The nature of loads

Contents
1 Definitions

2 Individual Customer Load

3 Distribution Transformer Loading

4 Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors

5 Feeder Load
What is load?
The answer to that question depends upon
what type of an analysis is desired. For
example, the steady-state analysis (power-
flow study) of a transmission system will
require a different definition of load than
that used in the analysis of a secondary in a
distribution feeder.
What is load?
The problem is that the load on a power
system is constantly changing. The closer
you are to the customer, the more
pronounced will be the ever-changing load.
There is no such thing as a “steady-state”
load.
 Definitions - Demand

Load averaged over a specific

period of time.
Example:
The 15-minute kW
Load can be kW, KVAR, kVA, or A. demand is 100
kW.

Must include the time interval.

 Definitions – Maximum Demand

Greatest of all demands that occur Example:

during a specific time. The 15-minute
Maximum kW
demand for the
week was 100 kW.
Must include demand interval,
period, and units.
 Definitions – Average Demand

The average of the demands over

a specified period (day, week, Example:
month, etc.) The 15-minute
average kW
demand for the
month was 350 kW.
Must include demand interval,
period, and units.
 Definitions – Diversified Demand

Sum of demands imposed by a Example:

group of loads over a particular
The 15-minute
period.
diversified kW
demand in the
period ending at
Must include demand interval, 9:30 was 200 kW.
period, and units.
 Definitions – Max. Diversified Demand

Maximum of the sum of demands

imposed by a group of loads over a Example:
particular period. The 15-minute max.
diversified kW
demand for a week
was 500 kW.
Must include demand interval,
period, and units.
 Definitions –
Max. Noncoincident Demand

For a group of loads, the sum of the Example:

individual maximum demands without
The maximum
any restriction that they occur at the
noncoincident 15-
same time.
minute kW demand
for a week was 700
Must include demand interval, kW.
period, and units.
Definitions
Demand Factor
 Ratio of maximum demand to connected
load.
Utilization Factor
 Ratio of maximum demand to rated
capacity.
Diversity Factor
 Ratio of the maximum noncoincident
demand to the maximum diversified
demand.
Definitions
Load Factor
 Ratio of the average demand of any
individual customer or group of
customers over a period to the maximum
demand over the same period.
Load Diversity
 Difference between maximum non-
coincident demand and the maximum
diversified demand.
Individual Customer Load – Demand Interval
Demand Interval
 It is the period over which the load is
averaged. This selected Δt period may be 15
min, 30 min, 1 hr, or even longer. Of course,
there may be situations where the 15- and
30-min demands are identical.
Individual Customer Load - Demand
Demand
 Load averaged over a specific period of time.
 The demand of an installation or system is
the load at the receiving terminals averaged
over a specified interval of time.
 In order to define the load, demand curve is
broken into equal time.
 For example, in Figure 1 the selected time
interval is 15 minutes.
 The straight lines represent the average load
in a time interval.
Individual Customer Load - Demand
 The shorter the time interval, the more
accurate will be the value of the load.
 The average value of the load in an interval
is defined as the 15-minute kW demand.
Instantaneous
6.0
15 Minute kW Demand

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

6:15 6:30 6:45

Time of Day

Fig. 1 Customer demand curve

Individual Customer Load - Demand
 The 24-hour 15-minute kW demand value
for a customer is shown in Figure 2.
15
kW Demand

10

0
00:15 02:45 05:15 07:45 10:15 12:45 15:15 17:45 20:15 22:45
Tim e of Day

Fig. 2 24-hour demand curve.

Individual Customer Load – Max. Demand
Maximum Demand
 Greatest of all demands that occur during a
specific time.
 During the 24-hour period (Fig. 2), there is a
great variation in the demand.
 The greatest of these is the 15-minute
maximum kW demand.
 For this customer the 15-mimute maximum
kW demand occurs at 11:45 and has a value
of 12.68 kW.
Individual Customer Load – Average Demand
Average Demand
 The average of the demands over a
specified period.
Total energy
Average Demand =
Hours
 During the 24-hour period, energy (kWh) will
be consumed. The energy in kWh used
during each 15-minute time interval is
computed by
1
kWh = ( 15 − min kW demand ) • hour
4
Individual Customer Load – Average Demand
 The total energy consumed during the day is
the summation of all of the 15-minute
interval consumptions.
 If the total energy consumed during the
period by customer is 58.96 kWh, then the
15-minute average kW demand is computed
by
Total energy 58.96
Average Demand = = = 2.46 kW
Hours 24
Individual Customer Load – Load Factor
Load Factor
 Ratio of the average demand of any
individual customer or group of customers
over a period to the maximum demand over
the same period.
 The ratio of the average load (or average
demand) over a designated period of time to
the peak load (or maximum demand)
occurring on that period.
Individual Customer Load – Load Factor
 Therefore, the load factor FLD is
average load Average 15 − min kW demnad
FLD = =
peak load Maximum 15 − min kW demnad

 In Figure 2, the load factor can be found by

average load 2.46
FLD = = = 0.194
peak load 12.68
 Load factor gives an indication of how well
the utility’s facilities are being utilized.
Individual Customer Load – Load Factor
 From the utility’s standpoint, the optimal load
factor would be 1.0, since the system has to
be designed to handle the maximum
demand.
 Sometimes utility companies will encourage
industrial customers to improve their load
factors. One method of encouragement is to
penalize the customer on the electric bill for
having a low power factor.
Individual Customer Load – Load Factor

 By energy, the load factor can be expressed

as
average load × T
FLD =
peak load × T
where
T = time, in days (24), weeks (168), months (730), or
years (8760).
 For the annual factor, it can be expressed as
Total annual energy
Annual load factor =
Annual peak load × 8760
Distribution Transformer Loading
A distribution transformer will provide
service to one or more customers. Each
customer will have a demand curve
similar to Figure 2.
For example, there are four customers
connected to the same distribution
transformer. The load curves for the four
customers show that each customer has
his unique loading characteristic.
 Distribution Transformer Loading

Cust. #1 Cust. #2 Cust. #3 Cust. #4

Energy Usage (kWh) 58.57 36.46 95.64 42.75

Maximum kW Demand 6.18 6.82 4.93 7.05

Time of Max. kW Demand 13:15 11:30 6:45 20:30

Energy
Average kW Demand 2.44 1.52 3.98 1.78
Time
Average Demand
Load Factor 0.40
Maximum Demand 0.22 0.81 0.25
Diversified Demand
Diversified Demand (Coincident
Demand)
 It is the demand of the composite group, as a
whole, of somewhat unrelated loads over a
specified period of time.
 It is assumed that one distribution trans-
former serves four customers discussed
previously. The sum of the four 15-minute
kW demands for each time interval is the
diversified demand for the group in that time
interval.
Diversified Demand
15-mimute Max. Diversity Demand

Customer #4
#3
Customer #2
#1 Maximum demand = 5.7 kW
Maximum demand==11.5
Maximum demand 8.5kW
kW
Maximum demand = 13.1 kW
615
Demand

10
Demand

15
Demand
kWDemand

410
10
5
2 55
kW
kW

0 00
kW

0:15
2:00
3:45
5:30
7:15
9:00
10:45

19:30
12:30
14:15
16:00
17:45

21:15
23:00
:11155
:11155

:11155
:11155

1155
5
5

55

1155

155

55
55

55

55
::11

::11
::11
::11

::11
6::1
000::
222::

444::
666::

88::

44::
1100

1122

1188
2200

2222
116
11 Time
Timeofof Day
ofDay
Day
Time
Time of Day

Fig. 3 24-hour demand curve

Maximum Diversified Demand
The importance of the maximum
diversified demand is the maximum sum
of the contributions of the individual
demands to the diversified demand over
a specific time interval.
Note that this maximum demand does
not occur at the same time as any one of
the individual demands, nor is this
maximum demand the sum of the
individual maximum demands.
Load Duration Curve
A load duration curve can be developed for
the transformer serving the four customers.
Sorting in descending order, the kW demand
of the transformer develops the load
duration curve.
The load duration curve plots the 15-minute
kW demand versus the percent of time.
The curve can be used to determine
whether a transformer needs to be replaced
due to an over-loading condition.
Load Duration Curve
 For example, the load duration curve shows the
transformer operates with a 15-mimute kW
demand of 20 kW or greater 15% of the time.

Fig. 4 Transformer load duration curve.

Demand factor
The demand factor can be defined for an
individual customer.
The definition is
 The ratio of the maximum demand to the
total connected load. Therefore, the demand
factor (DF) can be expressed as
maximum demand
DF =
total connceted demand
 The demand factor is usually less than 1.0.
 It is an indicator of the simultaneous
operation of the total connected load.
Demand factor
For example
 the 15-minute maximum kW demand of
Customer #1 was found to be 6.18 kW.
 The total connected load will be the sum of
the ratings of all of the electrical devices at
the customer’s location.
 Assume that this total comes to 35 kW, then
Maximum Demand 6.18
Demand Factor = = = 0.1766
Total Connected Load 35
Connected Load
The sum of the continuous ratings of the
load-consuming apparatus connected to
the system. Or, the sum of the ratings of
the electricity consuming apparatus
connected to a generating system.
That is, the electric load (in watts), if all
apparatus and equipment connected to
the system are energized simultaneously.
 Noncoincident demand
Noncoincident demand
 The demands of a group loads are with no
restrictions on the interval.
Maximum Noncoincident Demand
 The 15-minute maximum noncoincident kW
demand for the day is the sum of the
individual customer 15-minute maximum kW
demands.
 For the transformer, the sum of the individual
maximum is
Maximum Noncoincident Demand = 13.1 + 8.5 + 11.5 + 5.7 = 38.8 kW
Diversity Factor
It is the ratio of the sum of the individual
maximum demands of the various sub-
divisions of a system to the maximum
demand of the whole system.
That is, diversity factor is the ratio of the
maximum noncoincident demand of a
group of customers to the maximum
diversified demand of the group.
Diversity Factor
Therefore, the diversity factor (FD) is
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
FD =
Coincident Maximum Demand
Maximum Noncoincident Demands
=
Maximum Coincident Demand

D1 + D2 + D3 +  + Dn
FD =
Dg
n Di = maximum demand of load i, dis-
∑ Di regarding time of occurrence.
= i =1 Dg = D1+2+3+…+n
Dg = coincident maximum demand
of group of n loads.
 Diversity Factor
From the definition of demand factor, we
can obtain
Maximum Demand = Total Connceted Demand ( TCD ) × DF

then,
n n
∑ Di ∑ TCDi × DFi
FD = i =1 = i =1
Dg Dg
Diversity Factor
 The diversity factor can be equal to or
greater than 1.
 The idea behind the diversity factor is that
when the maximum demands of the
customers are known, then the maximum
diversified demand of a group of customers
can be computed.
 There will be a different value of the diversity
factor for different numbers of customer.
Diversity Factor
 Table 1 developed from a database is an
example of the diversity factors for the
number of customers ranging from one to 70.
N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF
1 1.0 11 2.67 21 2.90 31 3.05 41 3.13 51 3.15 61 3.18
2 1.60 12 2.70 22 2.92 32 3.06 42 3.13 52 3.15 62 3.18
3 1.80 13 2.74 23 2.94 33 3.08 43 3.14 53 3.16 63 3.18
4 2.10 14 2.78 24 2.96 34 3.09 44 3.14 54 3.16 64 3.19
5 2.20 15 2.80 25 2.98 35 3.10 45 3.14 55 3.16 65 3.19
6 2.30 16 2.82 26 3.00 36 3.10 46 3.14 56 3.17 66 3.19
7 2.40 17 2.84 27 3.01 37 3.11 47 3.15 57 3.17 67 3.19
8 2.55 18 2.86 28 3.02 38 3.12 48 3.15 58 3.17 68 3.19
9 2.60 19 2.88 29 3.04 39 3.12 49 3.15 59 3.18 69 3.20
10 2.65 20 2.90 30 3.05 40 3.13 50 3.15 60 3.18 70 3.20

Table 1 Diversity Factor

Diversity Factor
 A graph of the diversity factors is shown in
Figure 8.
3.5

3
Diversity Factors

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69
Number of Customers

Fig. 5 Diversity Factor

Diversity Factor
 Note in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.8 that the
value of the diversity factor basically leveled
out when the number of customers reached
70.
 This is an important observation because it
means that as viewed from the substation,
the maximum diversified demand of a feeder
can be predicted by computing the total
noncoincident maximum demand of all of the
customers served by the feeder and dividing
by 3.2.
Utilization Factor
It is the ratio of the maximum demand of
a system to the rated capacity of the
system. Therefore,
maximum demand (coincident)
Fu =
rated system capacity
The utilization factor gives an indication
of how well the capacity of an electrical
device is being utilized. For transformer, it
can be expressed as
Utilization Factor
maximum kVA demand
Fu of transformer =
transformer kVA rating
 For example
The transformer serving four loads is rated
15 kVA. Using the 16.16 kW maximum
diversified demand and assuming a power
factor of 0.9. Find the utilization factor.
Utilization Factor
Maximum kW demand
Transformer kVA rating =
Power Factor
16.16
= = 17.96
0.9
Maximum kVA demand 17.96
Utilization factor = = = 1.197
Transformer kVA rating 15
Load Diversity
Load diversity is defined as the difference
between the noncoincident maximum
demand and the maximum diversified
demand.
For the transformer, the load diversity is
represented as
Load Diversity = Max. noncoincident demand - Max. diversified demand
Load Diversity
It is the difference between the sum of
the peaks of two or more individual loads
and the peak of the combined load.
Then, the load diversity (LD) is
LD = Max. noncoincident demand - Max. diversified demand
 n 
=  ∑ Di  − Dg
 i =1 
Coincidence Factor
 It is the ratio of the maximum coincident total
demand of a group of consumers to the sum
of the maximum power demands of
individual consumers comprising the group
both taken at the same point of supply for the
same time.
 The coincidence factor (FC) is
coincident maximum demand
FC =
sum of individual maximum demands
Dg 1
= =
n FD
∑ Di
i =1
Contribution Factor
It is defined as the contribution factor of
the ith load to the group maximum
demand. Therefore,
Dg = c1 D1 + c 2 D2 + c 3 D3 +  + c n Dn
where ci is called contribution factor.
class demand at time of system ( i .e., group ) peak
ci =
class noncoincident maximum demand
n
∑ ci Di
c1 D1 + c2 D2 + c3 D3 +  + cn Dn
FC = = i =1
n n
∑ Di ∑ Di
i =1 i =1
Contribution Factor
Special case
Case 1 ： D1 = D 2 = D3 =  = D n , then
n n
D ∑ ci ∑ ci
FC = i =1 = i =1
nD n
That is, the coincident factor is equal to the average
contribution factor.
Contribution Factor

Case 2 ： c1 = c2 = c3 =  = cn , then
n
c× ∑ Di
FC = i =1 =c
n
∑ Di
i =1
That is, the coincident factor is equal to the contribution
factor.
Example 1
Problem 2.3
Example 2
There are six residential customers
connected to a distribution transformer.
The connected load is 9 kW for each
house, and the demand factor and
diversity factor for the group of six houses
have been decided as 0.65 and 1.10,
respectively. Determine the diversified
demand of the group of six houses on the
distribution transformer.
Example 3
Assume that example 2 has a system
peak of 3000kW per phase and a copper
loss of 0.5 percent at the system peak.
Determine the following ：
 The copper loss of the feeder in kilowatts per
phase.
 The total copper losses of the feeder in
kilowatts per three-phase.
Example 4
Assume that annual peak load of a
primary feeder is 2000 kW, at which the
power loss, i.e., total copper loss, or ∑ I2R ,
is 80 kW per three-phase. Assuming an
annual loss factor of 0.15, determine:
 The average annual power loss.
 The total annual energy loss due to the
copper losses of the feeder circuits.
 Example 5
 Assume that there are two primary feeders supplied by
one transformer. One of the feeders supplies an
industrial load which occurs primarily between 8 am
and 11 pm, with a peak of 2000kW at 2 pm. The other
one feeds residential loads which occur mainly between
6 am and 12 pm, with a peak of 2000kW at 9 pm.
Determine the following: (System peak load is 3000kW
at 7 pm.)
 The diversity factor of the load connected to the
transformer.
 The load diversity of the load connected to
transformer.
 The coincidence factor of the load connected to
transformer.
Example 5 System
peak load
3000

Residential
load peak
Industrial
load peak
2000

1000

12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
A.M. Noon
Transmission
Line

Distribution
Transformer

Primary
Feeder

Industrial Reserved for Residential

load Future loads load
Example 6
Use the data shown in Table 2. Note that
the peak occurs at 5 P.M. Determine the
following:
 The class contribution factors for each of the
three load classes.
 The diversity factor for the primary feeder.
 The diversified maximum demand of the load
group.
 The coincidence factor of the load group.
 Load , kW
Time
Street Lighting Residential Commercial
1 100 200 200
2 100 200 200
3 100 200 200
4 100 200 200
5 100 200 200
6 100 200 200
7 100 300 200
8 0 400 300
9 0 500 500
10 0 500 1000
11 0 500 1000
12 noon 0 500 1000
1 0 500 1000
2 0 500 1200
3 0 500 1200
4 0 500 1200
5 0 600 1200
6 100 700 800
7 100 800 400
8 100 1000 400
9 100 1000 400
10 100 800 200
11 100 600 200
12 A.M. 100 300 200
Example 7
Assume a substation supplied an annual
peak load of 3500 kW. The total annual
energy supplied to the primary feeder
circuits is 10,000,000 kWh. The peak
demand occurs in July or August and is
due to air-conditioning load.
 Find the annual average power demand.
 Find the annual load factor.
Example 8
 Use the data given in Example 7 and suppose
that a new load of 100 kW with 100 percent
annual load factor is supplied from the
substation. The investment cost, or capacity
cost, of the power system upstream, i.e.,
toward the generator, from the substation is
$3.00/kW per month. Assume that the energy
delivered to these primary feeders is
$0.03/kWh.
 Find the new annual load factor on the substation.
 Find the total annual cost to the utility to serve this
load.
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
Assume that the primary feeder shown in
Figure 6 is connected to a variable load.

PLS1

P1
Fig. 6 The primary feeder.

Figure 7 shows an arbitrary and idealized

load curve.
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors

Fig. 7 Idealized load curve.

Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
Assume that the off-peak loss is PLS,1 at
some off-peak load P1 and that the peak
loss is PLS,2 at some off-peak load P2.
 The load factor is
Pav Pav
FLD = =
Pmax P2
 From Figure 7, we can obtain
P2 × t + P1 × ( T − t )
Pav =
T
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 Substituting this equation into the previous
one.
P2 × t + P1 × ( T − t )
FLD =
P2 × T

or
t P1 ( T − t )
FLD = + ×
T P2 T
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 The loss factor is
PLS ,av PLS ,av
FLS = =
PLS ,max PLS ,2
where
PLS,av = average power loss.
PLS,max = maximum power loss.
PLS,2 = peak loss at peak load.
 From Figure 9, we also can obtain
PLS ,2 × t + PLS ,1 × ( T − t )
PLS ,av =
T
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 Then, the loss factor can be expressed as
PLS ,2 × t + PLS ,1 × ( T − t )
FLS =
PLS ,2 × T
where
PLS,1 = off-peak loss at off-peak load.
t = peak load duration.
T-t = off-peak load duration.

 The copper losses are the function of the

associated loads.
PLS ,1 = k × P12 and PLS ,2 = k × P22
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 Thus, the loss factor can be expressed as
( k × P22 ) × t + (k × P12 ) × ( T − t )
FLS =
(k × P22 ) × T
or
2
t  P1 
FLS = +  
(T − t )
T  P2  T
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
2
t P1 ( T − t ) t  P1  (T − t )
FLD = + × FLS = +  
T P2 T T  P2  T

The load factor can be related to loss

factor for three different cases:
 Case 1: Off-peak load is zero, i.e. PLS ,1 = 0, since P1=0.
t
FLD = FLS =
T
 That is, the load factor is equal to the loss factor and
they are equal to the t/T constant.
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 Case 2: Very short lasting peak, that is t → 0 .
Then,
T −t
→ 1.0
T
Therefore, FLS → ( FLD ) 2
 That is, the value of the loss factor
approaches the value of the load factor
squared.
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 Case 3: Load is steady. That is, t → T . It
means the difference between peak
load and off-peak load is negligible.
Thus,
t P1 ( T − t ) T P1 ( T − T )
FLD = + × = + × =1
T P2 T T P2 T
2 2
t  P1  ( T − t ) T  P1  ( T − T )
FLS = +   = +   =1
T  P2  T T  P2  T

∴ FLS → FLD
Relationship Between Load and Loss Factors
 That is, the value of the loss factor
approaches the value of the load factor.
Therefore, in general, the relationship
between loss factor and load factor can
be shown as
2
FLD < FLS < FLD
An approximate formula to relate the loss
factor to the load factor as
2
FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD
2
FLS = 0.2 FLD + 0.8 FLD (T. P.C)
Feeder Load
 The load that a feeder serves will display a
smoothed demand curve as shown in Figure 8.
 The feeder demand curve does not display any
of the abrupt changes in demand of an
individual customer demand curve.
 The simple explanation for this is that the
feeder serves with several hundred customers,
and one customer is turning off a light bulb,
then another customer will be turning a light
bulb on.
Feeder Load

Feeder Total

15000
kW Demand

10000
5000
0
4:15

8:15

14:15
0:15
2:15

6:15

10:15
12:15

16:15
18:15
20:15
22:15
Time of Day

Fig. 8 Feeder demand curve.

Load Allocation
In the analysis of a distribution feeder
load, data will have to be specified.
The data provided will depend upon how
detailed the feeder is to be modeled, and
the availability of customer load data.
The most comprehensive model of a
feeder will represent every distribution
transformer. Then, the load allocated to
each transformer needs to be
determined.
Application of Diversity Factors
The definition of the diversity factor (DF)
is the ratio of the maximum noncoincident
demand to the maximum diversified
demand.
When diversity factor is available, then it
is possible to determine the maximum
diversified demand of a group of
customers such as those served by a
distribution transformer.
Application of Diversity Factors
That is, the maximum diversified demand
can be computed by:
Maximum Noncoincident Demand
Maximum diversified Demand =
DFn

This maximum diversified demand

becomes the allocated load for the
transformer.
Load Survey
Many times the maximum demand of
individual customers will be known, either
from metering or from a knowledge of the
energy (kWh) consumed by the
customer.
Some utility companies will perform a
load survey of similar customers in order
to determine the relationship between the
energy consumption in kWh and the
maximum kW demand.
Load Survey
At the end of the survey period the
maximum demand vs. kWh for each
customer can be plotted on a common
graph.
Linear regression is used to determine
the equation of a straight line that gives
the kW demand as a function of kWh.
For example, the straight-line equation
can be expressed as
Load Survey
12
10.5

10
15 Minute Maximum kW Demand (kW)

kWi
6
kW1i

1.9 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
500 kWhi 2000
Energy (kWh)

Max. kW demand = 0.1058 + 0.005014 • kWh

Load Survey
Knowing the maximum demand for each
customer is the first step in developing a
table of diversity factors as shown in
Table 2.
The next step is to perform a load survey
where the maximum diversified demand
of group of customer is metered.
This will involve selecting a series of
location where demand meters can be
placed.
Load Survey
The meters will record the maximum
demand for groups of customers ranging
from at least 2 to 70.
At each meter location the maximum
demand of all downstream customer
must also be known.
With that data, the diversity factor can be
computered for the given number of
downstream customers.
Load Survey
The first step
 Knowing the maximum demand for each
customer.
 The results can use to find “Maximum
Noncoincident demand”.
The second step
 The maximum diversified demand of groups
of customer is metered.
 The results are used to obtain “Maximum
diversified demand”
Load Survey
The third step
 By the previous data, the diversity factor
can be computered.

Maximum Noncoincident Demand

DFn =
Maximum diversified Demand
Example 9
A single-phase lateral provides service to
three distribution transformer as shown in
Figure 9.
N1 N2 N3 N4

T1 T2 T3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Fig. 9 Single-phase lateral.

Example 9
 The energy in kWh consumed by each
customer during a month is known. A load
survey has been conducted for customers in
this class, and it has been found that the
customer 15-mimute maximum kW demand
is given by the equation
kWdemand = 0.2 + 0.008 • kWh
 Example 9
T1 Customer #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
kWh 1523 1645 1984 1590 1456
kW 12.4 13.4 16.1 12.9 11.9

T2 Customer #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11

kWh 1235 1587 1698 1745 2015 1765
kW 10.1 12.9 13.8 14.2 16.3 14.3

T3 Customer #12 #13 #14 #15 #16 #17 #18

kWh 2098 1856 2058 2265 2135 1985 2103
kW 17.0 15.1 16.7 18.3 17.3 16.1 17.0
Example 9
 Determine for each transformer the 15-
mimute noncoincident maximum kW demand
and, using the Table 2 (Diversity Factor),
determine the 15-mimute maximum
diversified kW demand.
 Determine the 15-mimute noncoincident
maximum kW demand and 15-minute
maximum diversified kW demand for each of
the line segments.
Example 9
Discussing
 This Example demonstrates that Kirchhoff’s
currentKCL
law is
(KCL) is notorobeyed
obeyed not? when the
maximum diversified demands are used as
the load flowing through the line segments
and through theWhy?
transformers.
 At node N1 the maximum diversified demand
flowing down the line segment N1-N2 is 92.8
kW, and the maximum diversified demand
flowing through transformer T1 is 30.3 kW.
Example 9
 KCL would then predict that the maximum
diversified demand flowing down line
segment N2-N3 would be the difference of
these, or 62.5 kW.
 However, the calculations for the maximum
diversified demand in that segment were
computed to be 72.6 kW.
 The explanation is that the maximum
diversified demands for the line segments
and transformers don’t necessarily occur at
the same time.
Example 9
 At the time that line segment N2-N3 is
experiencing its maximum diversified
demand, line segment N1-N2 and
transformer T1 are not at their maximum
values.
 All that can be said is that, at the time
segment N2-N3 is experiencing its maximum
diversified demand, the difference between
the actual demand on line segment N1-N2
and the demand of transformer T1 will be
72.6 kW, not 62.5 kW.
Transformer Load Management
The transformer load management
program relates the maximum diversified
demand of a distribution transformer to
the total kWh supplied by the transformer
during a specific month.
The usual relationship is the equation of
a straight line. Such an equation is
determined from a load survey.
Transformer Load Management
This type of load survey meters the
maximum demand on the transformer in
addition to the total energy in kWh of all
of the customers connected to the
transformer.
A transformer load management program
is used by utilities to determine the
loading on distribution transformers.
Transformer Load Management
The program is primarily used to
determine when a distribution transformer
needs to be changed out due to a
projected overloading condition.
The results of the program can also be
used to allocate loads to transformers for
feeder analysis purposes.
Because the utility will have in the billing
database the kWh consumed by each
customer every month.
Transformer Load Management
As long as the utility knows which customers
are connected to each transformer by using
the developed equation, the maximum
diversified demand (allocated load) on each
transformer on a feeder can be determined for
each billing period.
 Metered Feeder Maximum Demand
The major disadvantage of allocating load
using the diversity factors is that most utilities
will not have a table of diversity factors. The
process of developing such a table is
generally not cost effective.
The major disadvantage of the transformer
load management method is that a database is
required that specifies which transformer
serve which customer.
Metered Feeder Maximum Demand
Allocating load based upon the metered
readings in the substation requires the least
amount of data.
Most feeders will have metering in the
substation that will, at minimum, give either
the total three-phase maximum diversified
kW or kVA demand and/or the maximum
current per phase.
Metered Feeder Maximum Demand
The kVA ratings of all distribution
transformers are always known for a feeder.
The metered readings can be allocated to each
transformer based upon the transformer
rating.
An “allocation factor” (AF) can be
determined based upon the metered three-
phase kW or kVA demand and the total
connected distribution transformer kVA
Metered Feeder Maximum Demand
Metered Demand
AF =
kVAtotal
Where
metered demand can be either kW or kVA, and
kVAtotal = sum of the kVA ratings of all distribution
transformers.
 The allocated load per transformer is then
determined by
Transformer demand = AF • kVA transformer
 The transformer demand will be either kW or
kVA depending upon the metered quantity.
Metered Feeder Maximum Demand

When the kW or kVA is metered by phase,

the load can be allocated by phase where it
will be necessary to know the phasing of each
distribution transformer.
When the maximum current per phase is
metered, the load allocated to each
distribution transformer can be done by
assuming nominal voltage at the substation
and then computing the resulting kVA.
Example 10
Assume that the metered maximum
diversified kW demand for the system of
Example 9 is 92.8 kW. Allocate this load
according to the kVA ratings of the three
transformers.
kVA total = 25 + 37.5 + 50 = 112.5
Metered demand
AF =
kVAtotal
92.8
= = 0.8249 kW/kVA
112.5
Example 10
 The allocated kW for each transformer
becomes

T1 ： kW1 = 0.8249 ⋅ 25 = 20.62 kW

T2 ： kW2 = 0.8249 ⋅ 37.5 = 30.93 kW

T3 ： kW3 = 0.8249 ⋅ 50 = 41.24 kW

 What Method to Use?
Four different methods have been
presented for allocating load to
distribution transformers:
 Application of diversity factors.
 Load survey.
 Transformer load management.
 Metered feeder maximum demand.
Which method to use depends upon the purpose
of the analysis.
What Method to Use?
If the purpose is to determine as closely
as possible the maximum demand on a
distribution transformer, then either the
diversity factor or the transformer load
management method can be used.
Neither of these methods should be
employed when the analysis of the total
feeder is to be performed.
What Method to Use?
The problem is that using those methods
will result in a much larger maximum
diversified demand at the substation than
actually exists.
When the total feeder is to be analyzed,
the only method that gives good results is
that of allocating load based upon the
kVA ratings of the transformers, that is,
allocation factor.
Voltage-Drop Calculation Using Allocation Loads

The various voltage drops will be

computed using the loads allocated by
two of the methods in the following
examples. (Diversity factor and allocation
factor)
For these studies it is assumed that the
allocated loads will be modeled as
constant real power and reactive power.
Application of Diversity Factor
The loads allocated to a line segment or
a distribution transformer using diversity
factors are a function of the total number
of customers down stream from the line
segment or distribution transformer.
With a knowledge of the allocated loads
flowing in the line segments and through
the transformers and the impedances,
the voltage drops can be computed.
Example 11
For the system of Example 9, assume
the voltage at N1 is 2400 volts. Compute
the secondary voltages on the three
transformers and calculate the percent
voltage drop to the secondary of
transformer T3 using the diversity factor.
 Assume that the power factor of the loads is
0.9 lagging.
 The impedance of the lines are:
z = 0.3 + j 0.6 Ω / mile
Example 11
 The ratings of the transformers are
T1 : 25kVA, 2400-240 volts, Z = 1.8∠40%
T2 : 37.5kVA, 2400-240 volts, Z = 1.9∠45%

T3 : 50kVA, 2400-240 volts, Z = 2 . 0∠50 %

N1 5000’ N2 500’ N3 750’ N4

T1 T2 T3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Example 12
For the system of Example 9, assume
the voltage at N1 is 2400 volts and
compute the secondary voltages on the
three transformers, allocating the loads
based upon the transformer ratings.
Assume that the metered kW demand at
N1 is 92.9 kW. The impedances of the
line segments and transformers are the
same as in Example 11. Assume the load
power factor is 0.9 lagging.