MAHENDRA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MAHENDRIPURI DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 2253 - ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY

UNIT-I Two Marks: 1. What are the effects of crystal structure and atomic radii on formation of solid solution between two metallic elements? i) Crystal Structure : The two metallic elements that form solid solution must have the same crystal structure. Otherwise, there is some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to a second phase with a different structure. ii) Atomic Radii: The solute and solvent elements atoms must be of similar size, with less than a 15% difference in atomic radius. 2. Define Peritectic and Eutectoid reactions. In Peritectic reaction, upon cooling, a solid and a liquid phase transform isothermally and reversibly to a solid phase having a different composition. Liquid + Solid 1 Solid 2 Eutectoid reaction is an isothermal reversible reaction in which one solid phase transforms into two intimately mixed new solid phases, upon cooling. Solid 1 Solid 2 + Solid 3 3. State the conditions under which two metallic elements will exhibit unlimited solid solubility. To exhibit unlimited solid solubility, the solute and solvent elements should obey the following general rules of Hume Rothery. i) Size factor, ii) Crystal Structure iii) Valence iv) Electro negativity. 4. Define the terms Ferrite and Austenite in iron-carbon alloy system. Ferrite is a primary solid solution based on - iron having BCC structure. Austenite is a primary solid solution based on - iron having FCC structure. Both are interstitial solid solutions of carbon iron. 5. Distinguish between hypo-eutectoid steels and hypereutectoid steels. Hypoeutectoid steels: Steels having less than 0.8%C are known as hypoeutectoid steels. Hypereutectoid steels: Steels having more than 0.8%C are known as hypereutectoid steels. 6. Define peritectoid reaction. Peritectoid reaction is an isothermal reversible reaction in which two solid phases transform into a third solid phase, upon cooling. The Peritectoid reaction can be written as Solid 1 + Solid 2 Solid 3

7. What is substitutional solid solution? Give two examples. When the solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice, they are called substitutional atoms, and the mixture of the two elements is called a substitutional solid solution. Example: Cu-Ni system, Cu-Zn system and Au-Cu system. 8. Give an example of eutectoid reaction. The eutectoid reaction is observed in Fe-C system as shown below.

iron (Austenite) iron (Ferrite) + Fe C (Cementite)

3

9. Why carbon solubility is more in an austenite? Austenite is a primary solid solution based on iron having FCC structure. Carbon solubility is more in austenite because austenite is an interstitial solid structure of carbon in iron. 10. List advantages of alloy steels as compared to plain carbon steels. Better harden ability Less distortion and cracking. Improved strength, toughness and resistance to abrasion and wear. Higher elastic ratio and endurance strength 11. What do you mean by substitutional solid solution? Briefly explain the rules governing formation of substitutional solid solution. When the solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice, they are called substitutional atoms and the mixture of the two elements is called a substitutional solid solution. Hume Rotherys rules govern the formation of substitutional solid solution. i) Size factor ii) Crystal structure iii) Valence iv) Electro negativity 12. Name and explain any one type of binary solid to solid state transformation reaction with ideal phase diagram? The eutectoid reaction can be written as Solid 1 Solid 2 + Solid 3 The phase reaction of Fe-C eutectoid system is as shown in the fig.

13. Define solid solution. A solid solution may be defined as a solid that consists of two or more elements atomically dispersed in a single-phase structure.

14. How are steels classified? Steels can be classified as follows: 1. Plain Carbon Steels i) Low carbon steels ii) Medium carbon steels iii) High carbon steels 2. Alloy Steels i) Low alloy steels and ii) High alloy steels 15. What are interstitial solid solutions and interstitial compounds? In interstitial solid solution, the solute atoms fit into the space between the solvent or parent atoms. The compounds formed by two or more metals in an apparently stoichiometric proportion is called intermetallic compounds. 16. Differentiate between eutectic and eutectoid phase reactions. The eutectic reaction can be written as Liquid solid solution + solid solution The eutectoid reaction can be written as Solid Solid 2

Solid 3

17. Distinguish between steel and cast iron. Also classify steel with respect to carbon percentage. The alloys of iron-carbon system containing 0.06% to 2% carbon are known as steel. Those alloys having carbon from 2 % to 6.7% are called cast irons. Steels that contain 0.8% C are called eutectoid steels. Steels having less than 0.8%C are known as hypo eutectoid steels. Steels having more than 0.8%C are known as hypereutectoid steels. 18. Define substitutional and interstitial solid solution. In a substitutional solid solution, the solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice. In a interstitial solid solution, the solute atoms fit into the space between the solvent or parent atoms. 19. What is eutectoid reaction? Eutectoid reaction can be written as Liquid

iron (Austenite) + Fe3C (Cementite)

20. Name the types of solid solutions. Name and define them 1. Substitutional solid solution: When the solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atoms in a crystal lattice, the mixture of the two elements is called a substitutional solid solution. 2. Interstitial solid solution: Interstitial solid solution, the solute atoms fit into the space between the solvent or parent atoms.

21. In a iron-carbon phase diagram, at what temperature i) FCC austenite forms and ii) Ferrite forms. i) At 1148C and ii) At 1465C 22. What is ferrite? Ferrite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron (BCC) 23. Define ferrite and cementite in Fe-C alloys. Ferrite is a primary solid solution based on iron having BCC structure. Maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 0.025% carbon at 723C, while its solubility at room temperature is only about 0.008%. Cementite is the name given to the carbide of iron (Fe3C). It is the hard, brittle, intermetallic compound of iron with 6.69% of carbon. 24. Describe the continuous casting of steel. (Nov / Dec-12) 25. Why is the grain boundary irregular? (Nov / Dec-12)

UNIT-II 1. A Low carbon steel in the normalized condition is stronger than the same steel in the annealed condition. Why? Unlike full annealing, the rate of cooling in normalizing is more rapid. Also normalizing process provides a homogeneous structure consisting of ferrite and pearlite for low carbon steels. Thats why normalizing produces harder and stronger steels than full annealing. 2. Case carburizing heat treatment is not generally carried out for medium carbon steels. Why? We know that carburizing process is a diffusion treatment process. For diffusion take place, the host metal must have a low concentration of the diffusing species and there must be a significant concentration of the diffusing species at the surface in the host metal. Since the medium carbon steels lack the above said criteria, they are not generally carburized. 3. What is Critical Cooling Rate in hardening of steels? The slowest rate of cooling of austenite that will result in 100% martensite transformation is known as critical cooling rate. 4. What is the microstructure of an austempered steel? What is the advantage of austempering heat treatment? The resulting microstructure of the austempering process is bainite. The advantage of austempering are: i) Improved ductility ii) Increased impact strength and toughness iii) Decreased distortion of the quenched material iv) Less danger of quenching cracks 5. What is the principle of surface hardening in induction hardening process? The induction hardening is a process of selective hardening using resistance to induced eddy current as the source of heat. 6. What is the need for providing a tempering treatment after quench hardening of steels? The quench hardening develops maximum hardness, excellent wear resistance and high strength in the steel. But, it lacks good ductility and toughness; also the internal residual stresses are developed. The tempering is used to relieve the residual stresses and improve ductility and toughness of the hardened steel. Thats why quench hardening is always followed by tempering treatment. 7. Can mild steel be induction hardened? Substantiate. No, mild steel cannot be induction hardened as it contains less than 0.25%C. During induction hardening, mild steel may conduct current instead of forming a magnetic field. 8. What are the principal advantages of austempering over conventional quench and temper method. v) Improved ductility vi) Increased impact strength and toughness vii) Decreased distortion of the quenched metal

viii)

Less danger of quenching cracks

9. Mention few applications of induction hardening. The induction hardening is employed for hardening the surfaces of gears, tool drivers, wrist pins, crankshaft bearing journals, cylinder liners, rail ends, machine tool ways and pump shafts. 10. Name and explain any one subcritical case hardening treatment. Nitriding is a subcritical case hardening treatment. Nitriding is a process of introducing nitrogen atoms, to obtain hard surface of steel components. 11. With heat treatment cycle, explain the conventional normalizing treatment for hyper eutectoid steel? In normalizing, the steel is heated to 50C to 60C above its upper critical temperature for hyper eutectoid steels. It is held at this temperature for a short time and then allowed to cool in still air. The normalizing process provides a homogenous structure consisting of pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid steels. 12. When will you prefer Carbonitriding? ix) Carbonitriding is an ideal process for hardening small components where great resistance to wear is necessary. x) The steels that are commonly carbonitrided are the low-carbon and low-carbon alloy steels. 13. Define hardness. Hardness may be defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or penetration. 14. Define critical cooling rate. (Nov / Dec-12) The slowest rate of cooling of austenite that will result in 100% martensite transformation is known as the critical cooling rate. 15. What is the final microstructure in austempering of steels? The resulting microstructure of the austempering process is bainite. Bainite is a decomposition product of austenite, consisting of ferrite and carbide. 16. Enumerate any two differences between annealing and normalizing. S.No 1. Annealing Annealing is costly Annealing is more time consuming. Annealing temperature is lower than normalizing. It provides coarse grain structure Normalizing Normalizing is more economical than annealing (Since no furnace is required to control the cooling rate) Normalizing is less time consuming. Normalizing temperature is higher than annealing. It provides a fine grain structure.

2. 3. 4.

17. Explain the term inducing hardening. The induction hardening is a process of selective hardening using resistance to induced eddy currents as the source of heat. 18. Define tempering. Tempering is the process of heating martensite steel at a temperature below the eutectoid transformation temperature for a specified time period and is cooled slowly to room temperature. 19. Differentiate carburizing and nitriding. In the carburizing process the diffusing hardening element is carbon. In nitriding process, the diffusion involves nitrogen. 20. What is purpose of spheroidizing heat treatment? i) To soften steels ii) To increase ductility and toughness iii) To improve machinability and formability iv) To reduce hardness, strength and wear resistance. 21. Define Carburizing. Carburizing is the process in which carbon atoms are introduced into the surface of low carbon steels to produce a hard case of surface, while the interior or core remains soft. 22. How does internal residual stress develop in metal pieces? Internal residual stresses are developed in the metal due to cold working, welding, casting, Forging etc, 23. List any two factors that affect hardenability of steels. i) The composition of the steel ii) The austenitic grain size iii) The structure of the steel before quenching. 24. List any four principal methods of case hardening. (Nov / Dec-12)

UNIT-III 1. Compare the martensite that is formed in maraging steels with the martensite that is formed in carbon steels. The composition of maraging steel develops martensite upon cooling from the austenitizing temperature. The martensite formed in these steels, unlike the martensite of other carbon steels, is ductile and tough. The ductility and toughness of this martensite result from its very low carbon content. 2. What is the main strengthening mechanism in high strength aluminum alloys? Precipitation strengthening treatment, also known as age hardening, is the main strengthening mechanism in high strength aluminium alloys. 3. What are the effect of chromium and molybdenum in low alloy steels? The effect of chromium in low alloy steels are to: i) Increase corrosion and oxidation resistance ii) Increase hardenability iii) Increase high-temperature strength and iv) Resist abrasion and wear The effect of molybdenum in low alloy steels are to: i) Improve high temperature creep resistance ii) Increase hardenability and iii) Stabilize carbides 4. What is the purpose of magnesium treatment in producing S.G. iron? The spheroidal cast iron is produced by adding magnesium to molten cast iron. The magnesium converts the graphite of cast iron from flake form into spheroidal or nodular form. The presence of spheroidal graphite improves the ductility strength, fracture toughness and other mechanical properties. 5. What is the composition of 18/4/1 type high speed steel? The 18/4/1 high speed steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% Vanadium. 6. List different types of tool steels. i) cold work tool steels ii) Shock resisting tool steels iii) Hot work tool steels iv) High speed tool steels v) Plastic mold tool steels vi) Special purpose tool steels 7. Mention any two aluminium base alloys and their applications. 1. Duralumin: i) Used for aircraft and automobile industries. ii) For making electric cables, in surgical and orthopedic implements etc.., 2. Y-alloy: Used for making pistons of engines, cylinder heads, gear boxes, propeller blades etc.., 8. How does silicon addition influence the properties of steel? The effects of silicon addition in steels are: Silicon acts as a general purpose deoxidizer. Silicon improves electrical and magnetic properties. Silicon improves oxidation resistance.

 Silicon strengths low alloy steels.

9. What is carbonitriding? Carbonitriding is a surface hardening process that involves the diffusion of both nitrogen and carbon into the steel surface. 10. Write short notes on the types of stainless steels. i) Austenite stainless steels: They have the austenite structure retained at room temperature. ii) Ferrite stainless steels: They have ferritic in structure at all temperatures up to their melting points. iii) Martensitic stainless steels. 11. With composition, property and application explain a) Tin Bronze b) Naval Brass Alloy Name 1.Tin Bronze (Bell Bronze) Composition (wt %) 78 CU, 22 Sn Properties Hard and brittle Can be forged and extruded Corrosion resistant 12. Name the alloying elements in high speed steel. Tungsten, Chromium and Vanadium 13. State the applications of tool steel. i) ii) iii) iv) v) The tool steels are used in the following applications : General tool and die applications in which resistance to distortion or cracking is needed. Die work, including blanking, drawing thread rolling as well as gauges, rolls for forming sheet metal etc.., Pneumatic tools, hand chisels, cold cutters, punches, heavy duty shear blades. General purpose steel for tools operating at high cutting speeds, such as drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters, hobs, saws, etc, Tools for hot forging machines, hot trimming tools, hot blanking and extrusion dies etc.., Typical Applications For making bells, coins, medals etc, For marine and engineering structural uses.

2.Naval 59 Cu 40 Zn, 1 Sn Brass

14. What are the effects of adding Si in steels? i) Acts as a general purpose deoxidizer. ii) Improves electrical and magnetic properties. iii) Improves oxidation resistance. iv) Strengthens low alloy steels. v) Increase hardenability of steels carrying non-graphitizing elements.

15. Differentiate brass from bronze. Brass is an alloy of copper and Zinc. (Cu and Zn) Bronze is an alloy of Copper and Tin (Cu and Sn) 16. List the parameters that can be determined from the tensile test. i) Limit of proportionality. ii) Yield point or yield strength iii) Maximum tensile strength iv) Breaking strength v) Percentage elongation vi) Percentage reduction in area and vii) Modulus of elasticity 17. Mention some of the disadvantages of Brinell hardness test. a) It cannot be used in very hard or very soft materials. b) The test may not be valid for thin specimen c) The test should be conducted on a location far enough removed from the edge of the material so that no edge bulging results. d) The test is not valid for case-hardened surfaces. 18. What is critical state? It represents the highest pressure and temperature at which the liquid and vapour phase coexists in equilibrium. At the critical point the liquid and vapour phases are indistinguishable. Liquid directly converted into vapour. 19. Classify the different hardness testing methods. i) Brinell hardness test ii) Vickers hardness test iii) Rockwell hardness test 20. Name the typical properties and applications of high-strength low-alloy steels. i. The primary purpose of HSLA steels is weight reduction through increased strength. ii. The HSLA steels are widely used as structural or constructional alloy steels. 21. Name some of the common uses of brass alloy. Typical applications include imitation jewellery, decorative work, making coins, medals, Fuse caps, for press-work, cold forming, radiator cores, for extruding rods and tubes etc., 22. How do you enhance the mechanical strength of aluminium? By alloying aluminium with one or more alloying elements such Cu, Mg, Mn, Si and Ni. 23. Specify the % of carbon content in a) grey CI and b) White CI i) Grey CI - Carbon 2.5% to 4% ii) White CI - Carbon 1.8% to 3%

24. What is critical point? What are the properties of water at critical points? It represents the highest pressure and temperature at which the liquid and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium. At the critical point the liquid and vapour phases are indistinguishable. Liquid directly converted into vapour. 25. Define Creep of metals. The continuous deformation of a metal under a steady load is known as creep. 26. What is the difference between brittle fracture and ductile fracture? (Nov / Dec12) 27. What is meant by transition temperature? (Nov / Dec-12)

UNIT-IV 1. Name four ethenic polymers (polymers that have the basic monomer structure of ethylene) i) Polypropylene (PP) ii) Polyethylene (PE) iii) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and iv) Polystyrene (PS) 2. What are the important uses of alumina and silicon nitride? i) Alumina ceramics are used for any type of load-bearing application. They are used fro rocket nozzles, pump impellers, pump liners, chuck valves, nozzles subject to erosion and for support members in electrical and electronic devices. ii) Silicon nitrides are widely used as cutting tool materials. 3. Draw the molecular structure of polyethylene and polypropylene. 4. Give one example each for metal-matrix composites and ceramic-matrix composites. Examples for metal-matrix composites: Ag-CdO, Al-Al2O3 Examples for ceramic-matrix composites: Tungsten carbide, Aluminium oxide, Titanium boride 5. Write the molecular structure of either Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) polymer or urea-formaldehyde (UF) polymer. 6. Give two examples of particulate reinforced metal matrix composites. i) Sintered aluminium powder (Al / Al2O3) ii) Cermet. 7. Name any four common engineering polymers. i) Ethenic ii) Polyamides iii) Silicones iv) Polyimides 8. What are the uses of aluminium oxide? i) Used as a refactory material for high temperature applications. ii) Used for cutting cast iron and steels. iii) Used as an abrasive material in grinding wheels. 9. What do you mean by copolymers? Copolymers are polymers which are obtained by adding different types of monomers. 10. How are refractories classified? i) Fire clay refractories. ii) Silica refractories iii) Basic refractories and iv) Special refractories.

11. With property and application, explain the following polymers: i. PVC b) PMMA ISO Abbreviation Polymer Name Properties Good low-cost, general purpose materials 1.PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride Ordinary rigid, but can be made flexible with plasticizers Susceptible to heat distortion Hard, rigid and high impact strength 2.PMMA Poly Methyl Metha-Crylate Highly transparent to light Excellent decorative properties 12. Write the general mechanical properties of ceramics. 1. Ceramics are strong, hard and brittle. 2. They are good thermal and electrical insulators. 3. They have high compressive strength but are weal in tension. 4. They have high resistance to abrasion and wear. 13. Define degree of polymerization. It is the number of repetitive units present in one molecule of a polymer. It is a parameter used to designate the average chain size of a polymer. Mathematically, Degree of polymerization = Molecular weight of a polymer / Molecular weight of a single monomer. 14. State any two properties of Ceramics. a) High resistance to abrasion and wear. b) High strength at high temperature c) Good Chemical stability d) Good electrical insulation characteristics. Pipes, Valves, fittings, floor tiles, wire insulations,toys,safety glass interlayers Typical Applications

Camera lenses, flashlights, safety glasses, drafting equipments, instrument panels, display signs, transparent aircraft enclosures, windows.

15. What are PMMA and PET polymers? What are their uses? PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate) also commonly known as Perspex or plexiglass, is produced by the addition polymerization of methyl Methacrylate. Applications: Typical applications of PMMAs include camera lenses, flash lights, safety glasses, drafting aircraft enclosures and windows. 16. What are the uses of alumina? High alumina ceramics are used for the manufacture of spark-plug insulators, ceramic / metal assemblies in vacuum tubes, substrates for the deposition of electronic microcircuits and metal-cutting tool tips. They are suitable for any type of load-bearing application. They are used for rocket nozzles, pump impellers, pump liners, check valves, nozzles subject to erosion and for support members in electrical and electronic devices. Some unique applications of alumina are in dental and medical use, including restoration of teeth, bone filler and orthopedic implants. These materials find application in nuclear equipment. 17. What will be the effects, if the following elements alloyed with steel? ii. Phosphorous : Phosphorous is usually added with sulphur to improve machinability in low alloy steels. Phosphorous in small amounts, aids strength and corrosion resistance. iii. Sulphur : When sulphur is added in small amounts with steel, it improves machinability by does not cause hot shortness. 18. Write down the composition and any one applications of the following alloys: i) Duralumin ii) Brass Composition: 94% Al, 4% Cu, 0.5% Mg, 0.5%Mn Properties: It is a wrought alloy, possesses maximum strength after age hardening, High strength to-weight ratio. i. Duralumin :

ii. Brass : Brass is an alloy of Copper and Zinc Properties: They are stronger, they have lower thermal and electrical conductivity, and they can be cast into moulds. 19. What is inoculation? Inoculation is nothing but grain refinement when a metal casting freezes, impurities in the melt and walls of the mold in which solidification occurs serve as heterogeneous nucleating sites. Sometimes we intentionally introduce nucleating particles into the liquid. Such particles are called grain refinement or inoculation. 20. What is precipitation hardening? Precipitation hardening, also known as age hardening, is the method of improving the physical properties of some of the non-ferrous alloys by solid state reaction. 28. Name some major applications of ABS and PTFE material. Typical applications of ABS include toys and modeling kits, mouldings for office and domestic appliances, boxes and cases. Typical applications of PTFE include chemically resistant coatings, non-stick coatings, anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and valves, bearings etc.., 29. Mention some typical applications of carbon fiber reinforced composite material. Aerospace and automotive applications, wear and marine applications, sporting good equipment. 30. What is the structure difference between white cast iron and grey cast iron? White cast iron derives its name from the fact that its fracture surface has a white or silvery appearance. The microstructure of grey cast iron consists of graphite flakes, which resemble a number of potato crisps glued together at a single location. 31. Name any two precipitation hardenable alloys. 1. Aluminium Copper alloy 2. Copper - Beryllium alloy 32. Explain why copper is a suitable material for automobile radiators. (Nov / Dec12) 33. Define the term maraging. (Nov / Dec-12)

UNIT-V 1. Define endurance limit in fatigue test. Endurance Limit is defined as the value of stress below which the material will not fail even when it is loaded for infinite number of cycles. 2. What properties are determined from tension testing of metallic products? i) Limit of proportionality ii) Yield strength iii) Maximum tensile strength iv) Breaking strength v) Percentage elongation and vi) Modulus of elasticity. 3. In general, HCP metals are hard and brittle while FCC metals are soft and ductile. Why? FCC structure has a large number of closed packed planes and closepacked directions. So metals possessing FCC structure are more ductile than HCP structure. 4. Draw the sketch of a standard specimen used for charpy V-notch impact testing. The adiabatic saturation process is another way of determining the absolute or relative humidity. The process is illustrated in the figure. A steady stream of unsaturated air at 1 and T1 passes through the channel. 5. Distinguish between slipping and twinning. S.No 1. Twinning In Twinning, the In Slipping, the deformation deformation is due to takes place due to the orientation of one part of sliding of atomic planes the crystal with respect to over the others. the other. It occurs along individual It occurs over general slip planes. crystallographic planes. The atomic movements are The atomic movements are over a fraction of atomic over large distances. spacing. Twinned atoms undergo a There is no change in the change in their orientation orientation of the atoms and become mirror of the after slip has occurred. untwined atom. Slip takes place when shear There is no role for resolved stress reaches resolved critical shear stress. critical shear stress. Slipping

2. 3.

4.

5.

6. How will you express the deformation characteristics of a material through tension test? The deformation characteristics of a material through tension test expressed as the stress-strain curve. With the help of stress-strain curve, the various tensile

properties such as elastic stress, strain, yield strength, ultimate strength, Youngs modulus, etc, are calculated.

7. How may one distinguish between slip and twinning if the width of the twin band is of the same order as a slip line? The twinning differs from slip in that every plane of atoms suffers some movement and the crystallographic orientations of many unit cells are altered. 8. Why are impact specimens notched? The impact specimens are notched because the impact test also indicated the notch sensitivity of a material. The notch sensitivity refers to the tendency of some normal ductile materials to behave like a brittle material in the presence of notches. 9. What are slip bands? Slip bands are made up of several slip planes. They indicate that the atomic planes within the crystal have sheared with respect to each other. 10. What are the different types of loadings available for fatigue testing? i) Shock or Impact load. ii) Static load iii) Random load iv) Repeated or reversed load. 11. What is creep? Draw a typical creep curve and show different creep stages on it. The creep is defined as the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms continuously under a steady load.

12. Define fatigue. The capacity of material to withstand repeatedly applied stresses is known as fatigue. 13. List the testing methods of metals. Tensile test, impact test, bend test, fatigue test, torsion test, creep test.

14. What is twinning in metals? Twinning is the process in which the atoms in a part of a crystal subjected to stress, rearrange themselves so that one part of the crystal becomes a mirror image of the other part. 15. What is the difference between HRB and HRC? There are many Rockwell scales. But the most commonly used are: i) B-Scale (1/16 inch diameter steel ball indenter, 100 kg load) used to measure the hardness (HRB) of non-ferrous metals. ii) C-Scale (120 diamond cone indenter, called a BRALE, 150kg load), used to measure the hardness (HRC) of steels. 16. Name any two polymers and state their applications. i) Polyethylene : Used as packing films, wire insulation, squeeze bottles, tubing, pipings, housings, toys, ice trays, house wares. ii) Polystyrene : Used for low-cost transparent mouldings such as CD cases, ball-point pens, food boxes, lighting panels, toys, battery cases, etc.., 17. Mention any four attractive properties of engineering ceramics. a. High resistance to abrasion and wear. b. High strength at high temperature. c. Good chemical stability d. Good electrical insulation characteristics. 18. Distinguish polymer and ceramic with respect to mechanical and physical properties. Property Mechanical Properties Polymers Ceramics

Tensile strength, 30 max Field 25 max strength, Can be 100% Elongation and compressive strength Physical Properties 0.03 to 0.1 Density <500C Melting Point Thermal Very high Co-efficient of expansion

100 max Does not yield Zero

0.1 to 0.6 >5000C Low

19. What is the chief effect of notch in the fracture process? Notches in the metal provide stress concentration centres and hence increase the transition temperature. At transition temperature, the brittleness increases suddenly. 20. What is the structure of polyethylene? Suggest any two uses.

Uses: Typical applications of polyethylene include packing films, wire insulation, squeeze bottles, tubing, pipings, housings, toys, ice trays, housewares. 21. List two important characteristics for polymers. (Nov / Dec-12) 22. What is a hybrid composite? (Nov / Dec-12)