate and rationalise In the past, the water sector has been handicapped by too many malfunctions, by the relative inefficiency of the various interministerial committees, by insufficient consultation between the ministries concerned with the same development project, between the stakeholders and end users, between the funding agencies themselves and between regional and bilateral institutions, by a certain amount of confusion between monitoring, regulating and operating roles, by the lack of structure monitoring and by the lack of professionalism of certain charitable organisations. However, the preparation of the SDEA and the multisectoral and multi-stakeholder discussions that it has entailed, particularly via the CTIE and CNGE, has proved that these difficulties can be overcome and that the corresponding achievements deserve to be institutionalised in order to prolong the strategies adopted through good practice in concrete programmes. Consequently, the SDEA is not limited to proposing an action plan. Through a holistic, integrated approach, it also establishes the reference framework of a water policy and rational control of the water sector in its entirety for the country, the funding agencies and all others involved. The following chapters will therefore concentrate on a view of long-term requirements, a Chadian water policy derived from the observations, requirements and resources identified above, a strategy for each subsector, an action plan, a strategy for implementing the SDEA (including a legal framework and strategy for mobilising funds) and finally a mechanism for monitoring performance in implementing the SDEA.
81
Table 14: Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors
Document Village water supply Urban water supply Pastoral water supply Agricultural water supply Sanitation Water management
Guideline Plan: Chad around 2000
Provide people with enough water points of sufficient quality. On the basis of requirements, the aim is: one water point for 500 inhabitants in rural areas. Progressively increase to 10 800 by 2000 the number of water points, comprising 20% wells and 80% boreholes (currently about 4000 water points)
Aimed at urban development and sanitation Health Ensure that by 2000 water is available no further than 15 minutes away on foot Housing and urban planning Implement hydraulic infrastructure works in secondary urban centres (Sarh, Moundou, Abch and others)
Create a sufficient number of water points to limit overgrazing and rationalise livestock migrations Considering the size and migratory movements of livestock: requirements are estimated at about 3000 water points (the country has 500 at the most at present)
Total area irrigated estimated at about 20 000 hectares spread more or less evenly between small and large irrigation schemes Given its decidedly voluntarist strategy to promote exports, the Government intends to:
Make villagers groups take responsibility and become more autonomous so that they can keep pumps in good working order and thus benefit from water of constant quality. In urban areas, the programme is based on campaigns to educate people about the use of stand-pipes, disposal of stormwater and waste water, and the collection of household waste. Housing and urban planning Ensure that people, especially in urban areas, have hygienic, healthy living conditions. The Government intends to draw up urban planning documents for the main towns in the country as quickly as possible in order to proceed with the most urgent sanitation works. In the short term Urban development master plan for NDjamna Initiate the process to define a national housing policy (urban planning, sanitation).
help double the areas of small irrigation schemes, rehabilitate half the area of large irrigation schemes, reorganise the management and production methods of large areas.
Strategy strongly geared to small, inexpensive structures involving simple technologies that are well-suited to the physical and human environment. More generally: encourage local and private initiatives, in particular in the area of agricultrual water supply
recognise rural communities as partners raise the issue of payment for water
The State will:
focus its activities on sup- Initiate the process to define a municipal policy porting farmers and with- (allocation, management). drawing from production In the medium term Support municipal management of NDjamna seek to encourage the development of marketRehabilitate sanitation and drainage infrastructure garden crops near urban (waste water and stormwater). centres and out-of-seaRehabilitate services and road infrastructure in son crops in low-lying NDjamna. areas and around wadis Prepare urban development master plans for the other main towns.
Source: SDEA 2001
82
Table 14: Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors (cont.)
Revised Guideline Plan: Preparing Chad for the 21st century =>Geneva IV (1997)
Ensure that safe water is available no further than 15 minutes away on foot for 50% of the population by 2001 and for 70% by 2015 Promotion of a water point for 250 to 300 inhabitants representing the need for 16 000 structures by target year 2001
Ensure that safe water is available no further than 15 minutes away on foot for 50% of the population by 2001 and for 70% by 2015 Ensure all urban dwellers have drinking water
Implementation of 4000 additional water points to secure drinking water for livestock in pastoral activity areas
Rehabilitation of all large irrigation areas Encourage the creation of small private or village irrigation areas
Increase the installation of latrines in houses and public services (schools, dispensaries) Ensure the removal of solid waste and waste water Halve the number of water-releated diseases caused by the consumption of poor-quality water
Create and instil a sense of responsibility in users groups, village beneficiaries and nomads with a view to handing over the management and maintenance of irrigation areas and water points Introduction of the principle of payment for water
Source: SDEA 2001
83
Geneva IV conference (reference document): strategic development options (19982001) 1998
Water and sanitation (infrastructure) Ensure the availability of 9800 village water points by 2001
Water and sanitation (infrastructure) Three priorities must guide public action for the period:
Water and sanitation (infrastructure) Ensure the availability of 3500 pastoral water points by 2001
Water and sanitation (infrastructure) Carefully rank investment projects to be implemented in the various fields:
Water and sanitation (infrastructure) The priority is to define an institutional and legal framework for clarifying the duties of those involved in waste water, stormwater and solid waste Priorities:

Water and sanitation (infrastructure) Capacity-building in the management of the sanitation subsector by relying on municipal services and promoting sanitation committees
make the necessary investments to ensure water supplies in large towns progressively equip the main secondary towns with drinking water distribution and carry out urban development ensure the availability of safe water no further than 15 minutes away on foot for 50% of the population by 2001
rehabilitate certain parts of large irrigation areas develop small village irrigation areas develop low-lying areas flood-recession crops
stormwater drainage extension of latrines organisation of waste collection and management circuits in the main urban areas national policy in the field of waste disposal and waste water, in order to rank projects
Health Ensure the availability of safe water no further than 15 minutes away on foot for 50% of the population by 2001
Health Halve the number of water-related diseases caused by the consumption of poor-quality water Urban planning Finalise the urban development master plan for NDjamna and define a housing policy and development strategy for town councils (in the short term)
Source: SDEA 2001
84
Sectoral consultation on Rural Devt. 1999-2002 (1999)
Creation of 2000 water Subject not dealt with points in the short term and 10 000 others by 2010
Equipping of grazing areas with 4000 structures by the year 2010 Mark out cattle tracks and migration routes
Increase irrigated areas through scheme creation and rehabilitation
Subject not dealt with
Local management Definition and adoption of a legal and regulatory framework Clairification of prerogatives and fields of competence
Action Plan for the Developmen t of Chad (2001-2010) (2001)
Creation of a further 21 000 water points to cover the countrys drinking water requirements by 2010
Investment to increase water supply rate in large towns Equipping of main secondary towns with drinking water distribution networks
Create 3250 water points in 2003 and 11 500 water points by the year 2010 each producing a yield of 30 m3/day
Rehabilitate certain parts of large irrigation areas Develop small village irrigation areas Develop low-lying areas and extend flood-recession crops
Define a sanitation programme and sanitation master plan Strengthen capacities of town councils and hygiene/sanitation committees Include sanitation issues in all urban planning programmes Make people aware of hygiene measures Organise waste collection and management circuits in main urban areas and study appropriate technology
Involve the population via joint management committees responsible for operating and managing equipment Take into account the impact of hydraulic development works with a view to preserving ecosystems
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2015 (in progress)
Guarantee access to drinking water Water policy project Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management
Guarantee access to drinking water Water policy project Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Sanitation for the urban environment
Extend use of improved latrines Sanitation for the urban environment Water policy project Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management
Water policy project Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management
Source: SDEA 2001
85
1 DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN CHAD

The Geneva IV Round Table of October 1998 marked a turning point in Chadian development policy, enabling the Chadian government to engage its partners in dialogue at the highest level on development policy guidelines and priority sectors. In accordance with the "Revised Orientation Plan to Prepare Chad for the Challenge of the 21st Century Geneva IV", the government undertook to meet the strategic objective of fighting poverty and improving the quality of life of the Chadian people. Therefore, the "Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper" (PRSP) was drawn up so that all the sector strategies implemented in the country since 1998 could be brought together in a consistent and comprehensive manner. The PRSP will encourage the development partners to provide Chad with stronger financial support as a complement to national resources, including those resulting from oil exploitation that started in 2004. In addition, the PRSP is accompanied by the "National Good Governance Strategy" and espouses the goals of the Millennium Declaration. These strive to "halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the worlds people whose income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safe drinking water". The PRSP1 document has an integrated vision of poverty reduction and preparation for the post-oil boom era, and states: "In the social sector, it will be a question of focusing on: expediting and implementing social policies (health, education, social protection), with a view to rapidly extending coverage in basic services, raising the quality of those services, and narrowing current gaps; implementation of specific actions, especially in the areas of nutrition, food security, hygiene, and social protection, geared to improving the lot of the most vulnerable segments of the population. At the political and institutional level, the focus will be on: consolidating the foundations of democracy by completing the establishment of the institutions contemplated in the Constitution; implementing decentralisation; strengthening domestic capabilities in government institutions and among the representatives of civil society. In the economic and financial sphere, efforts will focus on: national skill-building in both the private sector and in government departments dealing directly with economic agents." The PRSP revolves around five principal strategies aiming to generate an overall momentum for poverty reduction in all spheres of the public administration and civil society, while highlighting a nucleus of priority sectors based on the poverty profile and its determinants, namely the health sector, rural development (including water resources and the environment), infrastructure, and the education and training sector. These strategies are: strategy 1: promoting good governance;

Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. NDjamna, June 2003.

1
strategy 2: ensuring strong and sustained economic growth; strategy 3: improving human capital; strategy 4: improving the living conditions of vulnerable groups, and victims of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases (STD); strategy 5: restoring and safeguarding ecosystems.
All the development actions to be undertaken by the different development stakeholders over the next 15 years will be implemented within the framework of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy. This strategy takes account of the international context and, above all, the national context.
89
This chapter of the Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management, in accordance with the above-mentioned strategies and the costed objectives defined by the government, identifies the equipment and the accompanying measures to be implemented between now and 2020. Evaluation of these needs depends mainly on demographic projections and takes account of the assessment-diagnosis carried out in Chapter 1. When compared to investments already planned with the corresponding funding obtained, the SDEA reveals a deficit. The main difficulty in overcoming this deficit remains the poverty of the country and its people. The restrictions to be overcome concern: the mobilisation of internal and external funds;

insufficient human resources to support the programmes; weaknesses in the skills of local private sector companies.
Methodology: after identifying water and equipment requirements up to 2020, the sections below will assess the impact of the developments planned by the SDEA on water resources and the environment, and the impact of financial and capacity constraints. The policy and strategies which will address these constraints will be described in chapter 3, and the corresponding action plan and costings will be studied in chapter 4.
2 EVALUATION OF REQUIREMENTS IN THE DIFFERENT SUBSECTORS 2.1 Village water supply requirements
There is a major requirement for drinking water points in village areas. The requirements are evaluated according to the following criteria: 20 litres of water per day per inhabitant; one hand pump supplies, on average, 400 people; a self-contained unit (solar or thermal) supplies 1600 people and a well supplies 600 people. Projections on village population growth (see table 1) and the number of villages, have been drawn up using data from the 1993 census. In 2000, the drinking water requirements for the total village population were 43.6 million m3; they will rise to 53.6 million m3 in 2010 and 64.65 million m3 in 2020. 2.1.1 Evaluation of drinking water point requirements in 2000 To allow for the populations capacity to pay for the equipment, the number of water points to be constructed and the technical characteristics of the different types of pumping devices that can be installed on the boreholes, the populations have been grouped into one of four classes of village: those with fewer than 150 inhabitants, those with between 150 and 299, those with between 300 and 1200 and those with between 1201 to 2000 inhabitants. Table 15 lists the drinking water point requirements in hand pump (HP) equivalents2 for each class of village in 2000. Table 15: Drinking water point requirements (HP equivalent) in village centres in 2000
Size of village Number of villages Total estimated population Population supplied in 2000 WP needs in HP equivalents
2 HP equivalent: One water point equipped with a hand pump supplies 400 people whereas a village well supplies 600 people. The HP equivalent involves converting the supply capacity of all types of water point to the capacity of a hand pump. Thus, one well corresponds to 1.5 HP equivalent.
Remarks Construction of 2000 covered wells or 2000 auger holes
Fewer than 150 people 150 to 300 people 300 to 1200 people 1200 to 2000 people Total Source: SDEA 2001
16 000 6 187 5 814 483 28 484
694 000 1 373 820 3 166 577 738 833 5 973 132 143 500 710 400 135 600 989 500 5 613 6 334 1 516 13 463
Replacement of 1400 HPs by 350 individual units Rounded up to 13 500 WPs
90
Villages with fewer than 150 inhabitants It is difficult to estimate the number of villages with fewer than 150 inhabitants, because the 1993 census counts communities of between 5 and 10 people as villages. However, these small villages do not meet the standards needed to qualify for financial contributions and the installation of water tanks as required by the institutional donors and by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs in the context of major water supply infrastructure construction projects. It is suggested, therefore, that this class of village be equipped with water points consisting of small diameter closed wells, and/or boreholes drilled by auger, fitted with locally manufactured water pumps. This type of equipment and civil work is justified for all villages with few inhabitants, since the demand for water from the pump and water points would consequently be low. Another solution is to group together certain villages, where these are not too far apart, so that they have the financial means to maintain a borehole type water facility equipped with a hand pump. Considering only the population of this class of village and not taking into account the spatial distribution of the villages, the drinking water supply equipment requirements amount to approximately 2000 sets. Villages with between 150 and 300 inhabitants In theory, this class of village does not meet the current standards governing the allocation of modern drinking water points. However, because 23% of the village population of Chad live in villages like this, it is important for these populations to obtain access to drinking water within the next two decades. The drinking water supply equipment to be installed in these villages consists of boreholes fitted with hand pumps (HP). Because of the relatively low maintenance cost of hand pumps, the local populations are normally able to take responsibility for the management, maintenance and servicing of these water points. This is the essential prerequisite for the provision of water points in each village. in 2000, the equipment required to supply drinking water to all these villages was estimated at 5613 boreholes fitted with hand pumps. Villages with between 300 and 1200 inhabitants The drinking water supply equipment to be installed in this class of village consists mainly of boreholes fitted with hand pumps. Self-contained pumping units can also be envisaged where they would supply villages with more than 1000 inhabitants and where the local population can demonstrate the capacity to pay for this type of equipment. In 2000, the equipment required to serve all populations in this class of village was estimated at 6325 borehole/HP sets. Villages with between 1200 and 2000 inhabitants In view of the technical capacities of hand pumps (one hand pump supplies 400 people) and their construction costs, it is proposed, where the local population has the capacity to pay for these installations, to equip this class of village with self-contained units consisting of a borehole, a solar or thermal pumping station, a water tower and one or two stand-pipes, especially in villages with more than 1500 inhabitants. In 2000, the drinking water supply equipment requirements for this class of village were estimated at 340 self-powered water points or 1516 hand pumps. Figure 13 gives the estimated drinking water point requirements per department in 2000 in hand pump equivalents (one hand pump per 400 people). Moreover, the analysis of the water points to be constructed was based on estimated requirements and takes no account of actual demand. Taking current demand into account, fewer drinking water points would probably need to be constructed.
91
Republic of Chad Figure 13:Village drinking water point requirements (HP equivalents) in the year 2000
Number of HPs
More than 550 451 to 550 351 to 450 300 to 350 Less than 300
92
2.1.2
Evaluation of village drinking water point requirements for 2020
The village population is expected to increase from 5 973 130 inhabitants in 2000 to 8 855 260; in 2020, in other words, approximately 2 882 130 extra inhabitants will need to be supplied by drinking water points. In HP equivalents, this extra village population represents 7200 new water points. However, considering that 15% of the village population would still be living in villages of fewer than 150 inhabitants, the theoretical number of drinking water points to be constructed to satisfy this extra requirement would be approximately 6125 (0.85 x 2 882 130 people = 2 450 000 people/400 people per HP = 6125 drinking water points). Table 16 summarises the drinking water point requirements in HP equivalents for 2020. Table 16: Summary of drinking water points for 2020
Drinking water point equipment scenario Scenario 1: villages with populations of between 300 and 2000 people Scenario 2: villages with populations of between 150 and 2000 people Scenario 3: villages with populations of between 75 and 2000 people Source: SDEA 2001 Drinking WP needs in 2000 (HP equivalents) Drinking WP needs from 2001-2020 (HP equivalents) Total drinking WP needs in 2020 (HP equivalents)
Remarks Rounded up to 12 500
7 850
4 500
12 350
13 500
6 125
19 625
Rounded up to 19 600
15 500
7 800
23 300
Rounded up to 23 500
This table invites the following observations: Scenario 1 corresponds to the standards governing the allocation of drinking water points in 2001, i.e., the construction of a drinking water point in villages with populations of 300 or more. Using this standard, approximately 12 500 drinking water points are to be constructed by 2020 to supply all these villages. This represents approximately 70% of the village population of Chad. In order to meet the Millennium Goal, i.e., 60% of the village population with access to drinking water by 2015, it will be necessary, therefore, to construct 10 300 new water points.
Scenario 2 consists in providing drinking water points in all villages with populations of 150 or more. For this to happen, the 2001 standards for allocation of drinking water points must be modified. According to this adjustment, 19 600 drinking water points must be constructed by 2020 in order to supply 85% of the Chadian village population. Scenario 3 consists in providing drinking water points in all villages with populations of between 75 and 2000 people. This would mean constructing approximately 23 500 drinking water points by 2020. However, the provision of drinking water points in villages with fewer than 150 inhabitants would fall mainly within the remit of NGOs and charitable organisations.
The number of HP equivalent drinking water points can be significantly reduced by installing selfcontained pumping units in villages with 1200 inhabitants or more, and by grouping together certain small, closely located villages. The funds currently obtained (2001) are sufficient to construct at least 7200 boreholes with hand pumps and 207 boreholes with solar or thermal-powered pumping stations during the period 20002008. Provision of these new water points will have a significant effect in increasing the proportion of the village population having access to drinking water. Depending on the scenarios selected for the allocation of new water points by department and by village, the percentage of the population with access to a drinking water point in 2010 will vary between 35% and 55%. This is because, in the event
93
that the various projects are implemented on a large area (departmental) basis, in villages with 150 to 2000 inhabitants, the national percentage of villages with drinking water supplies would only be of the order of 35%. This is because most villages with fewer than 300 inhabitants (generally an average population of fewer than 200 people) will be provided with a water point. Therefore, considering that one hand pump normally supplies 400 people, the HP supply capacity would be halved. On the other hand, by extending the intervention areas of these projects to new departments and by working only in villages with more than 300 inhabitants, the nation-wide proportion of villages supplied with water in 2008 would be of the order of 55%. In this case the pumping equipment, consisting mainly of hand pumps, would be working at maximum capacity. In addition, in order to increase drinking water supplies to village populations in accordance with the principle of national equity defined by the Water Code, scenario 1 is to be preferred for the period 2000-2010, whereas the application of scenario 2 will increase the density of village drinking water points during the period 2011-2020.
The Millennium Goal is to halve the percentage of people without access to drinking water between 2000 and 2015. In the case of rural Chad, this would represent a reduction from 83.4% (in 2000) to 41.7% (in 2015).
3
On the basis of the requirements for drinking water supply equipment mentioned above, 10 300 new drinking water points (HP equivalents) will have to be constructed in villages by 2015 to reach the Millennium Goal3. In view of the funding obtained in 2002, this goal will probably be met. Considering the current rate of capital investment and assuming that it is maintained, the objective set by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs is to guarantee that the proportion of village people with access to drinking water reaches 85% by 2020. This corresponds to the construction and equipping of 19 600 drinking water points (HP equivalents). In 2002, approximately 8000 drinking water points are being constructed or at least have funds available. Therefore, 11 600 remain to be built between 2002 and 2020, an average of 650 new water points per year. Moreover, starting in 2015, it will be necessary to devote part of the capital investment to renewing existing boreholes (about 250 per year).
2.2 Urban and semi-urban water supply requirements

Table 17 presents urban and semi-urban water consumption hypotheses for 2000, 2010 and 2020 in the STEE concessionary sector and the non-concessionary sector. Tableau 17: Specific water consumption hypotheses
Sectors Concess. excl. NDjamna NDjamna Non-concessionary Source: SDEA 2001 2000 45 l/day/inhab. 75 l/day/inhab. 35 l/day/inhab. 2010 75 l/day/inhab. 100 l/day/inhab. 60 l/day/inhab. 2020 100 l/day/inhab. 150 l/day/inhab. 75 l/day/inhab. Remarks Competition between village water points & DWS Consumption including services Competition between village water points & DWS
Based on these hypotheses and assuming that all inhabitants of towns and centres with populations of more than 2000 have access to a drinking water supply (DWS) distribution system, the urban and semi-urban water requirements are estimated at 34.75 million m3 for 2000, rising to 73.2 million m3 in 2010 and 135 million m3 in 2020. Table 18 presents the requirements expressed as water volumes by department and for sites with more than 2000 inhabitants for the period 2000-2020.
94
Table 18: Estimated urban and semi-urban water requirements

2000 Dept. Batha Est Batha Ouest Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Biltine Baguirmi Dababa Hadjer Lamis Gura Kanem Barh El Gazal Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Mont de Lam Mayo Boneye Kabia Mayo Dala Lac Iro Barh Kho Mandoul Assongha Ouadda Sila Salamat Tandjil Est Tandjil Ouest Total NDjamna Grand total Source: SDEA 2001 No. of sites 1 5 1 1 0 6 10 4 18 12 2 1 5 13 8 3 4 16 14 2 9 16 1 5 3 9 7 9 185 1 186 Popul. 14 508 31 118 10 405 3 816 0 23 665 47 793 29 715 64 401 68 073 17 822 19 130 22 345 154 053 48 283 20 208 37 474 48 801 73 758 16 773 113 058 81 444 9 689 75 364 8 065 45 768 35 778 65 809 1 187 116 639 000 1 826 116 75 L/ inhab/d 35 35 45 35 0 35 35 35 35 35 35 35/45 35 35/45 35/45 35 35/45 35/45 35 35 35/45 35 35 35/45 35 35 35 35/45 Needs in 2000 185 340 397 532 170 902 48 749 0 302 320 610 556 379 609 822 723 869 633 227 676 314 210 285 457 2 530 321 793 048 258 157 615 510 801 556 942 258 214 275 1 856 978 1 040 447 123 777 1 237 854 103 030 584 686 457 064 1 080 913 17 254 583 17 492 625 34 747 208 No. of sites 2 6 1 2 0 6 11 5 21 19 2 1 11 27 17 3 8 29 30 5 13 28 2 6 4 13 11 16 299 1 300 Popul. 19 969 43 191 11 034 7 583 0 30 678 72 102 37 545 106 083 106 230 20 262 23 285 39 343 230 309 84 535 23 405 53 293 82 354 147 231 28 693 162 379 129 408 14 494 92 111 11 949 72 879 56 941 97 200 1 804 486 818 600 2 623 086 100 2010 L/ inhab/d 60 60 75 60 0 60 60 60 60 60 60/75 60/75 60 60/75 60/75 60 60/75 60/75 60 60 60 60 60 60/75 60 60 60 60/75 Needs in 2010 437 321 945 883 302 056 166 068 0 671 848 1 579 034 822 236 2 323 218 2 326 437 554 672 637 427 861 612 6 304 709 2 314 146 512 570 1 458 896 2 254 441 3 224 359 628 377 3 556 100 2 834 035 317 419 2 521 539 261 683 1 596 050 1 247 008 2 660 850 43 319 990 29 878 900 73 198 890 No. of sites 2 10 1 4 0 11 13 7 25 27 2 2 13 51 25 3 11 48 56 12 22 46 3 13 5 15 17 28 472 1 473 Popul. 24 529 57 978 11 678 15 381 0 45 580 92 490 47 041 126 757 141 829 21 783 26 618 54 169 343 435 125 606 28 161 63 106 149 406 243 495 54 895 211 698 200 679 19 251 123 143 15 365 93 614 76 711 136 593 2 550 991 1 024 000 3 574 991 150 2020 L/inhab/d 75 75 100 75 0 75 75 75 75 75 75/100 75/100 75 75/100 75/100 75 75/100 75/100 75 75 75 75 75 75/100 75 75 75 75/100 Needs in 2020 671 481 1 587 148 426 247 421 055 0 1 247 753 2 531 914 1 287 747 3 469 973 3 882 569 795 080 971 557 1 482 876 12 535 378 4 584 619 770 907 2 303 369 5 453 319 6 665 676 1 502 751 5 795 233 5 493 588 526 996 4 494 720 420 617 2 562 683 2 099 964 4 985 645 78 970 862 56 064 000 135 034 862
2.2.1 Equipment requirements for the non-concessionary sector The 175 sites in the non-concessionary sector represent a total population of 783 055 inhabitants in 2000, i.e., an average of 4500 individuals par site (see tables 4 and 18). Considering the funding that is being or has been obtained, and the constraints hindering sector development and the urgency of providing these populations with access to drinking water, it is proposed to equip non-concessionary sector towns with mini water supply networks. These would consist of a borehole, a submerged pump, an electricity generator or solar energy station, a water tower and a small-scale distribution
95
network consisting of several stand-pipes. These basic supply units (BSU) can supply populations of between 2000 and 3000 people on average. Depending on investments and the populations ability to pay, some of these BSUs could later be connected together to form a complete water supply network, with connections to individual houses. In 2000, based on this criterion and considering that approximately 200 000 people are already supplied by such systems, 292 basic supply units must be constructed on 175 sites with over 2000 inhabitants (783 055 people (total population) 200 000 people (population supplied) = 583 055 people/2000 people per BSU = 292 BSU). In 2010, 259 BSUs will have to be constructed and, by 2020, 324 new units will have to be fitted. Between 2000 and 2020, the number of sites needing to be equipped with BSUs will rise from 175 to 462. Over the same period, to provide the entire resident population of the non-concessionary sector with drinking water supplies, 875 BSUs spread over 462 sites will have to be constructed. However, considering sites which are currently within the village water supply domain (44) but which will, by 2020, be in the semi-urban water supply domain, and including the BSUs already financed (205) and those already being constructed, the number of BSUs to be installed by 2020 amounts to about 625. In 2000, the average cost of one BSU was FCFA 60 million; to guarantee a drinking water supply for the entire population of the nonconcessionary sector, funding of FCFA 37.5 billion must be found. It should be noted that this evaluation is based on "supply" and not "demand". Moreover, the criterion of 2000 people per "centre" for a BSU to be installed, takes into account economic considerations (investment costs, service costs, maintenance and renewal charges) in relation to the population's capacity to pay, this capacity remaining the main condition for authorising the construction of a BSU in a town. In addition, in order to meet the Millennium Goal, 62% of the non-concessionary sector population must have access to drinking water by 2015, i.e., approximately 975 000 people. In water supply equipment terms, this represents 488 BSUs. Regarding the 2020 target set for the SDEA, the objective is 70% of the non-concessionary population having access to drinking water by 2020, i.e., approximately 1 100 000 people, which will require the construction of 550 BSUs. In view of the funds obtained and the ongoing installation programmes for this type of water point (250 BSUs), these objectives can be met. In 2002, funds still had to be found to construct 238 BSUs, to meet the Millennium Goal, or 300 BSUs to meet the target set for the non-concessionary sector by 2020. 2.2.2 Concessionary sector equipment requirements The STEE concessionary sector includes 11 towns with a total population of 1 043 061 in 2000. According to data obtained from STEE, the drinking water supply rate is, at best, 40% of the population of each town, apart from Faya where the network is currently being rehabilitated. This water supply rate does, however, seem high. Even so, equipment requirements remain extensive. Additionally, within the framework of the STEE long-term capital investment plan, works are planned to rehabilitate, extend, renew and upgrade the water networks in NDjamna and in some other towns. Thus, in the capital, 1000 connections per year are planned as well as the installation of 12 stand-pipes in the same period. In all, this corresponds to almost 10 000 more inhabitants with access to drinking water per year whereas, taking only demographic growth projections into consideration, the population of the town is expected to rise by at least 20 000 inhabitants per year. In STEE centres other than NDjamna, almost the same number of inhabitants will be provided with access to drinking water. The total population of these centres is of the order of 405 000 inhabitants. Population growth in these centres is bound to be slower than in NDjamna; however, a 3% increase represents 12 000 people, which shows that, here again, the efforts made by STEE will not improve the proportion of the population with access to drinking water. These schemes will, at most, maintain the supply rate at the current (2001) rate. However, in 2002, the schemes programmed in the longterm capital investment plan have still not obtained funds.
96
While waiting for the funds and resources (studies, town planning reports, DWS network development plans for each town, etc.), required to extend the different networks and to improve the supply rate, it is proposed to repeat the Water and Service project being implemented in the districts surrounding NDjamna (provided that the experiment is successful) in the other concessionary sector towns. These mini-DWS, each of which can serve an average of 10 000 people in densely populated districts, should be designed so that they can be interconnected once the financial and technical resources become available, thereby providing a complete drinking water supply network in each town of this sector. In 2000, based on a rough calculation, 626 000 people required access to drinking water in the concessionary sector, which represents, theoretically, 63 mini-DWS. Since the estimated installation cost of each mini-DWS is FCFA 250 million, the total funding to be found is FCFA 15.75 billion, which, in theory, would enable the total population of the concessionary sector in 2000 to be served. Between 2000 and 2020, approximately 60 new mini-DWS would need to be installed. In parallel with these actions, it is vital to continue efforts to install complete DWS networks. However, given the current level of knowledge (2001), it is difficult to quantify the capital investment necessary to extend and set up complete drinking water supply networks for the entire concessionary sector in order to increase the current supply rate (40%) to 70% in 2015, and to maintain it and increase it by 2020. To set up mini-DWS, 114 drinking water supply systems of this type would have to be constructed in order for the set objective to be achieved; this new equipment would supply drinking water to approximately 1.14 million people. Funding for these 114 mini-DWS amounts to approximately FCFA 28.5 billion. Table 19 summarises the objectives to be met for the concessionary and non-concessionary sectors by 2020. Table 19: Urban and semi-urban water supply objectives to be met by 2020
Sector Concessionary Non-concess. Total Source: SDEA 2001 Population 2000 1 043 061 783 055 1 826 116 % access 40 26 Population supplied 417 225 204 000 621 225 Population 2020 1 625 900 1 949 091 3 574 991 Access % to be reached 70 70 Population to be supplied 1 140 000 1 365 000 2 505 000
2.3 Sanitation requirements

2.3.1 Sanitation requirements in rural areas The great majority of Chadian households in rural areas do not have toilets, and systems for disposing of excreta, solid waste and wastewater are almost non-existent. As a consequence, 10.6% of households use a rudimentary latrine, 0.6% use a ventilated and improved pit latrine and 88.5% of households relieve themselves in the open. Moreover, there are no waste collection services in the villages and domestic animals roam free. Finally, between 65% and 70% of rural households consume water from traditional wells and only 17% of the rural population has access to a drinking water point. Other than those funded by UNICEF, there are few projects being implemented in the field of rural sanitation. Most of the large infrastructural water projects include population awareness-raising and education campaigns relating to water/hygiene/health issues. But these efforts do not result in concrete improvements in population behaviour since they make little or no connection between the illnesses which afflict them, and their drinking water, sewage removal and waste disposal methods. Moreover, none of these projects plays a role in the construction of latrines and in the implementation of measures and infrastructure which could improve the sanitary environment in rural communities. Basic infrastructure development requirements are substantial in village areas and everything remains to be done.
97
In view of the immensity of these needs, it is proposed to associate each village water supply project with a sanitation aspect which, in addition to environmental health education, will consist in fitting out basic sanitary infrastructure such as ventilated improved pit latrines for families, ventilated improved double pit latrines for schools and health centres, soakaways for wastewater disposal, etc. In order to integrate the sanitation aspect with that of water supply, the basic sanitary equipment could possibly be considered as the villagers contribution in return for the development of drinking water points in their village. As an indication and in order to evaluate approximately the basic sanitary infrastructure requirements in rural areas, it is assumed that each household has a ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine; therefore, there would be approximately 1 million VIP latrines to be built in Chadian villages. At a basic unit price of FCFA 25 000, investments would amount to FCFA 25 billion. 2.3.2 Sanitation requirements in urban and semi-urban environments Although knowledge of this field is localised and incomplete, it can be asserted that, in 2000, the entire urban and semi-urban population requires modern, conventional urban and semi-urban sanitation. Collection and treatment of domestic wastewater Collection and treatment of wastewater remains to be established in all urban and semi-urban areas. The average cost per linear metre of sewerage pipes is much higher than that of drinking water pipes: this cost ratio can be 10 to 1. With this hypothesis, the cost of a sewerage network, including installation, varies between FCFA 320 000 and 420 000 per metre. To give a simple idea of the funds needed, equipping only the four largest towns (2020 population) could reach almost FCFA 36 billion. Therefore, realistically, self-contained sanitation will have to remain policy for the coming years, to be fitted systematically where space permits in the concessionary sector. Where this is not possible, as is the case in many densely populated suburban areas, this type of sanitation would be fitted on public sites. Furthermore, the current situation is not satisfactory for groundwater, which is known to be overexploited by the same users. Improvements will be achieved: for excreta (fecal matter and urine), through the general use of modern sealed, ventilated and improved double pit latrines (which, under normal circumstances, only produce dry, hygienic matter which is easily disposed of);
for domestic wastewater, through the general use of systems to remove stored materials into sealed pits and no longer into cess pits; as a priority, through the provision of a communal sanitary outlet for all these materials. As always in this regard, the organisation of the removal of these materials must be considered from the outset.
This should significantly improve the current situation in the towns. Collection of solid waste It is of the utmost urgency to start by assigning a suburban area to be used for managed solid waste dumping. It is completely illusory to think that sustainable cleanliness in towns or public health in urban centres could be achieved without first having a clearly defined and easily accessible waste outlet. Whereas efforts with regard to stormwater drainage studies have started to bear fruit, no study on solid waste treatment has been identified. Field surveys of the main towns, especially NDjamna, report the concerns of municipal leaders. The technical services of the capital have taken steps to rationalise waste collection and the recovery of all items that are easy to sort.
98
In nearly every case, the inhabitants in the end use "transfer stations" which are basically waste dumps located within the inhabited area. Since it is not systematically removed, the waste stagnates. The chain of measures put in place to protect public health is broken at the worst point, from a health point of view, when waste gathers in town centres. It is, therefore, a question of finding resources not just for removing the waste regularly but also for transferring it to a recognised and appropriate site sufficiently close to each town to be accessible (perhaps even by animal transport) and of sufficient area to allow the material to be spread out rather than piled up, a solution which, moreover, presents technical difficulties. In terms of requirements, there were approximately 200 towns and population centres with more than 2000 inhabitants in Chad in 2000. On this basis and according to the size of these centres, suitable studies need to be carried out to identify 200 managed solid waste dumping sites. Following these studies, the sites will have to be developed and solid waste collection organised. It is clear that the problem of solid waste disposal is much more complex in the larger Chadian towns than in the secondary centres with populations of between 3000 and 4000 people. Stormwater collection and disposal This is the highest-priority water-related issue for the inhabitants of the main towns, and represents the major part of the work to be done in the years to come. This is an aspect which represents considerable investment and, for the most part, is beyond the reach of local authorities. Nothing effective can be achieved without starting with the downstream equipment, which is the most costly and most complex. In particular, this requires that the ground surface be mapped and levelled. These schemes are not possible without regional coordination. It is suggested that, for stormwater collection, priority for capital investment should be placed on the primary main drains and on flood relief basins; priority must be given to this infrastructure in order to take maximum advantage of natural flow channels. Furthermore, there are no primary or secondary stormwater drainage networks. The tertiary network in operation is underdeveloped and seems to have been built without overall planning. However, it appears that creating more drainage channels is not a realistic solution because firstly, most of the annual rain falls in downpours over only about two months of the year and, secondly, the local population throws waste into the channels, which become blocked once the rainy season starts. In this context, the most appropriate solution seems to be to make best use of the existing natural flow channels. In towns, roads themselves can serve as stormwater drains; they must merely be levelled to prevent the accumulation of standing water. The investment required is relatively low and the primary drainage networks can thus be constructed in the low points. The cost of installing drainage channels across NDjamna to provide drainage for the town has been roughly estimated at FCFA 7 billion per 100 000 inhabitants. This estimate is based on the following calculation: there is, on average, one road per hectare and since one hectare is a square of 100 m side length and since the road crossing it will be 100 m long, then 100 m of drainage channel needs to be constructed per hectare. At FCFA 100 000/m, this represents a cost of FCFA 10 million/ha. In addition, since the population is of the order of 150 inhabitants per hectare, around 700 hectares would need to be drained for a population of 100 000 inhabitants. 2.3.3 Sanitation requirements in industrial areas The few industries in Chad are concentrated in NDjamna, Moundou and Sarh. Little is known about the volumes and chemical content of the wastewater discharged by these industries. However, the vast majority of these industries discharge their wastewater into watercourses (Chari and Logone in particular) without pre-treatment. In view of this data shortage, it is not possible to make an exhaustive inventory nor evaluate the requirements, except to say that everything remains to be done. All industrial wastewater has different properties; it can be difficult to establish the appropriate treatment methods beforehand.
99
Moreover, there is no national legislation covering the type and composition of industrial emissions. A first step to be taken is to draw up national standards relating to the composition of industrial effluent and wastewater and to implement control and monitoring procedures. In addition, each industry could be required to produce a periodic report on the characteristics of its emissions. Initially, efforts must be made to mobilise public funds to draw up standards. Industries must then subsequently comply with these standards by installing appropriate treatment equipment, at their own cost.
2.4 Pastoral water supply requirements

2.4.1 Assessment of pastoral water supply requirements The assessment of pastoral water supply requirements is based on the current Chadian livestock numbers expressed as tropical livestock units (TLUs). Each TLU corresponds to 30 litres of water per day. On this basis, table 20 assesses the pastoral water supply requirements for the period 2000 to 2020. Table 20: Assessment of pastoral water supply requirement per geoclimatic zone
2000 Geoclimatic zone Saharan Sahelian Sudanian Total Source: SDEA 2001 TLU 1 044 610 12 271 104 2 748 516 16 064 230 Needs m3/year 11 438 475 134 368 592 30 096 252 175 903 320 TLU 1 400 563 15 869 346 3 482 850 20 752 759 2010 Needs m3/year 15 336 165 173 769 341 38 137 204 227 242 711 TLU 1 906 308 21 362 895 4 758 992 28 028 194 2020 Needs m3/year 20 874 069 233 923 697 52 110 958 306 908 724
It may be deduced from this table that pastoral water supply requirements in 2000 were 176 million m3/year ; these requirements will rise to 227 million m3/year in 2010 and 307 million m3/year in 2020. It should be remembered that these water volume estimates are based on the high-end hypothesis of livestock numbers expressed as TLUs and that these estimated requirements, especially for 2020, do not into take account the carrying capacities of the pastoral land which must be evaluated before then, as must livestock numbers. Therefore these water supply requirements are probably overestimates; however, as a precaution, they will be retained for the remainder of this document. Moreover, of this estimated water volume, approximately 57 million m3 (33%) is derived from surface water and 119 million m3 (67%) is abstracted from groundwater sources. 2.4.2 Assessment of pastoral water point requirements A lack of basic data, such as livestock numbers, pastoral resources, and the location and operation of pastoral water points (especially those exploiting surface water and traditional wells), makes it impossible to estimate the current and future requirements for pastoral water supply equipment with a minimum degree of reliability. In order to overcome this major difficulty, the methodology implemented in assessing water point requirements consists in defining a hexagonal reference grid centred on the existing, georeferenced wells. The ponds with basic facilities developed in eastern Chad have also been marked on these maps (see figures 14, 15 and 16). However, in the following pages, when reference is made to pastoral water points, this refers first and foremost to wells since they guarantee access to water at all times, which cannot be said for ponds, which only provide water for cattle for a few months of the year, .
100
Republic of Chad Figure 14: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements Saharan zone
Legend 25 km grid around the existing pastoral water points 100 km grid
Protected area Developed ponds 25 km buffer zone around lines to be equipped
Sources:
Water Office Data Base (Wells) Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas) DPFPN/MEE
101
Republic of Chad Figure 15: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements Sahelian zone
Legend
25 km grid Normal Lake Chad before 1973 Lake Chad Petit Tchad 1999 Influence zone of pastoral wells Flood-prone areas Protected areas Developed ponds Main roads
Sources: Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA
SDEA, April 2001 from the Water Office Data Base (Wells) Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas) DPFPN/MEE
102
Republic of Chad Figure 16: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements Sudanian zone
Legend
25 km grid Influence zone of pastoral wells Flood-prone areas Protected areas Developed ponds Protected areas Natural forest
Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA Sources: SDEA, April 2001 from the Water Office Data Base (Wells) Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas) DPFPN/MEE
Main roads
103
For the Sahelian and Sudanian zones, each hexagon is drawn inside a 25 km diameter circle. Assuming that the entire territory has this density of pastoral water points, each person would be placed less than 12.5 km from a pastoral water point. At the moment, this reference grid is only useful for forecasting and development, with the accuracy depending on the unit size of the hexagonal grid. This enables: grids and areas devoid of pastoral water points to be precisely located, and priority status to be established for schemes in the medium and long-term perspectives;
grids and, therefore, sectors to be pinpointed that have sufficient water point provision and do not require specific, immediate schemes; water point locations to be determined along the migration moukhals and trade routes to be adequately evaluated; in relation to existing or future water supply structures, local stakeholders to be grouped according to the structures which concern them; these stakeholders will eventually become managers and coordinators of actions taken within the context of agro-pastoral activities based on wells.
It is appropriate to stress that, for the entire Saharan zone, the grid adopted includes larger mesh sizes since, at these latitudes, the hexagons are located in circles 100 km in diameter which, still from the perspective of a network of fully installed pastoral water points, would place all potential users less than 50 km from a pastoral water point. This density of water points governing access to fodder resources has been used for the following reasons: many stockbreeders do not live all year in the BET;

in northern Chad, only camels and goats, requiring less frequent watering, are raised; there are no pasture maps for the Saharan zone and, as a consequence, few data on the potentially available carrying capacity.
Therefore, from the sustainable development perspective, it is felt that an excessive density of wells should not be proposed, otherwise too many herds would be attracted. By standing on the land all year round, the livestock could cause irreversible erosion of the pasture which does not necessarily grow again if there is no rainfall. This being the case, it should be noted that, in view of the low cattle numbers in these regions, once all the water points are located using the 100 km spacing, there will still be time, after consultation and a detailed survey of the pastoral load carrying capacity of the Saharan region carried out by the national agrostology department, to consider whether it is appropriate to reduce the reference grid unit size in this zone down to 50 km or less. While the necessary mapping and inventory work is being carried out, a development reference frame based on a regularly spaced grid of water points offers numerous advantages, including in particular: compatibility with the custom of locating water points by a system of sexagesimal coordinates as practised by the water supply and agrostology departments;
the ability to integrate with a geographical information system (GIS) or database without significant modification of the data entry fields; to list and group together similar sets of grids able to accommodate particular schemes, corresponding to the detailed phases of the development actions; to plan the various actions to be managed starting from previous typologies, according either to time or to the level of equipment to be installed in the geographical sectors identified; to be used as a geographical reference frame for associations and/or local stakeholder associations responsible for the durability of the water supply structures, their operation and their management in easily delimited environmental sectors. All groups are fully aware of the water point locations which, unlike the uncertain and/or contested cantonal boundaries, constitute indisputable markers of position, the neighbourhoods that they enclose and the understandings that they suggest;
104
to provide donors and decision-makers as well as institutions, technical departments and grassroots associations with the same working framework, on the scales being used, in order to plan, choose, decide on and set down a regulatory framework for regional development based on an accurate grid provided by the water point network.
Saharan zone Applying the calculation method defined for the Saharan zone, i.e., a grid of pastoral water points initially 100 km apart, the number of water supply structures to be built is estimated at 150 pastoral water points based on wells or boreholes fitted with appropriate pumping equipment. Sahelian zone Applying the calculation method defined for the Sahelian zone, i.e., a grid of pastoral water points initially 25 km apart, the number of water supply structures to be built is 465. However, as a second stage and after conducting the appropriate studies, applying a grid with 12 km between each water point (a distance of 6 km between each well), the number of water supply structures to be built would be 1860. The water points to be constructed are wells or boreholes fitted with appropriate pumping equipment. Ponds with basic facilities can also be created, especially in sectors where hydrogeological and hydrological studies and the implementation of the latest technical resources have demonstrated a low potential for groundwater resources. Sudanian zone As figure 16 shows, the modern wells are concentrated in the western Sudanian zone and over 85% of these wells are used in villages. Applying a unit grid size of 25 km between wells, there would be 535 pastoral water supply structures to be built. Reducing this grid size to 12 km, the number of structures required would rise to 2140. It must be remembered that these numbers are given as an indication only and that they take no account of the current soil and land use, normally agriculture and cotton growing. The number of pastoral water points to be constructed in this zone as well as the type of structure (pastoral stations, wells, connections to water points several kilometres from the existing DWS network, etc) must be the subject of discussion or negotiation and must be part of the more general regional development framework. It should also be remembered that the western part of the Sudanian zone is the sector where oil exploitation is developing. Summary of pastoral water point requirements Table 21 summarises the number of pastoral water points (wells) to be constructed, based on a 25 km grid, with 12 km between water points for the Sudanian and Sahelian zones and a 100 km grid for the Saharan zone. Table 21: Estimated number of pastoral water points to be installed
Grid 100 km 25 km 12 km Source: SDEA 2001 Saharan zone 150 0 0 Sahelian zone 0 465 1 860 Sudanian zone 0 535 2 140 Total 150 1 000 4 000
This table shows that 1150 pastoral wells (1000 in the Sudanian and Sahelian zones and 150 in the Saharan zone) would need to be installed, based on a 25 km grid, and 4150 water supply structures would be built, based on a 12 km distance between each water point. However, considering the current land use intended for agriculture in the Sudanian zone, the number of pastoral water points to be constructed would most likely be between 3000 and 3500.
105
2.5 Agricultural water supply requirements

2.5.1 Changes in food needs Table 22 summarises cereal, fruit and vegetable production by geoclimatic zone in 2001. The data in the table were extracted from various reports concerning agriculture in Chad. Tableau 22: Estimated production in 2001
Cereals Geoclimatic zone Saharan Sahelian Sudanian Total Source: SDEA 2001 Vegetables Fruit
Total Irrigated Total Irrigated Total Irrigated production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t) 300 240 000 570 000 810 300 300 46 000 85 000 131 300 1 000 71 500 100 000 172 500 1 000 71 500 100 000 172 500 15 000 15 000 25 000 55 000 15 000 5 000 7 500 27 500
Table 23 summarises the estimated change in consumption of cereals, fruit and vegetables by geoclimatic zone between 2000 and 2020. Table 23: Estimated change in consumption per inhabitant between 2000 and 2020
Geoclimatic zone Cereals (kg/inhabitant/year) 2000 Saharan Sahelian Sudanian Source: SDEA 2001 100 229 166 2010 110 220 160 2020 130 200 150 Vegetables (kg/inhabitant/year) 2000 27 24 24 2010 10 25 25 2020 20 30 30 Fruit (kg/inhabitant/year) 2000 5 4 6 2010 7 5 7 2020 12 10 12 9 9 10 10 12 12 Sugar (kg/inhabitant/year) 2000 2010 2020
Table 2 shows the population per geoclimatic zone. Based on the assumed consumption figures given in table 23 coupled with demographic changes, the requirements for various food products are presented in table 24. Table 24: Estimate of requirements for various food products between 2000 and 2020
Geoclimatic zone Saharan Sahelian Sudanian NDjamna Total Cereals (t/year) 2000 21 950 617 100 705 000 146 350 2010 30 400 748 700 873 500 180 000 2020 44 000 837 900 Vegetables (t/year) 2000 1 500 64 700 2010 2 775 85 000 136 500 20 500 244 775 2020 6 760 125 700 206 300 30 720 369 480 2000 1 100 10 800 25 475 2 500 39 875 Fruit (t/year) 2010 1 950 17 000 38 200 4 100 2020 4 050 41 900 24 250 82 500 38 200 10 250 5 750 34 000 54 600 8 200 96 800 50 300 82 500 12 300 145 100 2000 Sugar (t/year) 2010 2020
1 100 000 101 900 204 800 15 300
1 490 400 1 832 600
2 186 700 183 400
61 250 138 700 68 200
Source: SDEA 2001
Moreover, by comparing production in 2000 with the estimated requirements and their change over time, it can be seen that: the increased demand for fruit and vegetables is not an insurmountable problem; the increase in irrigated land area and enhancement of operator technical skills, on one hand, and the improvement in the downstream segment of the activity and road quality, on the other, should suffice to achieve this;
106
however, satisfying the growth in basic cereal requirements of over 600 000 tonnes in 2000 and over 1.3 million tonnes by 2020 from local production might cause a problem. This can be avoided only if priority is placed on developing flood-recession farming, systematically developing lowland areas, implementing an ambitious programme to develop mountain catchment areas and increasing productivity. Another potential solution lies in the intensification of rain-fed cash crops (cotton, peanuts, sesame) or irrigated crops (sugar cane), the profits made being used on international markets to counter the shortfall in cereals. But there are good reasons to think that the overall solution would consist of a combination of these different possibilities.
The particular situation of the Saharan populations means that the potential rise in their food needs will have to be treated separately, the solution depending largely on irrigation, especially for protein foods (meat and milk) and carbohydrate foods (dates), which is not the case in other regions. The rise in requirements for these three foods is presented in table 25 with reference to the standards proposed above. Table 25: Predicted rise in the consumption of dates, milk and meat in the Saharan zone (values given in tonnes)
Product Dates Meat Milk Source: SDEA 2001 2000 13 934 2 754 2 135 2010 16 820 3 533 2 776 2020 18 377 4 453 3 498
Date production is currently sufficient to provide for the food requirements of the Saharan populations, except in years of shortage. There is frequently a surplus of several thousand tonnes in Borkou. In the medium and long term, the moderate rise in demand should not pose any problems. However, a solution must be found at all costs to a fundamental problem: future funding for the purchase of cereals, which has always depended on the sale (or barter) of date surpluses. There is the same concern for protein food. By 2020, demand for meat will have risen by 1700 tonnes and for milk by about 1400 tonnes. However, increasing the areas of irrigated land would have only a marginal effect on providing these extra food requirements, since the proportion devoted to fodder crops would feed only a limited number of goats for an annual production of a few hundred tonnes of meat and milk, provided that a programme of stock-rearing improvement were initiated in parallel with an agricultural sector development programme. 2.5.2 Agricultural water and equipment requirements In agriculture, water requirements cannot be considered in the same way as drinking water requirements. This is because there are no limits to unit requirements as is the case with human consumption (a few dozen litres per day). In theory and up to a certain point, the higher the volume of water mobilised, the higher the tonnages produced, thereby making it possible either to improve food security or to develop cash crops. On the other hand, considering the prices at which agricultural products can be sold, the cost of mobilising water resources is a fundamental parameter of the water resource access development strategy. The agricultural water issue cannot be separated from the agriculture issue itself or, more precisely, from the returns from agricultural investment. Therefore, despite wide variations in rain-fed agricultural production from one year to the next, the average annual growth rate of cereal production over the last 20 years has been about 2%. This rate is 0.5% per year less than the annual population growth rate, estimated at 2.5%; some recent studies even report a 3% annual population growth rate. Cereal production in 2000 barely covers 56% of the requirements, estimated at around 1.5 million tonnes. By 2020, this requirement for cereals will have risen to approximately 2.2 million tonnes. Increasing productivity and crop yields, developing new irrigation schemes and training operators are all essential if the current coverage (56%) of the populations cereals requirements is to be maintained and increased.
107
Based on the assessment-diagnosis and considering the major constraints on agricultural development in Chad, it is proposed that an objective be set to develop 100 000 hectares of land, irrespective of irrigation type, by 2020. This corresponds to the development of 5000 new hectares per year. Based on the hypothesis above, agricultural water requirements by 2020 are estimated by considering the irrigation of 100 000 new hectares at the rate of 15 000 m3/ha/year, equivalent to 1.5 billion m3 of water. To this volume of water an extra 600 million m3 must be added for other schemes, giving a total volume of 2100 million m3 of agricultural water by 2020. This corresponds to an increase of approximately 108% over the volume used in the sector in 2000. Agricultural water requirements estimated according to this hypothesis are considered to be high. Estimates of changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020 according to the hypothesis above are shown in Table 26. Table 26: Changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020
2000 Climatic zone Saharan Sahelian Sudanian Total Source: SDEA 2001 117 683 800 Surface water (million m3) Groundwater (million m3) 127 63 20 210 Total (million m3) 127 180 703 1010 Surface water (million m3) 6 319 1402 1727 2020 Groundwater (million m3) 204 81 88 373 Total (million m3) 210 400 1490 2100 % increase 65.35 122.22 111.95 107.92
By 2020, over 80% of agricultural water will be provided by surface water. It should be stressed, however, that depending on whether or not surface water exists in sufficient quantities, as well as the cost of constructing and operating these schemes, groundwater can be used to make a significant contribution, especially in the Sudanian zone where there are large aquifers.
3 BALANCE BETWEEN WATER REQUIREMENTS AND RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE SDEA 3.1 Constraints arising from mobilisation of water resources
3.1.1 Surface water The main constraints arising from surface water resource mobilisation are: Strong pressure on endoreic basins: this particular situation demands a different approach to water management and use. All abstraction from river basins has an impact downstream in other parts of the country, sometimes also affecting other countries surrounding the Conventional Lake Chad Basin. The sustainability of the lakes depends on how upstream water is managed. All polluting or toxic substances likely to be carried by the water eventually end up in the low points of the different river basins (Lake Chad, Lake Fitri) and the Ennedi wadi basins. Therefore, these low points collect and concentrate waste resulting from human activities. Qualitative and quantitative water management must be conducted in parallel. Climatic constraint: evaporation plays a dominant part in the overall surface water balance. Losses through evaporation are compensated for by rainfall. Due to the currently observed global warming, evaporation could increase, whereas rainfall could in future become less frequent. In the medium term, as far as agriculture is concerned, this climate change would limit rain-fed crop growing and increase risks of land erosion. As regards surface hydrology, more very low flow levels and shorter periods of river flooding are predicted.
108
International constraint: the natural scale used for surface water management is that of the catchment area. Numerous aquatic systems cross Chadian borders, requiring concerted management by the countries which share these water basins. A number of agreements have been signed for this purpose. To a certain extent, they restrict the degree of freedom for the countries managing these resources. Economic constraint: in general, the high cost of implementing the various types of scheme which aim to control or exploit surface water resources, can constitute a major constraint. 3.1.2 Groundwater Ignorance of the main relationships between different aquifer systems, on one hand, and the relationships between aquifers and rainfall, on the other, certainly restricts the mobilisation of groundwater. In addition, the lack of monitoring data at national level on the exploitation of aquifers shared with other countries represents a constraint on sustainable resource manageability. However, considering that groundwater resources exist throughout Chad, apart from a few sectors, the main constraints governing their mobilisation are technical (depth, flow rate, success/failure rate), qualitative and economic. After processing existing data, the average depths and specific discharges expected from building water abstraction facilities are presented in Figures 17 and 18, by aquifer and by sector. Figure 17 shows that the static water level is between 10 m and 35 m below ground in most large hydrogeological units. There is, however, a marked reduction (over 60 m) in the North Continental Terminal and the West Pleistocene in the centre of the country (north of the town of Ati), in the departments of Dababa, Batha Ouest and Batha Est. Another reduction in the static level can also be seen in the North, in the Nubian sandstone. Interpolation of the specific borehole discharges (figure 18) reveals that specific discharges greater than 5 m3/h/m are obtained in the Ogolian Sands, West Pleistocene and South Continental Terminal. Low specific discharges are obtained in the southern part (Mongo town) of the Eastern Basement (less than 1 m3/h/m) and in the South-west basement zones and in the volcanic areas of Tibesti. The boreholes drilled in the North Continental Terminal and in part of the Paleozoic Sandstones have specific discharges of between 1 and 5 m3/h/m. The aquifer water quality is generally good (see figures 19 and 20). The exception is a sector which lies in an arc east of the Ogolian Sands, where conductivity is below 2000 micro-Siemens/cm, thereby meeting the WHO drinkability standard. Figure 20 also shows that the pH value lies between 5 and 8.5. Acidic water is encountered in southernmost Chad, the eastern centre and towards the north of the country. The aquifer water of the Eastern Basement and the Pleistocene generally has pH values between 6.5 and 7.5. Figures 21 and 22 link the technical characteristics of the water abstraction structures to economic aspects. The map showing accessibility to groundwater through boreholes was drawn using the borehole depths divided by the success rate for each sector. This map shows that the sectors in the eastern centre (the East Modji and North Continental Terminal sector) and some sectors of the Eastern Basement correspond to zones which are unsuitable for groundwater abstraction. The boreholes are too deep and/or the failure rate is high, making water abstraction more expensive. However, it should be noted that the abstraction of groundwater via boreholes from the aquifers of the Plio-Quaternary and the South Continental Terminal can, in general, be described as moderately favourable to favourable. The groundwater exploitability map was drawn using the ratio of the average specific discharge of each water supply structure to the depth of the static water level. In this way, the exploitability of the aquifers may be defined in terms of pumping costs and productivity. From this figure it can be concluded that, with the exception of the basement and North Continental Terminal zones and the western Paleozoic Sandstones, the exploitability of the large hydrogeological units is described as favourable to very favourable.
109
Republic of Chad Figure 17: Interpolation of static level depth

Depth (m)
Republic of Chad Figure 18: Specific discharge interpolation

Specific discharge (m3/h/m)
100 60 30 10 0 Insufficient data
More than 30 30 10 5 1 Less than 1 Insufficient data
110 110
INTEGRATED INTEGRATEDPLAN PLANFOR FORCHADS CHADSWATER WATERDEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENTAND ANDMANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT MAIN MAINDOCUMENT DOCUMENTJUNE JUNE2003 2003 HCNE HCNE MEE MEE UNDESA UNDESA UNDP UNDP
Republic of Chad Figure 19: Conductivity interpolation

Micro-Siemens/cm)
Republic of Chad Figure 20: pH interpolation

pH
More than 3000 3000 2000 1000 500 Less than 500 Insufficient data
9 8 7 6 5 Insufficient data
INTEGRATED INTEGRATED PLAN PLAN FOR FOR CHADS CHADSWATER WATER DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT AND AND MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT MAIN MAIN DOCUMENT DOCUMENT JUNE JUNE 2003 2003 HCNE HCNE MEE MEE UNDESA UNDESA UNDP UNDP
111
Republic of Chad Figure 21: Groundwater accessibility by borehole

Accessibility
Republic of Chad Figure 22: Groundwater exploitability

Exploitability
Very unfavourable Unfavourable Average Favourable Very favourable Insufficient data
Very favourable Favourable Average Unfavourable Very unfavourable Insufficient data
Accessibility = Depth of drilling/Success rate Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding and technical support of UNDESA
Exploitability = Specific discharge/Depth of static level
112
3.2 Summary of water resources by large climatic zone

Figure 23 presents a summary of water resources in terms of estimated requirements for 2000 and 2020 by large climatic zone. This figure makes a distinction between groundwater resources and surface water resources in addition to the various uses and functions of the water. In addition,Table 27 presents, for each large climatic zone, an estimation of the potential water resources (both surface and groundwater) and an estimate of the increase in requirements to satisfy the different water uses throughout the period 2000 to 2020. Additionally, Figure 24 illustrates all the Chadian water resources. These issues are discussed below. Saharan zone Few data exist on surface water; its potential, estimated at 300 million m3, needs to be studied in detail. In 2000, this resource was used mainly to satisfy pastoral water requirements, estimated at approximately 1 million m3, which represents approximately 0.3% of the estimated potential surface water resources. In 2020, provided that surface water studies have been carried out and better knowledge of their potential is available, surface water abstraction should be approximately 8 million m3, or around 2.7% of the estimated resources; this abstraction would be used mainly to satisfy agricultural water requirements. Groundwater is drawn from reserves estimated at more than 100 billion m3; there are no renewable resources. In 2000, abstraction from this resource (139 million m3) was mainly used to satisfy agricultural water requirements, estimated at 127 million m3, whereas drinking water requirements are of the order of only 1.7 million m3. Only about 0.14% of the potential groundwater resources was exploited in 2000. According to projected requirements for 2020, only about 0.25% of these reserves will have been tapped. Nonetheless, it should be noted that their mobilisation or availability might occasionally pose certain problems, especially in the aquifers of the Tibesti volcanic basement. Water requirements, all uses combined, were estimated at about 140 million m3 in 2000, of which 139 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater and 1 million m3 abstracted from surface water, representing just over 0.14% of the potential estimated water resources (ground- and surface water). In 2020, water requirements are estimated at 233.5 million m3, or approximately 0.25% of estimated resources. Sahelian zone The surface water of the Sahelian zone must also be studied in order to determine more accurately its actual potential, estimated at 4 billion m3. Abstraction from this resource in 2000 was estimated at over 153.6 million m3, of which 117 million m3 (76%) fulfilled agricultural water requirements. In addition to its normal use, surface water in the Sahelian zone has an important role: biodiversity conservation. In 2020, to meet the total requirements, surface water abstraction will be of the order of 406 million m3, i.e., 10.1% of the estimated resources. In general, groundwater in the Sahelian zone is abstracted directly from the renewable resources estimated at over 8 billion m3. In 2000, water abstraction from this resource was estimated at approximately 200 million m3, or approximately 2.5% of the annually renewable resources, of which 98 million m3 was to fulfil pastoral water requirements. In 2020, water abstraction is estimated at over 330 million m3, or approximately 4.1% of the renewable groundwater resources. Adding renewable and non-renewable resources, the groundwater potential in the Sahelian zone is 90 billion m3; water abstraction in 2020 represents only 0.36% of this potential. Water requirements, all uses combined, were estimated at 353 million m3 in 2000 of which a little over 199 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater sources. This abstraction corresponds to approximately 3% of the estimated potential renewable water resources in the Sahelian zone. In 2020, water requirements are estimated at a little over 736 million m3 of which 406 million m3 will be abstracted from surface water. These abstractions will tap a little over 6% of the estimated potential renewable water resources (ground- and surface water) of this zone.
113
Table 27: Summary of water resources and estimated abstraction by use

2000 Estimated resources (billion m3) Surface water: 0.30? (potential to be studied) Groundwater Renewable: 0 Reserve: 100 Groundwater (m3) 1 493 195 127 000 10 498 879 700 000 326 0 Surface water (m3) 0 0 940 149 0 940 149 300 300 117 000 36 074 000 000 000 465 0
Zone Saharan zone
Subsector Village water supply Urban water supply Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Industrial water supply Total
139 187 905 15 22 63 98 243 062 000 294 700 247 495 000 127 000
Sahelian zone
Surface water: 4.0? (potential to be studied) Groundwater Renewable: 8 Reserve: 82
Village water supply Urban water supply Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Industrial water supply Total
199 299 869 26 12 20 10 866 489 000 130 626 738 013 000 840 000
153 674 465 700 700 683 000 19 965 2 000 000 000 000 412 000
Sudanian zone
Surface water: 22.4 Groundwater Renewable:11.2 Reserve: 82
Village water supply Urban water supply Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Industrial water supply Total
70 112 591 408 600 365
706 365 412 860 980 026 1 1 800 56 2 000 000 000 980 000 000 000 000 026 000
Total National total abstraction by subsector Surface water: 26.7 Groundwater Renewable: 19.20 Reserve: 264 Village water supply Urban water supply Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Industrial water supply
43 34 210 118 1
603 747 000 923 326
864 208 000 293 000
Source: SDEA 2001 Note: estimates of the percentage of total groundwater abstraction in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones are calculated on the basis of renewable resources whereas, for the Saharan zone, the percentage is calculated on the basis of non-renewable resources (reserves).
Sudanian zone Water resources in this zone are the most understood. Here, the median surface water flow rate for the period 1972-2002 is 22.4 billion m3 per year, with an absolute minimum of 6.7 billion m3 which occurred in 1984-1985. Surface water resources are relatively plentiful in this zone; they are used mainly to satisfy agricultural water requirements (683 million m3) and, to a lesser extent, pastoral and industrial water requirements, estimated (in 2000) at 20 million m3/year and 2 million m3/year respectively. In 2000, total surface water abstraction in the Sudanian zone was estimated at over 706 million m3, which corresponds to 3% of estimated resources. Water abstraction envisaged for 2020 is estimated at 1.4 billion m3, or 6.5% of the resources. Moreover, the surface water resources in the Sudanian zone also have a role in conserving and sustaining biodiversity which is difficult to quantify. As far as groundwater is concerned, renewable resources are estimated at 11.2 billion m3/year and the reserves at 82 billion m3. In 2000, water abstraction from this resource was estimated at 70 million m3 (0.6% of the renewable resources); this will reach 206 million m3 by 2020, or 1.8% of the renewable resources. Water requirements for the Sudanian zone, all uses combined, were estimated at 776.5 million m3 in 2000, of which a little over 70 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater sources. In 2020, water requirements are estimated at slightly over 1.6 billion m3, 1.4 billion m3 of which would be abstracted from surface water to be used mainly to satisfy agricultural water requirements. This abstraction of surface and groundwater corresponds to 4.7% of the potential renewable water resources in this zone.
114
2020 Groundwater (m3) 2 127 518 204 000 18 786 116 704 000 663 0 Surface water (m3) 0 0 6 000 000 2 087 406 0 8 087 406 0 0 319 000 000 86 551 767 500 000 406 051 767 0 0 1 402 000 000 31 266 574 3 000 000 1 436 266 574 1 850 405 747 0 0 1 727 000 000 119 905 747 3 500 000
Estimated % abstraction
Total (m3) 1 493 195 127 000 11 438 879 700 000 475 0
Total (m3) 2 127 518 210 000 20 874 116 704 000 069 0
2000 Surface water: 0.30% Groundwater: Renewable: 0% Reserve: 0.14%
2020 Surface water: 2.70% Groundwater: Renewable: 0% Reserve: 0.25%
140 128 054 15 22 180 134 543 362 000 368 700 247 495 000 592 000
225 432 483 22 78 81 147 1 167 507 000 371 000 980 876 000 930 000
233 519 889 22 78 400 233 1 167 507 000 923 500 980 876 000 697 000 Surface water: 3.8% Groundwater: Renewable: 2.5% Reserve: 0% Surface water: 10.1% Groundwater: Renewable: 4.1% Reserve: 0%
352 974 334 27 13 703 30 2 566 189 000 096 626 738 013 000 252 000
330 047 786 40 56 88 20 1 348 008 000 844 000 266 282 000 383 000
736 099 553 40 56 1 490 52 4 348 008 000 110 000 266 282 000 958 000 Surface water: 3.1% Groundwater: Renewable: 0.6% Reserve: 0% Surface water: 6.5% Groundwater: Renewable: 1.8% Reserve: 0%
776 478 003 1 269 580 391 44 35 1 010 175 3 603 747 000 903 326 864 208 000 319 000
206 200 931 761 681 200 64 135 373 187 2 643 034 000 002 000 362 862 000 976 000
1 642 467 506 2 612 086 948 64 135 2 100 306 5 643 034 000 908 500 362 862 000 724 000 Surface water: 3.2% Groundwater: Renewable: 1.4% Reserve: minimal Surface water: 7.0% Groundwater: Renewable: 2.8% Reserve: minimal
3.3 Conclusions on the water resource and environmental impact assessment

Abstraction from water resources to fulfil the requirements for various water uses excluding the requirements of the aquatic ecosystems, were estimated at 1269 million m3 in 2000, representing 2.8% of the renewable resources. From this total, a volume of 408.6 million m3 of water (32%) is abstracted from different aquifers and about 861 million m3 (68%) from surface water. In addition, 269.5 million m3 of water, or 66% of the total abstraction from groundwater sources, is taken from recharged aquifers, whereas 139.1 million m3 of water (34%) is taken from aquifers which are not recharged. In 2020, water requirements are estimated to be just over 2.6 billion m3, or approximately 5.7% of the estimated annually renewable resources. Of these abstractions, over 1.85 billion m3 will be from surface water and 761 million m3 from groundwater. This represents 7.0% of the surface water resources and 3.9% of renewable groundwater resources or 0.26% of all groundwater resources (renewable and reserves). Therefore, water resource abstraction would not have a major impact on the environment, for two reasons. First, Chad has considerable water resources, and second, the planned developments, including those in the irrigation sector, remain modest. What is more, from the water quality viewpoint, the SDEA is not going to develop any polluting activities; on the contrary, it proposes an action plan and an approach to accelerate schemes needed to address rural, urban and industrial sanitation issues. The SDEA also recommends vigilance (the precautionary principle) with regard to industrial pollution risks, especially in the mining and oil industries.
115
Furthermore, it is recalled that the abstraction estimates do not include abstractions from these same resources by countries neighbouring Chad. For integrated and sustainable management, it is essential to take all abstraction into account. The LCBC has an essential role to play in providing coordination mechanisms between countries, to enable the shared resources to be monitored and exploited in a sustainable manner. While bearing in mind the main constraints linked to the mobilisation of water resources and, above all, the unequal temporal and geographical distribution of rainfall and surface water as well as the lack of data on how the large aquifers function, it generally seems that, in 2001, this resource will not curb economic and social development in Chad. However, development of the water resources requires studies to be conducted to improve knowledge of the functioning of and relationships between the main hydrological hydrogeological systems, especially in the more sensitive semi-arid zones and also in zones highly suited to flood spreading. The integrated basin approach will be preferred, especially and preferably via the "The Integrated Plan for the Chari-Logone basin and its flood plains", which will ensure that the right balance will be struck between exploiting water resources, sustaining aquatic ecosystems and meeting the needs of economic and social development.
116
Republic of Chad Figure 23: Resources/Requirements summary

In calculating water requirements, allowance must be made for the needs of aquatic ecosystems (particularly flood-prone areas and lakes) which govern the sustainability of biodiversity, and also the essential resources for fishing, stock-rearing and traditional flood-recession agriculture.These needs are indicative and represented by the light-blue to white shading.
Saharan Zone
Village water requirements Urban water requirements Pastoral water requirements Agricultural water requirements Industrial water requirements Groundwater resources Surface water resources
Sahelian Zone Sudanian Zone
Groundwater (million m3)
Surface water (million m3)
Potential to be studied
Potential to be studied
Use of groundwater reserves
Saharan Zone
Potential to be studied Potential to be studied
Use of renewable resources
Sahelian Zone
Median
Absolute minimum
Use of renewable resources
Sudanian Zone
117
Republic of Chad Figure 24: Overview of water resources in Chad
Libya
Main hydrogeological formations

Marine Carboniferous North Continental Terminal South Continental Terminal Nubian sandstones Paleozoic sandstones East Pleistocene West Pleistocene Pliocene Ogolian sands Modji series Eastern basement SW basement Tibesti basement Tibestic volcanic Surface water resources Standing water Flowing water
Niger
Sudan
Nigeria
Ca me roo n
ntr Ce
lic pub e R ican r f al A
Source: SDEA, adapted from the Practical Atlas of Chad, 1972
118
1 WATER POLICY
The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management includes provision for a national water policy in order to achieve the main goals set by the Chadian Government. The relevant strategies state how the specific goals of the water subsectors are to be reached taking into account the main principles set out in the water policy. These strategies may be broken down into five subsector levels: drinking water, pastoral and agricultural water, water resources and, lastly, sanitation. The subsector strategies will be complemented by a transverse fund mobilisation strategy that will be compatible with the major macroeconomic equilibria and the ability of users to pay. It also proposes an organisational framework for water governance and for national capacity-building.
1.1 Objectives
To contribute to reducing poverty and to economic growth, firstly by improving access to drinking water and sanitation in a sustainable manner and, secondly, by participating in the rational and equitable exploitation of pastoral and agricultural resources while protecting and preserving ecosystems.
1.2 Principles of the water policy

The water policy consists of twelve major founding principles, which govern all actions carried out concerning the sustainable development of water resources and services throughout the period covered by the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management up to 2020. These principles are listed below. Principle 1 Water in the nations public domain: All water resources within the boundaries of the national territory are in the public domain. In this capacity, they form an integral part of the States public domain, which is inalienable and imprescriptible (Article 1, Water Code). Human health and access to water and sanitation: The priority that has been defined for the Chadian populations health requires that they have extensive, reliable access to drinking water, hygienic conditions, sanitation, and sufficient, nutritionally balanced food. Water mobilisation must contribute to this priority, while ensuring that no subsectors, notably sanitation and food production, are neglected. Integrated management and use of water resources to promote sustainable socio-economic development: Water is a vital resource for the population, the countrys socio-economic development and for biodiversity. It must be known, protected and managed in an integrated manner, in terms of both quality and quantity. The State services must continuously improve knowledge of both the water resource (which must be considered to be unitary) and its uses. Gradual refocusing of the States role: The States services must gradually withdraw from construction and maintenance operations and refocus on their role as a public utility responsible for monitoring and inspection, as well as for promoting best practices. This must take place gradually, as a national private sector emerges and becomes capable of running these operations on a long-term basis. Nevertheless, regardless of the method used for managing the drinking water utility, the State (or the Decentralised Local Authority in the event of delegation) shall guarantee smooth operation (Article 41, Water Code). Water governance as close as possible to the user: An integrated system for managing water as close as possible to the end user will gradually be set up as decentralisation progresses, notably based on delegation of the public drinking water, pastoral water and sanitation service to the Decentralised Local Authorities and of the future devolved government structures.
Principle 2
Principle 3
Principle 4
Principle 5
123
Principle 6
Institutional framework strengthening: The functions and obligations of the public and private stakeholders and operators and associations concerning local water development measures must be clearly identified in a legislatory and regulatory context. Any development action involving the control of water, whether national or carried out by an external partner, must fall within the institutional and regulatory context of the water sector. Participation of stakeholders and integration of water subsector policies: On all territorial levels there must be an institutional consultative mechanism enabling the main stakeholders, and notably the users, to participate in the design, planning and monitoring of development measures and the management of hydraulic equipment, water resources and their uses. A fair, transparent water price: The water transfer and distribution equipment and the water operation service have a cost, which must be known to the users. The proportion of any subsidies must be transparent and known. The real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service must, as a minimum, cover all operating charges and renewal costs for equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. Equity must be the rule when fixing the price of the drinking water service within a homogeneous area. Thus, at a lower level of service, the unit cost of the water service must not exceed that of a higher level of service. Collecting and sharing information: The public manager responsible for water shall be obliged to collect and publish information on water resources, all their uses and all discharges into the environment. Information on management data subject to control by the public service for drinking water, productive water (for agriculture, pasture-land, industry) and sanitation is collected in the context of a compulsory declaration system, laid down by law. In this context, the public service responsible for water must ensure that this information is collected, organised and processed to make it accessible, subject to conditions, to as many users as possible, with help from new technologies.
Principle 7
Principle 8
Principle 9
Principle 10 Water management and environmental protection: The impacts of economic activity in the water sector and of developing the mobilisation and use of water as a natural resource, must be examined and dealt with from the perspective of protecting the aquatic ecosystems of Chad and the environment in general. The polluter-pays principle must be applied. Principle 11 Strengthening subregional cooperation on shared water: Water must be a source of regional economic integration. Managing the use of shared water resources and protecting their quality must be agreed through subregional consultation and carried out in accordance with the agreements signed with the existing basin authorities. Principle 12 National capacity-building is necessary to promote the sustainable management of water: Capacity-building at national, regional and local levels is necessary in order to promote the sustainable use of water resources. Each project implemented in one of the subsectors must include a significant proportion of capacity-building at national, regional and local levels. In addition, partnerships between regional and international training institutes and Chadian institutes will be encouraged.
124
1.3 Specific objectives

On the basis of the assessment-diagnosis and previous experience and in accordance with the Millennium Declaration, a number of objectives specific to the issue of water in Chad are listed in the paragraphs below. Water resources and the environment Preserve and protect water resources and the environment by implementing study programmes covering several years in order to obtain, by 2020, in-depth knowledge of the mechanisms through which the aquifer systems and basins of Chad function and interrelate. Access to drinking water and sanitation Halve the proportion of people in Chad without access to drinking water by 2015. This involves reaching or exceeding, by 2015, a sustainable access rate of 60% in village areas, 60% in towns of more than 2000 inhabitants located in the non-concessionary area, and 70% in the urban area of the concessionary sector.
By 2020, to have provided a level of access to sanitation and application of environmental health measures compatible with progress made in terms of access to drinking water for at least 50% of the population. Double the number of permanent pastoral water points in order, firstly, to rationalise the exploitation of pastoral resources and promote development of pastureland and, secondly, to improve stock-rearers standard of living.
Pastoral water supply
Agricultural water supply Promote and improve food security through the sustained development of natural resources, with the objective of developing 100 000 additional hectares of irrigated land by 2020.
1.4 Subsectoral strategies

1.4.1 Strategic components of drinking water In the drinking water field, five strategic components for reaching the objectives have been formulated. They are: Strategic component 1: Improving drinking water supplies to village and semi-urban populations by constructing water supply systems To improve drinking water supplies in village areas, the following strategy will be implemented: for the period 2000-2010, the notion of equity of access to water will be promoted by giving priority to equipping villages of 300 people or more, whereas between 2011 and 2020 the number of water points will be increased by building tapping structures in villages with less than 300 inhabitants. In semi-urban water supplies, in the nonconcessionary area, equipment requiring investments which are modest yet tangible and feasible in the short term will be favoured. Strategic component 2: Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework involves passing the various decrees of application of the Water Code on one hand, and setting up a regulatory framework encouraging the creation of Water Point Management Committees, user associations (populations), and small-scale provider associations (mechanics, hand pump repair men, etc.), regional and national federations of users and small-scale providers and private companies on the other hand. This regulatory context will be defined on the basis of existing laws governing the right to form associations and create private companies. It could be improved if necessary by passing new laws specific to the water sector.
125
Strategic component 3: Capacity-building to promote the efficient monitoring and management of drinking water supply equipment Implementing this strategy consists in developing and disseminating information, education and training programmes aimed at populations, Water Point Management Committee members, users associations, smallscale provider associations and any other village associations, notably womens associations and national consultants, NGOs, and other associations of social facilitators working in the field of drinking water. In addition, specific training programmes will be developed to strengthen small private companies such as national engineering consultants, small-scale provider associations and cooperatives working to build wells and boreholes and manufacture local pumping equipment and companies involved in distributing, maintaining and servicing pumping equipment and components. Management programmes will also be developed and dispensed to the managers of the various users associations. Strategic component 4: Supporting the emergence of an organisational framework promoting local management and maintenance of drinking water supply systems This strategic approach consists in creating and strengthening local water point and pumping equipment management structures, encouraging private initiative, supporting stakeholders in the field and, lastly, promoting access to various funding sources. Strategic component 5: Supporting the public water service delegation process In all towns, reforms aimed at decentralising administrative services are underway. The water services should be among the first responsibilities to be taken on by Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA). Mini-DWS, embryonic drinking water supply networks, are being or to be created in the non-concessionary area and even in the concessionary area. The administration responsible for water will have to help the DLAs with this promising work. They must be prepared in order to perpetuate the investments and ensure infrastructure sustainability. 1.4.2 Strategic components of pastoral water supply In the pastoral water supply field, five strategic components have been formulated to reach the objectives. These are: Strategic component 1: Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in accordance with livestock water needs, taking into account the carrying capacities of the pastures Water supply structures for pastoral use are mainly concentrated in the western part of the country along a strip running north to south, with the density of pastoral water points decreasing towards the east. Therefore, the aim of this strategy is to distribute the structures evenly throughout the administrative units of Chad. However, before this strategy can be implemented, significant input is required to update the existing inventories, or else create new ones, in order to assess the availability of fodder resources and livestock numbers more accurately. This knowledge will be used to increase the density of the modern water point network for pastoral use according to the criteria that best reflect the actual situation and needs of the agropastoral community.
126
Strategic component 2: Equipping stock-rearers migratory routes and traditional trading routes with water points The present strategy only concerns migrating stock-rearers as they are moving around. It mainly aims to equip the stock-rearers migratory routes and trading routes with sufficient water points to guarantee water supplies to all annual and exceptional pastoral movements. Strategic component 3: Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework by adding laws governing the various pastoral and agropastoral uses to the Water Code The notion of the migratory stock-rearer, an age-old tradition that still lives on today in the extensive stock-rearing systems of Chad, is completely overlooked in the Water Code. Therefore, to the notion of water user with rights and duties in relation to a particular place and at well-defined periods of time, it is necessary to add the notions of water access points and temporary user-operator, claiming large volumes of water for his family and animals. The aim is therefore to improve the Water Code so as to take the needs of the agropastoral community into account. Strategic component 4: Strengthening the institutional framework by clarifying the responsibilities of the various services involved in developing and managing pastoral resources The aim is to clarify responsibilities, through suitable laws and by setting up a consultative mechanism grouping together not just the different institutional stakeholders but also the donors and all other stakeholders, to harmonise each persons actions in the field of pastoral water supply. Strategic component 5: National capacity-building The aim is to strengthen the various services involved in managing and monitoring pastoralism and water resources, as well as the stock-rearers and national operators involved in pastoral water supply (NGOs, associations, private structures, etc.). 1.4.3 Strategic components of agricultural water supply Four subsectoral strategies have been developed for agricultural water supply. These are: Strategic component 1: Developing and exploiting in a rational and sustainable manner the soil potential that is currently under- or unexploited There is a great deal of soil potential remaining to be developed, especially on the great flood spreading plains of the river Salamat, the flood plains of the rivers Chari and Logone, and around the many lowlands of the Sudanian zone and the mountain catchment basins. The aim is to carry out the studies required to develop this soil potential, which is as yet under- or unexploited. Strategic component 2: Rehabilitating or bringing back into operation existing irrigation areas The aim is to make certain existing irrigation schemes operational, on the basis of economic and profitability criteria. Strategic component 3: Drawing up and implementing a policy of training and support for peasant organisations and the different stakeholders It is urgent to train and organise the farmers across the entire country. Special attention will be paid to strengthening and managing the peasant organisations. Training and support programmes to organise the production chains are also essential if the subsector is to function correctly. Programmes will have to be drawn up and dispensed to the main participants: producers, farmers, transporters, traders, etc. Support and strengthening programmes for institutional and parapublic stakeholders will also be developed and implemented through technical assistance and external training geared to their requirements.
127
Strategic component 4: Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework involves promulgating the Water Code decrees and drawing up new laws concerning land-related aspects, geared to the current agricultural water supply context. These new laws will have to fall within the wider perspective of regional development if they are to reduce conflicts between land farmers and stock-rearers as well as promoting sustainable development of rural areas. 1.4.4 Strategic components in the water resources field Three major strategies have been formulated in the water resources field. These are: Strategic component 1: Improving knowledge of resources by performing studies and setting up monitoring and forecasting systems The aim is to acquire the basic data that are essential for sustainable development of water resources, in order to derive maximum social and economic benefit from these resources. The aim is also to set up reliable forecasting systems that will contribute to improving food production and provide a means of preventing and guarding against water-induced damage. Strategic component 2: National capacity-building The aim is to develop national capacities at central, regional and local levels, to promote the integrated management and sustainable development of water resources while protecting the environment. Strategic component 3: Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework The aim is to promulgate the decrees of the Water Code, notably concerning declaratory aspects, discharges into the environment, abstraction and uses. 1.4.5 Strategic components in sanitation Five strategies have been developed in sanitation. These are: Strategic component 1: Gradual implementation of individual sanitation in urban and semi-urban areas Given that the situation with regard to sanitation is mediocre and, taking account of existing resources, both human and financial, the proposed strategy consists in the gradual and realistic implementation of individual sanitation in urban and semi-urban areas by calling on small firms, building latrines that are adapted to the different contexts, recommending incentives, setting up community excreta collection systems and training populations in basic health measures. Strategic component 2: Gradual installation of urban and semi-urban sanitation facilities in the main towns of Chad Urban sanitation facilities (stormwater sewerage, wastewater collection and treatment network, waste disposal systems, etc.) are practically non-existent in the largest towns of Chad, and totally non-existent in the other urban centres. The aim is therefore gradually to equip the urban centres of Chad with this infrastructure, placing priority on starting with the four largest towns (NDjamna, Moundou, Sarh and Abch).
128
Strategic component 3: Promoting basic village sanitation measures by disseminating health education programmes and building low-cost basic sanitation facilities Health education programmes will be developed and disseminated among the village populations as well as in schools and health centres. These programmes will focus on faeces-related hazards, personal hygiene, environmental health, proper use of water, simple water disinfection and traditional water point sanitation techniques, and drinking water conservation techniques (transport and storage). Basic sanitary infrastructure, such as traditional pit latrines (sandplat), ventilated improved pit latrines, filtering wells for wastewater, and areas for dumping household and other waste will be developed in villages. The future village water supply programmes will be used as a framework for building this infrastructure and for disseminating the health education programmes. Strategic component 4: National capacity-building The aim is to develop capacities at all levels: national, regional and local. In particular, it is necessary to strengthen and encourage district organisations to take charge of managing and promoting the subsector. This is accompanied by the desire to develop an economy of small private entrepreneurs, which may be modest but is perfectly suited to the actual nature of the resources that can be mobilised. Strategic component 5: Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework A large number of institutional stakeholders are involved in sanitation, carrying out actions in a non-concerted manner. In addition, there are few, if any regulations concerning the different aspects of sanitation. These solutions are relieving the stakeholders of responsibility and leading to chronic under-funding of the sector. The aim is therefore to define the roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder within a suitable regulatory framework.
2 MACROECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND ANALYSIS OF THE WATER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN LIGHT OF THE IDENTIFIED NEEDS
This macroeconomic analysis is aimed at determining the place of water in the national economy. It is also aimed at outlining the requirements and the financial conditions necessary to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Finally, it assesses the States ability to fund the sector in light of its oil revenue. The SDEA carried out a macroeconomic analysis in 2001. The results of this analysis showed that the States annual income from oil revenue would be between FCFA 40 billion and 80 billion for the period 2003-2015, i.e., an average FCFA 60 billion per year.This study was carried out on the basis of a sale price of US$20.00 per barrel of crude oil. Moreover, in order to remain consistent with the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and at the Governments request, the present economic analysis is mainly based on the report on the macroeconomic framework of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy. This is given in appendix 2.
129
2.1 Economic forecasts

2.1.1 Analysis of the long-term performance of the Chadian economy GDP growth Oil exports, expected to start in 2004, will cause a short-term leap in GDP growth. In 2004, initial production will represent 36 percent of the total GDP growth rate, increasing GDP by 42.4%. In the current scenario, oil exploitation should decrease from the initial 2004 peak by 0.7% per year between 2005 and 2009, before falling more sharply by 14% per year thereafter. This means that the share of oil in GDP will decrease rapidly, by 31% between 2004 and 2009, and then 11% between 2010 and 2015. This growth is not evenly spread across all sectors of activity. Primary sector GDP is expected to grow by 4.2% per year between 2003 and 2015. During the period of review, the added value of the food crop sector should increase by 5.6%. Cash crop production should grow by an average 4.6% per year, while the stock-rearing subsector should record average growth of 2.9% per year. In the secondary sector, GDP is expected to increase by 11% per year between 2003 and 2015 (oil exploitation falls within this sector). Excluding oil production, this sector should grow by 8% per year. Lastly, in the tertiary sector, GDP is forecast to grow by 6.5% between 2003 and 2015. During the same period, it is assumed that income per inhabitant will increase by 5% per year. Balance between savings and investments On the basis of these GDP growth forecasts, investments should increase by 18% of GDP on average between 2003 and 2015 and should be divided almost equally between the private and public sectors. At the same time, national savings will increase from 9.5% of GDP in 2003 to 13.3% in 2015, i.e., an annual average of 11%. Debt Within the macroeconomic context of the poverty reduction strategy, the debt sustainability indicators should improve substantially in the medium term thanks to oil exploitation and exports and to debt relief under the HIPC initiative. Total foreign loans will decrease gradually from 172 million dollars in 2003 to 90 million dollars in 2015. During the same period, the ratio of net discounted value of debts to exports will decrease from 266% to nearly 50% between 2005 and 2009 before gradually increasing again to 120% in 2015, and then 137% around 2020. The ratio of debt service to exports will fall from 15.3% in 2003 to nearly 2.6% between 2004 and 2009, and then to 7.2% in 2015. Balance of payments The current balance of payments deficit is expected to fall from its present high level of 46.7% of GDP in 2002-2003 to 8.6% in 2004 with the start of oil exploitation. The deficit will amount to an average 3.4% of GDP from 2005 to 2009 and increase with the drop in oil exports to around 5.2% in 2015. Poverty reduction With an annual growth forecast of about 3.5%, poverty in Chad could be halved by 2015.
130
2.1.2 The oil economy Oil revenue The States revenue from oil exploitation is expected to amount to some FCFA 118 billion per year. The structure of this State oil revenue is as follows: royalties;

extraction tax; pipeline tax; COTCO dividends; TOTCO dividends.
However, the depreciation expenses taken on by the consortium and TOTCO will largely exceed taxable income during the first few years of production. The proportion of revenue granted to the State will consist mainly of production royalties. In this context, the total budget deficit (excluding donations) is expected to plunge from 14.1% of GDP in 2002-2003 to 3.5% of GDP during the period 2004-2015. Between 2015 and 2020, this deficit will remain below 3% of GDP, in spite of the reduction in oil revenues. During the same period, this basic primary budget balance should also improve, rising from a deficit of 2.7% of GDP in 2002-2003 to an excess of 1.6% of GDP during the period 2004-2015. Law 001/PR/99 of 11 January 1999 governing oil revenue management orders all oil revenue to be placed under the general budget and all direct revenues (royalties and dividends) to be allocated to the following expenditure: 10% to the fund for future generations;
remaining 90% broken down as follows: 72% to operating expenditure and equipment in priority sectors (health, education, infrastructure and rural development, including water);

13.5% to general operating expenditure; 4.5% to expenses relating to the Doba basin oil project.
There are currently no programmes allocating this revenue to one sector or another. Hence the importance of the proposals that can be made now for using oil revenue in one sector rather than another. However, an attempt can be made to estimate the approximate share of state revenue to be devoted to water, for example. Table 28 indicates the structure of the Public Investment Programme (PIP) by main sector, as a percentage of the donor total or the State total. Table 29 indicates the amounts in millions of FCFA.
131
Table 28: Public Investment Programme as a % of the donor and State totals
2001 Sectors Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Agriculture Stock-rearing Environment Mines, Industry, Energy Infrastructure/transport Roads/airports Telecommunications Town planning Human resources Education Health Social affairs Youth and sport Integrated development Development assistance TOTAL T.DON./T.DON.+T.STATE T.STATE./T.DON.+T.STATE Source: PIP Donor 25.7 11.0 1.2 13.5 28.8 29.5 27.3 0.1 2.1 10.9 1.6 8.0 1.2 0.1 3.8 1.4 100.0 92.4 7.6 State 31.2 25.6 2.0 3.6 3.9 38.0 30.8 1.1 6.1 12.7 5.5 6.4 0.9 0.0 6.6 7.6 100.0 Donor 19.6 9.2 1.9 8.5 21.5 32.1 30.6 0.1 1.4 18.6 7.0 10.0 1.7 0.0 4.2 4.0 100.0 94.9 5.1 2002 State 27.0 23.7 0.0 3.3 1.1 39.3 34.7 2.3 2.3 22.3 3.1 18.6 0.6 0.0 6.7 3.6 100.0 Donor 15.4 7.0 2.2 6.2 18.0 43.5 42.0 0.1 1.4 17.6 7.4 9.7 0.5 0.0 3.9 1.5 100.0 95.6 4.4 2003 State 28.2 24.7 0.0 3.5 1.4 31.3 30.6 0.6 0.0 27.3 6.4 19.6 1.3 0.0 8.4 3.6 100.0 Donor 16.3 8.2 1.5 6.5 14.8 44.0 42.5 0.4 1.1 18.3 9.3 8.4 0.6 0.0 5.1 1.6 100.0 95.9 4.1 2004 State 30.3 24.8 0.0 5.4 1.7 26.5 25.1 1.4 0.0 25.0 5.5 19.5 0.0 0.0 7.1 9.5 100.0
Table 29: Public Investment Programme in millions of FCFA

Year Source TOTAL Source :PIP Donor 78 278 2001 State 6 432 Donor 196 262 2002 State 10 500 Donor 166 728 2003 State 7 724 Donor 116 607 2004 State 5 047
The following observations may be made concerning these tables: The Ministry of Environment and Water is responsible for water. In 2002, the MEEs investment budget was 8.5% from donors and 3.3% from the State;
between 2002 and 2004, investments from donors are set to fall (6.5% in 2004) and State investments are set to rise (5.4%); it should be noted that the MEE manages other sectors in addition to water, which also have investment needs.
The first question to be answered is by how much the Public Investment Programme (PIP) will increase following the rise in State revenues. The structure of the State budget is currently as follows (2002, in millions of FCFA):
Operation Total investment Total Counterpart funds Other External resources 123 154 264 804 387 958 10 500 6 747 196 262 31.7% 68.2% 100% 2.7% 1.7% 50.6%
132
The proportion of State-funded investment (counterpart funds) is less than 3% of the total budget, which amounts to about FCFA 400 billion, including foreign aid. For about 15 years, the State will receive about FCFA 118 billion more per year compared to current levels of expenditure: operation, i.e., FCFA 123 billion, and investment excluding aid, i.e., FCFA 10 billion. The proportion of oil revenue (royalties and dividends alone) devoted to priority expenditure is about 55% of total revenue (or, applied to FCFA 118 billion per year, about FCFA 65 billion). Part of this amount will be devoted to priority operating costs (e.g., healthcare workers salaries). Assuming a 70/30 distribution of oil revenues between operating costs and investment excluding aid, which would be a major shift in favour of investment, there would be about FCFA 20 billion per year to be shared out between the sectors. The proportion for the environment (in large part for water) will be 5.4% in 2004. Doubling it would take it to FCFA 2 billion per year. The proportion of oil revenues destined for other sectors (agriculture and stock-rearing) to be used for water supply structures must be added. These amounts are difficult to evaluate. One billion per year seems to be a reasonable guess, i.e., FCFA 3 billion in total. Spin-offs The spin-offs of oil exploitation for the Chadian economy, excluding those passing through the public finances, are difficult to evaluate. Oil production costs (cumulated over the period 2004-2033) are an estimated 3.768 million US dollars, including 1.537 for the pipeline to Cameroon. The remaining 2.231 million dollars are therefore payable by Chad, i.e., the equivalent of about FCFA 1.561 billion over about 30 years (contrary to the tonnages extracted, operating costs are spread fairly evenly over the period, so the reduction in quantities extracted will not significantly reduce costs). Roughly speaking, operating costs are about FCFA 50 billion per year. These are the costs that are likely to bring about a spin-off effect, given that the revenues are distributed to the Chadian government (the effect of which is analysed elsewhere), to the consortium or to the Cameroonian government. Consortium revenues will not necessarily be spent in Chad. It is therefore through operating costs that spin-offs are likely to be produced for the Chadian economy. Imported intermediate consumption and expatriates salaries probably represent a large proportion. Goods and services and Chadian salaries are not likely to exceed 20%, or about FCFA 2.5 billion per year. In a good year for oil exploitation, oil GDP may represent 30% of total GDP. Oil GDP is the sum of the following factors:

consortium profits, which do not remain in Chad; salaries of expatriates, few of whom remain for very long in Chad; Chadians salaries, which are low; the States oil revenues, which are discussed elsewhere.
Therefore, oil resources should not be expected to have a significant effect other than on public revenue. Public investment is the essential lever for development of the non-oil sector during the period of oil exploitation. To conclude, on the current basis of oil revenue distribution, the State will only invest FCFA 3 billion1 in the water sector over the next few years.
The economic study carried out by the SDEA concluded that the State could only invest FCFA 1.5 billion per year in the water sector. In any case, the two studies make it quite clear that external resources are necessary to fund the water sector, which needs an estimated FCFA 23 billion per year for the period 2000-2020.
1
Therefore, to fund the priority water sector, it is urgent to define a new key for distributing oil revenues on one hand, and for the minister responsible for water to obtain the means and resources that will enable him to manage and monitor the budgets required to fund the sector on the other hand.
133
2.2 Strategy for mobilising funds

The two main funding sources to supplement State investments will be international aid and users. Taking a longer-term perspective, the private sector is also a potential source of funds for the water sector. In its role as supporter and main mobiliser of investments, it is the duty of the State to create a framework which will be conducive to national consultation, coordination and regulation in order to strengthen a dynamic partnership with the various donors. There are a number of decrees and orders concerning users: decree 249/PR/MEE/02 defining the terms and conditions for temporarily transferring the States powers in terms of delegating the public drinking water service to the Decentralised Local Authorities; order no. 029/MEE/DG/2002 defining the standard framework of the special contract for delegating the Public Drinking Water Service to a Users Association or Private Farmer, and order no. 030/MEE/DG/02 governing the conditions for setting up, organising and operating Drinking Water Users Associations (DWUA). In addition to clarifying the regulatory and institutional context, they make it possible to begin taking action in terms of local management of the equipment and funds from selling drinking water and (indirectly) productive water. The following sections analyse the ability of the population to pay for both social water and productive water. 2.2.1 Ability of the population to pay the cost of water In theory, users incomes increase in line with GDP, which represents distributed income (salaries, profits and taxes). If GDP triples by 2020 this will be truly reflected in the Chadians' incomes since, by then, the proportion of oil GDP (mainly oil companies income) in total GDP is low. This is sufficient to be able to envisage developing the water sector with partial funding from the users. Users ability to pay for water can be measured by comparing the cost of water with their income and what they already pay (for example, FCFA 10 per 20-litre container). The following calculations are performed in constant francs, i.e. in real terms. Discounting is not taken into consideration, given the current low interest rates. These calculations are cost calculations. The price billed depends on the price policy implemented by the Users Association management committee or the water company. 2.2.1.1 Village water supply A borehole fitted with a hand pump serves 400 inhabitants on average. The investment cost and depreciation of this equipment is presented below:
Description Borehole Pump (HP) Cost FCFA 7 million FCFA 1 million Service life 30 years 10 years Depreciation FCFA 230 000/year FCFA 100 000/year
Considering personnel costs (stand-pipe managers, keepers: FCFA 240 000/year) and servicing and maintenance costs (FCFA 100 000/year), the estimated total cost of the borehole excluding depreciation is FCFA 350 000/year, or FCFA 580 000/year including depreciation. On this basis, it is then possible to calculate the cost per inhabitant, per household and per m3 of water. Thus, the cost per inhabitant, for a village of 400 people, excluding borehole depreciation, is FCFA 900/year, and FCFA 1500/year including depreciation. The cost per household (7 people) is FCFA 6000/year excluding borehole depreciation, and FCFA 10 000/year including depreciation. The cost per m3 is based on a drinking water consumption rate of 15 litres per day per inhabitant, which would appear to be a maximum figure given the fact that needs for non-drinking water can be met through access to least-cost traditional water points. This makes 5500 l/inhab./year or 2200 m3 per year for 400 inhabitants; this leads to a cost of FCFA 160/m3 excluding borehole depreciation and FCFA 260/m3 including borehole depreciation.
134
Assessing the ability of the population to pay Two different points of view may be taken, depending on whether the cost per m3 or the total cost per inhabitant is used as a reference. Cost per m3 The cost per m3 of water obtained above must be compared with the price per m3 of water paid of FCFA 10 per 20 litre container, i.e., FCFA 500/m3. This price, which the users seem to have accepted, easily covers the cost of water in village areas (borehole/HP). Therefore, the populations would be able to pay for water, even in the event that the State hands over its responsibility for funding the renewal of boreholes. Total cost The total cost is FCFA 6000 or 10 000/household/year, depending on whether the borehole is funded. This figure must be compared with income in rural areas, around FCFA 80 000/year per inhabitant, i.e., FCFA 550 000/year per household. Spending on water therefore represents 1% to 2% of the household income. Taking monetary income in rural areas, which is around 35% of total income, i.e., FCFA 190 000/year per household, spending on water therefore represents 3% to 5% of the households monetary income. The monetary proportion of rural populations incomes is estimated on the basis of their spending structure. It is assumed that the populations are self-sufficient in terms of food and that non-food spending is paid for. The figures used are taken from an ECOSIT study. Conclusion Households appear to be able to pay for the cost of water. The problem with village water supplies probably lies elsewhere, i.e. in water management in the wider sense, including the creation of a spare parts sales network. It should be noted that some of the projects being envisaged propose a water service of a better quality but also at a higher cost. In this case, the following are billed to the user: water quality inspection twice a year;

after-sales service; a FCFA 40 fee which goes to the Water Development Fund; spare parts.
The cost of water is therefore higher than the figures proposed above. The question is whether the users are interested in a centralised service which is high-quality, but also cumbersome and costly. Moreover, taking a long-term perspective, the creation of family drinking water points (each family funds its own drinking water point consisting of locally-manufactured equipment) could represent a relatively large source of private investment in the sector. 2.2.1.2 Water supplies in urban and semi-urban areas Non-concessionary area The estimated investment, operating, servicing and maintenance cost, as well as the depreciation costs of the basic supply units (BSUs), are given in the following table: Table 30: Cost of a basic supply unit
Description Solar BSU Thermal BSU Sundry expenses Investment cost FCFA 70 million FCFA 50 million Service life 20 years 20 years Depreciation FCFA 3.5m/year FCFA 2.5m/year
Personnel: FCFA 850 000/year Repairs: FCFA 600 000/year Expenses specific to thermal BSUs: FCFA 2 million
Source: SDEA 2001
135
BSU: basic supply unit consisting of a mini drinking water supply network with 2 to 3 stand-pipes, and no private connection.
Using the figures in table 30 and considering that one BSU2 supplies 2000 people on average, the cost per m3 of water in the non-concessionary area excluding depreciation is around FCFA 130/year per inhabitant with a solar unit and FCFA 200/year with a thermal unit. Including depreciation, the cost per m3 of water is therefore FCFA 580/year/inhab. for a solar unit and FCFA 560/year/inhab. for a thermal unit. Concessionary area In the concessionary area, the cost of extending a network in a suburban area (200 additional metres of network for 20 households) is about FCFA 400 000 per household. This must be compared with the investment cost of a thermal BSU (the network being thermal), which is 50 million for 300 households or FCFA 170 000 per household. However, the comparison cannot finish here since the network cannot be extended indefinitely. A rough estimate, based on STEE data, gives FCFA 600 000 per household, including the network and the water production associated with extending the network. The average cost per m3 of water delivered by STEE in NDjamna was FCFA 180/m3 in 1995. However, this figure is an underestimate since, according to STEEs trading account, depreciation and provisions are relatively low: about 13% of the total cost. A more reasonable estimate is therefore about FCFA 160/m3, i.e., between that of the solar and thermal BSU. The 30-year depreciation of a FCFA 600 000 investment for a household of 7 people each consuming 35 litres of water per day (the household consumes 90 m3 per year) is about 200 FCFA/m3. The total cost of STEE water is therefore an estimated FCFA 360/m3. The price of STEE water The current price of STEE is FCFA 105/m3 for the first 15 m3 bracket, which easily meets the needs of a large family consuming a large amount of water (excluding garden-watering). The price at the stand-pipe is about FCFA 300/m3 and that of the water-carriers is about FCFA 4500/m3. Therefore, the water service provided by a connection (tap in the home) is by far the best and the cheapest. For example, a family of 7 people consuming 5 litres of water per day and per person, or about 1 m3 of water per month, pays amounts that vary widely depending on whether it buys this water from a small water vendor, or obtains it from a stand-pipe or even a connection: purchased from carrier FCFA 4500/month/household;

purchased at stand-pipe FCFA 300/month/household; connection FCFA 105/month/household.
It may appear as though households that purchase water from a small vendor are willing to pay much more than FCFA 105 per m3 to have tap water. However, less than 10% of the urban population is supplied via a connection. For efficiency and fairness reasons, it is difficult to maintain the water price at its present level, while its total cost is around FCFA 400/m3. The policy combining a simultaneous gradual increase in the water price to its actual cost of FCFA 400/m3 and an increase in the number of connections is realistic because it is profitable for STEE and advantageous for the poor, who still do not have access to a connection. Small consumers, those who buy water from a carrier, would benefit with this hypothesis. For various reasons, if increasing the water price were not desirable, it could be possible to subsidise new connections. This would create an equitable situation with the rural sector, where new water point investments are subsidised in full. To increase the water price to FCFA 260/m3 instead of FCFA 400/m3, half of the depreciation of the connections would have to be compensated, corresponding to a subsidy of about FCFA 300 000 per connection.
136
This will have to take place in stages. Moreover, increasing the water price to bring it into line with its cost means increasing the average water price using the different brackets, which will have to be kept. The lower bracket should be limited to a much smaller cubic volume than at present, since it leads to the resale of water to the detriment of STEE. Conclusion In the projects that allow for equipment adapted to the different contexts, checks are carried out to ensure that the end user is able to pay the tariff at the apparent actual cost of the public drinking water service, as stipulated by the water policy. As a minimum, this tariff must cover all operating expenses and the costs of renewing equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. This principle is yet to be applied fairly in the urban and suburban areas and in small non-concessionary towns, as has been the case for a long time in the rural sector, where the tariffing principles of the water policy are applied. 2.2.1.3 Pastoral water supply Building a sufficient number of wells to cover the entire territory that is of use to stock-rearers would cost FCFA 100 billion (see action plan). These installations require little in the way of servicing (cleaning, repairs to the edges) and this can be carried out by stock-rearers associations. Each well costs about FCFA 20 million for a period of 20 years. Its annual renewal cost, for a 30-year service life, is about FCFA 650 000. There are about 1500 modern pastoral wells. There are plans to build another 4500. It costs about FCFA 4 billion per year to renew the 6000 wells for livestock numbers of around 14 million TLU, representing 300 FCFA/TLU/year. Therefore, the stock-rearers can afford to pay for their water. The problem lies in collecting payments, with practically the only means being through the tax system, in the form of a tax on sales. The low cost of pastoral water supply per TLU (although the total figure of 100 billion seems high) means that priority must be placed on investments in this field as part of the diversification of the post-oil economy, provided that two problems have been studied: actual knowledge of livestock numbers and fodder resources, and competition with crop-growing. 2.2.1.4 Agricultural water supply Private initiatives (small-scale irrigation and small private irrigation areas) manage to cover their costs. The very high cost of large irrigation areas makes it impossible for users to pay for them. It is not easy to assess the effects of other agricultural schemes (flood-recession farming and catchment areas). The estimated cost varies depending on the type of scheme between FCFA 300 000 and 1 500 000 per hectare for a yield of one tonne per hectare, i.e., FCFA 100 to 500 per kilo, representing an income of FCFA 100 000 per hectare before payment of any inputs. If these schemes are assumed to have a service life of fifteen years, the renewal cost varies between FCFA 20 000 and 100 000/ha. If inputs and the uncertainty governing the actual yield of land given over to crops are taken into account, it is difficult for the beneficiaries to pay the total cost of water. Identifying the beneficiaries is a further difficulty. 2.2.2 Mobilising international aid Cooperation between the Government and the donors hinges on the objectives defined in the framework of the Geneva-IV Round Table meeting (October 1998 - follow-up meeting in November 2000) and the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). Nearly all of the external financial needs for the different sectors defined during the Geneva IV Round Table meeting were covered by commitments made by the different donors, notably 369 million US dollars for infrastructure. The donors have yet to be mobilised, to complement internal fund mobilisation (users and public finances) for the priority water sector on the basis of the SDEA document, its action plan and its joint performance-monitoring plan, presented below. The SDEA includes the creation of a coordination and monitoring mechanism after the donors meeting. At institutional level, the creation of a host of
137
steering committees for each project will be avoided as far as possible. It is advisable to transform all steering committees into operational management committees, in principle by sector, with participation from the donor(s) concerned depending on the administrative procedures to be defined case by case. On the other hand, as regards the strategic monitoring of major projects (generally intersectoral in the field of water), the intention is to use a single public consultative mechanism to be made common to all projects, in order to remain generally consistent with the countrys water policy and national strategies. This consultative mechanism, to be used right from the project inception stage, is already defined and operational. At intersectoral technical level it is the CTIE, and for any project on a national scale and in the national interest it is the CNGE, as stipulated by Prime Ministers decree. This mechanism is flexible and light, because it includes a CTIE meeting every two months as well as the possibility, if necessary, of specific meetings of a smaller CTIE. In principle, the CNGE only meets twice per year. On the basis of this consultation strategy for effective mobilisation, in addition to internal resources that can be mobilised, a great deal of effort is therefore required and expected from international aid for the next twenty years, as indicated below and in the detailed action plans.
2.3 Water sector funding strategy

In the following sections, the tables presenting current and proposed projects for the different subsectors are drawn from the compilation of action plans by major theme given in chapter 4 of the SDEA. 2.3.1 Urban water supply A distinction must be made between the concessionary area (STEE) and the non-concessionary area. Planned new works will first have to involve improving the existing service, the quantity and regularity of supplies to users and extending the number of individuals supplied by connection and stand-pipe. After this, it will be possible to envisage improving water quality and extending networks on a sustainable basis. Table 31 below summarises the proposed urban water supply projects. Concessionary area Appendix 3 of the contract delegating management to the Vivendi/Dietsman manager is a long-term investment plan stipulating that the State and the concessionary operator (which are currently the same thing, given that the State is the sole owner of the STEE for the time being) shall provide some FCFA 13 billion over a ten-year period, broken down according to the table below:
Investments in billion FCFA WATER NETWORK Upgrading and renewal NDjamna Secondary centres Extension NDjamna Secondary centres WATER PRODUCTION NDjamna Secondary centres TOTAL 9.35 5.02 3.95 1.01 4.33 3.55 0.78 3.87 0.61 3.26 13.2
138
Table 31: Ongoing and proposed urban water supply programmes

Type of project Period 2000-2010 No. of projects Status Investments FCFA billion
Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Improvement of supply, non-concessionary area Improvement of supply, concessionary area Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 7 2 9 In progress In progress Total 27.56 4.925 32.485
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010 Improvement of supply in the concessionary area Improvement of knowledge of the concessionary area Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and regulatory frameworks, national capacity-building Period 2000-2010 (Funding to be found) Total funding obtained or to be found for urban water supply projects. Period 2000-2010. Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2011-2020 Improvement of supply in the non-concessionary area Improvement of supply in the concessionary area (mini-DWS hypothesis) Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. Grand total. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001 9 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined 20.5 27 47.5 145.515 6 1 2 9 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Total 48.93 10 6.6 65.53 98.015
These figures must be compared with the total annual income of STEE of about a billion FCFA. Without external funding of 100% of the cost of the STEE works, this does not appear to be feasible with a constant tariff. This external funding looks likely to be obtained soon. The investment plan stipulates that the FCFA 13 billion will be spread more or less evenly over the ten years, i.e., FCFA 1.3 billion per year. However, this funding is not sufficient to improve the supply rate in line with the objective. Integrated plans are to be drawn up to study the 11 towns in the concessionary area. These are to specify the total costs in order to reach a drinking water access target of 70% in 2015. As estimated (and stated in the action plan), the total cost will exceed FCFA 76 billion since the cost of extending the network towards the suburban mini-DWS schemes will have to be added. This has not yet been specified by the eleven integrated plans for drinking water supply. From table 31 and the projects to be implemented in the concessionary area, the following need for physical investments and studies can be deduced: FCFA 59 billion during the period 2000-2010, i.e., 5.9 billion per year;
FCFA 30 billion during the period 2011-2020, i.e., 3 billion per year.
Non-concessionary area It thus appears that the development to be reached between 2000 and 2010 will have to take place using small units, BSU or mini-DWS schemes, designed to be interconnected at a later date. 2000-2010 is set to be the decade during which as many embryonic networks as possible will be created in urban districts, based on the village and mini-DWS model. Over the next ten years, new projects should only concern construction of BSUs or mini-DWS schemes, even in the largest towns.
139
Given that 250 BSUs are already under construction, the remainder (300 BSUs) are going to be postponed to the period 2011-2020, together with the connection of the BSUs in the main centres to form a complete DWS network. The cost of this additional investment has not yet been calculated in relation to what has already been achieved. The cost of one BSU is about FCFA 60 million and the cost of connection at about FCFA 250 million which, if accompanying measures are included, would lead to the following amounts: FCFA 5 billion during the period 2000-2010, i.e., 0.5 billion per year;
FCFA 19 billion during the period 2011-2020, i.e., 1.9 billion per year.
These figures must be viewed in light of the funding for non-concessionary towns that has been obtained over the past four years: 3.5 billion per year. It is therefore realistic to consider achieving the aim of meeting most drinking water needs in non-concessionary urban areas. The construction of mini-DWS schemes increases the investment cost, but remains financially feasible. Accompanying measures include: implementation of organisational reforms;

training of local operators; training of local entrepreneurs; training of microcredit entities; promotion of a local activity sector; implementation of administrative and legal reforms; training of trainers and awareness-raising.
The cost of these measures is included in the list of proposed projects. It may also be assumed that, given the planned improvement in public revenue, the State cannot withdraw completely from this part of the urban water supply subsector, which has been relatively neglected by donors, especially since the State has devoted a great deal of effort to the concessionary area by funding the discharge of STEEs debt, amounting to almost FCFA 5 billion. 2.3.2 Urban sanitation Urban sanitation hypothesis 1 This hypothesis corresponds to the needs identified above in a deliberate perspective of mobilising FCFA 88 billion in twenty years for the projects summarised in table 32 below. The planned investments, FCFA 1.5 billion per year up to 2010 and FCFA 7.4 billion from 2011 to 2020, do not have any funding. However, relatively large amounts have been obtained in the past, most recently FCFA 5.5 billion for a main drain network in NDjamna, Moundou and Sarh. It may be assumed that donors are prepared to assist a strategy in which the populations pay for the tertiary networks. This refers back to the strategy of sanitation management by local committees.
140
Table 32: Ongoing and proposed urban sanitation projects

Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Stormwater drainage for three towns Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 1 1 In progress Total 4.5 4.5
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010 Sanitation programme for the four largest towns Sanitation programme for the other centres Capacity-building and regulatory framework strengthening Total funding to be found for urban sanitation. Period 2000-2010. Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2011-2020 Sanitation programme for the four largest towns Sanitation programme for the other centres Capacity-building Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. Grand total. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001 10 10 Projects to be defined 64.6 2.5 6.5 73.6 92.68 To be found 7.8 1.2 5.58 14.58
Urban sanitation hypothesis 2 The project proposed here corresponds to a slightly lower hypothesis than hypothesis 1 in that it brings about a satisfactory level of sanitation in 2020 in certain fields, i.e. public latrines, and 50% participation in private latrines as well as the development of stormwater and wastewater collection and treatment from 2005 and, especially, 2010. The small number of kilometres of drainage channels built each year may seem surprisingly low, but it must be borne in mind that the decision has been taken to build only a few tertiary drainage channels. Moreover, tertiary channels would be fitted at low points and by district organisations, who would only be provided with technical assistance. Application of hypothesis 2 to the four main urban centres
Period SW SW sec. & tert. networks. WW collection WW treatment Sanitation comb. DWS Public latrines Dom. water, private tanks Sub-total per year URP: Urban Reference Plan SW: stormwater WW: wastewater 2000-2005 Included in URP + NDJ east outfall None None None 5 in NDJ 1 for 3000 inhab. 1 for 10 inhab. FCFA 1.4 billion 2005-2010 Included in URP 4 km/year None None None Addition to 1 Increase with pop. FCFA 1.1 billion 2010-2020 Included in URP 20 km/year 4 km/year Capacity 1 200 000 None Increase with pop. Increase with pop. FCFA 6.5 billion
141
The significant increase from 2010 is due to the fact that wastewater will not be treated until this date. Application of hypothesis 2 to the other urban centres
Period STEE concessionary towns SW Sec. and tert. networks WW Collection WW Treatment Sanitation comb. DWS Public latrines Dom. water, private tanks Other urban centres Public latrines Dom. water, private tanks Sub-total per year 1 for 3000 inhab. 1 for 10 inhab. FCFA 78 million Addition to 1 Increase with pop. FCFA 105 million Increase with pop. 200 per year FCFA 94 million None None None 1 per year 1 for 3000 inhab. 1 for 10 inhab. 4 km/year None None 1 per year Addition to 1 Increase with pop. 6 km/year None None 3 per year Increase with pop. 200 per year 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020
Total
Period Total per year 2000-2005 FCFA 1.5 billion 2005-2010 FCFA 1.2 billion 2010-2020 FCFA 6.6 billion
Private latrines (50%)

Period Per year 2000-2005 FCFA 27 million 2005-2010 FCFA 27 million 2010-2020 FCFA 54 million
Accompanying measures
Period Per year 2000-2005 FCFA 27 million 2005-2010 FCFA 27 million 2010-2020 FCFA 30 million
Accompanying measures include studies and training. The figures above do not include urban waste disposal. The investments stipulated under hypothesis 2 require the mobilisation of FCFA 1.4 billion per year between now and 2010 and FCFA 6.7 billion per year from 2011 to 2020. 2.3.3 Village water supply The funding that has been obtained more or less meets the needs in terms of conventional projects. Second-generation projects are required to ensure installation sustainability. Table 33 summarises the funding that is required and that has already been obtained. Overall, given the amount of funding already obtained, it may appear as though the Millennium goal, i.e., a 60% rate of access to drinking water, will be reached and exceeded in 2015. The goal of an 85% rate of access to drinking water could be reached in 2020 if this rate of investment is maintained.
142
In view of the funding obtained, the following funds remain to be found to supply the village sector (including accompanying measures): according to hypothesis 1 (based on an 85% access rate in 2020) - FCFA 103 billion over twenty years, of which 3.2 billion per year during the period 2000-2010, then 7.1 billion per year from 2011 to 2020; according to hypothesis 2 (based on the Millennium goal of a 60% access rate in 2015 and a rate increase from 17% to 70% by 2020) - FCFA 42 billion over twenty years, i.e.:

FCFA 3.2 billion per year (2000-2010), with the goal achieved by 2010; FCFA 1 billion per year (2011-2020), with only rehabilitation and capacity-building.
Table 33: Ongoing and proposed village water supply programmes

Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Improvement of supply Improvement of supply Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 10 1 11 In progress In discussion Total 71.95 1 72.95
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010 Improvement of supply Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and and regulatory frameworks and national capacity-building Period 2000-2010 (Funding to be found) Total funding obtained or to be found for village water supply. Period 2000-2010. Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2011-2020 Improvement of supply Rehabilitation of water supply structures Capacity-building Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. 10 6 1 16 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined 60.77 7.27 3 71.04 7 2 9 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Total 24 8 32 104.95
Grand total. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001
175.99
143
2.3.4 Village sanitation Table 34 below summarises the village water supply projects and their costs. A sanitation section is to be added systematically to any new village water supply project, which should reduce some of the costs. Table 34: Ongoing and proposed rural sanitation programmes
Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Rural sanitation Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 1 1 In progress Total 0.5 0.5
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010 Development of basic rural sanitation infrastructure Production and dissemination of campaigns on sanitation techniques in village areas and on the relationship between water, hygiene and health Production of guides to sanitation techniques in rural areas National capacity-building notably at small-scale provider level Total funding to be found for rural sanitation. Period 2000-2010 Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2011-2020 Development of basic rural sanitation infrastructure Capacity-building Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. Grand total. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001 10 1 10 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined 7.5 1 8.5 15.55 10 Projects to be defined 5
10 1
Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined
1 0.05 0.5 6.55
The total funding to be found would amount to FCFA 6.55 billion from 2000 to 2010 and 8.5 billion from 2011 to 2020, i.e., about: FCFA 0.7 billion per year (2000-2010);
FCFA 0.9 billion per year (2011-2020).
144
2.3.5 Pastoral water supply Table 35 below summarises projects that are required and funding that has already been obtained. Table 35: Ongoing and proposed pastoral water supply programmes
Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 2 3 5 In progress In discussion Total 8.5 19 27.5
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010 Improvement of knowledge and basic data Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration Strengthening of institutional, legislatory & regulatory frameworks National capacity-building Period 2000-2010 (Funding to be found) Total funding obtained or to be found for pastoral water supply. Period 2000-2010. Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2011-2020 Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration National capacity-building Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. Grand total. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001 PWP: pastoral water point 3 2 5 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined 32 0.55 32.55 111.61 6 5 3 1 15 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Total 1 49 0.86 0.7 51.56 79.06
The total funding to be found would amount to FCFA 52 billion from 2000 and 2010 and 32 billion from 2011 to 2020, i.e.: FCFA 5.2 billion per year (2000-2010);
FCFA 3.2 billion per year (2011-2020).
2.3.6 Agricultural water supply On the basis of the realistic hypothesis of developing an additional 100 000 hectares with a unit cost of FCFA1.5 million/ha for small irrigation areas (bearing in mind that, in view of past experience, no large irrigation areas are planned for the next five years), the proposed projects are summarised in table 36. In Chad, the unit costs are as follows: Small-scale modern irrigation with total control of local water (less than 10 ha): FCFA 500 000 per ha with hand pump, FCFA 700 000/ha with motor pump without any improvement attributable to the use of PVC pipes and FCFA 1 million/ha in the case of an improved network. Small irrigation areas: these are extensions of small-scale irrigation. In fact, the distinction between small-scale irrigation and a small irrigation area is subtle and stems from the size of the scheme, between 10 and 30 hectares for a small area. A distinction is made between small village irrigation areas and small private irrigation areas. The average cost is FCFA 1.5 million/ha.
145
The projections above do not come within the scope of the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management. This is more of an exercise with the aim of attempting to estimate a realistic order of magnitude for investments (which must be effective and for which funding must be obtained), given the absence of an integrated plan for this subsector. This exercise gives a total amount of funding to be found for agricultural water supply of FCFA 5 billion per year during the period 2000-2020 including studies, accompanying measures and developments. At this point, it must be noted that the SDEA recommends setting up pilot projects, between 2003 and 2007, involving a wide range of development schemes focusing on small-scale village irrigation (flood-recession and flood-spreading), followed by a second phase of consolidated in-depth assessments (in 2008) within an integrated plan for village irrigation schemes. This five-year period of study and action would be accompanied by a moratorium on any new investment in large-scale irrigation schemes. When the SDEA is updated again in 2008, this will provide an opportunity for making further refinements to the irrigation forecasts on the basis of an integrated plan for irrigation. Tableau 36: Ongoing and proposed agricultural water supply programmes
Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Irrigation schemes Support for peasant organisations Knowledge-improvement study Irrigation schemes Support for peasant organisations Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 5 3 2 10 In progress In progress Starting up Total 58.22 0.3 40.87 99.39
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2020 Irrigation schemes Support for peasant organisations Improvement of knowledge on the sector Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and regulatory frameworks National capacity-building Period 2000-2020 (Funding to be found) Total funding obtained or to be found for agricultural water supply. Period 2000-2020. Source: SDEA 2001 4 3 1 1 9 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Total 93.57 3.72 0.75 2 100.04 199.43
2.3.7 Water resources Investments in the field of water resources mainly revolve around studies to evaluate resources and initiatives aimed at improving the Chadian governments capacity to implement a water and environment policy as defined elsewhere. Table 37 presents the projects suggested in this field. In total, the funding to be found amounts to FCFA 14.57 billion over twenty years, or about FCFA 0.73 billion per year during the period 2000-2020 for all surface and groundwater resources.
146
Tableau 37: Ongoing and proposed water resources programmes

Projects being implemented or with funding obtained Water resource studies Capacity-building and strengthening of the institutional and regulatory framework in the field of water Integrated plan for fisheries Capacity-building and strengthening of the institutional and regulatory framework in the field of water Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 1 2 1 2 6 Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing In discussion Total 0.75 2 0.75 2.87 6.37
Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2020 Improvement of knowledge and monitoring of surface water and its relationship with groundwater Improvement of knowledge and monitoring of groundwater Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and regulatory framework and national capacity-building Design and implementation of an early warning system to detect pollution from oil spills Capacity-building for monitoring oil exploitation and its impact on water resources Period 2000-2020 (Funding to be found). Total funding obtained or to be found for water resources. Period 2000-2020 Source: SDEA 2001 10 11 1 1 1 22 Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Projects to be defined Total 4.35 6.87 0.85 1 1.5 14.57 20.94
2.4 Summary of investments to be found in the field of water

Table 38 summarises the investments to be found in the field of water in billions of FCFA, according to two scenarios. Table 38: Summary of investments to be found in FCFA billion in the field of water (per year)
2000-2010 Subsector Urban DWS / Concessionary area Urban DWS / Non-concessionary area Urban sanitation Agricultural water supply Pastoral water supply Village water supply Sanitation for rural areas Water resources Total3 Source: SDEA 2001 Voluntarist scenario 5.9 0.5 1.5 5 5.2 3.2 0.7 0.73 23 Balanced scenario 5.9 0.5 1.4 5 5.2 3.2 0.7 0.73 23 2011-2020 Voluntarist scenario 3 1.9 7.4 5 3.2 7.1 0.9 0.73 30 Balanced scenario 3 1.9 6.7 5 3.2 1 0.9 0.73 23
3
The annual total investments for each period was rounded up to the next unit.
147
In the case of the balanced scenario, these investments to be found represent: 1.5% of GDP in 2003 and 0.6% of GDP in 2011;
about 16% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015 (therefore, investments compatible with the countrys major economic equilibria as analysed above).
According to the voluntarist scenario, these investments represent: 1.5% of GDP in 2003 and 0.8% of GDP in 2011;
about 22% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015.
It is certain that these scenarios will have to be rebalanced after the first update of the SDEA scheduled for 2008, notably because of the concessionary urban DWS, over which a large amount of uncertainty still reigns. However, the projects proposed to donors remain relevant in that they represent a guideline integrated plan that will provide a basis for study and more detailed programming. Investments are way behind schedule in the following areas: sanitation;

DWS in the concessionary area; agricultural water supply to small village irrigation areas; accompanying measures.
The issue of accompanying measures is fundamental. These govern the efficiency and local suitability of management and maintenance, and hence the sustainability of the physical investments. Too many projects do not include sufficient strengthening of capacities to manage installations. Little effort is devoted to providing support for surface and groundwater management or for integrated water management.
3 POSSIBLE EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS AND SCENARIO SELECTED 3.1 Scenarios of possible future changes in drinking water supply
The percentage of the Chadian population (rural, urban and semi-urban) with access to drinking water supply systems in 2000 was an estimated 23%. This section analyses possible future changes in the rate of access to drinking water of the entire Chadian population during the period 2000-2020. This analysis is based on two parameters: prospects for growth in supply as expressed for each domain and the preparation of equipment maintenance and servicing scenarios. As an indication, while remaining cautious in predicting future changes in supply and considering the investments planned and works in progress, in 2020 the drinking water supply percentage will be 70% in urban and semi-urban areas and 80% in rural areas. Using this hypothesis, three maintenance scenarios are formulated and illustrated in the graph below, illustrating the impact of each scenario on the drinking water supply rate.
148
Possible changes indu overall rate of global access volutions possibles taux d'accs to drinking water in Chad l'eau potable au Tchad
80 Percentage de of total population Pourcentage la population totale 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Scenario Scnario 1 1 Scenario Scnario 2 2 Scnario 3 3 Scenario
0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Year Anne
Source: SDEA 2001
Scenario 1: equipment is maintained efficiently so as to ensure that 100% of drinking water supply systems in urban areas and 80% of equipment in rural areas are operational. The supply rate would thus be 71%. Scenario 2: equipment is maintained moderately such that 90% of drinking water supply systems in urban areas are operational, with only 70% of equipment operating in rural areas. The supply rate would thus be just over 60%. Scenario 3: equipment maintenance is very poor, such that 60% of urban equipment and 60% of urban equipment is operational. The supply rate would thus be 46%. This graph shows that, with scenario 1, over 70% of the total population of Chad would have access to drinking water in 2020. The supply rate dips sharply to about 46% in the case of scenario 3. Moreover, these different simulations demonstrate the importance of setting up an environment conducive to equipment management and maintenance. If a return is to be obtained on the investments and the Chadian population is to have guaranteed access to drinking water at all times, it is essential to start up a new generation of projects as soon as possible, focusing on building capacity and organising the drinking water sector, at both national and local level. Reaching the Millennium goal (which, it must be remembered, constitutes a commitment on behalf of the international community) means that Chad must have an overall access rate of 60% in 2015 (an increase from 20% to 60%). The graph above indicates the priority to be followed and the scenario to be selected. Scenario 1 is the best scenario, since it corresponds to both the national policy objective of efficiency in public investments and the Millennium goal. This scenario entails heavy investment between 2000 and 2010 in accompanying measures to foster sustainable management and make users responsible for maintenance wherever possible.
149
3.2 Sanitation scenario

Given that sanitation is lagging so far behind, and the low level of investment in this subsector, only one scenario is proposed and recommended. In rural areas, we recommend combining each village water supply programme with sanitation works, including the construction of basic sanitary infrastructure. After reaching agreement with the villagers, this low-cost equipment could be their contribution in return for the development of a drinking water point in their community. Hygiene and sanitation education programmes will be continued and backed up by information campaigns through projects as well as via the media (radio, press, etc.). In urban areas, pending the investments required to build major installations such as stormwater drainage networks, priority will be placed on developing basic sanitary infrastructure in each concession, such as latrines, wastewater collection equipment compliant with recognised standards, respecting stipulated distances between traditional latrines and wells, etc., while protecting the environment, notably aquifers, which populations often exploit for drinking water through traditional wells. We also recommend developing a specific sanitation policy.
3.3 Pastoral water supply scenario

Several projects to construct pastoral water points (ponds with basic facilities, wells, pastoral pumping stations) are currently being implemented. New projects are due to start up over the next few years. These projects should create over 1100 new pastoral water points. This number must be seen in the light of the estimated number of pastoral water points needed (1150) based on a 25 km mesh between each point. Nevertheless, these new water points are concentrated in specific sectors, in eastern and western Chad. Very little work has been carried out in the southern part of the Sudanian zone or in the north Saharan zone. The potential for access to pastoral water supplies will be improved significantly over the next ten years. However, to improve development of Chadian pastoral areas, optimise investments and guarantee their long-term profitability, projects focusing on improving knowledge in all areas (livestock numbers, migratory routes, fodder resources, conflict-solving mechanisms, etc.) must be undertaken as quickly as possible.
3.4 Agricultural water supply scenario

Chad has immense agricultural potential which is not yet being exploited to the full. Thus, to satisfy the priority goal of food security, it is first necessary to develop the soil potential which is being insufficiently exploited, if at all, i.e., the vast flood plains of the Salamat, the difluence plains of the Chari-Logone, the extensive lowlands of the Sudanian zone and the mountain catchment areas of the Ouadda. Achieving this objective also entails rehabilitating the existing irrigation areas or bringing them back into operation. However, two major difficulties remain: scheme management and peasant organisation. According to the assessment-diagnosis, several constraints are hampering the development of irrigated agriculture in Chad: poor management and insufficient area maintenance, lack of organisation of the different channels, high investment costs, etc. Nevertheless, with the exception of some very specific sectors, water resources cannot be considered to be hindering development of the sector. On the contrary, the abundance of water resources and, in most cases, the ease with which they can be mobilised, are assets. Therefore, the (surface and underground) water resources assessment shows that abstracting an additional 1.5 billion m3 from these water resources for agricultural use does not pose any particular problems other than taking protective measures and setting up monitoring systems. As an indication, if the additional water abstracted is controlled perfectly, it could irrigate between 100 000 and 185 000 hectares.
150
The following scenario has been selected: placing a five-year moratorium on new large-scale irrigation schemes and focusing primarily on rehabilitating certain selected irrigation areas, with priority given to training and organising peasants on the basis of independent support structures and fostering the development of small village irrigation areas, in a clear legal and land tenure context. This provides a means of identifying solutions to the problems of large-scale irrigation schemes, while building capacities.
4 ORGANISATIONAL FRAMEWORK, DECENTRALISATION AND THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE SYSTEM 4.1 Local level: locally-generated development and local stakeholder structuring with organised support
Future practices and local planning resources centred on rural development (agriculture, fisheries, stock-rearing, small-scale providers, etc.) must be studied. This process must include the sustainable development of natural resources. The decentralisation process will be based mainly on adaptive local planning, which must take into account the relationship between use of village/communal land and the use of natural resources, which vary widely with seasonal rainfall. In this context, the effects relating to the location and development of water points and the allocation of water resources will have critical repercussions in the following areas: rural populations (subsistence, food, income), conflict prevention (between stockrearers and farmers) and environment management (land, water, habitats). For generations, the conditions in which poor rural populations survive have mainly been governed by uncertain access to natural resources. These populations have organised themselves so as to adapt to these variations by frequently changing occupation and moving from one place to another. So there is, in fact, a long history of local peasant planning. The transition towards sustainable local development, which creates jobs and income and improves living and health conditions, now means integrating regional and infrastructure development into local planning. This larger dimension has remained beyond villagers perceptions up to now. In Chad, notably in the Saharan and Sahelian zones, the water point is the essential pivotal element around which rural life is structured. It must now be considered in the planning and mobilisation of local resources, at as local an institutional level as possible. Many aspects of the fight against poverty depend on solving the complex equation between local stakeholders, natural resources and infrastructure. As is the case with education, access to water (drinking or productive) plays a key role in this process. The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management states that support for this local stakeholder structuring is vital to the economic and social development of Chad, and to the efficient, sustainable management of the physical investments. Consequently, it stipulates that the State and donors will give priority to investing in the human capital of the sector through accompanying programmes tailored to the resources required by the subsector strategies defined above.
4.2 Intermediary and central levels: participation from public stakeholders and services
Decentralisation will be pursued for at least a decade. Because of its approaches based on local capacity-building and local stakeholder structuring, the SDEA will logically accompany this process and should help to ensure its success, given the transverse nature of the local issues related to water. The intersectoral consultative mechanism set up and institutionalised in Chad within the framework of the MEE is fundamental to water governance in that country. Coordination of this flexible mechanism has to continue.
151
The graph below presents the functional relationships between the main central stakeholders in the water sector, in view of the new consultative mechanism that has been created. Over the next few years this mechanism is set to be extended, in accordance with the existing decree, to levels increasingly close to the end user, to ensure good governance of the water sector. A reminder of how the consultative mechanism functions is given below: The High National Council for the Environment (HCNE) is presided by the Prime Minister. The ministers in charge of the different bodies involved in or concerned by water resources and environmental protection are associated with it. The role of the HCNE is to decide on the main political options governing the water sector in Chad. The National Water Management Committee (CNGE) is presided by the general secretary of the ministry responsible for water (Ministry of Environment and Water). It comprises general secretaries of the ministries represented at HCNE and representatives of civil society. Its role is to define and decide on sectoral strategies conveying the main national political options in the water sector. The Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) is presided by the Technical Services Manager for hydraulic affairs (Director of Hydraulic Affairs) at the ministry responsible for water (MEE). It groups together the national technical services managers from the various ministries involved in or concerned by the exploitation and management of water resources. Representatives of elected officials, civil society and associations are also represented. The role of the CTIE is to decide on the national action plan to be implemented in accordance with the options and main lines of the water sector policy.
Decree no. 034/PM/MEE/99 signed by the Prime Minister on 3/9/99 concerning the creation and organisation of a National Water Management Committee
4
The Ministry of Environment and Water acts as both permanent secretary of HCNE and president of the CNGE and the CTIE. The Ministry of Economic Promotion and Development acts as vicepresident of the HCNE and CNGE, thus guaranteeing that the processes are integrated and consistent, at all levels, with the sectoral policies, national economic targets and regional development. This flexible consultative mechanism, institutionalised by Prime Ministers decree4, is also intended to be devolved at a later date, into smaller subsidiary mechanisms for local and regional intersectoral consultation. Figure 25: Consultative mechanism
National policy and politique et stratgies strategies nationales PARTNERS PARTENAIRES FUNDING DE AGENCIES BAILLEURS FONDS
GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITIES AUTORITS GOUVERNEMENTALES
politiques Sectoral sectorielles policies
HCNE
Gouvernement Government
MINISTRY OF MINISTRE DE ENVIRONMENT AND LENVIRONNEMENT WATER ET DE LEAU DIRECTORATE GENERAL DIRECTION GENERALE OF ENVIRONMENT DE THE LENVIRONNEMENT
MINISTRIES MINISTRES
stratgies Sectoral sectorielles strategies
CNGE
Administrationet & socit civil society Administration civile
DIRECTORATE DIRECTIONS GNRALES GENERALS
Sectoral techniques sectorielles techniques Skill level niveau de comptence
Sectoral techniques techniques sectorielles Intersectoral espace de concertation intersectorielle consultative area
HYDRAULICS DIRECTION DE DIRECTORATE LHYDRAULIQUE Operational sectoral sectorielles ministerial structures ministrielles structures in the water oprationnelles domaine de field leau Development operations on oprations damnagement de lespace the national national territory
TECHNICAL DIVISIONS DIVISIONS TECHNIQUES Operational sectoral ministerial structures ministrielles sectorielles oprationnelles utilisatrices de leau structures, users of water
Source: Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management, 2001
152
5 CONCLUSION
At the end of this section concerning water policy and strategies, the main difficulties that have come to light in implementing water strategies in Chad concern: supplies to towns (concessionary area) and sanitation;

water for agriculture; human resources; installation sustainability.
The prospects of the general water strategy depend on the success of the diversification policy of the period of oil exploitation, the investments to be made and the extent to which the populations have acquired the ability to manage water and guarantee installation durability. Supplies to towns In the field of water (and sanitation), donors tend to pay less attention to towns in the concessionary area than to towns in the non-concessionary area or stock-rearers. This is understandable, given the important role that agriculture and stock-rearing play in the strategy of diversifying the economy during the period of oil exploitation. Another feature of water in towns (concessionary area) is the reverse of what would be expected of a policy of equity intended to fight poverty: the price of water is higher for the poor than for the rich. This is worsened by the fact that some people with a connection sell water for more than the price that they pay. The solution to this two-fold problem of insufficient international aid and inverted prices involves a policy which would be partly self-funded:

increasing the price of water; extending the stand-pipe and connection networks.
Increasing the price of water in line with the price currently paid by stand-pipe users would finance connections for all those who wish to have one, without requiring them to pay any money on connection. Increasing the cost to less than that of stand-pipes would finance the extension of the stand-pipe networks, but not of the connection networks. Installing more stand-pipes would have the advantage of dissuading people from buying water from carriers at a prohibitive price. Water for agriculture As recalled above, failure to develop agriculture would probably result in the collapse of the economy as a whole. The limited mobilisation of water is undoubtedly one of the constraints hampering the development of agriculture. However, on one hand little is known about the nature of this constraint, and on the other hand it is intermingled with other constraints. Little is known about the exact cost of water for agricultural production in Chad. This is why this report proposes to assess the current and future projects. Other constraints are evidently called into play and would undermine the effectiveness of agricultural water supply investments unless they are overcome. Numerous constraints have been identified, but many of them have not been studied in depth: transport infrastructure, irregular production, storage problems, peasants behaviour patterns, etc. The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is not aimed at dealing with all the problems of agriculture. Two ideas simply need to be restated at this point: the role and cost of water in agriculture have not been sufficiently assessed (excluding the large irrigation areas, which have proved to be inefficient on several occasions);
irrigation schemes can only be efficient in the framework of a comprehensive agriculture policy.
153
Human resources The need to build capacities at all levels is the main lesson of the SDEA and each subsector has a specific strategy with this aim in mind. Numerous action plan projects are to be implemented in line with these capacity-building strategies. A general plan for training human resources in the sector will have to be drawn up as soon as possible, and will be defined in detail and modified in a few years time, once the lessons have been learned from all the projects that are due to start up during the first five years of the SDEA. The results of this study will be included when the SDEA is updated in 2008. Installation sustainability Setting aside the uncertainty reigning over agriculture (which plays a crucial role in diversifying the economy), the prospects of access to water for the populations and livestock of Chad are relatively good. Funding has been obtained for some of the investments; and the prospects of STEE SA taking on the commercial management of water in accordance with the objectives of equity and poverty reduction are realistic, in as much that the public service defines and regularly follows up targeted results in accordance with the water policy and the subsector objective (increasing the rate of access to drinking water in the concessionary area from 40% to 70% by 2015). On the other hand, there is no guarantee that the populations will take responsibility for the installations. Past experience in the field of access to water has shown that modern water points are soon abandoned as a result of a failure to maintain the installations. Therefore, the new investments in the water sector must place a much greater onus on populations taking responsibility for the water supply infrastructure. If projects are not drawn up bearing this aim in mind, there would be a high risk of a repeat of the scenario described above resulting from poor maintenance. It should be recalled that the supply rate forecasts are 77% or 46%, depending on whether or not there is an efficient maintenance programme. Water and economic prospects The economic prospects are apparently good. GDP by volume will triple between 2003 and 2020. In 2015, oil GDP will represent only 5.9% of total GDP, so this three-fold increase assumes that oil revenue will have been used to the full to diversify the economy. However, as stated in the section on The oil economy (2.1.2), little may be expected of oil revenue in the field of water, unless the State decides to distribute this revenue in favour of this sector. If it does not, this revenue will mainly benefit other sectors. In the future, the two main sources of funding for investments in the water sector will be: international aid;
users.
Users incomes will increase by about 75% in real terms, but only if the predicted diversification of the economy into sectors not related to oil actually comes about. However, the Chadian economy is developing along a narrow road. Water has been clearly identified as being fundamental to several major development sectors: health;

agriculture; stock-rearing.
Investments in the different hydraulics subsectors thus appear to be indispensable to the diversification policy, without which the economy will not benefit from the short period of oil exploitation. The effectiveness of these investments is totally dependent on the implementation of accompanying measures intended to give the population the capacity to manage water and guarantee installation durability.
154
1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter lists the ongoing programmes and programmes proposed for each subsector in order to achieve the defined goals, especially the Millennium development goals. In addition, these programmes are in direct relation with the subsector strategies adopted in the SDEA. The programmes represent sets of actions to be undertaken at national level or in the various geoclimatic zones. A programme may be broken down into several projects funded by different agencies, provided that the programme approach is adopted in such a way that its integrated character is maintained. Detailed programming of these various activities and the political choices to be made concerning the projects are the prerogative of the Government via the HCNE, CNGE and CTIE and the competent technical departments. The proposed programmes are spread over an initial period running from 2000 to 2010 and a second period from 2011 to 2015. However, with regard to agricultural water supply and water resources, the action plans are defined for the period 2000-2020. A financial analysis of each subsector was given in section 2.3 of chapter 3. This analysis summarises the funding requirements for each subsector under main topics (construction of physical infrastructure, capacity building, improvement of knowledge, institutional strengthening) in order to achieve the aims set. The reader should refer to this chapter for all financial aspects and for a summary of the programmes proposed in the water and sanitation sector. Priorities at national level On the basis of the assessment of needs, strategies and policies, the following main priorities may be distinguished for action at national level: development of physical infrastructure,

capacity building, improvement of basic knowledge in each subsector, in particular concerning water resources, strengthening of the institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks, introduction of a set of procedures and methodologies for programming and planning actions in each subsector in compliance with the Water Code, all of this being integrated into the decentralisation process currently underway.
Priorities in each subsector The priority actions to be undertaken in each subsector are set out in detail in the thematic volumes. A brief summary of these actions is given below. In the field of drinking water (village and urban/semi-urban water supply subsectors), while pursuing the development of hydraulic infrastructure for drinking water supplies, it is of paramount importance to start a new generation of projects aimed at capacity building at all levels as quickly as possible in order to guarantee permanence of the investments and long working life of the facilities. In addition, considering hydraulic infrastructure requirements and in conformity with the Water Codes stipulations concerning equitable access to water, future programmes must be concentrated in the least privileged areas of Chad in the coming years. In the field of pastoral water supplies, the main priority at national level is to improve basic knowledge of each subsector, in particular with respect to livestock numbers and fodder carrying capacities. With better knowledge of these parameters, it will be possible to plan and programme pastoral water supply structures that are suited to realities in the field while contributing to the development of the entire stock-rearing subsector. The priority in the field of agricultural water supplies is capacity building with regard to the maintenance and operation of the major irrigation areas. In addition, the development of private irrigation areas must be encouraged, along with the rehabilitation of certain irrigation areas, giving priority to the training and organisation of peasant farmers.
159
With regard to rural sanitation, the priority is to disseminate health education programmes and build basic health infrastructure such as improved traditional latrines. In the field of urban and semi-urban sanitation, priority is given to individual sanitation via the construction of latrines suited to the various contexts, the introduction of community waste collection systems and programmes to train people to take elementary sanitation measures. Depending on the funds available, wastewater and stormwater disposal systems may be developed in the larger towns. With regard to industrial sanitation, the priority is to define legal standards to restrict the various types of industrial effluent discharged into the environment. As far as water resources are concerned, the priority is to improve knowledge of the operation of the major water-bearing systems and surface water systems, and the manner in which they are interrelated. To this end, mechanisms must be set up for collecting and processing data from existing and future projects.
160
2 VILLAGE WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for village water supply 2000-2010
Field Action Links with strategies Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Integrated Plan for water development Strengthening of legal, regulatory and organisational frameworks Capacity building Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project phase 2 Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Governance and local management of water Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Total funds obtained or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2000-2010
List of programmes as of December 2001
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results achievements An approved document to serve as a reference for the development and integrated management of water resources National capacity building Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities Organisational framework for hydraulic structure management defined and operational Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities
Period
Impacts
Status
UNDP
For Ref. (Projects accounted for in water resources)
National
1998-2002
Integrated and sustainable management of water resources and the facilities for their mobilisation and exploitation National officers trained in water resource management and monitoring Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Support for defining operating procedures for management of hydraulic structures and the water service Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Procedures for management of hydraulic structures and water supply service applied Existence of local, regional and national water management capacities Operating procedures for management of hydraulic structures and the water service defined and applied at full scale over an area Replication of management methods Creation of income from water development
Ongoing
FAC
National
1998-2002
Ongoing
FAC
National
2003-2006
Under discussion
UNDP
National
Setting up of local, regional and national water management structures Knowledge improvement Support for local economic development
2003-2007
Under discussion
161
Proposed action plan for village water supply 2000-2010 (contd)

Field Action Village water supply programme in Sudanian zone Village water supply programme of the 8th EDF plan in Chad Village water supply programme in the Ouadda / Biltine Village water supply programme in Mayo-Kebbi Improvement in village drinking water supply Funding obtained Village water supply programme of the IX EDF plan Saudi project Phase III Chad Regional Solar Programme Links with strategies Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Chad UNICEF cooperation programme 2001-2005 Promotion of basic sanitation measures Capacity building Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Lake Chad development project Miscellaneous (Esso, NGO, etc.) Village water supply programme in Salamat Improvement of water supply Improvement of water supply Improvement of water supply ADB Private AFD 700 000 000 3 500 000 000 1 000 000 000 72 950 000 000 Western Sahelian Zone National Sudanian Zone 100 600 150 7 180 15 0 0 450 2003-2008 1999-2008 2002-2005 Starting up Ongoing Under discussion Funding obtained UNICEF 3 000 000 000 Sahelian / Sudanian Zones 400 2001-2005 EU/EDF 3 500 000 000 EU/EDF 35 000 000 000 To be determined 3 300 2003-2008 KFW 2 250 000 000 KFW/AFD/EDF 4 000 000 000 EU/EDF 12 000 000 000 AFD 4 500 000 000 Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Sudanian Zone
Anticipated results/achievements
Period HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4 265 250 1999-2002
Impacts
Status
Ongoing
Western Sahelian 1 650 Zone Eastern Sahelian Zone Western Sahelian Zone
1999-2004
Ongoing
300
200
2002-2005
Ongoing
300
2002-2004 A) Increase in village drinking water supply from 17% in 2000 to about 55% in 2008 B) Progressive setting up of an organisational framework for the local management of the water service and creation of an environment for local maintenance and servicing of drinking water supply systems C) Local and regional capacity building for the maintenance and management of drinking water points
Ongoing
Funding obtained
Saudi Arabia
3 500 000 000
Sahelian Zone Western Sahelian Zone
115
2000-2002
Ongoing
15
2002-2005
Ongoing
Ongoing
Funding obtained for the construction of new drinking water points
162
Field
Action
Links with strategies Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Period HP1 TLU2 DWS3 Well Reh4
Impacts
Status
Village well construction programme in the BET
To be found
3 000 000 000
Saharan Zone
150
2005-2010
Project to be defined and funding to be found
Drinking water point construction programme in the Ouadda geographical area Drinking water point construction programme in the Batha
To be found
4 200 000 000
Sahelian / Saharan 600 Zones
2005-2010
To be found
4 200 000 000
Sahelian / Saharan 600 Zones
2005-2010
Improvement of village drinking water supply Funding to be found
Project to be defined and funding to be found A) Increase in drinking water supply to village populations from 17% in 2000 to 70% in 2010 B) Structured environment for the local management of the water service and the maintenance and servicing of drinking water supply facilities
Drinking water point construction programme in the Gura
To be found
4 200 000 000
Sudanian Zone
600
2005-2010
Drinking water point construction programme in the Logone and Tandjil
To be found
4 200 000 000
Sudanian Zone
600
2005-2010
Drinking water point construction programme in the Moyen-Chari
To be found
2 100 000 000
Sudanian Zone
300
2005-2010
Drinking water point construction programme in the Salamat
To be found
2 100 000 000
Sudanian Zone
300
2005-2010
Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
Funding to be found for the construction of new drinking supply systems 2005-2010
24 000 000 000
3 000
150 2005-2010
1 2 3 4
Borehole with HP : 7 MFCFA/U Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 50 MFCFA/U Drinking water supply system Borehole rehabilitation: 3 MFCFA/U
163

Field Action Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Strengthening of legal, regulatory and organisational frameworks Capacity building
Support for the creation of local and regional structures for management of drinking water supply systems (Proposed programme may include several phases that will be funded by different funding agencies)
Capacity building for local management of water, the water service and the benefits of productive water
To be found
6 000 000 000
National
Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water
A) Training programmes devised and disseminated at all levels: traditional and administrative authorities, users, NGOs, design offices, private companies, craftsmens networks, etc. B) Training of human resources (managers, engineers, technicians, legal and financial experts, contractors, etc.) in schools, universities and regional centres C) Training of craftsmen, mechanics, electricians, masons, etc. in technical centres D) Development of micro-lending programmes
2003-2010
A) Human resources trained for efficient management of the water service B) Operational user associations C) Role of the State refocused on programming, supervision and regulation activities D) Private companies and craftsmens networks capable of providing efficient maintenance and Project to be servicing of the drinking water supply systems defined and funding E) Design offices and NGOs capable of providing advice and support to users, to lending agencies to be found and to the Government F) Private national companies capable of building hydraulic structures according to accepted engineering practice G) Civil servants trained in the new role of the State
Preparation of reference manuals and guides (Proposed programme may include several phases that will be funded by different funding agencies)
Capacity building for local management of water, the water service and the benefits of productive water To be found Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water 2 000 000 000 National
Preparation and distribution of guides and manuals dealing with sanitation, the participatory approach, management and maintenance of drinking water supply systems, institutional and regulatory aspects of the water sector
2003-2010
Available tools and a structured environment enabling each stakeholder to fulfil his partnership role to the full within the drinking water access chain
Total amount of funds to be found for support measures in the drinking water field
1 2 3 4 Borehole with HP: 7 MFCFA/U Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 50 MFCFA/U Drinking water supply system Borehole rehabilitation: 3 MFCFA/U
8 000 000 000

164
Proposed action plan for village water supply 2011-2020

Field Action Links with strategies Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Ouadda geographical area Village drinking water Improvement of water supply Drinking water point construction programme in the western part of the Sahelian zone Drinking water point construction programme in the Gura Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Mayo-Kebbi Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Batha
1 Borehole with hand pump 2 Reh.: borehole rehabilitation
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Period HP1 BSU DWS Well Reh2
Impacts
Status
Village well construction programme in the BET
To be found
2 600 000 000
Saharan Zone
130
2011-2020
To be found
11 200 000 000
Saharan / Sahelian 1 600 Zones
2011-2020
To be found
7 700 000 000
Sahelian Zone
1 100
2011-2020
To be found
2 800 000 000
Sahelian Zone
400
2011-2020
Increase in drinking water access rate to 85% of the village population in 2020 Operational and sustainable maintenance network Support for setting up local and regional structures for the management of water supply equipment and the income from productive water Improvement in living and health conditions of the village populations
To be found
7 000 000 000
Sudanian Zone
1 000
2011-2020
Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building To be found 4 375 000 000 Sahelian Zone 625 2011-2020

165

Field Action Links with strategies Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Tandjil Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Logone Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Drinking water point construction programme in the Salamat Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Total cost of projects to be funded between 2011 and 2020 in the field of water supply improvement 60 770 000 000 8 310 130 To be found 1 120 000 000 Sudanian / Sahelian Zones 160 2011-2020 Project to be defined and funding to be found To be found 11 725 000 000 Sudanian Zone 1 675 2011-2020 To be found 5 250 000 000 Sudanian Zone 750 2011-2020 Increase in drinking water access rate to 85% of the village population in 2020 Operational and sustainable maintenance network Support for setting up local and regional structures for the management of water supply equipment and the income from productive water Improvement in living and health conditions of the village populations Project to be defined and funding to be found To be found 7 000 000 000 Sudanian Zone 1 000 2011-2020 Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area
Impacts
Status
Drinking water point construction programme in the Moyen-Chari
Village drinking water Improvement of water supply
166
Field
Action
Links with strategies Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Impacts
Status
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the western part of the Sahelian zone
To be found
1 505 000 000
Sahelian Zone
430
2011-2020
Village drinking water Rehabilitation of drinking water points to maintain the supply rate
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the Ouadda geographical area and the Gura
To be found
910 000 000
Sahelian Zone
260
2011-2020
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the Mayo-Kebbi
To be found
840 000 000
Sudanian Zone
240
2011-2020 Maintaining the drinking water supply rate of village populations Maintaining the living conditions of the populations
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the Chari-Baguirmi
Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building
To be found
430 500 000
Sudanian Zone
123
2011-2020
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the Moyen-Chari
To be found
1 662 500 000
Sudanian Zone
475
2011-2020
Borehole rehabilitation programme in the Tandjil and the Logone
To be found
1 925 000 000
Sudanian Zone
550
2011-2020
Total cost of borehole rehab. projects to be funded in 2011 and 2020 Support for and strengthening of associations involved in water service management (Proposed programme may Maintenance of supply rate and improvement of sanitary conditions Strengthening of the organisational framework for local management of water Capacity building To be found
7 273 000 000
2 078
3 000 000 000
National
National capacities at all levels capable of efficiently managing the drinking water service
include several phases funded by different funding agencies)
Total funding to be found between 2001 and 2020

1 Borehole with hand pump 2 Reh.: borehole rehabilitation
71 043 000 000

167
3 SEMI-URBAN AND URBAN WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020
Field Action Links with strategies Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project phase 2 Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Governance and local management of water Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Total funds obtained or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2001 For Ref. (Projects accounted for in water resources) FAC FAC UNDP Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements A document to serve as a reference for the development and integrated management of water resources Capacity building for the integrated and sustainable management of water resources and exploitation facilities Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities Organisational framework for the management of hydraulic structures defined and operational Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities Period Impacts Status
Capacity building and strengthening of legal and institutional frameworks
National
1998-2002
Setting up methods of approach, tools and action plans to allow the sustainable and integrated development of water resources Strengthened water management capacities
Ongoing
National
1998-2002
Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Operating procedures for management of hydraulic structures and the water service defined Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Procedures for management of hydraulic structures and water supply service applied Existence of local, regional and national water management capacities Operating procedure for management of hydraulic structures and the water service defined and applied at full scale over an area Replication of management methods Creation of income from water development
Ongoing
National
2003-2006
Under discussion
UNDP
National
Setting up of of local, regional and national water management structures Knowledge improvement Support for local economic development
2003-2007
Under discussion
168
Field
Action Village water supply programme in the Sudanian zone Village water supply programme of the 8th EDF plan in Chad Village water supply programme of the IX EDF plan Saudi project Phase III Chad Regional Solar Programme Drinking water supply programme for the DLA
Links with strategies Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Improvement of water supply
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area Sudanian Zone
Period HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4 2 1999-2002
Impacts
Status
AFD
120 000 000
Ongoing
Improvement of drinking water supply: non-concessionary area
EU
1 800 000 000
Western Sahelian Zone
30
1999-2004
Ongoing
EU/EDF
5 400 000 000
To be determined
90
2003-2008 A) Methods for decentralised management of the water service operational B) Legal and institutional frameworks defined and adopted C) Local, regional and national stakeholders trained D) Improvement in drinking water supply in the non-concessionary area to 55% of the population
Funding obtained Ongoing
Saudi Arabia
120 000 000
Sahelian Zone Western Sahelian Zone
E.U.
4 200 000 000
70
2002-2005
Starting up
China Taiwan
11 660 000 000
National
19
1999-2003
Ongoing
Drinking water supply programme for secondary and semiurban centres
Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal and regulatory framework AFD 4 260 000 000
Sudanian / Sahelian Zones
43
2002-2005
Ongoing
Funding obtained for the construction of new drinking water points in the non-concessionary area
1 2 3 4 Borehole with hand pump Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 60 MFCFA/U DWS network with private connection: 250 MFCFA/U Reh.: borehole rehabilitation
27 560 000 000
237
19
1999-2008
Funding obtained
169
Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020 (contd)
Field Action Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area
Period HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4 Construction of five mini DWS systems in the periruban districts of NDjamna Setting up of appropriate water service management structures by the users Support for local economic development Water tower rehabilitation, network extension, construction of latrines
Impacts
Status
Improvement of water supply Water and Services Project in the peripheral districts of NDjamna Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Repair of DWS system in Faya Improvement of drinking water supply: concessionary area STEE urban centres
AFD
1 325 000 000
NDjamna
2000-2002
Improvement of water supply to the towns of NDjamna and Faya Improvement of sanitation
Ongoing
Improvement of water supply
IDB
3 600 000 000 4 925 000 000
2001-2002
Starting up
Total amount of physical investments obtained in the concessionary area Upgrading / rehabilitation of DWS system of NDjamna
To be found
4 560 000 000
NDjamna
Rehabilitation, renewal of water mains, reservoirs, well pumps, 600 connections per year, provision of 23 stand-pipes per year Network extension by 10 to 14 km/year, 900 to 1300 connections per year and 30 standpipes per year Rehabilitation, renewal of water mains, reservoirs, well pumps, 200 connections per year, provision of 30 stand-pipes per year Network extension by 2 to 3 km/year, 200 to 300 connections per year, provision of 10 to 15 stand-pipes per year
2001-2010
Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the resident population of the concessionary area B) Organised and structured water service in the periurban districts of the concessionary area centres C) Economic development centres around the mini DWS systems Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
Extension of DWS system of NDjamna Upgrading / rehabilitation of DWS system in other centres conceded to the STEE Extension of DWS system in other centres conceded to the STEE Development of selfcontained mini DWS systems that could ultimately be linked to the STEE network Rehabilitation, upgrading and extension of existing DWS networks
To be found
3 550 000 000
NDjamna
2001-2010
To be found
4 270 000 000
STEE urban centres
2001-2010
Improvement of water supply Improvement of urban water supply

Support for obtaining an organisational framework for local management of the water service
To be found
800 000 000
STEE urban centres
2001-2010
To be found
15 750 000 000
STEE urban centres
63
2003-2010
Capacity building and support for local economic development Improvement of urban water supply To be found Capacity building and support for local economic development 48 930 000 000 20 000 000 000 STEE urban centres 2003-2010
Funding to be found for physical investments in STEE concessionary area 2003-2010
170
Field
Action
Links with strategies Capacity building for local management of water, the water service and the benefits of productive water
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements
Period
Impacts
A) Human resources trained for efficient management of the water service B) Operational user associations C) Role of the State refocused on programming, supervision and regulation activities D) Private companies and craftsmens networks capable of providing efficient maintenance and servicing of the drinking water supply systems
Status
Capacity building: non-concessionary area
Support for the creation of local and regional structures for management of drinking water supply systems
To be found Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water
5 000 000 000
National
A) Training programmes devised and disseminated at all levels: users, NGOs, design offices, private companies, craftsmens networks, etc. B) Training of human resources
2003-2010
Preparation of reference manuals and guides
Capacity building for local management of water, the water service and the benefits of productive water To be found Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water 100 000 000 National
Preparation and distribution of guides and manuals dealing with sanitation, the participatory approach, management and maintenance of drinking water supply systems, institutional and regulatory aspects of the water sector Preparation of an integrated plan for drinking water supply to, and sanitation of, the 11 centres of the concessionary area A) External training of legal experts, economists and highlevel engineers B) Technical assistance programme for making the monitoring committee operational
2003-2010
Available tools and a structured environment enabling each stakeholder to fulfil his partnership role to the full within the drinking water access chain
Capacity building: concessionary area
Preparation of integrated plans for drinking water supply to the 11 centres of the concessionary area
External and internal training programme and training by technical assistance for the civil servants responsible for STEE monitoring (Monitoring Committee)
Improvement of water supply and conditions Capacity building for local management of water, the water service and the benefits of productive water To be found 10 000 000 000 Concessionary area
2002-2007
Available tools for coherent planning of the actions and investments to be made to ensure drinking water supply to the population in the concessionary area
Capacity building
To be found
1 500 000 000
National
2003-2005
Trained human resources capable of efficient monitoring of the STEEs and taking decisions in the best interests of the Chad State and the urban populations
Total investment funding to be found for support measures and training programmes in urban and semi-urban hydraulics
16 600 000 000

171
Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020 (contd)
Field Action Links with strategies Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the small centres of the Ouadda geographical area Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the Batha Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Programme for the construction of water supply and sanitation facilities for the small centres of the Gura Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the westerm part of the Sahelian zone Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building To be found 800 000 000 Sahelian Zone 5 2 2011-2020 Project to be defined and funding to be found To be found 5 850 000 000 Sudanian Zone 85 3 2011-2020 Project to be defined and funding to be found To be found 1 750 000 000 Sahelian Zone 25 1 2011-2020 To be found 600 000 000 Sahelian / Saharan Zones 10 0 2011-2020 Project to be defined A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the population and funding to be found in the non-concessionary area by the year 2020 B) Fair and extensive access to drinking water C) Appropriate water service management by the Project to be users in accordance with regulations defined and funding to be found To be found 2 050 000 000 Sahelian / Saharan Zones 30 1 2011-2020 Project to be defined and funding to be found To be found 300 000 000 Saharan Zone 5 2011-2020 Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area
Period HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4
Impacts
tat
Programme for the construction of drinking water supply systems in the BET
Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the Logone and Tandjil
172
Field
Action
Links with strategies Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Period HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4
Impacts
Status
Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the Mayo-Kebbi
To be found
5 300 000 000
Sudanian Zone
80
2011-2020
Project to be defined and funding to be found A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the population in the non-concessionary area by the year Project to be 2020 defined B) Fair and extensive access to drinking water and funding to be found C) Appropriate water service management by the users in accordance with regulations Project to be defined and funding to be found
Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the Moyen-Chari
Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building To be found 2 950 000 000 Sudanian Zone 45 1 2011-2020
Programme for the construction of basic supply units in the Salamat
Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building To be found 900 000 000 Sudanian Zone 15 2011-2020
Funding to be found for the construction of new DWS systems in the non-concessionary area 2011-2020 Development of selfcontained mini DWS systems that could ultimately be linked to the STEE network Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Funding to be found for DWS construction and strengthening in the concessionary area 2011-2020
20 500 000 000
300
10
Improvement of water supply: concessionary area
To be found
15 000 000 000
STEE urban centres
60
2011-2020
Connection of mini DWS systems and strengthening of existing DWS systems
To be found
12 000 000 000
STEE urban centres
Strengthening and extension of existing DWS systems Connection of mini DWS systems to the STEE network 60
2011-2020
A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the resident population of the concessionary area B) Organised and structured water service in the periurban districts of the concessionary area centres C) Economic development centres around the mini DWS systems
27 000 000 000
173
4 PASTORAL WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010
Field Action Links with strategies Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to water requirements of livestock and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture land Equipping of migration routes and stockrearing trade routes with PWPs National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to water requirements of livestock and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture land Equipping of migration routes and stockrearing trade routes with PWPs National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to water requirements of livestock and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture land Equipping of migration routes and stockrearing trade routes with PWPs National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to water requirements of livestock and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture land Equipping of migration routes and stockrearing trade routes with PWPs National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to water requirements of livestock and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture land Equipping of migration routes and stockrearing trade routes with PWPs National capacity building Development of about 100 pastoral water points, including construction of 70 Sahelian ponds and new wells to replace 30 existing wells Rehabilitation of 43 existing structures Rehabilitation of 60 wells Construction of 60 pastoral wells Signposting of moukhals Setting up management structure Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Strengthening of stakeholders involved Development of 70 ponds Setting up of PWP management structures Improvement of knowledge on livestock numbers and fodder producing capacities Signposting of moukhals Development of 80 ponds Construction of 25 pastoral wells Construction of 10 micro-dams Signposting of 1000 km of moukhals Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Strengthening of stakeholders involved Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Construction of 88 PWPs Rehabilitation of 265 PWPs Strengthening of the traditional system for maintaining PWPs Support for pastoral organisations Period Impacts Status
Pastoral water supply project in the Kanem
AFD
4 000 000 000
Western part of Saharan and Sahelian Zones
1999-2003
Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Strengthening of stakeholders involved
Ongoing
Almy Bahm project, phase 2
AFD
4 500 000 000
Eastern part of Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian Zones
2000-2003
Ongoing
Pastoral water supply Ongoing or start-up projects
Almy Bahm project, phase 3
AFD
7 400 000 000
Sahelian Zone
2003-2008
Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Strengthening of stakeholders involved
Under discussion
IX EDF pastoral water supply project
EDF
6 300 000 000
Sahelian Zone
2003-2008
Under discussion
Central Chad Project
AFD/EDF
5 300 000 000
Central part of Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian Zones
2003-2006
Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Strengthening of stakeholders involved.
Under discussion
174
Field
Action
Links with strategies Strengthening of the institutional framework
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements A document to serve as a reference for the development and integrated management of water resources Capacity building for integrated and sustainable management of water resources and exploitation facilities Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities Organisational framework for hydraulic structure management defined and operational Installation of monitoring tools and methodologies for integrated water resource management National capacity training Setting up procedures for the management of hydraulic structures on a local, regional and national level; support for local economic development National capacity building Support for structuring the institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks
Period
Impacts
Status
Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework National capacity building Strengthening of the institutional framework
UNDP
For Ref.
National
1998-2002
Setting up methods of approach, tools and action plans to allow the sustainable and integrated development of water resources Strengthened water management capacities
Ongoing
Pastoral water supply Ongoing or start-up projects
Water Policy Project
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework National capacity building Strengthening of the institutional framework
FAC
For Ref.
National
1999-2003
Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Operating procedures defined for the management of hydraulic structures and the water service
Ongoing
Governance and local management of water
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework
UNDP
For Ref.
National
2003-2006
Integrated water resource management Support for the local management of hydraulic structures and pastoral areas National capacity building
Under discussion
National capacity building Strengthening of the institutional framework Water Policy Project phase 2 Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework National capacity building Total funding obtained for pastoral water supply in 2001
PWP = Pastoral Water Point
FS
For Ref.
National
2004-2007
Institutional and regulatory framework defined and harmonised. Capacities trained for management of structures and resources
Under discussion
27 500 000 000

175
Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010 (contd)

Field Action Links with strategies Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities To be found Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities To be found Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Setting up pastoral water supply monitoring tools Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe National capacity building Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Study and assessment of trans-frontier migration Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe National capacity building Total funding to be found to improve basic knowledge 1 000 000 000 To be found 75 000 000 National To be found 75 000 000 National To be found 150 000 000 National 200 000 000 National 250 000 000 National Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Updated livestock census Inventories of nomadic routes Inventories of pasture land areas and their interconnections Better knowledge of trans-frontier migration Period Impacts Status
Updating livestock numbers and rangeland used for migration
2000-2010
Basic knowledge improvement Management capacity building Coordination, regulation and channelling of trans-frontier pastoral migrations
Updating pasture land carrying capacities
To be found
250 000 000
National
Maps of the exhaustive inventory of pasture lands, their condition and an assessment of their carrying capacities
2000-2010
Support for planning and programming pastoral water supply structures Sub-sector management support Rational exploitation of pasture lands with due respect for the environment Planning and coherent programming of the various types of pastoral water supply structures Improvement of knowledge on water resources Enhanced exploitation of pasture lands
Pastoral water supply Proposals for projects aimed at improving knowledge
Inventories of traditional water points: wells, permanent and semi-permanent ponds, etc.
Exhaustive knowledge of livestock drinking points in order to obtain a more accurate assessment of the need for pastoral water points
2000-2010
Establishment of data bases (water points, pasture land, livestock, etc.) coupled with a geographical information system (GIS) Continuous updating and monitoring of basic data and requirements. National personnel trained and capable of using the GIS.
2000-2010
Decision-aid Sub-sector management based on updated, usable, data for coherent planning and programming of actions to be undertaken while always taking into account the environmental aspects
Study and assessment of the impacts of pastoral water supply projects
Study of the various pastoral water supply projects carried out and assessment of their impacts, notably on PWP management procedures and on the support given for settling conflicts between migrating and sedentary stock-rearers Exhaustive knowledge of livestock entry and exit points in Chad. Development of livestock import and export ports equipped with PWPs Better control and monitoring of pastoral migrations and trade flow framing (This study could be carried out within the context of the CBLT)
2000-2010
Definition of PWP management methodologies and procedures adapted to the various contexts of migrational stock-rearing and to specific regional aspects Support for settling and reducing conflicts
2000-2010
Coordination and control of trans-frontier migration Improvement of knowledge on livestock trade flows
176
Field
Action
Links with strategies Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements Equipping pasture lands (100 km grid size) and trade routes with about 150 pastoral water points governed by the pasture land carrying capacities and by the actual numbers of livestock Groups of stock-rearers or committees bringing together all the stakeholders, trained in water point management Construction of a maximum of 350 pastoral wells and development of ponds after having made a detailed study of livestock numbers, carrying capacities and nomad routes and areas Resizing and signposting of the moukhals equipped with PWPs, in collaboration with the various stakeholders Well-defined stop-over reception areas equipped with PWPs Setting up of basic structures integrating all the stakeholders for PWP management
Period
Impacts
Status
Construction of pastoral water points Pastoral water supply Proposals for projets aimed at improving livestock access to water
Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe National capacity building
To be found
5 000 000 000
Saharan Zone
2000-2010
Migration protection Rational exploitation of the pastoral area Setting up PWP management structures adapted to the specific aspects of the environment
Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Development of pastoral water points and signposting of the moukhals in the eastern and central parts of the Sahelian zone
Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe
To be found
15 000 000 000
Central and eastern part of Sahelian Zone
2000-2010
National capacity building
Development of pastoral water points in the western part of the Sahelian zone
Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to requirements of livestock and pasture land carrying capacities Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe National capacity building To be found 4 000 000 000
Construction of a maximum of 125 pastoral wells after having made a detailed study of livestock numbers Western Sahelian and carrying capacities Zone Identification of nomad routes Setting up management structures consistent with the local context
2000-2010
PWP = Pastoral water point
177
Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010 (contd)

Field Action Links with strategies Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in relation to livestock water requirements, and making allowance for the natural carrying capacity of the pasture lands Development of pastoral water points in the Sudanian zone Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe To be found 20 000 000 000 Sudanian Zone Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Pastoral water supply Proposals for projects aimed at improving livestock access to water
Construction of pastoral water wells (about 500) and development of ponds according to requirements and land use Jointly approved delineation of migration corridors and water access points Setting up management structures adapted to the various contexts and involving all stakeholders
2000-2010
Integrated regional development, especially for the rural areas Prevention of conflicts
Development of pastoral reception areas equipped with PWPs for herd movements in exceptional years
Equipping of trade routes and migration tracks used by the stock-rearers with water points in order to make movement safe To be found National capacity building 49 000 000 000 5 000 000 000
Sudanian Zone
Jointly approved identification of pastoral reception areas for exceptional years Construction of PWPs Setting up management structures adapted to the environment (sedentary area)
2000-2010
Migration protection in exceptionally dry years Concerted regional development and structuring of the environment Prevention of sources of conflict
Total funding to be found to improve livestock access to water
178
Field
Action
Links with strategies
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements Inventory and publication of a manual of all customary laws as well as the traditional mechanisms used for settling conflicts between stock-rearers/land farmers in respect of access to and use of water resources. Definition of the status of migratory stock-rearer Definition and regulation of the concept of access to water for migrating herdsmen, especially in an area of sedentary farming and legal acknowledgement of migration networks.
Period
Impacts
Status
Pastoral water supply Proposals for projects of an institutional or regulatory nature
Study of customary laws and existing traditional mechanisms for settling conflicts related to access to water resources
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework To be found Strengthening of the institutional framework 80 000 000 National
2000-2010
Pastoral water point management adapted to local contexts Prevention or reduction of sources of conflict Support for promoting local management of pastoral areas
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Strengthening of the Water Code Strengthening of the institutional framework Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Drawing up of the pastoral code Strengthening of the institutional framework To be found 750 000 000 National To be found 30 000 000 National
2000-2010
Water Code adapted to all water uses Prevention of conflicts
Note: The Pastoral Code is part of the regional development framework. It is mentioned in this action plan purely for reference purposes.
2000-2010
Capacity building
Reduction of conflicts Strengthening of institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks Development of rural areas in Chad giving due respect to the environment and specific regional features Promotion of local management of the pastoral area
Pastoral water supply Training
External and internal training programme and by means of technical assistance for the civil servants, association stakeholders, and the private sector involved in the pastoral field
Capacity building (programme that can be broken down into several phases)
To be found
700 000 000
National
High-level training, both internal and external, of engineers, economists, technicians, pastoralism specialists, etc. Technical assistance programme to support the stock-rearing field. Training programme to support pastoral organisations and local management of pastoral areas
2000-2010
Trained human resources capable of providing efficient management and monitoring of stockrearing.
Total funding to be found for national capacity building and for strengthening the legal and regulatory framework
1 560 000 000

179
Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2011-2020

Field Action Links with strategies Repair of pastoral water supply structures according to livestock needs and pastoral carrying capacities Development of PWPs Improvement of access to pastoral water Equipping stock-rearers trading and migration routes with water points to make migration movements safe National capacity building Repair of pastoral water supply structures according to livestock needs and pastoral carrying capacities Development of PWPs Equipping stock-rearers trading and migration routes with water points to make migration movements safe National capacity building Repair of pastoral water supply structures according to livestock needs and pastoral carrying capacities Equipping stock-rearers trading and migration routes with water points to make migration movements safe National capacity building Repair of pastoral water supply structures according to livestock needs and pastoral carrying capacities Maintain and update the data base and GIS Equipping stock-rearers trading and migration routes with water points to make migration movements safe National capacity building External and internal training programme and by means of technical assistance for the civil servants, association stakeholders, and the private sector involved in the pastoral field To be found 55 000 000 National Continuous updating and monitoring of basic data and besoins National personnel trained and capable of using the GIS To be found 15 000 000 000 Sudanian Development of 600 PWPs by doubling up the moukhals Development of more pastoral reception areas on the basis of consultations between all stakeholders concerned To be found 10 000 000 000 Sahelian Development of 500 PWPs Creation of management structures adapted to the environment and to specific regional features To be found 7 000 000 000 Saharan Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Development of 400 PWPs Creation of management structures adapted to the environment
2011-2020
Promote the use of arid rangeland in sectors endowed with the best fodder resources Operational management structures
2011-2020
Strengthen seasonal pastoral movements by doubling up the lines of wells installed along the moukhals Operational PWP management structures
Development of PWPs and pastoral reception areas
2011-2020
Strengthen seasonal pastoral movements Operational PWP management structures Reduction of conflicts
Monitoring of pastoral hydraulics and capacity building
2011-2020
Management based on up-to-date, exploitable data in order to be able to plan and draw up coherent schedules of measures to be taken while making due allowance for environmental aspects
To be found
500 000 000
National
Training of managerial staff, pastoral organisations Technical assistance programme
2011-2020
Trained human resources capable of providing efficient management and monitoring of stockrearing.
Total funding to be found for pastoral water supply between 2011 and 2020
32 555 000 000

180
5 AGRICULTURAL WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020
Field Action Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Construction of irrigation networks over an area of 1800 ha Construction of a drainage network On-farm development works Construction of embankments to protect polders Construction of pumping stations Construction of dams Development of wadis Supply of agricultural equipment Development of 13 polders Construction of schools Construction of public health centres Period Impacts Status
Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Mamdi project (Sodelac) Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Rural development project for the Lake (Sodelac) Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Implementation of a regional development policy Rural development project for the subprefecture of NGouri (Sodelac) Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Implementation of a regional development policy Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Natural resources management project in the Sudanian zone Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Implementation of a regional development policy Rehabilitation of existing facilities Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential ADB/ADF Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation 11 434 000 000 Sahelian Zone Sudanian Zone BADEA 7 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone BADEA/ GVT 18 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone ADB/ADF IDB/BADEA/ GVT. 25 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone
1998-2003
Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations
Ongoing
Doum-Doum development project (Sodelac) Agricultural water supply: ongoing or start-up projects
3 000 000 000
Sahelian Zone
1998-2003
Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations
Ongoing
1998-2003
Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Integrated development of rural areas
Ongoing
Development of 1000 ha of wadis Supply of agricultural equipment Construction of economic infrastructure (roads, schools, public health centres) Organisation and empowerment of producers Development of infrastructure Rehabilitation of 2 500 ha Construction of 210 km of protective embankments Improvement in the efficiency of public services Construction of 143 km of rural tracks Development of 586 ha of land by the construction of 10 dams and 156 wells for market-gardening Organisational support for producers
2002-2007
Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Integrated development of rural areas Improved access to production areas
Starting up
ADB
18 700 000 000
2002-2007
Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Integrated development of rural areas Improved access to production areas National capacity building
Starting up
Project for making productive use of runoff water
1999-2006
Ongoing
181
Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020 (contd)

Field Action Links with strategies Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Rural development project in Biltine Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rehabilitation of existing facilities Agricultural water supply: ongoing or start-up projects Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Special programme for food security Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential IDB Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Implementation of a regional development policy Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Rehabilitation of the C polders Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rehabilitation of existing facilities Total funding obtained and under discussion 2000 to 2010 99 391 568 373 Taiwan 1 300 000 000 Sudanian Zone Rehabilitation of 500 ha of C polders 2002-2005 Contribution to food security and to the rational operation of existing facilities Starting up IDB/CBLT 300 000 000 Sudanian Zone Development of 2500 ha of irrigated crops 2001-2002 2 230 000 000 Saharan Zone FAO/IDB 787 568 373 ADB/ADF 11 640 000 000 Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Development of 10 catchment areas, six irrigaton areas, and 30 wells for market-gardening of 50 km of rural Sahelian / Saharan Construction tracks Zones Improvement of 25 000 ha of rainfed cropping, 300 ha of irrigated cropping and 700 ha of floodrecession cropping Water control aspect Diversification aspect Sahelian / Saharan Constraint analysis aspect Zones Development of irrigation areas, lowland schemes, introduction of suitable technologies Irrigation and drainage development works for 200 ha of palm groves Construction of 12 boreholes for water supply
2002-2007
Starting up
2002-2005
Ongoing
Integrated development project of the BET
2002-2004
Contribution to food security
Starting up
Feasibility study for an integrated rural development project in Cameroon/Chad
Knowledge improvement Contribution to food security Capacity building
Ongoing
182
Field
Action
Links with strategies Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements Study of the integrated development of the Liwa subprefecture
Period
Impacts Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Integrated development of rural areas Improved access to production areas Support for local development local and food security
Status Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
Agricultural water supply: proposed schemes
Rural development of Liwa
To be found Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential To be found Development of a policy for farmer training and organisation
300 000 000
Sahelian Zone
2000-2010
Creation of small-scale village irrigation schemess
12 000 000 000
Sudanian Zone
Development of 2000 ha of small-scale village irrigation schemes
2000-2010
Total funding to be found for agricultural water supply between 2000 and 2010
12 300 000 000

183
Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020 (contd)

Field Action Study of defluence channel operation and restoration of the productive potential of natural flood-spreading on the Chari-Logone plain Links with strategies Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Rehabilitation of existing facilities Development of a farmer training and organisation policy Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Agricultural water supply: Knowledge improvement, support for planning, capacity-buiding and sector structuring Exhaustive inventories of lowlands Development of a farmer training and organisation policy Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential To be found Development of a farmer training and organisation policy Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Development of a farmer training and organisation policy Rehabilitation of existing facilities Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soil potential Development of a farmer training and organisation policy Rehabilitation of existing facilities To be found 83 870 000 000 National To be found 10 000 000 000 National 3 000 000 000 To be found 250 000 000 Sudanian Zone To be found 175 000 000 Sudanian Zone Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Assessment of the operating condition of drainage channels Technical recommendations for improving their operation and optimising their use Definition of typology Definition of technical criteria for their development Definition of the terms of reference for a feasability study for operating a pilot project Full-scale development for exploiting lowlands Recommendations for continuing this type of operation Construction of schemes for the irrigation and drainage of 5000 ha of land Support for and training of Peasant Organisations Construction of rural tracks Training of personnel Constructionof development schemes for the irrigation and drainage of 100 000 ha of land Support for and training of Peasant Organisations Construction of rural tracks Training of personnel Definition and implementation of training plans for personnel belonging to the Administration, Peasant Organisations, private operators, local populations and associations For Reference: The Rural Code must be an integral part of overall regional development and in harmony with the Pastoral Code Period Impacts Status
2000-2020
Knowledge improvement National capacity building
2000-2010
Up-to-date knowledge of the soil potential in Chad
Management of a pilot project for lowland development
Sudanian Zone
2010-2020
Improvement of knowledge on lowland farming techniques Contribution to food security
Preparation and implementation of a programme for building irrigation and drainage schemes with total control of water Preparation and implementation of a programme for building irrigation and drainage schemes for floodrecession, catchment and small-scale village irrigation areas Preparaton and implementation of stakeholder training plans
2000-2020
Contribution to food security Integrated development of rural areas Strengthening of peasant organisations Improved access to production areas
2000-2020
Contribution to food security Integrated development of rural areas Strengthening of peasant organisations Improved access to production areas Strengthening of stakeholders involved Support for sector organisation and structuring Increase in productivity Contribution to food security Strengthening of institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks Development of rural areas in Chad while respecting the environment and specific regional aspects Promotion of local management of rural areas
Development of a farmer training and organisation policy
To be found
2 000 000 000
National
2000-2020
Drawing up a Rural Code
Legal and regulatory strengthening
To be found
750 000 000
National
2000-2020
Total funding to be found between 2000 and 2020
100 045 000 000

184
6 WATER RESOURCES ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan in the water resources field 2000-2020
Field Action Regional strategies exploiting the Nubian Sandstone aquifer Links with strategies Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Regulatory and institutional frameworks Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Integrated Plan for water development Capacity building Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Water Policy Project phase 2 Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework Governance and local management of water Support for obtaining an organisational framework for the local management of water Capacity building Funding obtained and under discussion for institutional and regulatory frameworks and knowledge improvement 5 625 000 000
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area Regional (Chad, Libya; Sudan, Egypt)
Anticipated results/ achievements Planning tools and documents for the management and sustainable exploitation of the Nubian Sandstone aquifer Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities Organisational framework for hydraulic structure management defined and operational
Period
Impacts
Status
FIDA/CEDARE
750 000 000
2000-2003
Integrated management of shared water resources Capacity training Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Support in defining the operating procedures for management of hydraulic structures and the water service Integrated and sustainable management of water resources and the facilities for their mobilisation and exploitation National officers trained in water resource management and monitoring Institutional, legal and regulatory environment defined Strengthened water management capacities Procedures for management of hydraulic structures and water supply service applied Existence of local, regional and national water management capacities Operating procedures for management of hydraulic structures and the water service defined and applied at full scale over an area Replication of management methods Creation of income from water development
Ongoing
FAC
500 000 000
National
1998-2002
Ongoing
UNDP
1 500 000 000
National
An approved document to serve as a reference for the development and integrated and sustainable 1998-2002 management of water resources National capacity building
Ongoing
FAC
1 000 000 000
National
Institutional and legal frameworks defined Strengthened water management capacities
Under discussion
UNDP
1 875 000 000
National
Setting up of local, regional and national water management structures Knowledge improvement Support for local economic development
Under discussion
185
Proposed action plan in the water resources field 2000-2020 (contd)

Field Action Links with strategies Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Fisheries master plan Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Enhancement of the measurement network and hydrological studies per event for local development (agricultural and pastoral) Enhancement of the measurement and monitoring network for lakes and flood flows, targeting local economic development in particular Enhancement of the measurement and monitoring network for the surface water of the Chari-Logone and Mayo-Kebbi basins Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems To be found 200 000 000 National Carrying out hydrological studies of the various surface hydrosystems Training of national personnel 2000-2010 To be found 200 000 000 Sahelian Zone To be found 250 000 000 Saharan Zone ADB 750 000 000 National Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements A document and tools for the sustainabale exploitation of fisheries resources Period Impacts Status
2001-2003
Contribution to food security and to economic development
Ongoing
Installation of appropriate facilities for monitoring surface water flows in the Saharan zone Training of national technicians and local personnel
2000-2010
A) Operational measurement system for collecting Project to be basic data on Saharan hydrology defined and funding B) National personnel trained in the installation to be found and monitoring of measuring equipment A Operational measurement system for permanent monitoring of the operation of Lakes Chad and Fitri, the wadis as well as the catchment areas of eastern Chad B) National personnel trained in the installation and monitoring of measuring equipment A) Knowledge of the main characteristics and operation of the surface hydrosystems and their relationships with aquifers B) Support for the sustainable exploitation and management of water resources C) Training of national personnel capable of conducting and monitoring water resources studies
Rehabilitation of existing facilities Installation of new facilities Training of national technicians and local personnel
2000-2010
Surface water
Preparation of an integrated plan for the Chari-Logone basin and is flood-prone areas
Capacity building
To be found
2 000 000 000
Sahelian / Sudanian Zones
Documents and tools for the management of surface water resources in the Chari-Logone basin, 2000-2010 reconciling economic development and protection of the environment
A) Sustainable development of flood-prone areas B) Flood control Project to be C) Support for the agricultural sector and for food defined security and funding to be found D) Biodiversity conservation E) Contribution to economic development
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Strengthening and operationalisation of the flood warning service Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building Assessment study of damage to the river banks and their development River water management Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems 500 000 000 Sahelian / Sudanian Zones To be found 100 000 000 Sahelian / Sudanian Zones
Structures and equipment for forecasting floods in the flood plains and areas around lake shores subject to temporary flooding as well as for 2000-2010 Lake Chad and Lake Fitri and also for riparian towns, especially NDjamna
A) Flood risk forecasting Project to be B ) Support for the agricultural sector and for food defined security and funding to be found C) Contribution to civil protection
Identification of zones or areas to be developed and the infrastructure to be established
2000-2010
A) Flood prevention B) Biodiversity conservation C) Improvement of local navigability D) Contribution to economic development
Funding obtained and to be found for surface water studies
4 000 000 000
186
Field
Action Preparation of standards for abstraction of water resources for drinking, agricultural and industrial uses Preparation of outfall standards
Links with strategies Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building Strengthening of regulatory framework Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements Definition of standards for abstracting volumes of water from surface resources and major aquifer systems (These standards must be defined in collaboration with the CBLT with regard to shared water resources)
Period
Impacts
Status
To be found
100 000 000
National
2000-2010
A) Sustainable development of water resources B) Strengthened regulatory framework C) Conservation of the biodiversity
Surface water and groundwater
Setting up of methodologies and procedures for assessing impacts prior to the implementation of infrastructure development projects
Capacity building
To be found
250 000 000
National
Writing of a regulatory methodological guide for assessing the impacts of all infrastructure construction projects on water resources and on the environment in general
2000-2010
Strengthening of regulatory framework Studies on rainfall, surface flows and runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration, soils, vegetation, as well as the dimension of catchment areas 2000-2010 Development proposals taking into account the impacts on the supply of groundwater aquifers and water points operated downstream of catchment areas Regular monitoring of the quality of surface water and the resources in major aquifers, notably those exploited for agricultural and drinking water supply
A) Provision of tools, methodologies and processes to decision-makers in order to be able to define the added value of any investment having impacts on water resources and on the environment in general B) Decision-aid C) Better defined regulatory framework D) Contribution to harmonious economic development
Hydrological and hydrogeological studies of the mountainous catchment area in eastern Chad
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources To be found Capacity building 500 000 000 Sahelian Zone
A) Better knowledge of water resources and the operation of mountainous catchment areas B) Development of catchment areas on the basis of reliable, up-to-date data
Setting up a water quality control and monitoring structure
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building To be found 250 000 000 National
2000-2010
A) Prevention of contamination risks of various origins B) Prevention and management of health risks for humans and animals C) Support for biodiversity conservation
Funding to be found
1 100 000 000

187

Field Action Links with strategies Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Updating of the hydrogeological map of Chad Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building To be found 400 000 000 Sahelian / Sudanian Zones Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts A) Provision of basic tools for the sustainable development of groundwater B) Aids for decision-making and for defining and planning programmes C) Support for economic development of Chad Status
General hydrogeological map of Chad to a scale of 1:1 000 000, established from processing new 2000-2010 data obtained from different projects and programmes
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Studies of groundwater potential in the basement zones of eastern Chad
To be found
1 000 000 000
Capacity building Groundwater
Analysis and assessment of groundwater potential on the basis of a literature survey, the results of water point construction programmes, processing of satellite imagery, geological and hydrogeological surveys and exploratory boreholes, etc. Sahelian / Saharan Recommendations for the location Zones and exploitation (water abstraction) of water points Definition of mechanisms and relations between surface water and groundwater resources Definition of priorities in the use of groundwater resources
2000-2010
A) Support for defining and planning groundwater exploitation programmes B) Sustainable management and exploitation of groundwater resources in the basement zone C) National personnel trained in the identification and management of groundwater resources in the basement zone D) Decision-aid for regional development E) Assistance in preventing aquifer pollution F) Support for regional economic development
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Updating of the hydrogeological map of the Southern Continental Terminal Sudanian Zone
Analysis of existing data Hydrogeological map of the Southern Continental Terminal Establishment of aquifer recharge mechanisms and interrelations with surface water resources and deep tectonic fossil aquifers
Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems
To be found
800 000 000
2000-2010
Capacity building Assessment of groundwater potential based on existing data, processing of satellite imagery and geological, hydrogeological and geophysical surveys Sahelian / Saharan Recommendations for the location Zones and exploitation (water abstraction) of water points Definition of mechanisms and relations between surface water and groundwater resources, etc.
A) Knowledge of the potential and main characteristics of the Continental Terminal aquifer B) Support in planning exploitation programmes of Project to be the Southern Continental Terminal aquifer defined and funding C) Sustainable management and exploitation of the to be found Southern Continental Terminal aquifer D) Decision-aid E) Assistance in preventing aquifer pollution
Studies of groundwater potential in the Northern Continental Terminal aquifer
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources To be found 800 000 000
Capacity building
A) Support for defining and planning groundwater exploitation programmes B) Sustainable management and exploitation of groundwater resources in the basement zone C) National personnel trained D) Assistance in preventing aquifer contamination E) Decision-aid for regional development
188
Field
Action
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements
Period
Impacts
Status
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Hydrogeological studies of the multi-layer aquifer systems of the Chad basin Capacity building To be found 1 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone
Determination of the main characteristics of each aquifer Establishmentof the relations between the various aquifers, on one hand, and surface water resources 2000-2010 on the other Assessment of the potential and quality of each aquifer Note: This programme must be carried out in close collaboration with the CBLT
A) Sustainable management and exploitation of the multi-layer aquifer systems of the Chad basin B) Support for planning water exploitation programmes in the Chad basin Project to be defined C) National personnel trained and funding D) Contribution to economic development of the to be found Sahelian zone E) Assistance in preventing aquifer pollution F) Support for regional economic development
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Groundwater Studies of the artificial recharge potential of alluvial deposits Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Strengthening of the national piezometric network Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Capacity building Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources To be found Capacity building 50 000 000 Saharan Zone To be found 500 000 000 National To be found 225 000 000 Saharan Zone
Carrying out works and studies to establish the recharge potential of alluvial deposits in the valleys of the BET
2000-2010
A) Knowledge of the recharge potential of alluvial deposits B) Support for defining and planning groundwater exploitation programmes C) Sustainable management and exploitation of groundwater A) Sustainable monitoring, management and exploitation of groundwater B) Improvement of knowledge on the operation and recharge mechanisms of the major aquifers C) National personnel trained in aquifer monitoring D) Prevention of groundwater contamination
Installation of a national piezometry network including the topographical levelling of observation points Training of monitoring personnel
2000-2010
Studies of artesian wells in the Borkou
Assessment-diagnosis of artesian wells in the Borkou Determination of zones of artesian activity Preparation of standards relating to the exploitation of artesian wells
2000-2010
A) Support for the sustainable management and Project to be exploitation of aquifers defined B) Improvement of knowledge on water resources and funding to be found C) Support for defining the regulatory framework
189

Field Action Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Identification and delineation of these aquifers Definition of their characteristics, their interactions with the other aquifer systems and their recharge mechanisms Assessment of their potential Period Impacts Status
Studies of the potential of the deep aquifers in the tectonic trenches
Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources To be found Capacity building Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources 1 000 000 000
Sudanian Zone
2000-2010
A) Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources B) Training of national personnel C) Support for the sustainable management and exploitation of groundwater resources A) Improvement of knowledge concerning groundwater resources in the Saharan zone B) Support for the sustainable management and exploitation of water resources C) Training of national personnel D) Contribution to the economic development of the Saharan zone A) Improvement of knowledge concerning groundwater resources in the Saharan zone B) Support for the sustainable management and exploitation of water resources C) Training of national personnel D) Contribution to the economic development of the Saharan zone
Groundwater
Studies of groundwater emergence zones in the BET (springs)
Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems
To be found
100 000 000
Saharan Zone
Study of the potential of springs, their recharge mechanisms and their exploitation potential
2000-2010
Assessment of the potential of the Paleozoic Sandstone and marine Carboniferous aquifers
To be found
1 000 000 000
Saharan Zone
Improvement of knowledge of their main characteristics and their productivity potential Determination of interactions between aquifer systems Recommendations for measures to ensure sustainable exploitation of these resources
2000-2010
Funding obtained and to be found for groundwater
6 875 000 000
190
Field
Action
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area
Anticipated results/ achievements A) High-level training, both internal and external, of engineers, economists, technicians, water management specialists, hydrogeologists, hydrologists, etc. B) Technical assistance programme to support the integrated development of water resources Centre equipped with the necessary facilities for collecting, processing and editing up-to-date documents on water resources
Period
Impacts
Status
Capacity training
External and internal training programme and by means of technical assistance for the civil servants, association stakeholders, and the private sector involved in the pastoral field
Capacity building
To be found
500 000 000
National
2000-2010
Trained human resources capable of efficient management and exploitation of water resources
Strengthening of the Water Offices data base
Capacity building Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems To be found 350 000 000 National
2000-2010
Operational resource monitoring system, capable of providing decision-aids for regional development
Capacity-building funding to be found Study and implementation of a warning system for pollution from accidental oil spills Capacity training plan for monitoring oil exploitation and its potential impact on water resources and on the environment in general Funding to be found Improvement of knowledge concerning water resources To be found Integrated management of water resources and aquatic ecosystems
850 000 000 Sudanian/ Sahelian Zones Emergency plan available in the event of accidental pollution due to oil exploitation Project to be defined and funding to be found
1 000 000 000
2000-2010
Preservation of human health and environmental biodiversity
Water resources and oil extraction
To be found
1 500 000 000
National
Training of engineers, technicians legal experts, managers, national environmental specialists
Trained human resources capable of efficient monitoring of oil exploitation and its possible impact on water resources and on the environment in general
2 500 000 000

191
7 SANITATION ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for sanitation 2000-2010
Field Action Links with strategies Promotion of basic village sanitation measures Village water supply programme in the Ouadda/Biltine KFW/AFD/EU Capacity building Promotion of basic village sanitation measures Preparation of a guide on basic sanitation techniques in a rural environment Capacity building Strengthening of legal and regulatory framework To be found 50 000 000 National Manuals and practical reference guides dealing with basic sanitation techniques in a village environment 2000-2010 Tools and methodologies contributing to village sanitation placed at the disposal of all stakeholders involved Project to be defined and funding to be found 500 000 000 Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Improvement of sanitation conditions for village populations Local capacities trained and capable of applying elementary sanitation measures Status
Construction of about 12 000 improved traditional latrines Eastern Sahelian Dissemination of health education Zone programmes Local capacity building
2002-2005
Ongoing
Rural sanitation
Development of basic sanitation infrastructure in a rural environment (latrines, wastewater collection) (These schemes could form one segment of the village water supply programmes) Preparation and dissemination of information and awareness-raising programmes on sanitation and the links between water, hygiene and health Training programme for craftsmen on construction techniques for basic sanitation facilities
Promotion of basic village sanitation measures To be found Capacity building 5 000 000 000 National
Development of basic infrastructure in the villages Dissemination of health education programmes among the village populations
2000-2010
Improvement of sanitation conditions for village populations Local capacities trained and capable of applying elementary sanitation measures
Promotion of basic village sanitation measures To be found Capacity building 1 000 000 000 National Village populations made aware of, educated and trained in basic hygienic practices 2000-2010 Improvement of sanitation conditions for village populations
Promotion of basic village sanitation measures To be found Capacity building 7 050 000 000 500 000 000 National
Craftsmen capable of building and developing basic sanitary infrastructure
2000-2010
Improvement of sanitation conditions for rural populations Development of income-generating activities
Total funding obtained and to be found for village sanitation for 2000-2010
192
Field
Action
Links with strategies Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building
Funding
Cost (FCFA)
Intervention area NDjamna, Moundou, Sarh,
Anticipated results/ achievements Construction of stormwater sewer outfalls
Period
Impacts
Status
Stormwater drainage
AFD
4 500 000 000
2001-2005
Ongoing
Programme for the construction of public latrines in the four biggest towns in Chad Urban and semi-urban sanitation Construction of secondary and tertiary stormwater collectors in the four biggest towns in Chad Development of private cesspits for wastewater
Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure To be found Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure To be found Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building 7 000 000 000 300 000 000
NDjamna, Moundou, Sarh, Abeche
Construction of latrines in public centres
2003-2010
Project to be defined and funding to be found A) Sanitised living environment B) Improvement in the state of health of urban populations C) Development of local and national capacities in the sanitation field D) Support for the private sector E) Development of income-generating activities F) Protection of the environment Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
Construction of stormwater drainage networks
2003-2010
To be found
200 000 000
Households provided with basic sanitation infrastructure in compliance with recognised standards Setting up of an urban waste removal system
2003-2010
Setting up of a waste collection system Training of human resources in sanitation at all levels (administration, civil society, sanitation engineers and technicians, managers, etc.)
Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building
To be found
300 000 000
National
2003-2010
To be found
4 000 000 000
National
Human resources trained in all aspects of sanitation
2000-2010
193
Proposed action plan for sanitation 2000-2010 (contd)

Field Action Preparation of sanitation standards especially for industrial effluent and in a regulatory framework adapted to the context of Chad Urban and semi-urban sanitation Studies of potential sites for the disposal of urban waste Preparation and implementation of sanitation programmes for other urban centres in Chad Sanitation of urban centres located in the oil extraction zone Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework To be found National capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure To be found Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Ongoing Capacity building 19 080 000 000 For Ref. 1 200 000 000 Urban centres Sanitation plan for each urban centre 1 000 000 000 National Precise regulatory framework 2003-2005 A) Sanitised living environment B) Improvement in the state of health of urban populations C) Development of local and national capacities in the sanitation field D) Support for the private sector E) Development of income-generating activities F) Protection of the environment
Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
To be found
580 000 000
Urban centres
Recognised sites complying with urban waste dumping standards
2003-2010
2003-2010
Western Sudanian Zone
2003-2006
Ongoing
Total funding obtained and to be found for urban sanitation for the period 2000-2010
194
Proposed action plan for sanitation 2011-2020

Field Action Development of basic sanitation infrastructure in a rural environment (latrines, wastewater collection) (These schemes could form one segment of the village water supply programmes) Preparation and dissemination of information and awareness-raising programmes on sanitation and the links between water, hygiene and health Training programme for craftsmen on construction techniques for basic sanitation facilities Rural sanitation Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Intervention area Anticipated results/ achievements Period Impacts Status
Promotion of basic village sanitation measures To be found Capacity building 7 000 000 000 National
Development of basic infrastructure in the villages Dissemination of health education programmes amongst the village populations
2011-2020
Improvement of sanitation conditions for village populations Local people trained and capable of applying elementary sanitary measures
Promotion of basic village sanitation measures To be found Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure To be found Capacity building 8 500 000 000 500 000 000 National 1 000 000 000 National
Village populations made aware of, educated and trained in basic health practices
2000-2010
Improvement of sanitation conditions for village populations
Craftsmen capable of building and developing basic sanitary infrastructure
2011-2020
Improvement of sanitation conditions for rural populations Development of income-generating activities
Total funding to be found for village sanitation 2011-2020 Construction of secondary and tertiary stormwater collection networks in the four largest towns in Chad Urban and semi-urban sanitation Construction of wastewater collection and treatment networks Preparation and implementation of sanitation programmes for other urban centres in Chad Training of human resources in sanitation at all levels (Administration, civil society, sanitation engineers and technicians, managers, etc.) Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure To be found Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building Progressive equipping of urban centres with sanitation infrastructure Capacity building
20 000 000 000
Construction of stormwater drainage networks
2011-2020
Project to be defined and funding to be found A) Sanitised living environment B) Improvement in the state of health of urban populations C) Development of local and national capacities in the sanitation field D) Support for the private sector E) Development of income-generating activities F) Protection of the environment Project to be defined and funding to be found Project to be defined and funding to be found
To be found
44 000 000 000
Construction of wastewater collection networks and treatment systems
2011-2020
To be found
3 000 000 000
Urban centres
Sanitation plan for each urban centre
2011-2020
National capacity building To be found National capacity building 6 600 000 000 National Human resources trained in all aspects of sanitation 2011-2020
Total funds acquired or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2000-2010
73 600 000 000

195
1 INTRODUCTION
The Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management responds to two guiding principles defined by the United Nations (Commission on Sustainable Development, sixth session) in 1998, which encompass strategic approaches to the development and integrated and sustainable management of water resources. These guiding principles were restated and refined by the international water experts meetings (Harare - January 1998, organised by UNDESA; Paris - March 1998, organised by France;The Hague - March 2000, organised by the Netherlands; Bonn - December 2001, organised by Germany). The priority placed on the water sector was also restated in the declaration on the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) by the heads of State and Government during their meeting at UN Headquarters in 2000. Finally, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in September 2002 confirmed the role of water as the key to sustainable development. In order to reach the universal goals of the Millennium Declaration concerning access to drinking water and the integration of the principles of sustainable development in national policies, States were notably requested to achieve the quantified goals by 2015 and draw up integrated plans for the management and rational use of water resources by 2005. In adopting the SDEA in June 2003, Chad broke new ground in the Subsaharan Africa region. It is now the Chadian governments responsibility to organise itself accordingly and the international communitys responsibility to take action, in addition to internal financial efforts, so as to ensure that the goals that have been set jointly are achieved in full and that they will have long-term impacts. The first, immediate stage will therefore focus on organisation and fund mobilisation. In parallel, accompanying measures to monitor, assess and update the SDEA will be set up immediately and initially cover a three-year period. The First Integrated plan for Chads Water Development and Management was aimed at implementing a short-term action plan, as part of an integrated approach with long-term objectives. However, in practice, both the funding possibilities and the pace of implementation are changing as a result of external factors which are difficult to predict. Therefore, the SDEA process must be capable of adapting constantly to change. For this reason, operation implementation must be accompanied by large-scale institutional and organisational strengthening of the ministry of water and a mechanism that can be accessed by both the supervising administration and all the other main groups of stakeholders in the sector. The organisational strengthening of the public service responsible for water, at both central and regional level, must take place gradually, on the basis of diagnosis studies and internal debates, as stipulated in the SDEA and its action plan. As long as there are insufficient well-trained managers (the current number being insufficient to meet needs), it will be difficult to contemplate operational reform. Therefore, priority will be placed on training new technical and administrative managers who will become operational after three or four years. There are great needs in the areas of programming, contract management, works supervision, financial control, legal aspects, etc. During the first few years of SDEA implementation, starting in 2003, support from international experts and consultants for works execution and supervision will therefore remain inevitable if the proportion of the Chadian population with access to water is to be increased significantly. As of 2003, with support from the UNDP and UNDESA, special efforts will be made to capitalise on the skills acquired by the managers who participated in drawing up the SDEA by setting up a unit for planning and monitoring the implementation and impacts of the SDEA at the current Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DHA) level. A training plan will also be prepared, with support from MAE-SCAC, in order to build the capacities of the DHA and DREM (Directorate of Water Resources and Meteorology) managers, mainly to ensure that a first class of future managers and technicians can be sent to the regional schools for the start of the 2004 academic year if possible. The injection of new funds from oil exploitation should contribute to funding this training and action, which are essential for the sustainable management of the water sector in Chad.
199
As regards the monitoring mechanism, based on a national and intersectoral network of focal points and on the future regional directorates of water, their purpose will be to: monitor physical implementation of the SDEA short-term action plan;

monitor the impact of implementation; monitor the consistency of the work with the methodologies; monitor fund mobilisation, notably ensuring that sufficient funds are allocated to accompanying measures in each area of external assistance contributing to the water sector in Chad; monitor assessment of the overall impacts of the SDEA in comparison with the expected performance; update the SDEA regularly.
The five types of monitoring measure listed above will be continuous, while an overall assessment of the results and impacts of the SDEA is to be carried out every two years (late 2005 and late 2007). Lastly, the basic data (water office data bases for detailed programming of rural DWS, and GIS/SDEA data bases for the planning and integrated management of all the resources and their uses) will have to be updated regularly, with the SDEA reference document being updated roughly every five years (2008, 2013 and 2018).
2 FUND MOBILISATION 2.1 Internal fund mobilisation

In Chad, internal funds consist of contributions from users and the State (excluding external aid). 2.1.1 The users contribution It was demonstrated in chapter 3 that village households can, and generally do take responsibility for the cost of servicing or maintaining drinking water supply equipment. In urban and semi-urban areas, with equipment geared to the different contexts, it has been verified that the end user enjoying a modern service can, in theory, afford the real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service, as intended in the water policy. As a minimum, this tariff must cover all operating charges and costs of renewing equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. The tariffs in urban areas with connections (concessionary area) will have to be gradually increased. This increase is justified on grounds of equity and the need to invest in extensions in periurban areas currently without water supplies. For all other costs (first installation of equipment, sanitation, water resource monitoring and management, etc.), additional funds (State subsidies and international aid) must be mobilised in Chad for many years to come. As regards pastoral water supply, stock-rearers can generally afford the cost. As far as agricultural water supply is concerned, the cost can be afforded by private initiatives, but not for large irrigation schemes, which generally have very high costs. Farmers often have great difficulty affording the cost of other irrigation schemes, which vary widely in terms of efficiency and profitability. Monitoring of the price of each water service level based on a suitable mechanism (watchdog, for example) and across the entire country would appear to be very useful for implementing the principle of equity, which is written into the SDEA water policy and the Water Code.
200
2.1.2 The States public investments (excluding external aid) When the SDEA was completed (late 2002), the distribution of public revenues from oil exploitation had not yet been drawn up. According to the macroeconomic framework of the SNRP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper), the State will receive an average of FCFA 118 billion/year during the forthcoming period of the SDEA (2003-2015), of which FCFA 65 billion are to be devoted to priority spending, which could be broken down as follows: FCFA 45.5 billion for operation, and
FCFA 19.5 billion for additional physical investment, of which about FCFA 3 billion could go to the water sector.
These budgets show clearly that the public investments planned for the water sector fall far short of the total funding needs of the SDEA, an estimated FCFA 23 billion/year for the balanced scenario, including all subsectors. International aid therefore remains essential in order to confirm the first physical investments and to ensure that the accompanying measures are on the appropriate scale. The additional public investments resulting from oil exploitation should logically be allocated to the priority sectors which are insufficiently covered by international aid, notably rural and urban sanitation. There is real potential here for creating jobs and small local companies. Part of the additional operating budget should be allocated to the water sector, to support the rapid decentralisation of its administration and sustainably strengthen human resources in all areas (public, private and associations). These are prerequisites if the SDEA goals are to be reached.
2.2 External fund mobilisation

As explained above, a major effort is required and expected on the part of international aid over the next twenty years, in addition to internal fund mobilisation. As soon as the State adopts the final SDEA document, it will be published with support from the UNDP and UNDESA and officially submitted by the Government of the Republic of Chad to the bilateral and multilateral donor community. A round table of donors interested in the national water sector in Chad will then be organised in order to collect their expressions of interest in the SDEA short- and medium-term action plan. It should be noted that this plan clearly takes account of the basic framework of all the current and planned actions and calculates the total resources to be mobilised to implement the strategies defined in the SDEA, on the basis of priorities. Each task obviously is yet to be defined in detail in close consultation with the MEE and the CTIE. In the context of its continuing support for implementation of the SDEA and its usual role of aid coordination, the UNDP has already proposed to foster and contribute to the funding of this international round table.
3 MONITORING OF SDEA IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA implementation

The Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, within the MEE, is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the SDEA (which covers the entire national water sector and not just access to drinking water1). This directorate will regularly (once a year) present a report on the monitoring of relevant indicators to the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE), extended to include donors in the national water sector. It will also collate opinions on the trends observed and the performance measured in terms of physical achievements and actual impacts of projects.
1 Access to drinking water in rural and nonconcessionary semiurban areas is, in principle, programmed by a specific unit at the DH, backed up by the MAE-SCAC.
201
Monitoring indicators will be defined when implementation of the SDEA begins, on the basis of work already carried out in terms of monitoring the development goals set out in the Millennium Declaration, and of work in progress internationally on environmental accounting under the aegis of the UN. These indicators and their monitoring methods in the Chadian context will be examined beforehand in a methodological study. In particular, efforts will be made to measure a number of descriptors as accurately as possible (depending on the state of knowledge) and continuously (annually) in order to calculate these indicators. A few examples of physical achievement indicators are given below: actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in rural areas;
actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in nonconcessionary urban or semi-urban areas; actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in concessionary urban or semi-urban areas; actual rate of access to basic sanitation in each administrative division; level of physical implementation of the pastoral water supply action plan; level of physical implementation of the agricultural water supply action plan.
The basic data required will be collated regularly and inspected before being entered into a data base. The annual report will be published in a standard format in order to enable comparisons to be made from one year to the next and to detect any underlying variations in the indicators in relation to the initial objectives of the SDEA. For the first few years, this report will be published in the form of a prototype in order to collect the users (administrators and donors) opinions. Some of the more complex indicators will be tested on a smaller area before being published. This report should enable the decision-makers to highlight the main trends after a few years, and to orientate effort or investments towards the domains or geographical areas that need them the most, in order to reach the objectives set by the SDEA without any major distortion. Initially, light support will have to be given to the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH) to enable it to implement its role of monitoring and inspecting the water sector on a sound basis and independently. This support will mainly involve methodological and information technology aspects as well as training. This support for the DH is planned and included in the programme co-funded by the Chadian Government and the UNDP and implemented by UNDESA: Water Governance and Local Development - GEDEL (2003-2006).
3.2 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA impacts

The same principles will be adopted for monitoring and disseminating the qualitative impacts of the physical achievements of the SDEA, while striving to link them to the strategies adopted. As an indication, a non-exhaustive list of possible impact descriptors or indicators is given below: the tariff observed in each department for each quality of service level in terms of drinking water access, and the cost collection ratio;
the extent to which an IEC accompanying programme targeting schoolchildren and women is included in the village and urban water supply and sanitation programmes; impacts on variations in water-borne diseases in accordance with progress made in improving access to drinking water, hygiene and basic sanitation; measurable impacts on food security, linked to implementation of the agricultural water supply action plan; measurable impacts on stock-rearers (including conflict reduction), linked to implementation of the pastoral water supply action plan;
202
measurable impacts on the fight against poverty, linked to implementation of the SDEA; the impact of improving basic knowledge and disseminating information for each subsector.
3.3 Monitoring of methodological consistency

Consistency of the tasks carried out by internal stakeholders (public and private bodies and associations acting as partners providing outside assistance) in the integrated management of water resources in Chad should be ensured using the single reference document constituted by the SDEA. This document sets out the main principles of the countrys water policy and the subsectoral strategies involved in implementation. The Prime Ministers decree signed on 3/9/99 concerning the creation and organisation of a National Water Management Committee2 stipulates that the technical mechanism for intersectoral consultation overseen by the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) must regularly check methodological consistency, notably starting with the design of major water-related programmes. A number of studies, guides and procedures have yet to be set up to make it easier to maintain consistency with the SDEA, to support implementation of the Water Code and its decrees of application. The new decrees of application of the Water Code and, undoubtedly, the update of this code, will smooth the gradual promulgation of these regulations at the appropriate time, once the approaches selected have been sufficiently tested on demonstration areas or projects. In order to assist in preparing these studies, guides and procedures and in preparing the CTIE, it was deemed necessary to provide technical coordination at a methodological level, starting at an early stage of project and programme preparation, instigated by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs and with the participation of the donors. With this in mind, the DH will set up its own internal SDEA strategic planning and monitoring unit. This unit will be trained in and based on international and national expertise. Its main support partner will be the UNDP-UNDESA project from 2003 to 2006, because of the continuity that the UNDP and UNDESA intend to contribute to SDEA monitoring and to the national water sector, considered by the Government and United Nations to be a priority in the fight against poverty. This complementary UNDP-UNDESA programme to accompany the SDEA, i.e.,Water Governance and Local Development (GEDEL), the organisational and legal aspects of which are complemented by the MAE-SCAC Water Policy project, will coordinate the SDEAs accompanying measures. In this way, lessons from experience and proposals from major projects being carried out in the field with funding from the EC, AFD, KFW, GTZ, UNDP, UNICEF, etc. will be constantly used to the full. Certain institutions such as universities, training centres and the organisations in the United Nations system, etc., may be called on to provide structure and resources in specific areas, and might propose methodological memos in this respect at this monitoring units request, in order to enhance the corresponding studies. The DH will gradually formulate a methodological approach framework to be common to all the projects and, with support from the GEDEL project, will guarantee that the framework is consistent with the national water policy and the strategies adopted. This framework will be set out in method guides and procedures, which will be tested prior to obtaining national validation by the CTIE and approval from the CNGE. This SDEA monitoring unit will also be able to issue recommendations, propose interventions or formulate accompanying projects, which will be submitted to the donors for approval in the framework of the accompanying measures funding mechanism described below.
2
Decree 034/PM/MEE/99, instigated and prepared with support from project CHD/98/04.
203
3.4 Monitoring the mobilisation of funds

One of the main lessons of the SDEA is the importance of investing sufficiently in accompanying measures in order to provide a human, technical, technological, organisational, institutional and legal environment which is sufficient for the development and sustainable, integrated management of the national water sector as a whole (water resources, equipment and services). In the past, the major hydraulic equipment programmes concentrated mainly on physical implementation, whereas the conditions under which the local populations became owners of the structures, built up their capacities and consequently took charge of maintenance and sustainability, sometimes fell short of expectations. In spite of financial efforts, this sometimes resulted in failures in some water-related subsectors (notably irrigation) whereas, in other subsectors, the initially-defined project objectives were not reached in full. In order to overcome these difficulties, which are diagnosed in detail by the SDEA, and to implement appropriate solutions by following the SDEA strategies, an incentive-based flexible monitoring mechanism should be set up to ensure that the donors in the national water sector fully understand the need for accompanying measures in the framework of sustainable development and make sufficient financial commitments to enable these measures to be implemented. For this purpose, the intention is to propose that each donor should devote a percentage of the physical investments (between 5% and 10%) to setting up accompanying measures, which form an integral part of their own programmes or of the programmes they select from those included in the SDEA action plan, according to procedures to be defined in partnership. One flexible formula could consist of a general framework agreement to be signed between the donors and the hydraulic affairs administration, and initiated by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, acting as the donors leading agency for the national water sector in Chad. In association with an agreement of this type, an incentive-based mechanism for monitoring each partys contributions would be set up under the aegis of the DH in order to ensure that sufficient funding is actually made available to meet basic needs as they arise and to ensure smooth implementation of the SDEA.
3.5 Monitoring the impact of human activities on water resources

Stormwater, surface water and groundwater combine to form a single resource, through the water cycle. Human and economic activities have an impact on these resources, which are both limited and vulnerable to pollution, so it is vital to possess detailed knowledge of the resources and their uses. On the scale of a catchment basin and its sub-basins, impacts (abstraction and pollution) propagate from upstream to downstream. It is important to use a catchment basin-based approach for this monitoring. It is essential to use mapping tools to locate the influential areas (recharge, flooding, etc.), outfall points, abstraction points and measurement points, for both surface and groundwater. The more this operational approach is decentralised in the medium term (to the future hydraulic affairs regions), the more reliable and useful this exercise will become. An initial test will be carried out on a pilot sub-basin of the Mayo-Kebbi, involving all the stakeholders and partners concerned, working within a specific consultation mechanism. In terms of general SDEA monitoring, a number of descriptors and indicators can be given for guidance purposes: rainfall for the year compared with the long-term average;

discharge coefficients for the year; renewable water resource usage rate per homogeneous area; quality of water flowing into endoreic lakes; biological health of the main aquatic ecosystems; efficiency of water resource usage per subsector.
Specific studies will have to be carried out in order to define correctly the indicators which are relevant and useful to the country.
204
4 ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF SDEA IMPLEMENTATION

To complement the quantitative monitoring of SDEA programmes, qualitative monitoring of its actual impacts, the sustainability of its programmes and the consistency of the work carried out by the various stakeholders and projects involved in the implementation of the SDEA action plan is essential in order to provide the decision-makers with complete information. For this purpose, a mission will conduct an independent, multidisciplinary assessment of SDEA implementation every two years. The first mission will be conducted at the end of 2005 and the second, at the end of 2007.
5 UPDATING THE SDEA

A number of unavoidable factors and actions must be taken into account in updating the SDEA. These are: trends observed over five years by the three monitoring mechanisms described above;

the two general assessments to be carried out at the end of 2005 and 2007; progress made in the regulatory area (Water Code decrees of application); results of the forthcoming census, which will be available in 2008; new basic data from the Water Office data bases; the new economic and social context; the new environmental context; the Governments development policy, and other policies, integrated plans or new subsector studies.
The SDEA will be updated on this basis during 2008, keeping the same intersectoral planning and consultation approach (CTIE-CNGE-HCNE) which has already been tried and tested. The UNDP has expressed an interest in funding this procedure, along with the other interested donors. With the help of more detailed studies, this update should make it possible to fine-tune a number of rough estimates that had to be made for the first version of the SDEA. It should also be an opportunity, drawing on the lessons learned during the first five years of SDEA implementation, to update the remaining tasks required to reach the objectives that have been set for 2015 and 2020, and to channel efforts and funding more effectively into any subsectors or geographical areas that are lagging behind the others. Lastly, in keeping with the technical and administrative decentralisation process, notably with regard to the creation of regional directorates of water, this update will aim at making full use, across the country, of institutional achievements and progress made in terms of methodology and participatory planning, on the basis of best practices observed at regional and local level in the integrated, sustainable management of the national water sector in Chad.
205
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
APPENDIX 1
PART A
Persons responsible for implementing the Integrated Plan for Chads Water Development and Management, CHD/98/004
NAME Oumar Kadjallami Manuel Dengo Hamidou Diawara Modibo Tour Giuseppina Mazza Michel Balima Antoinette Dedjoguere Laokol Dounia Sandjma Zakaria Husky Moussa Mustapha Terrap Mahamat Kher Salah Zakaria Fadoul Kitir Djougoun Abdoulaye Mourra Oumar Mahamat Oumar POSITION Minister of the Environment and Water Head of UNDESA water management section UNDP resident representative UNDP resident representative Assistant resident representative Assistant resident representative UNDP programme manager National coordinator (1998-2001) National coordinator (since 2001) Director of hydraulic affairs, CTIE chairman Director of hydraulic affairs, CTIE chairman Assistant director of hydraulic affairs Director of hydraulic affairs (since 2003) Assistant director of hydraulic affairs (since 2003)
UNDESA project staff

NAME POSITION UNDESA interregional technical advisor (head office), responsible for methodology and technical monitoring Resident principal technical advisor, groundwater consultant Resident principal technical advisor; village water supply and rural sanitation consultant Technical coordinator Administrative manager Data processing/GIS Secretary - documentation Driver Driver Driver Orderly
Jean-Michel Chn
Luis Dichtl (06/1998-2000) Paul Hansbury (11/2000-2003) Mouhyddine Mahamat Saleh Hassan Adoum Katchalla Oursingb Passal Wegor Falamata Mahamat Kara Mahamat Abakar Mahamat Ahmat Mahamat Tahir Zakaria Ortangar Babane
UNDESA international consultants

NAME Mahamane Bako Jean Charles Clanet Jean Donnay Jacques Lemoalle Jean Mathis Lionel Robaux Pierre Walraevens POSITION Data processing/data base/GIS Pastoral water supply Agricultural water supply Surface water resources and environment Economist Urban water supply and sanitation Data processing/data base/GIS
208
UNDESA national consultants

NAME Abdelkerim Nedjim Abdelmadjit Saleh Abderamane Seidou Ache Nabia Ahmed Dorsouma Ali Abdou Aminou Bouba Bambe Dansala Dara Djoret Djibrine Nadingar Ermanna Delacroix Guealbaye Manasset Hamid Bahar Haggar Jean-Louis Schneider Koroua Kodjo Kouka Jean Roger Lotogingaou R Mahamat Gabi Mahamat Lamine Kosso Mahamat Nour Idriss Miagoto Boniface Nelngar Younane Ngoniri Jol Vadjoua Guino Yombombe Thophile Madjitolum Youssouf Abdoulaye Zoulfikar Ahmat Barka POSITION Urban and semi-urban sanitation Pastoral water supply Data processing and village water supply Institutional and legal aspects Agricultural water supply Urban and semi-urban sanitation Pastoral water supply Facilitator Groundwater resources Pastoral water supply Village water supply Economics Urban water supply Groundwater Agricultural water supply Training Data processing Village water supply Village water supply and rural sanitation Urban water supply Rural and urban sanitation Surface water resources Demographics Agricultural water supply Urban water supply Training Urban water supply
Evaluation team
NAME Gabriel Gabella Ngolonna Goundou Youssouf Mana POSITION International evaluator National evaluator National evaluator
209
PART B
List of participants at SDEA validation workshops Chad government members
NAME Haroun Kabadi Djimrangar Dadnadji David Houdeingar Ngarimaden Mahamat Allaou Taher Abderamane Moussa Mocktar Wawa Dahab Idriss Ahmed Idriss Mahamat Abdoulaye Tchonai Elimy Mamadou Addy Oumar Kadjallami Boukar Bichara Ringo Outman Oumar Khadidja Ouangbi Ahmat Mahamat Bachir Langarsou Anoueye Belty Rarikingar Bakary Ousmane Djimtibaye Ngaringaye Sanoussi Hadjoro Oumar Tahar Ibrigaye Djabaye Akoina Tchangtord Djimasnodji Makobe Goundoul Vikama Ngaryanmal Morkemngar Boitiga Yilabab Darby K Moussa Tchitchaou Dominique Durlin Demoulin Jean Claude Abakar Ramadane Abbo Youssouf Abderaman Seidou Ahmat Agala Alifa Mahamat Bechir Mahamat Betolum Neasmiangodo Franois Guillet Haroun Mahamat Laossi Issa
1
POSITION Prime Minister, President of the HCNE Minister of Planning, Development and Coopration Minister of Agriculture Minister of Stock-Rearing Minister of Regional Administration Minister of Communications Minister of the Economy and Finance Minister of Trade, Industry and Crafts Minister of Public Works and Transport Minister of Mines and Energy Minister of Environment and Water Rural Development Advisor at the Prime Ministers Office Rural Development Section at the Prime Ministers Office Ministry responsible for decentralisation Assistant Secretary General, Ministry of Planning Directorate of Planning, MPDC1 Directorate of Cooperation, MPDC Directorate of Programme and Project Monitoring, MPDC Direction of Regional Development MPDC INSEED MPDC - Abch ETMS coordinator - Ati ETMS coordinator - Mongo ETMS coordinator - Mao ETMS coordinator - Gounou Gaya ETMS coordinator - Lai ETMS coordinator - Klo Assistant general manager, MEE Manager of DREM Technical advisor, MEE Technical advisor, DH Head of maintenance unit - Moundou Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Manager of the DPFLCD, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE DREM, MEE DREM, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture, MEE
WORKSHOPS HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE HCNE/national National National and regionall National National National National National National Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional HCNE/national National/Subsector National/Subsector Regional Subsector Subsector National Subsector Subsector Regional/Subsector National/Subsector HCNE/nat./Subsector Subsector
MPDC : Ministry of Planning, Development and Cooperation
210
Chad government members (cont.)

Mahamat Moussa Hilew Moussa Doumdarial Ndomalbaye Bessomadji Nodjiban Nadjyo Reouembmel Noe Smail Musa Mohamed Vaimbi Gao Bardoum Djekourbian Kafou Mahamat Seid Mme Hamat Zara Ouatouroum Doring Y Behera Commando Misabaye Djabaye Korbayom Banda Guihini Chaha Yamanh Bangueid Mme Damnadji R. Kedela Batam God-Hanth Napadja Netol Tob-Woie Pascal Ndingambaye Kadeau Laokara Ali Afti Tchouadang Kadjonga Keleyo Golnday Kississou Etienne Mahamat Gomy Belembaye Togongar Djamal Ahmat Abdel-Kerime Brahim Ahmada Abderaman Gasserke Daboubou Mahamat Djamaladine Adoum Djimanbe Beyaloum Kyal Kagnar Issa Ousman Wadi Mbaramadi Amdri Djibrine Abdoulaye Hissein Djibrine Belembaye Tongongar Mbangossoum Roger Nam Kadallah Abakar Ousman Mrangaye Koudror Amine Ousmane Mahamat oumara Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE DREM, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE DPFLCD, MEE DPFLCD, MEE DPFLCD, MEE DPFLCD, MEE DPFLCD, MEE Inspector of Water and Forests, MEE - Ati CTNSC Seconded to MEE - Abch Head of Zakouma Park - Am Timan Seconded to MEE - Massenya Inspector of Water and Forests - Mao Seconded to MEE - Sarh Inspector of Water and Forests - Kyab Seconded to MEE - Moundou Inspector of Water and Forests - Doba Seconded to MEE - Bongor Director of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply ONDR manager ONDR sector head - Adr ONDR sector head - Oum Hadjer ONDR sector head - Ati ONDR sector head - Biltine ONDR district head - Mongo Sub-Manager of ONDR - Abch Head of Rural engineering subdivision - Abch ONDR sector head - Am Timan ONDR sector head - Goz-Beida ONDR sector head - Bokoro ONDR sector head - Massakory ONDR district head - Massenya SODELAC technical manager - Bol Head of SODELAC development department - Bol ONDR district head - Mao ONDR district head - Sarh ONDR deputy manager - Moundou Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector Subsector Subsector National/Subsector HCNE/nat./Subsector Subsector Subsector Sector Sector Sector Sector Sector Regional National Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Subsector Subsector Subsector Subsector Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Subsector
211
Chad government members (cont.)

Andrim Manda-an Djelassem Ngon-Dingomian Koulna Samuel Sidick Djarouli Guiradoum Nandingar Lam Tchiroue Asnalbaye Ngarhigta Masrabaye Dotolou Adoum Mahamat Dr Haessler Barlet F. Brahim Seid Djibrine Nadengar Taboye Outman Issaka Abba Idriss Ali Bourma Moussa Tassi Ndouba Djirangaye Hassan Zakaria Zakaria Atim Dokone Awadia Akouya Torna Mme Djarkem Ronel Ma Mahamat Tchari Al-Bachar Hamit Boyalgar Mbalaye Ndouba Gullro Mahamat Saleh Ali Tchingouta Robert Abderaman Ahmat Ahmat Chacra Abdelkerim Nedjim Saleh Ramadan Malick Peka Mallaye Djimait Ignane Barka Mahamat Barka Garbaroum Richard Mahamat Gali Mallah Oumar Soumadji Aboukar Ndolengar Nokour Chouguy Sanodji Bidjalo Modam Andigue-Marty Moussa Olkoumgu Rural engineering subdivision - Moundou ONDR sector head - Doba ONDR sector head - Koumra ONDR sector head - Bongor Head of Rural engineering subdivision - Pala ONDR district head - Pala ONDR sector head - Baibokoum ONDR sector head - Lai ONDR sector head - Klo Technical advisor Technical advisor DPAP General manager of stock-rearing DOP, Ministry of Stock-Rearing Head of stock-rearing sector - Oum Hadjer Head of stock-rearing sector - Ati Head of stock-rearing sector - Biltine Head of stock-rearing district - Mongo Head of stock-rearing district - Abch Head of stock-rearing subsector - Goz-Beida Head of stock-rearing sector - Moussoro Head of stock-rearing sector - Bokoro Head of stock-rearing sector - Massakory Head of stock-rearing district - Massenya Head of stock-rearing sector - Bol Head of stock-rearing district - Mao Head of stock-rearing district - Sarh Head of stock-rearing district - Moundou Head of stock-rearing subsector - Koumra Head of stock-rearing district - Pala Head of stock-rearing sector - Baibokoum Head of stock-rearing sector - Klo Assistant manager of Sanitary Activities, MSP Directorate of Sanitary Activities MSP Directorate of Sanitary Activities MSP Hygiene and sanitation, town hall, - Moundou Hygiene and sanitation, town hall, - Abch General secretary, Ministry of Mines and Energy Ministry of Regional Administration Head of highways department, NDjamna Directorate of Trade Director general of urban planning and housing Directorate of Urban Planning Directorate of Urban Planning Directorate of Urban Planning Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Subsector Subsector National Subsector Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Subsector Subsector Subsector Regional Regional National National Subsector National National Subsector National Subsector
212
Representatives of foreign aid and regional organisations

NAME Abdelkerim Adoum B. Ahmet Seddick Dr Batakao Grgoire Eric Descotes Hertkorn Nicolas Hilke Roeder Louis lAOT Christophe Prvost Talansadi Djogoye Togola Soungalo Valrie Schmit POSITION CNT UNESCO Hydrologist/LCBC WHO programme manager AFD AFD programme manager GTZ rural development coordinator AFD manager World Bank programme manager African Development Bank representative UNICEF programme manager European Union programme manager WORKSHOPS National National National Subsector National/Subsector National National/Subsector National National National/Subsector Subsector
Water distribution network managers

NAME Abdel-Aziz Fasserir Bourma Abdissi A. Adam Mahamat Issa Barka Attitallah Djido Ali S.G. Dabayamsou Ngueou Zakaria Tchomoko Adoum Acyl Moussa Mahamat Abdelkerim Hassan Abdoulaye G. Youssouf M. Affono Takada Fabili Daboulaye Ban-Ymary Tadjion Makissi Bangam Daye Madeou POSITION Chairman, water tower management committee, Oum Hadjer Chairman, water tower management committee, Ati Chairman, water tower management committee, Biltine Chairman, water tower management committee, Mongo Chairman, water tower management committee, Am Timan Chairman, water tower management committee, Goz-Beida Chairman, water tower management committee, Moussoro Chairman, water tower management committee, Bokoro Chairman, water tower management committee, Massakory Chairman, water tower management committee, Massaguet Chairman, water tower management committee, Bol Chairman, water tower management committee, Kyab Chairman, water tower management committee, Koumra Chairman, water tower management committee, Pala Chairman, water tower management committee, Lai WORKSHOPS Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional
NGOs and associations

NAME Madjadoum Ngon K Oyal T. Medard Ngoniri M. Mahamat Brahimi Abakar Youssouf Zaid Siri Baina Allamine Mahamout Djimlelngar Naim Ibrahim Mihedi Koroua Kodjo POSITION CEFOD representative CILONG representative in NDjamna FONGT representative in NDjamna Vice-chairman, Plateforme paysanne Representative of Mayors Association of Chad SECADEV representative World Vision representative World Vision representative Representative, Nomadic Breeders Association UNAD WORKSHOPS National National National National National Subsector Subsector Subsector Subsector National
213
NGOs and associations (cont.)

NAME Oumar Mahamat Magra Zara Abakar Mahamat Saleh Seid Ali Mahmoudi Mariam Kanika Achta Selguet Toromgue Nasson Abderamane Yaya Mme Fatouma Issakha Younous Idriss Yacoub Djonouma Bourma Harba Djasrangar Ratangar Seid Gaye Alexis Gadam Yassine Mahamat Abbo Boguel Baradji P. Ahmat Moussa Defallah Abdalah Taher Abdoulaye Moussa Babaye Ousmane Seid A. Katir Mn Hisseine Adoum Ifassou Jean Marie Saleh Mahamat Ali G. Al Hadj Dougous Al Taher Moussa Abdel-Kader M. Abay Moussa Ali Lamine Alifa Abakar Gedick Heriata Moussa Batna Sokolli Roland Samgue Hiera Victor Djarabe Ribar C. Boulabe Daniel Ganda Abdallah B. Pudems Yoh Job Djimleingar Nam Moussa Pascal Lamalamou Ngadam Djimngueyeng Job POSITION CAL2 representative BCCA representative CARE representative ACTT representative CELIAF representative Representative, Sahel Womens Network SECADEV representative - Adr ADA representative - Adr Representative, Womens Group - Adr SECADEV representative - Oum Hadjer SAWA representative - Ati Chairman, Well Operators Group - Ati SECADEV representative - Biltine ACOR representative - Mongo NAGDORO representative - Mongo Chairman, NINONTE association - Mongo SECADEV representative - Abch AFRICARE representative - Abch Chairman, Well Operators Group - Abch Chairman, ADIB - Moussoro Chairman, Agropastoral Group - Moussoro ACORD representative - Bokoro SECADEV representative - Bokoro Chairman, ALAFIA association - Bokoro ACRA representative - Massaguet Chairman, ADEMA - Massaguet Chairman, Berim Polder Management Committee - Bol Chairman, Lake Fishermens Group - Bol Chairman, Group Federation - Mao Chairman, Stock-Rearers and Farmers Association - Mao Chairman,Traditional Chiefs Association - Mao Chairman, Peasant Forum - Mao Chairman, Working Womens Association - Mao Representative, Peasant Forum - Gounou Gaya BELAC representative - Moundou Chairman, BCCA - Moundou Representative,Traditional Chiefs Association - Moundou GRAPA representative - Koumra API-BASE representative - Bongor World Vision representative - Lai Chairman, Sategui Deressia Producers Association - Lai Chairman, Guidaoua - Bongor GDS Federation - Klo WORKSHOPS Subsector Subsector Subsector National National National Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional
214
Private and parapublic sector

NAME Abdel Madid Haggar Abdallah Adam Bossou Djerem Maim Mahamat Mahamat N.I.Haggar Boukar Ndedjion Ahmat Damgoto Ousman Tchoutcha Souleyman Abdoulaye Ramadan Madani Doundarial Moussa M.Yombombe T. Ahmat Mbodou Adoum MBodou Yoalngar Joseph Nayalta Natigar D. Artomas Diatene Abdoulaye Manignan Mahamat Altolna Mansour Mahamat S. Hassan Amabi Alladoum Sainibi Mayane Yadimadji Ali Haroun Mahamat Issa Idriss Ali Malloum POSITION SODELAC general management SODELAC general management SODELAC general management SODELAC technical management - Bol Technical manager, Hydraulic Affairs, STEE STEE operations manager - Moundou STEE operations manager - Mao STEE operations manager - Abch STEE operations manager - Moussoro Manager, Entreprise ECCA - Bokoro Carlo Lotti (consultants) Directeur CIAT (Chef dexploitation STEE) Agritchad representative Agritchad representative - Bol JASRA representative - Sarh SONASUT (CST) representative - Sarh BDL representative - Moundou STH representative - Moundou ITRAD BEBEDJIA representative - Doba ECAT representative - Abch ONC representative - Am Timan Sogec representative - NDjamna Manager, BECON - Massaguet ACF representative - Mao ANTEA office manager - Moussoro ANTEA office manager - Mao WORKSHOPS Subsector Subsector Subsector Regional Subsector Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Subsector Subsector National Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional National Regional Regional Regional Regional
215
Project representatives
NAME Alainaye Djogromel Ahmat Mahamat Saleh Guirbaye N. Mahamat Matar Romain Ndouba Aboubakar. Ourd Bechir I. Khalil Djimtebaye N. Bardoum D. Ali Abdoulaye Traore Ismail Moussa Souleyman Baba Tahir Brahim Adouma Mara Moussa Djoukamla Gouakreo Sebey Boutna Dalil Nouradine POSITION Water policy project coordinator Mining project manager PIDR project representative PASEP project representative PRSP project representative ENIP/PSAOP project representative REPA/FEM project representative Prodel project representative PNAE representative Almy Bahaim project manager - Abch Almy Nadif project manager - Abch GTZ project coordinator - Abch PVERS project manager - Abch Lake Rural Development Project - Bol Doum Doum Development Project - Bol FIDA project manager - Mao PHPK project manager - Mao WORKSHOPS National Subsector National National National National National National National Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional
216
MACRO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF THE PRSP
APPENDIX 2
EXTRACT FROM NATIONAL POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY PAPER

Details of macro-economic context A few economic and financial indicators, 2003-2015
2003 National income GDP at current prices GDP at constant prices Excluding oil production Oil production GNDI at current prices Consumer price index (average) Currency and credit Net foreign assets
1/ 1/
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
(annual variations in % unless otherwise indicated) 16.5 11.2 3.7 539.0 11.3 4.3 58.1 42.4 6.5 34.7 16.7 4.0 12.9 15.3 6.8 0.0 13.4 4.0 7.0 4.4 6.7 0.0 10.4 3.0 6.4 4.3 6.6 0.0 9.4 3.0 6.3 4.1 6.1 -10.4 10.1 3.0 3.5 1.1 6.2 -24.0 12.3 3.0 0.9 -2.1 6.2 -18.1 6.0 3.0 4.2 1.1 6.3 -25.3 7.6 3.0 3.9 0.5 5.9 -9.9 8.3 3.0 6.8 3.7 5.7 -12.6 8.0 3.0 7.0 3.8 5.8 -9.2 8.5 3.0 8.4 3.0 7.7 4.5 5.9
20.3 -8.9 -7.8 -12.5 4.7 10.3

2/
36.4 -25.2 -24.6 -29.1 4.5 11.3 7.8
36.1 -20.4 -19.9 -24.4 4.5 15.7 7.6
30.3 -14.2 -13.7 -18.1 4.4 16.1 7.3
21.6 -7.8 -7.0 -10.9 3.9 13.8 7.0
24.7 -11.2 -11.1 -14.7 3.6 13.4 6.8
41.9 -27.2 -26.8 -31.3 4.4 14.8 6.6
17.1 -7.9 -7.6 -10.7 3.1 9.2 6.4
8.5 3.0 3.5 0.4 3.1 11.5 6.2
5.4 3.5 3.6 0.0 3.6 8.9 6.2
2.5 4.3 4.5 1.0 3.6 6.8 6.2
0.3 6.7 6.9 2.3 4.6 7.0 6.3
-1.6 9.2 9.6 3.0 6.6 7.6 6.4
Net domestic assets
including: domestic credit net receivables from central government credit to private sector Money supply GNDI/money supply (M2)
7.4
Foreign sector (in FCFA billion) Exports, FOB Imports, FOB Volume of exports Volume of imports 67.8 -21.7 37.0 -29.9 388.6 -25.4 244.8 -30.6 13.8 -18.6 26.0 -17.8 0.8 8.6 1.0 6.9 0.9 5.1 1.1 3.3 1.0 8.0 1.0 6.3 -7.8 9.3 -7.3 7.5 -18.3 10.0 -17.1 8.3 -12.2 8.5 -11.3 6.7 -16.0 7.2 -14.8 5.3 -3.4 6.6 -3.3 4.8 -4.1 6.2 -4.0 4.3 -1.0 6.0 -1.3 4.1
218
2003 Basic ratios Gross investment Central government Private sector including: oil sector Gross domestic savings Central government Private sector Gross national savings Central government Private sector Private sector Public finances Revenue including: oil revenue Total expenditure Current primary balance (- = deficit) Basic primary balance
3/ 4/ 3/ 3/ 3/ 4/ 5/
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009 (in GDP points)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
42.1 10.9 31.2 22.8 10.5 -0.8 11.3 6.7 -0.2 -0.2 6.9
18.2 7.6 10.6 5.8 37.0 2.9 34.1 8.1 3.3 3.3 4.8
13.1 7.2 5.9 0.7 38.1 3.5 34.6 9.4 3.8 3.8 5.6
13.6 7.1 6.5 0.8 36.2 3.2 32.9 9.7 3.5 3.5 6.2
13.3 7.2 6.1 0.2 34.2 3.5 30.8 9.9 3.7 3.7 6.2
13.7 7.3 6.4 0.2 32.7 4.4 28.2 11.0 4.7 4.7 6.3
14.6 7.8 6.8 0.2 29.1 7.1 22.0 14.1 7.3 7.3 6.8
16.1 8.4 7.7 0.2 23.6 5.6 18.0 13.0 5.9 5.9 7.1
17.1 9.0 8.1 0.1 20.4 4.9 15.5 12.7 5.2 5.2 7.6
18.0 9.5 8.4 0.1 16.8 5.5 11.3 13.1 5.8 5.8 7.3
18.4 9.7 8.7 0.1 15.8 5.8 9.9 13.1 6.0 6.0 7.1
18.8 9.9 8.9 0.1 14.6 6.0 8.6 13.3 6.1 6.1 7.2
19.1 10.0 9.1 0.1 14.1 6.3 7.8 13.5 6.3 6.3 7.2
8.3 0.5 20.0 -0.1 -3.4 -2.8 -11.7 -12.5 -0.3 12.8 0.0 -7.0
3/
9.2 3.2 13.9 3.4 -2.3 1.7 -4.7 -4.9 -1.5 6.1 -0.3 -1.6
9.9 3.5 13.6 3.9 -2.2 2.0 -3.8 -3.9 -1.0 4.9 0.0 -1.0
10.1 3.2 14.0 3.7 -2.5 1.6 -3.9 -3.9 -0.7 4.6 0.0 -1.3
10.7 3.2 14.4 3.9 -2.4 1.5 -3.7 -3.8 -0.4 4.2 0.0 -1.3
11.8 3.7 14.8 4.8 -2.4 2.0 -2.9 -2.9 -1.0 3.9 0.0 -0.6
15.2 6.3 15.9 7.5 -2.8 4.1 -0.7 -0.7 -3.1 3.8 0.0 1.6
14.5 4.4 17.3 6.0 -2.8 2.1 -2.8 -2.8 -1.1 3.9 0.0 -0.5
14.3 3.2 18.4 5.3 -2.9 0.7 -4.1 -4.1 0.3 3.9 0.0 -1.9
15.3 3.1 19.3 5.9 -2.6 0.8 -4.0 -4.0 0.2 3.9 0.0 -1.8
15.6 2.6 19.5 6.2 -2.1 0.7 -3.9 -3.9 0.3 3.6 0.0 -1.8
16.2 2.5 20.1 6.3 -2.1 0.6 -3.9 -3.9 0.5 3.5 0.0 -1.9
16.7 2.3 20.4 6.6 -1.9 0.5 -3.8 -3.8 0.6 3.2 0.0 -1.9
Basic primary balance, exc;luding oil revenue Overall budget deficit (commitment basis) Overall budget deficit (cash basis) Domestic funding Foreign funding (already secured) Funding requirements (-)
Overall budget deficit (commitment basis, inc. gifts)

1/ 2/ 3/
Percentage variation in money supply at start of period Ratio Excluding gifts 4/ The basic primary deficit is the total budget deficit minus debt servicing and investment funded from foreign resources 5/ In GDP points, exc. oil
219
A few economic and financial indicators, 2003-2015 (contd.)

2003 Foreign sector Current account (- = deficit) including public transfers excluding public transfers and imports connected with Doba project NPV debt-to-exports ratio
6/
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009 (in GDP points)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
-35.4 -13.3 221.9 6.3
-10.2 -4.7 86.6 7.5
-3.7 -3.3 52.9 9.2
-3.8 -3.3 40.3 10.6
-3.4 -3.5 40.9 11.3
-2.7 -2.8 43.1 12.4
-0.5 -0.6 46.7 15.0
-3.2 -3.2 53.8 15.3
-4.4 -4.5 65.1 15.2
-4.9 -5.0 80.8 14.8
-5.3 -5.3 94.8 14.2
-5.5 -5.5 107.7 13.3
-5.6 -5.5 115.0 12.4
Gross foreign assets in months of imports (excluding Doba project) 7/
(in millions of USD unless otherwise indicated) Nominal GDP Nominal GDP (in billions of FCFA) including: oil GDP (in billions of FCFA) FCFA per USD (average for period) FCFA per USD (end of period) Population (mid-year, in millions) Nominal GDP per inhabitant Nominal GNP per inhabitant Nominal GNP
6/ 7/
2 654.6 1 600.1 104.5 602.8 668.0 8.1 329.6 315.9 2 544.3
4 200.5 4 751 2 5.096 6 2 529.1 862.9 602.1 665.5 8.3 508.9 360.7 2 977.2 2 856.0 1 007.5 601.1 663.4 8.5 561.6 399.6 3 380.8 3 056.6 1 005.2 599.7 0.0 8.7 587.7 430.9 3 737.0
5.431 2 3 251.2 1 003.3 598.6 0.0 8.9 611.0 460.7 4 095.4
5 779.2 3 456.6 1 002.5 598.1 0.0 9.1 634.3 495.3 4 512.8
5 983.5 3 578.8 898.5 598.1 0.0 9.3 640.7 542.2 5 063.6
6 034.9 3 609.5 682.4 598.1 0.0 9.6 630.4 560.4 5 364.3
6 285.7 3 759.5 559.0 598.1 0.0 9.8 640.6 587.2 5 761.7
6 528.7 3 904.9 417.5 598.1 0.0 10.1 649.2 620.7 6 242.7
6 976.0 4 172.4 376.0 598.1 0.0 10.3 676.7 654.8 6 750.3
7 463.4 4 464.0 328.6 598.1 0.0 10.6 706.3 693.4 7 326.8
8 035.5 4 806.1 298.4 598.1 0.0 10.8 741.9 734.2 7 951.9
Calculated from the average exports of non-factor goods and services over the previous three years In months of imports of non-factor goods and services
220
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABDELMADJIT MAHAMAT Saleh (2000). Situation actuelle et problmatique de lhydraulique pastorale, projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, NDjamna, 166 p. ALFRED S., W.H. ASCHER et E. JOHNSON (1988). tude des communauts tchadiennes pratiquant lirrigation. ANTEA (sept. 1997). Projet dHydraulique Villageoise et Pastorale dans la Rgion des Koros. Final report. ANTEA. tude de faisabilit technique et financire pour la rhabilitation des stations de pompage semi-urbaines et pastorales. A 17894 Ministry of the Environment and Water. ASFAHA, S. (1989). Une brve tude conomique des primtres irrigus en pays Kim. ATTIA M., and A. DORSOUMA (1994). Rapport de mission de rhabilitation du casier A . WORLD BANK (1989). Analyse et perspectives du sous-secteur de lirrigation au Tchad. WORLD BANK (1997). Fostering riparian cooperation in international river basins : the World Bank at its best in development diplomacy. World Bank tech. paper no. 335, 32 p. WORLD BANK (1999). Les tudes dimpact environnemental. BCEOM (July 1999). Projet dHydraulique Villageoise en Zone Soudanienne, Final report of first campaign, 19981999. BDPA (1978). Projet de dveloppement de la riziculture dans la rgion de Gounou Gaya : tude de factibilit. BELLER CONSULT (1996). tude de lAlimentation en Eau Potable de la ville de NDjamna 1995-1996. BELLER CONSULT (aot 1991). Ltude du problme de drainage des eaux pluviales de la ville de NDjamna, Special report, MTPTHU. BELLER/IGIP (mai 1994). tude et ralisation de forages NDjamna et Sarh : Analyse de la situation existante. Report no.1. BENECH V., et J. QUENSIERE. Dynamique des peuplements ichtyologiques de la rgion du Lac Tchad (1966-78). Influence de la scheresse sahlienne, Thesis, Univ. Sciences et techniques de Lille, 1987, 360 p. plus annexes. BERECTEC (1993). tude du schma directeur de la zone soudanienne, NDjamna, Chad, 427 p. BONNET M., et C. MEURVILLE (1995). Mise en place dun systme de suivi et de gestion de la nappe phratique du Chari Baguirmi, Unpublished final report. HYDROEXPERT, 54 p. BONZON A., et C. BREUIL (1991). Stratgies damnagement des pcheries continentales au Sahel, Rsums des travaux prsents aux sminaires sur la planification et lamnagement des pches dans le bassin conventionnel du Lac Tchad. Management strategies for inland fisheries in the sahel, Summary of the paper presented at seminar on fisheries planning and management in the conventional basin of lake Chad, Reports on continental fisheries in Africa, FAO/CPCA/CIFA, no. 445. BONZON A., et C. BREUIL (1992). Priorits pour lamnagement et la planification des pches continentales dans la rgion du Sahel. FAO, Fsheries report no. 481, 133 p. BRGM (1987). Actualisation des connaissances sur les ressources en eau souterraine de la Rpublique du Tchad. 2ime part, Summary of hydrogeological data and 1/1 500 000 map.
223
BURGEAP (1996). Projet dhydraulique pastorale dans le BET, Final report. Unpublished. BURGEAP (1997). Inventaire des ouvrages hydrauliques dans la prfecture du Kanem. Final report. BURGEAP/VTRINAIRES SANS FRONTIRES. Projet Almy Baham, de leau pour le btail, 1996, 21 p. plus annexes. BURGEAP/ANTEA. Users manual for Progrs software, version 4.4, 1995. CARLO LOTTI & ASSOCIATI. Hydraulique Villageoise en Zone de Concentration du 7ime FED. Final report. CARLO LOTTI & ASSOCIATI. tude de mise en uvre de Lom III en zone de concentration. Mise en valeur du territoire, assainissement et irrigation, 171 p. plus annexes. CARLO LOTTI & ASSOCIATI (1986). Notes sur les tudes de prfaisabilit effectuer pour les barrages de Koumban et Gor sur le Haut Logone. In Projet Satgui-Deressia, tudes prparatoires la deuxime phase, vol. 7. CARLO LOTTI & ASSOCIATI/BCEOM. Programme dHydraulique Villageoise du 8ime FED au Tchad. 8/ACP/D/008, Monthly report, March 2000, no 6. CARMOUZE J.P., C. DEJOUX, J.R. DURAND, R. GRAS, A. ILTIS, L. LAUZANNE, J. LEMOALLE, C. LEVEQUE, G. LOUBENS et L. SAINT-JEAN (1972). Grandes zones cologiques du lac Tchad. Cah. ORSTOM, . Hydrobiol. series 6, 2, p. 103-169. CARMOUZE J.P., J. R. DURAND et C. LEVEQUE (1983). Lake Chad, Monog. Biologicae vol. 53, Junk,The Hague, 575 p. CARMOUZE J. P. et J. LEMOALLE (1983). The lacustrine environment, pp. 27-64 in Lake Chad, Carmouze J.P., J.R. Durand et C. Lvque (eds), Monog. Biologicae vol 53, Junk,The Hague, 575 p. LCBC, LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (1987). Les ressources en eau du bassin du lac Tchad : gestion et conservation, Compte rendu du sminaire international. Water resources of the lake Chad basin management and conservation, Proceedings of an international seminar, LCBC, NDjamna, 415 p. LCBC, LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION/FAO (1991). Programme daction de mise en valeur et de gestion des ressources en eaux du bassin conventionnel du lac Tchad pour un dveloppement intgr durable. Action programme for the development and management of the water of the conventional lake Chad basin with a view to a sustainable agricultural development, FAO, Rome, 41 p. LCBC, LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (1991). Programme international daction concernant leau et le dveloppement agricole durable, Assignment report, Lake Chad basin, FAO, Rome, 62 p. LCBC, LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (1992). Plan directeur pour le dveloppement et la gestion cologiquement rationnelle des ressources naturelles du bassin conventionnel du lac Tchad, Document final. Master plan for the development and environmentally sound management of the natural resources of the lake Chad conventional basin, Final document, LCBC, NDjamna, 70 p. LCBC, LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (1993). Project RAF/88/029.Definition of the development strategies of the water resources of the Lake Chad Basin, Projet Raf/88/029. Dfinition des stratgies de dveloppement des ressources en eau du Bassin du Lac Tchad, NDjamna, 185 p. LCBC, (1993). Seminar on the planning and management of water resources in the Lake Chad basin, Conclusions and recommendations, LCBC, NDjamna. LCBC, Lake Chad Basin Commission. Projet 1994. Amnagement hydraulique pastoral des Yars. Rapport dvaluation 1re phase et formulation 2ime phase au Cameroun et au Tchad. LCBC (1996). Monitoring the hydrological behaviour of the Lake Chad (1972-1995), 8 p.
224
LCBC/DADSG/UNDP. Projet planification et gestion des ressources en eau du Bassin du Lac Tchad, RAF/88/029. Final general report. LCBC/DDSMS, Chn J.-M., and P. Harrisson (1996). Premier atelier rgional sur la gestion intgre et durable des eaux internationales du Bassin du Lac Tchad, 90 p. LCBC/DDSMS, Olivry J.C., and C. Leduc (1996). LHydrosystme physique. LCBC/DDSMS, Chn J.-M., and P. Harrisson (1996). Lake Chad basin Integrated management. Preparatory assistance. RAF/95/G48. Diagnostic stages and strategic approach to sustainable management of the international water resources of the basin, Provisional document, 53 p. LCBC/DDSMS, Alfaz, Ciss Amadou (1996). Bilan-diagnostic de la gestion intgre des eaux et des contraintes environnementales dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad. LCBC/UNDESA, Mba Mpondo T., (1997). Bilan-diagnostic de la gestion intgre des eaux et des contraintes environnementales dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad. Country report (Cameroon). LCBC/UNDESA/SOGEC (1997). Identification des acteurs du Bassin et Bilan perspective de la dimension participative dans le processus de dveloppement du bassin du Lac Tchad. tude socio-conomique. Country report (Chad). LCBC/UNDESA/SOGEC (1997). Bilan-diagnostic de la gestion intgre des eaux et les contraintes environnementales dans le bassin du Lac Tchad. Country report (Chad). LAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION LCBC/UNDESA (May 1998). Plan dAction Stratgique : Gestion intgre et durable des eaux internationales du bassin du Lac Tchad . GEF preparatory assistance. RAF/95/G48. 109 p. and 2 annexes. ECA, ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA, Vaidjoua Guineo (1998). tude sur la gestion intgre des ressources en eau du Tchad. CEDRAT (1996). tudes du schma directeur du Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, NDjamna, 39 p. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (1996). Aperu de la pche au Tchad. Les gens du poisson. CCE, Directorate general for develoment, CEC evaluation series(6), 70 p. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (1992). Schma damnagement de la zone soudanosahlienne (rapport final): bilan-diagnostic, Bonifica, Rome, 299 p. CCE/LCBC (2000). Sustainable development of African continental fisheries : a regional study of policy and policy formation mechanisms for the Lake Chad basin. Interim report. C&L DEUTSCHE REVISION/SOCIT TCHADIENNE DEAU ET DLECTRICIT. Rapport de Mission de prsentation des Comptes 1995 et dAudit des tats Financiers au 31/12/1996. CEMARE (1997). Report of the FIMS Project, ODA, London, printing. UNCED (1993). Action 21, Rio declaration on environment and development. Chapter 18, United Nations. CHOURET A. (1977). La persistance des effets de la scheresse sur le lac Tchad. ORSTOM, NDjamna Centre, 10 p. CHOURET A., J. FRANC et J. LEMOALLE (1974). volution hydrologique du lac Tchad de juillet dcembre 1973. ORSTOM, NDjamna Centre, 9 p. CHOURET A., et J. LEMOALLE (1974). volution hydrologique du lac Tchad durant la scheresse 1972-1974. ORSTOM, NDjamna Centre, 12 p.
225
CHOURET A., et J. LEMOALLE (1975). volution hydrologique du lac Tchad juillet 1974-octobre 1975. ORSTOM, NDjamna Centre, 11 p. CILSS (1991). Le dveloppement des cultures irrigues dans le Sahel : Contraintes de la politique des irrigations et stratgie paysanne, Summary report, Sahel Club. CITEAU J., H. DEMARCQ, G. MAHE et J. FRANC (1988). Une nouvelle station est ne. Veille Climatique Satellitaire (ORSTOM ed.) CLAUDE J., M. GROUZIS et P. MILLEVILLE (1991). Un espace sahlien, la mare dOursi, Burkina Faso. Paris, ORSTOM, 241 p. COTEI-Florence/Italy (1976). tude pour lamlioration de lalimentation en eau potable de la ville de NDjamna. DARMASTA RFA MTPTHU (1997). Adduction deau et mesures dassainissement dans les villes dAm-Timan, de Mossala, de Koumra, de La et dOum-Hadjer, Consultants assignment report. DORSOUMA A. (1991). Rapport circonstanci du Directeur Technique de lOffice de Mise en Valeur de SatguiDeressia ( OMVSD ) sur la gestion, les ralisations et la restructuration propose pour la priode de septembre 1989 avril 1991. DORSOUMA A. (1993). Rapport de mission de reconnaissance de site du Projet de Dveloppement Agricole des Ouadis du Kanem. DOUMDE NGADAME. Projet dAction pour le Dveloppement Social. Cellule de coordination et de soutien de projet, Project progress report of 12/2/95. DOUMDE, ROUX O. La problmatique spciale applique la recherche action formation. Gestion par ses habitats dun espace urbain dfavoris quartier Ardep-Djoumal NDjamna. EBERSCHWEILER C. (1992). Suivi et gestion des ressources en eaux souterraines dans le bassin du lac Tchad. Pr modlisation des systmes aquifres, valuation des ressources et simulation dexploitation, Unpublished report, BRGM, 106 p. EBERSCHWEILER C. (1993). Suivi et gestion des ressources en eaux souterraines dans le bassin du lac Tchad. Cartographie des aquifres, gestion des ressources en eau, Unpublished final report, BRGM. Orlans, n R35985. ESSO EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION CHAD Inc. (Dames & Moore) (1997). Projet dexportation tchadien. tude dimpact sur lenvironnement. Part tchadienne. Two volumes, multipagination. ESSO EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION CHAD Inc.(2000). CD-ROM. FAO (1987). Schma Directeur pour la mise en valeur des petits amnagements hydro agricoles. Rapport Technique. FONDS DAIDE ET DE COOPRATION (1998). Convention de financement pour lexcution du projet : Projet Politique de leau au Tchad. FUNOWICZ S.O., J. MARTINEZ-ALIER, G. MUNDA et J.R. RAVETZ (1999). Information tools for environmental policy under conditions of complexity. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 34 p. GANDAOUA D. (1996). Aperu sur la situation conomique rizicole au Tchad. NDjamna. GASTON A., (1997). La vgtation pastorale du Bassin du lac Tchad, in Atlas dlevage du bassin du Lac Tchad, CIRAD/CTA, p. 39-55. GENIK G.J. (1993). Petroleum Geology of Cretaceous-Tertiary Rift Bassins in Niger, Chad, and Central African Republic. AAPG bull.V77, n. 8, August 1993, 29 p.
226
GEPIS Groupe dexperts sur les plaines dinondation sahliennes (2000). Vers une gestion durable des plaines dinondation sahliennes. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, United Kingdom, 214 p. GKW CONSULT (1974). tude pour lalimentation en eau potable des six centres secondaires (Mao, Moussoro, Kelo, Doba Fianga, Bongor). GKW CONSULT (1996). tude pour la rhabilitation des systmes dalimentation en eau potable existants (Mao, Moussoro, Kelo, Doba Fianga, Bongor). GKW CONSULT (1988). Alimentation en eau potable des centres secondaires nIII (Mongo, Ati, Biltine, Bokoro, Pala, Gounou-Gaya, Lr). GKW CONSULT (1993). Amlioration de lalimentation en eau potable et de lassainissement de la ville dAbch : tudes dexcution, Programme dobservation de la nappe phratique du ouadi Bith., Final report. GKW CONSULT (1994). Amlioration de lalimentation en eau potable et de lassainissement de la ville dAbch : Programme dobservation de la nappe phratique du ouadi Bitha et campagne sismique rfractaire. Report of October 1994. GKW CONSULT (1996). Amlioration de lalimentation en eau potable et de lassainissement de la ville dAbch : Modle mathmatique de leau souterraine du ouadi Bitha. Report of October 1996. GROUPE HUIT (1996). NDjamna, Plan de rfrence, Final report, 210 p. GROUPE HUIT (1990). lments pour une stratgie de dveloppement du secteur urbain au Tchad. GROUPE HUIT-BCEOM (1997). Projet de dveloppement urbain au Tchad. tude de faisabilit, Final report, 176 p. HASKONING (1991). Projet dIngnierie Ptrole et lectricit. tude des effets sur lenvironnement, 29 p. plus annexes. HYDROPLAN (1985). tude des petits primtres irrigus proches de NDjamna. HYDROTECH (1996). Projet Maternit sans risque . Rapport dimplantation gophysique de 28 sites de sondages de reconnaissance dans le Gura, 20 p, ann., NDjamna. IGIP (1986). Mission dlaboration AEP de Biltine et Pala. ILTIS A., et J. LEMOALLE (1983). The aquatic vegetation of Lake Chad, pp. 125-143 in Lake Chad, Carmouze J.P., J. R Durand et C. Lvque (eds), Monog. Biologicae vol. 53, Junk,The Hague, 575 p. IMRICH KUSNIR (1993). Gologie, ressources minrales et ressources en eau au Tchad. IWACO (1990). tude sectorielle eau et assainissement. KINDLER J., P. WARSHALL et E.J. ARNOULD (1990). Le bassin conventionnel du lac Tchad : une tude diagnostique de la dgradation de lenvironnement. The lake Chad conventional basin : a diagnostic study of environmental degradation, 177 p. LAHMEYER INTERNATIONAL (1997). Dsengagement de ltat du Secteur Eau et Electricit au Tchad, tude diagnostique. LAMINE MAHAMAT,YOUNOUS KOSSO, MAHAMAT GABI, ERMANA DELACROIX, ABDRAMANE SEDOU (2000). Situation actuelle sur lapprovisionnement en eau potable et lassainissement en milieu rural du Tchad. LANGSDORF W. (1997). Ralisation de forages NDjamna et Sarh. Final report.
227
LAVALADE J.L. (1993). Projets de points deau au Salamat et au BET. Modlisation du fonctionnement du systme aquifre de la palmeraie de Faya-Largeau, Unpublished report, BRGM. Orlans. n 0510 INT/4S/93, 14 p LEMOALLE J. (1978). Application des donnes Landsat la courbe bathymtrique du lac Tchad. Cah. ORSTOM, sr. Hydrobiol. 12, 1, p. 83-87. LEMOALLE J. (1979). Biomasse et production phytoplanctoniques du lac Tchad (19681976), Relation avec les conditions de milieu. ORSTOM, Paris, 287 p. LEMOALLE J., et J.J.TROUBAT (1989). Application des donnes satellitaires lhydrologie du lac Tchad : anne 198889, Rapports ORSTOM, Montpellier 89-02, p., multigr. LEMOALLE J. (1989). Le fonctionnement hydrologique du lac Tchad au cours dune priode de scheresse (19731989,. Rapport ORSTOM, Montpellier 89-03, 27 p. LOUIS BERGER INTERNATIONAL (1994). tude des possibilits de stockage des eaux de ruissellement superficiel dans 4 prfectures du Tchad (Biltine, Batha, Gura et Ouadda). LOUIS BERGER INTERNATIONAL (1996.) tude du projet de Dveloppement Rural de la Prfecture de Biltine. LHOTE Y., et G. MAHE (1996). Afrique de lOuest et centrale. Prcipitations moyennes annuelles (priode 19511989). Carte au 1/6 000 000. ORSTOM Editions. MABILLOT, A., (1980). Le forage deau. Guide Pratique. MAHAMAT L.Y.K., Gabi MAHAMAT GABI, E. DE LA CROIX, ABDERAMANE SEIDOU (2000). Situation actuelle sur lapprovisionnement en eau potable et lassainissement en milieu rural. Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, NDjamna, 157 p.Tchad. MAHAMAT NOUR IDRISS HAGGAR, MADJITOLOUM YOMBOMBE (2000). Assainissement en milieu urbain, semi-urbain et industriel. Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, NDjamna, 134 p.Tchad. MAIRIE DE NDJAMNA (1998). Le plan daction de gestion durable des dchets urbains et de lassainissement de la ville de NDjamna. MAIRIE DE NDJAMNA, DST (1997). Service et quipements urbains dans les quartiers priphriques de NDjamna. tude de faisabilit. Interim report. MAIRIE DE NDJAMNA, ATETIP-TECSULT (1996). Ville de NDjamna tudes du schma gnral de drainage des zones situes au Nord/Est de la voie de contournement, Preliminary design. MAIRIE DE NDJAMNA (1989). Programme dAssainissement et dentretien de la voirie. Commune de NDjamna. Services Techniques Municipaux, Winter season 1989. MOREAU R.E. (1972). The Palearctic-African bird migration systems. Academic Press, London, New York. 384 p. MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL, ORSTOM, SOGREAH (1991). valuation hydrologique de lAfrique subsaharienne. Pays de lAfrique de lOuest : Tchad, 326 p, ann, Cambridge. MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL (1991). Water transfer from the Ubangui River to the lake Chad basin; NEPA proposals. MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL (1993). Mathematical model of the hydrological behaviour of Lake Chad and its feeder rivers. UNDP-DTCD/ Lake Chad Basin Commission. NAAH E. Hydrologie du grand Yar du nord Cameroun. Doctoral thesis, University of Yaound, 1992, 327 p.
228
NAOURA D. (1999). Rapport de mission de formulation du Projet dAmnagement des ressources Naturelles dans la Zone Sahlienne. NDINGAMBAYE P. Rapport dactivit anne 1999. Cellule Rgionale dAppui la Maintenance de Moundou. Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE. NEDJIM A., et A. ABDOU (2000). Situation actuelle et problmatique du secteur de lassainissement en milieu urbain, semi-urbain et industriel. NELNGAR Y. (2000). Synthse actualise des ressources en eau de surface, project CHD98/004 266 p. NEILAND A., M. T. SARCH., S. MADAKAN, B. LADU (1996). Fisheries research priorities for international inland waters in West and Central Africa : a case study of the Chad Basin. ACP-EU Fisheries Research Report no. 2, Brussels : 85-97. NIASSE M., and E.J.P. DE NOOY (1987). Schma directeur pour la mise en valeur des petits amnagements au Tchad. ONDR (1998). Rapport annuel dactivits appui la gestion des petits primtres irrigus 6me FED.- NDjamna. ONDR (1999). Rapport dactivits des petits primtres irrigus 6e FED au nord de NDjamna. ONDR (1996). Travaux de rhabilitation du casier B de Bongor (Tchad). Project description leaflet. ONDR (1996). Projet relance casier B de Bongor (Tchad). UNDESA (1998). Dialogue sur la gestion de leau en zones dfavorises : quels appuis aux options durables ? Minutes of an international workshop organised in NDjamna (Chad). UNO (2000). Bilan commun de pays au Tchad, 83 p. plus annexes. OUALBADET M. (1997). volution de la gestion des pches dans les eaux intrieures en Afrique intertropicales. Une analyse comparative. ENSA, Rennes, 73 p. OXFAM (1994). Lassainissement et lhygine dans les quartiers de NDjamna. Round table. PAOLETTI P., et J. LEMOALLE (1991). Rapport de la mission dactualisation des donnes de base socio-conomique et denvironnement. Projet RAF/88/029, UNDP, UNO-DDSMS, LCBC, NDjamena. PIQUEMAL A. (1995). Rpublique du Tchad, Ministre de lAgriculture et de lEnvironnement : Le cadre juridique environnemental. Examen et propositions. UNDP (1998). Human Development Report. UNDP (2000). Human Development Report, 290 p. POINT P. (1999). La valeur conomique des hydrosystmes, Paris, Economica/GIP Hydrosystmes, 211 p. POLET Gert Water Management Issues in the Hadejia-Jamaare-Yobe river basin, northern Nigeria, IUCN Wetlands Programme, Newsletter no. 14, no. 14 Winter, Gland, Switzerland. PRET Pierre-Franois (1993). Les palmeraies du Borkou. CNAR. RASSEM Edmond (1999). Gestion des eaux uses dans les units industrielles NDjamna : cas des Boissons et Glacire du Tchad (BGT), Course report, 11 October -22 December 1999. REMADJI B., and O.C. HASSANTY (1991). valuation agro-socio-conomique des quatre petits primtres irrigus (Mara, Ambdane, Midekhine et Sagour) au nord de NDjamna, 6th EDF Project. Report.
229
RIGAL D. (1989). Crue et dcrue au lac Tchad. Veille climatique satellitaire, ORSTOM/CMS, 27, p. 71-76. RIMNELY MARCEL. Urbanisation de la ville de NDjamna : Mmoire de fin dtudes. SAGUA, V.O. (1993). Consultation on the socio-economic data. 24 p + Annexes in King, Definition of the development strategies of the water resources of the Lake Chad Basin, Projet RAF/88/029 NDjamna (TD), 185 p. SALEH M.A. (1994). Bibliographie gologique du Tchad 1903-1994. UNDP. Projet CHD/91/007 de la Direction des Recherches Gologiques et Minires. Occasional publication. SALEH RAMADAN; NODDJIOROUM ISSAC; PEKA MALLAYE (1998). tude rapide du milieu environnement dans six districts sanitaires. SATOM (1996). AEP de la ville de Mongo. SATOM (1998). Dossier de recollement AEP de la ville de Pala. SCHNEIDER J.L. (1969). Carte hydrogologique de la Rpublique du Tchad, ch. 1/1.500 000, BRGM, Orlans. SCHNEIDER J.L. Gologie et hydrogologie de la Rpublique du Tchad. Doctoral thesis. Univ. of Avignon, 28 April 1989, 3 vol. SCHNEIDER J.L. (1992). Le Tchad depuis 25 000 ans. Masson, Paris, 134 p. SCHNEIDER J.L. (2000). Gologie, archologie, hydrogologie de la Rpublique du Tchad. Mm. 2 vol. Groundwater development map of the Republic of Chad, 1/1 500 000 scale, to appear. SCHNEIDER J.L. and J. P.WOLFF (1992). 1/500 000 geological and hydrogeological maps of the Republic of Chad. Explanatory report. BRGM document no. 209. 2 vol. SIGHOMNOU D. et al. (1996). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone dans lExtrme Nord du Cameroun, Pilot reflooding scheme, 141p. SIGHOMNOU D. et al., (1996). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone dans lExtrme Nord du Cameroun. Pilot reflooding scheme, Second measurement campaign,126 p. SGI-STUDI (1998). Plan directeur du sous-secteur lectricit du Tchad. Rapport dfinitif de phase 2 Volume 3. Plan de dveloppement de la production dnergie lectrique. SGI-STUDI (1998). tudes pour lAEP de Faya. Phase B report. SGI (1997). Cahier des clauses techniques gnrales- Chenal de Bol-Polder de Mamdi. SGI-STUDI (1988). tude du Plan Directeur du Sous-secteur lectricit, Final report of the Master Plan for the Electricity Subsector in Chad, 6 volumes plus summary report. SOCIT TCHADIENNE DNERGIE LECTRIQUE (1973). Note dinformation sur les problmes relatifs lalimentation en eau des principaux centres du Tchad. SOCIT TCHADIENNE DEAU ET DLECTRICIT (1988). Rapport annuel dactivit, Exercice.- STEE 1988. SOCIT TCHADIENNE DEAU ET DLECTRICIT (1990). Contrat pour lAppui la Gestion de la STEE. SOCIT TCHADIENNE DEAU ET DLECTRICIT. Rapport dactivit 1995-1999, Direction Technique Hydraulique. SOCIT TCHADIENNE DEAU ET DLECTRICIT-IGIP. Mesures daccompagnement du projet de rhabilitation des six centres secondaires.
230
SODELAC (1998). tude de faisabilit damnagement des polders du Lac et de la zone insulaire Rapport de ltude de faisabilit. Final report. SODELAC. Schma directeur de dveloppement socio-conomique de la rgion du Lac, 3 tomes, NDjamna. SODETEG. Schma directeur de dveloppement socio-conomique de la rgion du Lac. SOGEC (1998). Evaluation report concerning integrated development of the Borkou palm groves, summary no. 1. SOGREAH, SCET TUNISIE, BIEP (1998). tude du dveloppement intgr de la rgion du Salamat. SOGREAH (1987). tude dun projet de rhabilitation du casier A . SOME B., R. WRIGHT and M.F. MAHADI (1999). Report of the joint CILSS/FAO preliminary evaluation assignment of the 1999/2000 farming season in Chad. STUDI (1998). Dsengagement de ltat du Secteur Eau/lectricit : Enjeux et Perspectives. TAMIATTO (1999). Rapport de mission. Appui la maintenance et lanimation de la direction du PHV Koros2ime phase. TEUTSCHER F., and C. BREUIL (1989). Le cas de la transformation et de la commercialisation du poisson dans le Bassin du lac Tchad; JEFAD/FAS/89/48, 46 p, plus annexes. THOMON DJIMBATINAN, (1999). Gestion des eaux uses au niveau de lHpital Gnral de Rfrence Nationale (HGRN) rapport de stage 15-26 nov. 1999. TILHO J. (1910). Documents scientifiques de la mission Tilho (1906-1909). Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, Vol. 1: 412 p.,Vol. Il, 598 p. TILHO J. (1928). Variations et disparition possible du lac Tchad. Ann. Gogr. Fr. 37 238-260. TOUCHEBEUF DE LUSSIGNY P. (1969). Monographie hydrologique du lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris, 169 p. TOUTAIN Bernard, Oussouby TOURE et Frdric REOUNDJI (2000). tude prospective de la stratgie nationale de gestion des ressources pastorales au Tchad. CIRAD-EMVT, Montpellier, France. TRAORE ALI ABDOULAYE (1995). Lartsianisme au Tchad dans la rgion du Borkou. Final course report. TRAORE Aminata. Leau potable et lassainissement faible cot. Manuel de formation participative. Centre rgional pour lEau Potable et lAssainissement Faible Cot. CREPA. IUCN (1984). Waza Logone flood restoration study, Delft Hydraulics, CML, Leiden. IUCN. Conservation et dveloppement de la rgion de Waza-Logone, Rpublique du Cameroun, CML, Leiden, The Netherlands, 40 p. IUCN (2000). Plaines dinondation sahliennes, enjeux et perspectives. Proceedings of the Yamoussoukro meeting, Ivory Coast, 7-9 October 1999, 88 p. UNEP (1999). Singh A., A. Dieye, M. Finco, M. S. Chenoweth., E.A. Fosnigh. and A. Allotey. Early warning of Selected Emerging Environmental Issues in Africa : Change and Correlation from a Geographic Perspective. UNEP/DEIAEW/ TR.99-2. UNICEF (1997). Water, sanitation and environmental health programme, 1999-2000. UNICEF (1994). Water, sanitation and environmental health sector programme.
231
VAIDJOUA GUINEO, AHMED DORSOUMA (2000). Situation actuelle et problmatique du secteur Hydro agricole au Tchad, Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, 173 p. VADJOUA G. (1997). Bilan-diagnostic de la gestion intgre des eaux et les contraintes environnementales dans le Bassin du lac Tchad. VADJOUA G. (1993). Problmatique de fonctionnement du casier B de Bongor, Journes Inter-Africaines dIrrigation du CIEH, Ouagadougou. VALFREY B. (2000). Atelier pour la dfinition dune stratgie nationale des projets dhydraulique rurale. NDjamna 19-23 June 2000, provisional version, Hydroconseil, 135 p. VAN OIJEN I., et B. HABERLAND (1991). Une digue en terre. Effets socio-cologiques de la digue de Zilim. Series: Environnement et Dveloppement au Nord Cameroun. 121p. WELCOMME R.L. (1979). Fisheries ecology of floodplain rivers. Longman, London. 317 p. WESSERLING H. (1995). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone, Mission Report, Delft Hydraulics, T0508. WOLFF J.P. (1964). Carte Gologique de la Rpublique du Tchad, ch. 1/1.500 000, BRGM, Orlans. YEMADJI NDIEKHOR, ITS. LEau et la vie urbaine NDjamna. Doctoral thesis. YEMEDJI NDIEKHOR, GOUA NDO ODANSOU (1991). tude sociologie, Sommaire du milieu pour le projet PADS, INSH.
232
GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1987). Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply. Amnagement du bassin du Logone par les barrages rservoirs : consquences sur les activits du secteur rural. International seminar.- LCBC. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT (1993). Consultations sectorielles sur le dveloppement rural, la scurit alimentaire et les ressources hydrauliques, volume 1 Synthse; volume 2 Diagnostic et stratgies; volume 3 Programme daction. Annexe Fichier des projets en cours; volume 4 Cadrage macro-conomique. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (1994). Actes du sminaire national sur la pche au Tchad. NDjamna 31 May 1 June 1994, 43 p. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1998). Directorate of Agricultural Statistics, Annuaire des statistiques agricoles, NDjamna. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1999). Directorate of Agricultural Statistics, Annuaire des Statistiques agricoles. NDjamna. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1997) Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply. Rapport dexcution du projet de Dveloppement Intgr des Palmeraies du Borkou(2me phase). MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT (1992). Liquidation de la rizerie de La, Problmatique propositions de relance des activits rizicoles rgionales. MINISTRY OF STOCK-REARING (1998). Rflexion prospective sur llevage au Tchad. Main report, 77 p. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Loi 016/PR/99 du 18 aot 1999 portant Code de lEau, 50 p. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Analyse de gestion des zones humides au Tchad et proposition des textes rglementaires. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Plan national de lutte contre la dsertification. MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND COOPERATION (1990). Plan dorientation : Le Tchad vers lan 2000. MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND COOPERATION (1994). Consultation sectorielle sur lEnvironnement et la lutte contre la Dsertification, Cellule Technique dAppui, 12 p. MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT / UNDP/UNDESA (1998). Enqute sur la Consommation et le Secteur Informelle au Tchad. ECOSIT 1995-1996. Final report., CHD/91/006 Appui la gestion du dveloppement . MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, Central Census Office, 1998. Enqute dmographique et de sant. Tchad 1996-1997. MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT-UNDP (1999). Rapport National sur le Dveloppement Humain au Tchad, 1997. MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT (2002). Directorate of Planning and Development. tat de la population du Tchad en 1999 : Croissance dmographique et dgradation de lenvironnement. MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT (2003). Document de Stratgie Nationale de Rduction de la pauvret. NDjamna, Chad. MINISTRY OF NATIONAL RECONSTRUCTION AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1980). Dcennie Internationale de lEau Potable et de lAssainissement : Rapport du Tchad.
233
MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH (1999). Plan National de Sant. MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH, 1996. Directorate of Sanitary Activities. Afrique 2000 Documentation Technique de Base pour une consultation nationale. MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS, TRANSPORT AND URBAN PLANNING (1999). Document sur la Stratgie Nationale du Logement. REPUBLIC OF CHAD. Plan dorientation rvis Prparer le Tchad aux dfis du XXIime sicle . REPUBLIC OF CHAD (1998). Round Table conference. Summary document. Geneva, October 1998, 16 p. Basic document. Options stratgiques de dveloppement 1998-2001. Geneva, 60 p. plus annexes. Programme dappui au renforcement des capacits de gestion (PARC). Geneva, 41 p. plus annexes. REPUBLIC OF CHAD (1999). Geneva-IV Round Table. Sector meeting on rural development l. 4 volumes. Diagnostic et stratgies. 63 p. Action programmes, 23 p. plus annexes. Summary document, 20 p. plus annexes. REPUBLIC OF CHAD. Plan dOrientation Le Tchad lHorizon 2000/Plan dOrientation Rvis (POR).-1998-1999.
OTHER DOCUMENTS CONSULTED

Proceedings of the 21st session of the Chad-Cameroon Mixed Commission NDjamna, 18 Nov. 1998. Agence Coopration Amnagement, lEau et la Ville. ENTP documentation. Ministry of Cooperation and Development. La construction de puits en Afrique tropicale. Techniques rurales en Afrique. July 1992.
234
Photos by Paul Hansbury Mario Melandri Hilke Roeder Design and production of original French version: Linda Durand (lin.d.a@sympatico.ca) English translation: Sarl SETS, Echirolles, France (sets@sets.fr)
TO ACHIEVE THE
MILLENNIUM
GOALS AND ENSURE
INTEGRATED
AND PARTICIPATORY
MANAGEMENT
OF WATER AND ITS INFRASTRUCTURE
HCNE - REPUBLIC OF CHAD - MEE
INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT MAIN DOCUMENT

Integrated Plan For Chad's Water Development and Management (SDEA) - (Avril 2003)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Integrated Plan For Chad's Water Development and Management (SDEA) - (Avril 2003)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MAIN DOCUMENT

EXECUTING AGENCY: UNDESA

AN INTEGRATED STRATEGIC APPROACH TOWARDS MDG

FUNDING AGENCY: UNDP

HCNE - REPUBLIC OF CHAD - MEE

INTEGRATED PLAN FOR WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

ARAB J LIBYAN AMAHI RIYA JAMAHIR ARABE LIBYENNE

BORKOU - ENNEDI - TIBESTI

KE OTANDJILE MAY Lai Pala Klo Lo

ORIENTAL Ngaoundr Vina

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC R P U BLI QUE CE NT RAF RI CAI N E

This main document

An atlas of maps (GIS)

The SDEA consists of eight adaptable documents based on an updatable GIS

The SDEA is the result of a national participatory approach

The main SDEA document consists of five chapters

Water policy of Chad:

One billion FCFA = 1.52 million euros

5.90 0.50 1.50 5.00 5.20 3.20 0.70 0.73 23.00

about 22% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015.

Investments are way behind schedule in the following areas:

CHAPTER 1 PRESENT SITUATION OF CHADS WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 2 FORECASTING BASIC NEEDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

CHAPTER 3 WATER POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

CHAPTER 4 ACTION PLAN

CHAPTER 5 FUNDING - MONITORING - ASSESSING - UPDATING

One billion FCFA = 1.52 million Euros

DH/MEE Acting project authority.

1 CONTEXT AND DEMOGRAPHY

Republic of Chad Figure 1: Administrative breakdown by prefecture

Republic of Chad Figure 2: Administrative breakdown by department (unofficial breakdown)

Sudan Nigeria Nigeria

Table 1: Population distribution according to administrative breakdown

Prefecture Batha BET

Gura Kanem Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental Mayo-Kebbi

Salamat Tandjil N'Djamna Total Source: SDEA 2001

3 574 991 12 430 246

Estimated Estim depopulation la population

Source: SDEA 2001

ECOSIT, 95-96 (including non-monetary income)

2.2 The fight against poverty

2.3 The place of water in the economy of Chad

its effects on economic growth; as an economic activity.

stock-rearing; many types of industrial production.

courts; administrative services.

Republic of Chad Figure 3: Rural population density in the year 2000

Source: SDEA 2001

No. of villages with a borehole

No. of villages with a borehole

No. of villages with population under 300

No. of villages with population 300 to 1200

Population with drinking water supplies

3 2 2 2 2 14 38 12 150 17 23 4 200 140 91 73 73 42 14 0 115 92 0 17 3 2 74 65

Lac Logone occidental Logone oriental

Total Source : SDEA 2001

143 500 2 067 723

1 270 1 746 710 400

No. of villages with a borehole

Population with drinking water supplies

989 500 5 973 132

Population with drinking water supplies

No. of villages with borehole

Total number of villages