c1d

(memJd)
1md_e - _gemm _m_
gmcmm g mmmOod
gmcmm g Omm__m
gmcmm mmgggmm__ Ood
gmg_m_ mmc_d ogom
odg1 ome, Oomm - 00 00.
gmg_m_ _)o
_gd mgq - 2005
FGjiyt
nguh. j. rFz Og
ya Jiw
mud fiy f
ejd, brid - 600 035.
1memmmo!oo
1m)m. _mm!. _. mm 1m)m. _mm!. _. og!omm
Tc!, memJd __ Tc!, __ggem!,memJd __
R.M. m1momm_gm odg1 e1mem odg1
mem_!, Oomm - 00 004. _mommmom, Oomm - 00 034.
_J1!oo
gmg. m. _. omg1 )mm
memJd
__oe mcgm1 _J1
_)o moo! 1md_e moo
_1om _o!, Oomm- 00 083.
me: _.
mmcmoo gm1q : gmg_m_ _)oomo mooodm _oom, gmg_m_.
___d 0 _.md.mm. gmod _Jcm_oo_.
_Oo __d _J1cm! :
gmg. _m "1cm o_g)m
memJd
__oe mcgm1 _J1
Ommqm moo! 1md_emoo
1m1m1, Oomm - 00 007.
g. g. 1oo!
memJd
__oe mcgm1 _J1!
O_. o. _)o moo! 1md_emoo
o 1m_, Oomm - 00 094.
_m@)
c1d Ogmc!mmm mmmo 1md mq_m 1gmmm
ggm Om___m mod _mmc_d gm1om_oo_.
c1em me 1mmmc 1oo m__ o___ggomm _qggom
Jg mqoom mmcggcmood coo_. mm1m, 1md_e
m_omm ___ed, c1em me 1oo Ogmc!mmm m1mmm
moomoo _om_ mogmJoo_. ___em mmcmoo J2m_
mq mmcmo_cm Ogmc!qcm. _mmcmoo _m __gd
1md md _m Oom.
memJd Ogmc!mmm me _doom mqo _!mm gm_m
mod ___em mmcmoo _mom_oom. _g_omm mm!m
_doom mqd, _em __gd coo_. 1mgm Oogoo Om_
omm meg gomoom mmm_ggemm.
gmOmm mmcggm __ggm mmg1 1oomoo coom.
_1oomoo 1mmm_ mmmm!oom __g g_m, o__d g_m
1mmm_ me g_moo _ Oo_ mmm mod _
1oomoo _J1!oo _mg_ Oomooemm.
_m_ mmgom 1gmo_m _g_Jmmm
mo!Jo_m _go1g_oo _ed c1d __oo _Jg_mm
Om__oom. mm1m c1d odmd _!mm Oomo_gd
mmomgmo _mm.
g. o_mm dmm
_ggem!
memJd
mmc _emJ1! _
iii
iv
1md_e _gemm _m_ - c1d [ memJdj
mmcggcm
Oo__ mg
I. mmq_ - ccd Jcmoo m_g_ mm!m mggd [__g_
_m_j
II. o_m - oom_ Oogdoo mm!m mggd
III. mo m__m o_ _m1mmJoom mmomoo __gd.
Oo_ ommggd:- o)mmm _J [ccmj m __od _)gg
cgg ommd.
IV. gm1omc ommmqg go_oo - 1_mgd, mcm m)gd,
_q m__gd.
J. omd1mmqm - mgmm_ _ _eoo
2. m)1mJm - __1; m)1mJm - _m
__
3. _q)m - __1
4. _mcmq_ - gemg
5. _m"mud - __1
. o_m - oom_ Oogdoo
V. mgm_ggmc c1oo
mo mo, mmomoo, _mcmq_ - __1, _dom1d -
__1 [_m, Ommj, mmq_ - __1, __md - __1, o)mmm
_J, __mo m__mog 1gm__m, _o _gg, _ogg) 1m,
_m"mud, o_m, gmo, mmm, g mmmq, q_m, cm __, me.
VI. Oo_ ommggd m_m
J. gmo -comm, ccd co__qoo, Oo1ggd mmcem.
VII. mmg ccd coomq
J. md _mqo_cm 1md, Jgggmc mgmqoo.
2. mmg1oo / cmmmm mgmqoo - _m)d, 1)qd,
_dmm, "Jm!, qm, "qem, __ _oOogmq, __q mom.
v
mg1mm)mm mq - c1d [ memJdj
mmcggcm - mmcmg
mmom - J. mdg1dq
momm_ mg__oo:- momm_ _e- ___om-
J_m og_ mqmmoo-momm_ mg__oo-mmmo
momm_-_cmo _m_oo-Ooded __ momm_.
memJm 1oo:- memoog Ogmmmm __oo-
Om_Ogmgoo-Omm_mmqoo-g_g cgm)mmo_cm-
q1)m1cm1ommm, 1mm1"Om)m, JOemq1)cm, omq O_dmmgd-
_m1cmcm, _mmecm, _!g1)m1mmcm, Ommedom,
mo1mmOc!1mcm, om!1ccm.
mmg1 mem:- omd1mmqm-mmq_-q_m.
mmom - 2. Oodg1d
___om:- _m1mmJd m__m Ooded cggoo.
mem Ood - _mmm:- omdmm om, co,
m1cmommq1m-)1mm1ommoo-_oomo me-
e1om1ommoo -1omdo c_qoo-Oom1)m1ommoo-
1)m1mm1ommoo.
q__1_m c1d:- q__1_m-moom, mooo - o_mm_.
mmom - 3. mmg co__mmd
mmg c_qg Ogmgoo m)em_-q_ocom, mgmq, go,
Oo1mmm, ommoog_J, _m_!- _)mq- cm!J- _momdem o)-
og _o _mOmo - c_qoo.
mmom - 4. m)d
___om-mdo_ _dedoo-_omq mmqoo-mmd _!mm
- mmd om!_g mm)mm1m - o1m1)m.
mmom - 5. omo1d
___om, _c mooo-om Omod mooo-gmo
_c, gmod 1odem _om-c_mmom.
vi
mmom - . Ommomgm)_m memeo_m
mm g memoo:- mmomoo-mmq_-mmq_ mo!q-
mmm_ _Joo-__md-od __md-_g_ J-1moo-Oomm1mm-
_!mmg c1oo mo!q _em-mem ommom.
gm Oom memoo:- 1_m cmmm c1oo-m)qm
_Joo-_o memoo-_!mmg 1ogm_g_mm-Omd_oo.
mmom - 7. c1mg 1gm__m
1ommm_oo-qmmgmomemoom _cmm - memoo
_ggd - ocmmo _ggd.
vii
Ommocom
J. mdg1d J
2. Oodg1d 59
3. mm@c co__mmd 90
4. m)d JJ
5. omd [o mo1dj J79
. Ommomgm)_m memeo_m J9
7. c1mg 1gm__m 238
1
1. mdg1dq
_m_ qmComoggd me oomc cTmmoo
omg__oJm_m. 5 _gd 30 mdumoo cTmmoo omgemm
mm omJ_oo OgTmJm_m. g_Cmm_ m__ 2.5 mdum
cTmmoo _cmom ommm_ __md __mq
OmTcm_oom. _o__d J. 5 mdum cTmmoo mem
oo om!_gooomm. _omemood _Jmmoo m_Cm
750,000 _m. ceJd 350,000 gmo)oooo coom. _o__d me
oo _domoo, _ooo, mmd oooo m__m c! _eg
gmo)moo _cmm.
_oood mm_mc gmmoo Oommc me
cTmmo_m _eg_ omgge c_gOoog_ _o om_m
_cmoom o__ gem J! Oocmmd mm_omggd Com_m.
cTmmoomg_m c)__ __o ge om!__oo
_Jg_oggm cm!g_m ood c!Comom [biospherej
m@m og_ comom_oo_. mmOm_m omemmo _mJom
_dq m__m cTg gmmoo om!_g o__ gd Ood g_m
oo c!Comom m@m coom _m_m. _ggo gd Ood
g_m gm_Oomm_ om!qggmmooc me Ommmmm
Ogmc!qoom g_ Ommgg Ooommcmm. om__, _!, memoo,
gmo)moo, _mmToo, mmg!oo mm _mg_m
gm_cOmmm_ Ogmc!qcm Ood qT__ cTmg gmmm o__
gd Cgmm_oo_. cTComoggm _g@c _@ommm
Ood g_mo_cm mm_omo Comq_ _m_ Cgomo
_m_goo_, _ggo mmgomm_Oom ceo _m_oo _mg_m
gm_ oq me g!mmmmoo __Co__oom.
_gmqmcd _J _m_oo omm o__ gd
_mq mmgTm o__gd _gg mmmm_ cJ mm_m_
gm_m J072 m _m_ dcm C_mmd oq_. _mmm_m_
g!mmmmoom _qmcd g1) g _m` m@m J_qg Ogmc!
m_m_ggm_ m)mmcmc_. J 082 m _m_ _C)mmd
1
2
o__gd Ogmc!mmm _._m. ogg)mom _cOm___. 1m_m J002
d qm cJ mm_m_ m@m moOmT oggmm _._m. om om!md
TCm q O_mC)mmd ocmc_. _mmm_mqd _m _moTm
mg!omem` m@m gemd momgmoo Cm_ Oomoomcm.
mggmm_oo ogg_ 1m_m moOmT ceoomemm mm_m_ 2002
m _m_ C_mommdOm!Jd ocmc_. _mg_ mm_m_oogm
ceJm mdg!g gmmm _gm mm_omgggm
ou_ggm_oom.
__gmmd mdg!g gmm
__gmmd meoomc cTmmoo cm_. ceJd coo
gmo) ooood 7% , memood . 5% __gmmd coom.
_moo memood 2%, _m Cgmm_ mmOm_momemmo
omg__ omo. ceJd m_g mdg!ggmm Oommc J 2
_m_ood __gmm gm_mo _cmom ommm_oo_.
IRC - 1B, 1C, 1D Cmmm_ Oo_o Comooomd _oomc
g)oom _qmcd J000 m _mq_omm CgJ omoo __o
Ooocm_oo_. _gmmq __gmmm Ommgg omm)q 37,203
o_)JCem 1c!oo mm _mcm_oo_. _m)mmm_
__gmmm Ommggqmm)momd J 0. 30% _m. _gd 4
mdum O_Cc!oo _cmJoom.
__gg gmo)mood J 5, 000 _m gmo)moo cm_.
_o__d J , 500 oooo m___ m_m g_ed coom.
mmgqoo memoo 72 _mmoomo coom. _o__d 3
oooo _dumm mgd omg__oJm_m. __gmmd J, 228
m_o _mmoo cm_. __ ceJm Ommgg m_o
mmmod J 3% _m. __gmmd 44 oo m!om
_mmo_m 204 oo _!_e omgmo_m coom.
ceJd meoo cTmmoo coo _ed _o__m
_cmom om_ Oomo_m __oo Cgo. _cmom ommm_,
OmT_o_ Cmmm_ __oo me _m_oomoCo _c__d
coom. cT oomm_ __oo _demmd omo__
mmmod coo memoo gmo)moo m__ cT __d
____ Oomoo _em_.
3
J.J. momm_ __oo
cTmmoo oom_g_m mmmgg _Tdcmqd
[384 - 322 J._j _gm _gemo m_m_ggmm!. memoo _o__m
omg__, Oodoo, mgomoo m__m cc_mgoom _qmcd
oom_ggemm mm _o! OgTmggm!. _g_Oom _Joo, 1moo,
m_ooo, gmmoemoo Cmmm_ memoo _o! o!__ oomg_
moTggm!. _Jmggd om_o_omm 1omemq)m,
+o_omm qq)m oTooog Cgm__mggm!. _om)mmoomd
_o! cTd oommqm g_g mmCmm__m_J_m!.
g_omeggd oommqd mmm _mJem_gm _mm C)
J27 - J705 _gud _oJmm!. oom_g_gd Ogmc!mmm _o)_
mcmmJ Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini
Generi s m@m _d J03d Ooocmc_. _o! memoo
_)gg_cm, _)ggm__m mm oom_ggmm!. Cmgm
Ooooo, _)m)doo, oo_omoo, m_oo _Jo__m
_qmcd memoo oom_gg _m_m!. gmo_o
_mOmom Oomo ! _mm om!_go m@m __mm
moogg _gud OgTmggo! _o!.
dmcm _mqm om!d ummd [J707-J778j oommqe
Cmgm Cmmm_ggmm!. mmCo gmm _o) oommqum g_g`
mmJC_mm. _o! J758d gm_ qogmo Systema naturae [__om
oomm_j m@m _e Ooocm!. _o! _gm__mo mem,
gmo) _mmoom oommqd Jg_m mq_e` (hierarchy) __
Cgm__mggm!. memoo oq, oTo, _mm, J_mmm m@m
mq_eood _e__ggmm!. memoo gmo)mo_ _o!
_Om!oo_m` __ m_m_gg_ _J _ogomm.
mo _go mmmod mmqoo omJd Oomm_
cTmmoo oom_g_gd Com_m mm_ oggm m)mmo
_mqm gmo)mem! mCod _cmom [ J727-J80j _mme
m_ggmm!. _gmmd mmom!q oommqd` cgmm__.
emmd Cgm__mgg __ Cmmm_gg _m_o!ood
_gmmmmo! emmm! [ J744-J820j _om!. cTd Ogmc!mmm
4
gm_ mmmmoo Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres
m@m gemd m_ qggomoomo Ooocm!. memoo mTmmm
_qmcd oom_ggmm!. memoo mTmmmg Ogmc!q
Oomm_ _o! Cgm__mgg o)mcm ! Jogg gmo) _mm
ggg_g_. _oood mTmmmg Ogmc!q _qmcd
oom_gg_ ! qg __mo _m_g_.
oommcmmd mqomoomJ cTo_m _c_m_ mm
m! [J70-J832j OgTmggm!. _o)_ __d memoo _mm
mToomm. _o
__Oogmoo - 1moo _gd mmgqoo o)gm.
Ommedom- Omdgcuoo, mm!mJooo.
_!q1ecm - J)dCcJm, _Jmmoo, Je_g _Joo.
1)q1cm - _Cgmuoo, co q_oo, gcuoo.
om!ed cm!mmm Origin of species [_mmmgdj m@m _d
J850d Ooocmc_. _oTm mTmmm og_oo _de
o)Co_m Om__m. oommqe mTmmmgg_omm omm_mo
o_m qg mmmm Cgmm__. oommqem! gmoo_ mmm
_Jg_ogg ___gm!. me J__mmoo comJm.
J030ood _mm oommqd comog _omJ_. memJm
mmmo (Population) _Jg_om Om___. _. Cm! [J042j m_g
New Systematics [qg oommcmj oomm_g __d !
md odemm_. _mOmog Ogmc!qoo Oommc cTm
ocmoCo _mOmmm_m mm _o! OgTmggm!. mmCo _mm`
mmm_ ! ocm mm_mm_. _gmmd __o ocmoom mmqoo
oommqud _Jg_om Om__m. Cmgm _cgg mmqoo, )d
gu, g_eoo, m)qmmqoo, m)od gmmoo, cc_Ooud, c!
Cogd Cmmm_o__m oggd Oomo_gd Cgomm_.
_omgm cTd _qmcd` oomm_ (Biological taxonomy)
comm_.
J.J.J. Ogmqoo, J_mmoo - _m@).
oommqd, Ogmc!qg Ogmmm, oom_g_m
__oo _Jo m__ Ogoomm o)__oo oommqem!
cm!_gggd Cgo. _o _m_m mm_mc Omm_co.
Taxonomy m@m JC)o _e Oomdum _qmcd mommqd
[ Ogmmdj , 'cTmmoo oom_g_m Oomooo_m
__o_m Oommc __md mT mmm_J__ [_. Cm!, J0j.
5
_mgOgmc!q Ogmmm, _mJeggd Syst emat i cs
mmm_m. Systema mmmg_ Ogmc!q _m` mm_ Omm_m_.
mmCo '__omm mTmmmg Ogmc!qoom _qmcd
oom_g_gCe _mgOgmc!q Ogmmm _m. 'cTmmoom
oooom mm_mm_oom __md _qmcd _ Oo_,
_mmoom c___oo __oCg _mgOgmc!q Ogmmm
_m mm _._ Jmom [J0Jj OgTmg_oom!.
mom_g_gd` m@m Oomd oomm_ __ m_Cm
_m_m. __ ! __md __m_. 'memJmmoo me
mToomo _mggCe oom_g_gd mm _. _. Jmom
OgTmg_oom!.
Ogmq _de_ momm_ _e (Taxon)
_mc mmqoom _qmcd memoo mo
m_Jm_m. _oood m_m_ggm_m mToo Ogmqoo _de_
oomm_ _eoo _m. mmCo ! Ogmq mmm_ 'gmmTomo
m_m_g_m ood mm_mc mmqoo Oommc _mmmm.
memJd oommqd Ogmg, oq, oTo, _mmm,
_mm, J_mmm Cmmm_ me Ogmqoo _de_ _eoo cm_.
Ogmg _gd J_mmm o) _mom_oo __ Jg_m
mq_e __ mmm_m. _gd goOom mTm _mc mmqoom
_qmcemm_. _ggo _mq __ mmg)md m_m_ggmc_.
mm@m __od _g_ _mmm Ogmqoo coog
om@gugm OooCo_ Ogmqood Omm_g_gugm go_oo
C_Tcemm.
Ogmg` mmm_ ! OmT Ogmmmm. memeom me
Ogmgoo Oomm_oo_. goOom Ogmg om!_g memm
_mc Je mmqoomd _gd _ed _cmom ommm_J__.
mmqoo Ogmg
g Ood memoo qC)mCcmComom
_o ccuoo OmmTOm)m [_ocuooj
Omm_omm cc_-J)m g JOemqC)cm [gcuooj
gcq_oo momqO_dmmgd [gcq_ _mmj
_d Cmmm_ q_oo _mCcmcm [co q_ _mmj
o@omdoo _!gC)mCmmcm [o@omuooj
Ommmmm ccd m)q Ommedom [Omdgcuooj
6
cc_Cgmud _oo moCmmOc!Cmcm[_Cgmuooj
__ _mm Oommco om!Cccm
! Ogmgm memoo Co_me Omm_mmqoom
Om__oemm. Ogmg Cmgm me Ogmqoomo mTom_oo_.
Ogmg Ogmg Ogmg
_mgOgmgoo [_j [_j Omm oqoo
oqoo oqoo oqoo
mq_e _mmd Ogmgm Jg oqoo coom. !
omd coo c_mm!oo Je _mc mmqoomd _cmom
ommm_Jm_m!. _m__d Ogmg qC)mCcmComommd 4
oqoo cm_.
mq m mq
)ComCmmcm Co! Cmmm_ Cmmuomdoo.
JuCcm Jumoo Om__ggd.
omO_dCecm oog Oommco.
dCmmC)mComom dCmm!oo cco.
! oq, 1m_m Omm oTooomoCom _de_
oTooomoCom mom_m.
oq oq
_moq
Omm oTo [_de_j
oTo
oTo
oTooo ! _mc mmmmd mm_mqm. cgm)mmmo
oq. _Jmm 20 oTooomo mom_oo_. _ooTooo
goOomm_m ! _mc mmmmmd _cmom ommm_Jm_m.
m1o m mq cgm)mm
mC)m __ooode Oemdmm [qggo_Jj
OemCcmq)m Oogdo_c __ooo ommg__J
qq)m _)m_ __ooo Oomooo
_mmmq)m Omdu __ooo omoo
! oTo 1m_m me _mmmoomo mom_m.
7
oTo oTo
Omm_mmm [_de_j
_mmm _mmm
goOom _mm_m me _mmoo coocJ_. _mm,
1m_m me J_mmmoomo mom_oo_.
_ggo mq_e _mmd J_mmmoo _J
Ogmqoomm. J_mmm ! __o _mmmm. m_ Ogmqoo
_mg_m mm_gdo_To. J_mmm ! _emm
_mmmm. mTmmm mm_gdoo J_mmmoom _ed gmm
C_T_m. mmCo J_mmm _gg og_oo cTd _Jg_om
Om__oom.
J_m og_ mqmmoo
_ooggd J_mmm mmm_ ggg mmqoom
_mmmm Oommc memJmmoo mm Oomoomc_.
g_omeggd J_mmm _gg, _m_ _J og_ mqomoo
m_m_oom.
J. moom!_g J_mm :- _og_ _Tdcmqum _oJ
mmqoo Oommco` m@m Commmqm _qmcd _m__oo_.
_gmmq ! J_mmm _gm q_ _mmd Om__oo _oJ
mmqoomd _cmom ommm_J__ mmemm.
2. Om! om!_g J_mm :- _oggmmq ! J_mmm mmg)_
mmmggmd m_m_ggm_ OmTcm_oo_. Cmgm __od
J_mmmoo` m@m Ogmq Cgmm_ogde. gm cToCo
comJm_m. mmCo ! J_mmm _m_ mmmm om!_g _mmmo
Oomoom_J__.
3. c1d J_mm:- _oggmmq __od gmo_o
_mOmom Oo_Oomm_ m_ memoou__ _mOmog
gmm Om__ ! ocCm _mm mmm_J__.
J.J.2. momm_ __oo
mmmo momm_ - "Ommq __
_m__d ! Ogmq _de_ oomm_ _e mmm_ !
ocm` mmoggd Oomoom_J__. g_Ommgg g__moom
_qmcd _mmoo _cmom ommm_Jm_m. _g_Oom
omJOe_m ocggm _e O T U (Operational taxonomic units)
mmm_J__.
8
_ooo _cmom om@gud Ogmqo_ _cd
coo g__mo_m Co__mo_m _Jg_om Om_Jm_m.
_g_omm _oComd 0 _gd J o)emm _m_oo
Oomm_oo_. J` mmm_ __ _omemm g__mm -J` mmm_
Co__moom _m_m. _m__d mo _go _omd g)oo`
(data) Cgom_m. Ogmc!qc _mmoom g)oo qood
__oomd _ Oom_Jm_m. _gd ommoo mom
cgJm_m.
J.J.3. Ooded __ momm_
! Oodum _mg_ C)mCmmCommoom _cmom
om_ _mm moTm __ omTCmcmm (Karyotyping)
mm_ Om!. _m__ oommqud cgJ__.
gmo_o _mOmo oeqoo Oommc cTmmood
gC) mmgTmm C)mCmmCommoom _mq cm_. m_ _mmo_cm
gm_od _mqm mmmom mm_mcemm. geJgmgd,
_cmm__m Cmmm_ C)mCmmCommoom m_gJoo om@m
Cood _gm __g _mm mJg_ __emm.
J.J.4. 1mg __ momm_
_m__d mmomoomd Cgm__mom_m Je
_eo_oo cgJm_m. _ooommqd qC)mmoo
_cmom omm mmoo!J m)od(Electrophoresis), _mCmm
_memoo _cmom ommmg_ mmm_ o)mc__ (Chroma-
tography), gooom _Commmomoo gm_gd Cmmm_ __oo
cm_. cTood _mc q_ _m!Cmmmoo(Pheromones) __moo,
_ooo(Toxins) cm_. _oo_m ! _mgg _cmom omm
cgJm_m.
J.J.5. Ogmdg1d momm_ __
_m__d mqomoo _cmom ommm_ _o__m o_
g!mmmom_J__. J__g __ _omemm mqomoo Jcmm
_cmom om@gd mogmm. me mqomoom Oo_gCgm__moo
Comgm omed m_m_gg mmm_g_JC_mm.
mqomoo, _o Jcgg _cm, ccm omg_g m_ cToo
Cmmm_ me om)moo Oomm_ _ Oom_Jm_m.
_m__oomd ! mqo cTm J_mmggm Om) g!mmmm
Ooo_ _em_. Ogmg, oq, oTo Cmmm_ _eoo o)_
Ooemm.
9
J.J.. Om1_m __oo
__md __d OmT_ogmd cToo __mem! mogd
_cmom omm _gm. g_omegg oomm_ __oo J753 d
Ooomm emmum(Linnaeus) Jdcmm(Systema) _gd mgm
_emmoCo Cgmm_m. ummum __d ! cT _gm _mm,
J_mmm _Jo__m Om!oomd _mcm_m. _omgm _)m_
Om!oom mmm_g_m __ _Om1_m __ mm_ Om!.
_m__ _m_o) cTud _c__d coo_.
_omgm OmT_gu_omm Omm_mm mmmm_
Omm_mmmm _oo m__ Oomm_oom. _omgm
cTud __md __d OmT_og omommo me
Omm_mmmm _oo cm_. mmmm_ memJd Om1cd
__ ocmo_ cmCc OmTc _qm(International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature, ICZN).
OmT_m __oo ocmoomo` Ogmom_oom.
_ocmoo mm__m cTm __md Cm)mmm ogomo_Co
cm_.
Om1_mgd _qmc mgoo
J. cm_m Om!o_ ! _eggmm Cgo. g
Ogmm_ ! _emm Om! m_Cm cm_.
2. ! Ogmm_ _ Om!oo _mm _gud Ooomm
Om! m__ Oomoom_m. _g_ _m@1m mg mm_ Om!.
3. _mc Cood ! memo __mem! mm_mc
Om!oomd _mcmd ___e g Omm mmOmmg (Synonym)
mm_ Om!. _gd g Om! m_Cm m_qc Om)mm. _m@Tm
mg _qmcd _Om! g!mmmom_m.
4. _ Co_mc Ogmqo_ gC) mmgTmo gum
Om!oo _mm _o___ gemqmm gggOom_oo (Homonym)
mm_ Om!. _omgm ggg guoqo Oom_ood mg Oomd
_m@Tm Om_m.
5. _qmc moogg_Oom mmmc cT _Jg_om
Om_m. m_ _mmoo _cmom omm __Co _qmcmm. _g_
mmgT og_ mqom` mm_ Om!. _ggo og_ mqo
_qmcCeC _mmo_m J_mmmo_m g!mmmom_m.
10
. ummd Oooc Systema Naturae J0o_ mgq J758
_g _mmmo mmmc Om!oo cTmm Om__om_.
7. __md Om!oo eggm Ommgm _de_ _mOmmg
om!_go. Om!oo oem om_g J_ m_g_oomo (italics) m_gmc
Com_m.
8. _mggm Om! (Genus name) gC) om!ggmo _ggd
Com_m. _gm _gd m_g_ OmTgmo _m.
0. J__mggm Om! (Species name) gmOm)moCom _de_
o_Om)moCom _oemm. _Om! J_ m_ggd _omm.
J.J.7. _cmo _m_oo
memoo _cmom om@gd oom_ggud _qmc
mmmm. _g_Oom _o_)oo, _doo, _m_oo, mcmoo,
mmgT og_ mqo gJ_ _Jo__ mmm_ggemm. _o__d
_m_oo mmm_g_gd me _cmood ogoggd coo_.
_m_oo qggomooCem _de_ omm Omm OmmomoCom
_memm. _ggo _m_oo _mggd ! oommcmoTm
_J mmmm.
_m_oo __ _de_ __` m@m _qmcd _)c
mmmmgmo _mm. _gd mmm_m Ommg. g_g oT` oqmd mom
oommm_.
_m_oo ggg _m gmJmq __Cem _de_
gm_g _qmc1em(Indented) _memm.
! ggg _m gmJmq _mqd oe_q_m _m_oo
mm _m_T __gg_gg mmqoo _m_m.
gm_g _mqd _cmom ommmg_Oom oTomo me
mmqoo _m_oom.
mmom cgm)mm gmg _mqgoo _mm oo goo
_mmoomJ Rana hexadactyla, R. tigrina, R. cyanophlictics and
R. limnochoris.
ggg _m gmJmq _m_ [_mm: Ranaj
[Jj OmT ccd, ccd _om J00 - 200 m1 .................3,2
[Jj J_ ccd, ccd _om J00 m1 ...............................2,3
11
[2j o!_g _m _m ..................................................... R. limnochoris
[2j _om_ o!_g _m _m ..................................... R. hexadactyla
[3j 4 o_ omd m)d _ommm_ ..................................... R. tigrina
[3j 4 o_ omd m)d _dmmm _o_c_ ............ R. cyanophlictis
gm_g _m_
OmT ccd
ogogmmm Cmd Cgmd .............................. R. hexadactyla
mqqo_oo Cmd Cgmd ............................. R. tigrina
J_ ccd
o!m__ _m _m .................................................... R. cyanophlictis
o!mmm _de_ cmc _m _m .................. R. limnochoris
J.2. memJm 1oo
J. 2. J. memoog Ogmmmm __oo
memoo me __ood mTg_ omcemm. _mg_
__oogm _qmc memJm Ogmqoo mmgom_ogde.
Ogmqoo me mToom Jg mm__mom_Jm_m. _m__oo
gC) mmgTmm Ogmqoo _cmom omm cgoemm.
I. ! mg __mq memeJm __Oogmm__m,
__Oogmoo mm mToemm. _m__m _Tdcmqd
_oJmm!. _mTmmd qC)mom!Cccm m@m Ogmm_
_cmde.
II. g Ood memoo, me Ood memoo mm memoo
mToemm. q1)m1cm1ommmoo g Ood memoomm, me Ood
memoo Omcm1ommmoo mmm_Jm_m. _m__d gooo
_demg oc_mo cTo_omm _cm Jcmgde.
III. m_O_m __d memoo Jgomc OgmqoomJm_m.
J. q1)m1cm1ommm - g Ood memoo
2. mm)1ommm - gooodemg me Ood memoo [oc_moooj
3. _Omcm1ommm - goo_oo memoo
moOmT OgmmmJ _OmcmComom 1m_m _
mToomJ__.
12
J. +)_ memoo - ccd oo__d q_mc, _omc m@m _)m_
__o_co. cgm)mm cc_gco.
2. _o_ memoo - ccd oo__d q_mc, _cmc,
_omc mm _m_ __oo Oommco.
_o_ cToo cc_g _qmcd 1m_m _m_
mToomo mTomcemm.
J. cc_g__o - cgm)mm: gcq_oo
2. Ommmm cc_gco - cgm)mm: co q_oo
3. cc_gco
IV. ! _mmome oommqmmq cToo ___ Cm))ooomo
mom_oom. _mTood _domoo, _ooo, m_
gmo)moo _Jm _cmJoom. _g_ ___ 1m))ooomgd __
mm_ Om!.
J. ce : 1mmm)m[Moneraj
mmTmo_m oCmmmmTmo_m _gecmm _o__m
oCcmmomoggd oc oqo DNA cm_. Ood oo! m)mmm_.
Ogmg: oCmmmmTm
Ogmg: mmTm
2. ce : q1)mdcm[Protoctista)
g Ood _CoTCm_oo(Eukaryotes) _mTmd _cmm _gd
qC)mCcmComom, _dom mm _ _mmToo coom.
3. ce : _o (Fungi)
4. ce : omm1c(Plantae) [ mo_gmm)mooj
5. meme . _mmmum(Animalia) me Oodo_c _omTCmq
memoo.
mcm. 1.2.1 cc_g
cc_g__m
cc_gcm
cc_g
_omc
_cmc
q_mc
13
J.2.2. Om_Ogmgoo
Ogmg : q1)m1cm1ommm _de_ g Ood c1oo (Protozoa)
meoo _mm cToo _ggoom. _o _mg_m g
Ood _CoTCm_oo. _oToo Cmmuomd, _goo _de_
_ogmmd _cOm!J Ooemm.
cm_cggd gmmoCo cmg gmTmooomoCom _de_
m_oo cmmmoomoCom _oemm. mmd__ _de_ mmudem
__ _mOmom cco. cgm)mm. _1mm, mm)1Jm,
momdCmmqm.
Ogmg : Omm1"Om)m _de_ _oceoo (Porifera)
_o _mg_m _!omgom. _o__d me Oodoo _m@m
ccud gooode. _gOgmg om!_g oc_mooom ccud me
oo omdom _mqoo cm_. mmd__, mmudem __ood
_mOmom Oom _dqco. cgm)mm. oc_mooo.
mcm. 1.2.2 q1)m1cm1ommm c1oo
mmc1mm
mmdmmd
mm)1Jm
Trypanosoma
mcm. 1.2.3 oc_mooo
14
Ogmg : JOemq1)cm _de_ gceoo (Coelenterata)
_mg_ gcuo_m _! omgom. Ommmmgm ocud
omgom. ccd _)omJc_. ccd oo__d q_mc, _omc
mm _ __oo cm_. _oo_oomcd 11omJom
m@m _c! ogmOmmo cm_. _o +)_ c1oo mm_m
_mcm_m.
me gcuood mdgo _mq(pdymorphism) cm_.
Omm_omo _o mme(pol yp), Om_om(Medusa) mm +o
_mqco.
q_mcd Oom_m Oodoo _de_ _mCcmJd_oo (Nema-
t ocyst s) _m__oom. gm_gemd _o m)md mgToom
cce omm_gg _Jm Ooggg _gm.
ccd- J)mg
mcm 1.2.4 gce - ccd om!
mme
Om_om
ccd om!
q_mc
_omc
11omJom
mcm. 1.2.5 Oom_m Ood
_oggd
_e
15
ccd ooTd go Oodoo, mmggug go Oodoo, o)m
Oodoo, cm! Oodoo mm meoo Oodo_m_. _omm cToo
mmd __, mmudem __ood _mOmom Ooemm.
_gOgmgd _q1)m1ommm(Hydrozoa), do1mm1ommm
(Scyphozoa), __1gm1ommm(Anthozoa) mm _m_ oqo_m_.
_q1)m1ommmmd _emm ccd _mq mme _m.
Om_om _mq g_omuommm_. [cgm)mmj. _q)m, gJum.
do1mm1ommmmd Om_om _mCm _emm_. _Tum
Cmmm_ O_du 1moo _oomd coom. _o ocum Cmd
mcggd mgmo.
__1gm1ommm cToo _egg mmuqoo. _gd Om_om
_e Cgmm_ogde. ccu@o momcToo(mesenteries) m@m cd
gmmJoo cm_. [cgm)mmj. ocd _mCmmmoo, moomoo.
tU bjhFfYs yFf bghJthf fl
gf cilait.
J. midJ yFfY wgil, ilgil, mfgil vd
cl Rt _W mLFf csd. vdnt mtF _tLF
cf vW bga.
2. cl Ugf rk cilaJ.
Ogmg : omqO_dmmgd _de_ gc q_ _mm. (Platyhel-
minthes)
gc q_oo _gOgmgd coom. _o__d JCemm m@m
mcm. 1.2.6 gceoo
_o mmom
ocd _m1mmm
_Tem
16
o1m1m
_mcmq_
+)d q_
mcm. 1.2.8 gcq_m q_oo
_)gg q_
cc_g _de. cmmmg meo__d _mgde. og _o_m
m_oeq g_mmm_m oc! Ood`oomd _cOm_m.
_ooo q_oo Ommmmgm _mmum. gC) q_md _m,
Omm _mOmo c_qoo _m. _o Omm_omo g_mm
q_oo. _gOgmgd _m_ oqoo cm_.
mq J. c!Omd1e1m(Turbel l ari a). _o gmg_ _Td om_m
gcq_oo. _oomd coo o1m1m(planaria) 1oCgmm_d
(regeneration) gmmc_.
mq 2. q)m1cmcm(Tt remat oda). _o g_mm q_oo.
_o__m ccd Cmd q_ggd J_qJo(cuticle) m@m mm_omq c_
cm_. m_Cgmmmm ccu@o gqOomoo _o
g__qoo Oomm_oom.[ cgm)mmj. "mmJ1mem _de_ +)d
q_(Fasciola), Jd1cm1ommm _de_ _)gg q_(Schistosoma).
mq 3. Ood1cmcm(Cest oda). _mcmq_oo _oom
om!_go. _o _o g_mmoo. _o__m omgo o)em_ o__
Joemm_. _q_oom omgmd _)m_ g_mmoo cm_.
mcm. 1.2.7 ! oc! Ood
_ogoo
17
_o__m ccemq __o_m g_mm omgm_ cT_.
cmgd, om Cmmm_o _de. ccd ooTm ogmo cmo
c_o oqo. gemg d1omOed(Scol ex) mmm_m.
_mgd oo oqmd OomJoo cm_. g__qo_m cm_.
ccud coo me omcmoo qC)mJomqd(Proglottids) mm_ Om!.
[cgm)mmj. omd_coom _mcmq_oo.
Ogmg : _m1cmcm _de_ coq_ _mm (Nematoda)
_o co q_oo mmm_Jm_m. ccd _Jm _
_moo o!mmom coo q_oo _o. ccd omcmoo _de.
ccum Cmdq_ggd J_qJo c_ coo_. _o Ommmm
cc_g cco. cmgd ! _mc gm _mqc_.
_o mmd__ _mOmom cco. _m, Omm cToo
gmggmC cm_. Cgmcg_ mmmgm _q_oo omgemm.
m__o _mg_m g_mm q_oo _m. [ cgm)mmj .
_dom1d gm1omqd (Ascaris lumbricoides).
jF nk tU bjhFf fl bghJgf
csd.
J. ilgil cs FF nyh myJ clF (Co-
elom) vW bga.
2. cl gy flfis bfhlJ. it jj
mikfSilait. gF bklhbkr myJ bklhbkr
flkhj vW bga. itf uj RW mikilait.
Ogmg : _mmecm _de_ moggoceoo(Annelida)
_o q_ _mqc memoo. cc_omcmoo me
oomoomo _m_gm. cq_mmo cc_omcmoo Oocm
(Septa) m@m _coo)md mTom_oom. ccum Cmdq_ggd
mcm. 1.2.9 _dom1d
`
a
18
J_qJo (Cuticle)m@m c_ cm_. og _o_m m_ oeq
g_mmm_m O_Tqmoom(nephridia) cgmmd _o_m. _o__d
! m _)mq mmcem cm_. geq_ggd _)mm@gg)ooo
(ganglia) _omo _m__oom. _)mq ocm _qq_gggoo_
(Vent ral ). _gm __mo Ogoomm, mm_mc gemg
Cgmm_oo_. _mmmm gemom(cephalization) mmemm. _o
_mmum. _o__m em!omo_ q1)m1om1mm!(Trochophore)
mm_ Om!.
_gOgmgd mmeJcm(Pol ychaet a), _e1omJcm
(Oligochaeta), _qmm (Hirudinea) mm _m_ oqoo cm_.
mmeJ_oo ocd omg q_oomm. _o__d Ogoomm
gemgm_. _q_oom moomqd moomdoo (Parapodia)
_m__oom. [cgm)mmj. _1d(Nereis), _1m1omem(Arenicola).
mmq_oo oq _e1omJcmmd _cmJoom. oq
_qmmmd _coo _cmm. _coo _)ggm c_om q_
g_mmoo. _o__m _m, mm _mood g__qoo cm_.
mcm. 1.2.10 moggoce
O_"Tqm
q1)m1om1mm! em!mm
mcm. 1.2.11 moggoceoo
_c
_1d
19
Ogmg : _!g1)m1mmcm _de_ o@omeoo(Arthropoda)
_gOgmg me J_qg gmmo_c_. _gOgmgm
memoo mmmod mo _go_ooo. _o__m ccd me
omcmoomd _m_. ccum Cmdq_ggd oqmmd(Chitin) _m
mm_omq c_ cm_. oo!JmCmm_ 1gmg1ggd(moulting) m@m
_ogJm_. _o _momdo_co. _omdoo
o@omdoomm. ged Tm o_omoo cm_.
o_om me J_ cm! _mqoo Oommc_. _o___
gmqqm (Omatidium) mm_ Om!.
_o__m ccud _)gg gdoo _de. cc_g,
_1mmem (haemolymph) m@m g)oggmd _)mm_oo_. __Co
_)ggmmm. _ggo cc_g _)gg cc_gmm.
_o _mg_m g mmem mmd _qmcd +)mqoo
cm_. _om cT Ommmmgm mm__ _om c1 _de_ em!mm
(Larva) mmm_m. em!omoo cmm__ggmd _g!JcJm_m.
_gOgmgd ___ oqo_m_.
mq. J : _m1om1mm)m(Onychophora)
q_ Cmmm_ OmTmmcd(Peri pat t us) cToo _oomd
coom. _o oog gocuo_m o@omuo_m
_cmc mmqoo Oommco. mmCo _o__ _ Ogmgoom
_mq mmemmo ogemm.
mq. 2 : m11mmcm (Myriapoda)
_)mm, m)oc Cmmm_ memoo _mTmd coom. _)mmm
geq_ggd Tm _o oo _om cm_. Tm omdoo
Oommc me cc_omcmoo coom.
mcm.1.2.12 m1mm_oo
_)mm m)mc
20
mq. 3 : _Jmm (Insecta)
_mm om@m _Joo _mg_m _mTmd coom. _o__m
ccd ge, mm!q, o_, mm _m_ mgo_c_. me _Jood
mm!q mgd Tm __ooo cm_. q)Jm m@m _m
_o gdoomd _o oomJm.
mq. 4 : J)dCcm(crustacea) _)md, _m_oo, od_)md Cmmm_
memoo _oomm c_mm!oo. ccum Cmdq_ggd om)Cmd
m@m mm_omq c_ Oommco.
mq. 5 : _)mmcm(Arachnida)
Cgo, Je_g_J Cmmm_ memoo _oomd coom.
ccud gemm!q, m_ mm _ mgo_m_. _mm
_momdoo gemm!qcm Omm_goom.
md
Ogm_m _J
go mm_ co! mm_
__ qoo mm_
_mem
(1)
(2)
(3)
1,2 & 3 g_mm _Joo
mcm. 1.2.13 _Joo
mcm. 1.2.14 _)mm_oo
cmm
Je_g _J
21
Ogmg : Omdgceoo _de_ Ommedom (Mollusca)
meoo Omdgcuo_m_. memeJm J_mmmoom
mmmod _o _)mcmo_ _cm oJJm_m. _o
cc_omcmoodem_ Ommmmm ccd _mm Oommco.
ccud ge, mmgm, co c_q Ogmq mm _m_ mgo_m_.
ccum Cm_q_ggd 1mmqd m@m OmmCmm!om mm_omq _m
cm_.
Cmmqd __@o coo Ooooomd _de_ qmggmd
(Ctenidium) oomJggd _cOm_m.
Omdgcuoom em!om Omm_omo q1)m1om1mm!
em!omomm (Trochophore larva).
mq J : OmeJ1mmcm _de_ mmmdmm(Pelecypoda or Bivalvia)
_o _ ccd _o_c _!omg cToo. _o g)
mmmd qg_gm. ccd moomqd g_mJm.
[cgm)mmj. mqoo, Jmoo.
mq 2 : omdq1)m1mmcm (Gastropoda)
_o _! _de_ _e omg Omdgcuoo. _o__m ccd oo
oqo q@o coo_. mmgm _om_ gcmm_. gemg
J_q__oo_. ged omo_m cm! _Jo_m cm_. [cgm)mmj.
_ggoo.
mq 3 : Jm1em1mmcm _de_ geomeoo (Cephalopoda)
mcm. 1.2.15 Omdgceoo
_mm! mq
_o _gg
eme1om
om
22
mcm. 1.2.16 _1gmeoo
_ogg) 1m
ocd _!Jm
_o ocud omgmo. _m ___ggomm ccd
_mqco. mmgmg 8 - J0 _mc _JoomJoom. _
Oooq_ggCem coomoCom _m_goemm. [ cgm)mmj .
_Ccmmd, emuCom, Oomm.
Ogmg: mo1mmOc!1mcm _de_ _1gmeoo (Echinodermata)
_o ___gm ocud omgom. _o__m em!omoo _mo
omJm _g! cToo _)omJm Oomm_oom. ommg
_qq_gggoo_. _o__m ccud gm omdo_m _! g c
_mqm coom. [cgm)mmj. _ogg) 1moo, ocd _!Jmoo, ocd
OoooT.
Ogmg: om!1ccm _de_ __ _mmoo (Chordata)
_gOgmgd coo memoom ccud __ _mm gm_
cm_. _ggmm om!Cccm Ogmgm J_q mmmmm.
__Oogmmo_m __ _mm__ qC)mom!Cccm memo_m
_mTmd coom.
___mmood mdg!g gmm
__ _mmood meoo _mqoo, omg__oo, cc_Ood
_ogo_m_. 40, 000 J_mmmoo omc_m_oom. m_
Ogmgo_cm gm_od _o__m mmmo _.
_m@m ccd _oomd _o +_oqoom. _mmo
__Oogmmoo moOmTo. Je gmmoemoo 35 1c!oo _o_m
J20 cmoo mcm cco. _eggmmoemoo (Blue whale)m@m
gmmoemoCo ceJm OmT memoo _m. J0 m1 _o_c
emm 1om 1moo(Phi l i pi ne goby) ceJm moJ_
__Oogmmoo _m.
___mmoo mdCo_ __o gdood om_m mmqoo
Oomm_oom. m_ memoo mc _cgCg!md J__g mm_mm_oo
23
Oomm_oom. ocd_!, _mm!, _em mm _mg_ m)qoogm
J_mmo om_m gmmoo Oomm_oom. oc, Ogm _omoou__
_mgg C)o o) _mg_ _cmoogm m)moom.
Omm_mmqoo
Jgomc _J mmqoomd memoo ___mmoomo
_cmom ommm_Jm_m.
J. __ _mm: ooo!Jm Cmm_ ! _g) _mmmo
__ _mm Cgmm_m. __ cm mmgm __q_ _)mq
ocgg_m _cd _mm. ___mm Je ___mmood
omg_mo __mm _eggoemm. me cTood _gm _cggd
__Oogmqoo Cgmm_ m_Jm_m.
___mm, me _mmgo_c Oodoom _m_. _gm
o__gm 1ogmmc _m! go mcem cm_. _gm m)qg
gmm _ggoo g)om _)mm Oodoomgm _mqg go
c_mgm m_m_J__.
2. __q_ gd mqm _)mq mcm: cc_gcm
Ogmc!mdemmd __ _m@ Cmemo _)mq ocm coo_. __ !
gd _mqc_. _oomq memJm omg_mo __o_m
_emo __m.
3. Ooo ooo _de_ Ogmmc ooo: _o
_m mooomo Ogmmcm _ q_gggm coom. 1mood
_oomq omg_mo __o_m _eggm. goo, Cg) Cmmm_
_! _e omgmood em!om _ed m_mm. Cmd _e
__OogmmoomJ m!om, m_mm, mmgqood _oomq
ooo!J _ed Ooe__ _mmmog Cgmm_ m___m_m.
4. Jgq_ _gm: _gggd __o_m_. __ cm
mmgm Jgmo coo_.
mcm. 1.2.17 __ _mmoo - ! moomcm
_)mq mcm
__ _mm
mm
memm
mmd
Ogmmc
Ooo ooo
24
5. _q _)gg gdoom Ogmq: ___mmood
Ogmc!qc gmoomJ gmmoo, g__Joo, J)oom ogC
_)ggm Oodgm.
. ode)d 1mm!cd _mq: __ _mmood
cmmmgd c_omc cm ode)um g__J
oemmme oc__ _ggg_ Oodgm. _omgm cm
mmgd g__Joomog Cgmm_ ode)ud g__Joomo _qocm
J) ode)d Cmm!cd J) mm_ Om!.
momm_
Ogmg __ _mmoo, _mm _mg Ogmgoomd _mo.
_mg Ogmg J. O_mom!Cccm (Hemichordata)
_mg Ogmg 2. JmCemom!Cccm (Cephalochordata)
_mg Ogmg 3. _C)mom!Cccm (Urochordata)
_mg Ogmg 4. __Oogmmoo (Vertebrata)
_gd _gd _m_ _mg Ogmgo_m Ommggggd
qC)mCcmom!Cc_oo _de_ _m __ _mmoo(Protochordates)
mmm_Jm_m. _o___ mmcCm_ _demggmd, mJC)mm (Ac-
rania) m@m Omm cm_.
q1)m1cmom!1ccm (Protochordata)
_o __Oogmmoom _mCmmqoomo ogm_Jm_m.
__ _mm _mmm _qmcd _o oom_ggm_oom.
_mg Ogmg: O_mom!1ccm _de_ _) __ _mmoo
(Hemichordata)
_o ocd omg cToo. gmgCgm _de_ ocmmoCom
omgemm. _o Ommmmgm g) good omgmo. _o__m ccd
Ommmmm_. _o q_ oqo_co, cc_omcm__o, _mo
omJco. ccd Cmd oo__d )_ q_mc Oodoo cm_.
_o___ _o ocom _de.
mcm. 1.2.18 me1mmJomod
25
Ogmmc mgm Cmd q_ggu__ _mCmmJ _Jmo
J_ __ _mm coo_.
cm mmg _mc gd _mqc_. _o _g
_oggmd cm_cm OomoJm_m. cgm)mm. meCmmJomod,
omComJomod.
_mg Ogmg: Jm1emom!1ccm _de_ ge __ _mmoo
(Cephalochordata)
_o 1moqo ocd omg cToo. __ _mm _emm_.
__ ge _m o) _m_oo_. q_mcd )_ Oodo_m_.
_mg __qoo _de. gooo, O_Tqmoo, _mOmo
c_qoo cc_omc _mm gg_oom. Ogmmc mg _m
_om__. _o cmo oqoqmmo. cgm)mm. _mmmod.
_mg Ogmg: _1)mom!1ccm _de_ mmd __ _mmoo
(Urochordata)
_o meoo _mqooc cToo. ___mm em!om
_ed omd mgd m_Cm cm_. _g! cToo _dmmm
_mmg__ g)d gqomgmo. cceo__gm
q_m(t uni c) m@m c_ cm_. ccum Cmd _md _
_oo_m_. _o _mmum. _o__m oo!Jd !
gem)c em!om _e cm_. [cgm)mmj. _Jqm, CcmuCmem,
omdmm.
_mg Ogmg: __Oogmoo (Vertebrata or Craniata)
_omm memood mmcCm_m __Oogmqg Ogmcm
cm_. _o ccum m _o mgmo _m_gm.
oo!_e _mmmJ ___mm _g!md gOggmq
_de_ mgmmmmd _m __OogmmmJ__. ccd Cgmud Cm_q_ggd
mmOc!mom _qq_ggd Oc!mom cm_. Cmd Cgmum mm_mmcmo
o)moo, Oogdoo, __oo, oo_omoo, Oommqoo, C)mmmoo
Cgmm_oom. __Oogmqg OgmcTm Jg cm mmgoo_.
mcm. 1.2.19 _mmod
mcm. 1.2.20 ! _Jqm
26
_g@cm OmT ode)gm om_m _m__oom. _)gg
o__mmd _gm, gmmoo, J)oo, g__Joo cm_. _)ggggd
Joq, Oooo _@oo coom. Ooo mooo _mc
mmmod coom. _)m_ _moomo _cOm! c_qoo
cm_. _)mqg gmqm _m _m _omo mm_m_oo_. om, om_,
_ Cmmm_ cm! c_qoo C_)qmo _ocm Ogmc!q
Oomm_oom. J__)o, _mOmo c_qoo _m__
OodqTJm_m.
__Oogmmoo 1moo, _mm omeoo(Tetrapods) mm _
mToomo mToemm.
mq: 1moo (Pisces)
_o _! omg, mm_m ccd Oomm Oommc __Oogmmoo.
_o _m, mm q_mood m_g _mqco. ccemm_ ge,
ccd, omd mm _m_ mgoo Oommc_.
_o___ o_g_ _de. _mg __qoomgm __ __g
__qoomgm __g OodJm_m. ccd, Oogdoomd
Cmm!ggm_oo_. Oogdood oom_, oom_, mm_,
1omm_ mm me oooo cm_. ccd goood m1m1cmmoo
m@m gog _mcmoo cm_.
mcm. 1.2.22 Oogdoo
oom_
oom_
mm_
mcm. 1.2.21 ! __Oogm - moo mcm.
_gm
_o
gm_mcm
__Oogmqg Ogmc!
mm
Ooo ooo
J_ _!m
J__)om
1om1om
_)m)d
omm
_mOmo c_q
ode)d
27
cm mmgd Ogoomm _)m, omm Cmmm_
c_qoo cm_. Ooooomd oomJggd _o_m. 5 - 7 _moo
Ooo mooo cm_. Ooooom 1_ Ooo _q _oemm. _gm
_TJo, OomqTJo mm _ __oo Oommc_.
omd mCmmod _mqm J__)o Cmm!cd J)m
Oommco. _)gg Joq _@ood co cm_. J__)om
1ComO_mT oo om!_g_. q_ _mJg_om)moo coom@o
g_mgde. momm_ cm!J 1om_oo J_q__oom. _o
g mmum. o_gd ccu@oCom _de_ Oooq_ggCem _ogemm.
[cgm)mmj. o_m 1moo, oem 1moo(Catla).
_mm omeoo (Tetrapoda)
_o +Tm omdo_co. omdood ___ m)d`
_mqm_. _o__m CmdCgmud c)__ Oodo_m_.
_mJg_om)mmm_ coom ogC _)m)gcm Ogmc!qc_.
_mTmd _!_e omgom, m!om, m_mm, mmgqoo coom.
oq: _!_e mmgmm
goooo, Cg)oo, ___oo(newt s), oemmmc!oo
(salamadders), omdoo__ JJemoo(caecilians) _oomgoom.
_o, _e omgo Cm_Oommc _gd __Oogmmoomm.
_m@m _o ___gmmo _eomgo Cm_Oomoo _em_, _Tgm
_egggmmo omgJm_m. _om)mggmd _!-_e omgmoo
Cgmdm__ _mm mm ogm_J__.
mcm. 1.2.23 1moo
o_m 1m
oem 1m
28
me mm_mc _omgmoo cm_. Omm_omo _omm
cTo_ o_g_ mg _de. _mmd oemmmc! Cmmm_o
cm_. goo, Cg)ood mmmmomdoo _ommmo. goooom
mmmmomdood m)uc oo cm_.
_o__m Cgmd oooommm_. Cgmud Comg o)moo
cm_. Oogdoo _de.
om OmT_. Cmd gmcd J_ m_oo cm_.
q__mJg_om)moo coomcm Ogmc!q Oomm_oom. Ooooo,
_)m)doo, Cgmd, Ogmmc mgm ogC oomom _cOm_emm.
_gggd _)m_ _TJooo g OomqTJo cm_. _o g
mmd cToo. _m, Omm cToo cm_. o_gd ccum
coomoCom _de_ OooCem _cOm_m. oo!Jd cmm__m
cm_.
_mm1mcm (Amniota)
m!om, m_ooo, mmgqoo _J _m_m _mmCm_oo
_m. _o__m ooo!J oo o__gm _mmmm m@m
c_ cm_. _o_ ooo!Jd cgm. _oomq _e omg
cToom _mOmoggd ! goommmm. _mmmm,
ComTmm, _emcmd, Cmmm_o _ooo mcemoomm.
mq: m!mm (Reptiles)
mduoo, mmmqoo, _moo, _geoo Cmmm_o m!om
mTmm Co!_go.
ccd oqom me oom_m. ccd Cmdq_ggd Oogdoo cm_.
Cgmd o)moo _de. _gd, m)Cm_gd, ___gd Cmmm_o___Oom
mcm. 1.2.24 _! - _e mmgmoo
gmo
JJem
odmmmc!
29
omdoo mm_m_oom. _o__d _)m)d oomom cm_. _gggd
_m_ __oo ommm_m. [_geood _mm __oo cm_j
J__)om, OmcmO_)md oom_. _o gmmum. o_gd
ccu@o _o_m. _cood gqgg Cgmd Cmmm_ _ cm_.
mq: m_moo (Aves)
ceJd 8000 oo m_ooo cm_. _o _mgggm !
_qmc _mq g__mm_. m_ooo mm_mOom_e Oommc
cToo. __oo ccum Oom_e mm_omm. omdood
Oogdoo cm_. _mmmomdoo __oomJoom. cce J)mo
gmmm ood omdoo _m _mq_mmo _mom_oom.
mgmqoo Ommmmmo. mgmqoo@o om___oo cm_. me
ccd mgmqoo _m__oom. gemgd oqmg gmmc
_e cm_.
_)m)gcm _m_g om__ moo cm_. _o mgmm@o
Ogmc!q Oomm_oom. _gggd _mm __oo cm_. _)gg
Jom@oo _o _c oqmd co Oommco. J__)om, _m_
o_qo_c_. J__Td _T _mem m_gm.
_)mq mmcemmm_ J_q__oo_. J__g mm!og g_@c
omoo cm_. _o g mmum. o_gd ccu@o _o_m.
_cood _go _o om cm_. _coo oqmmmm
mcm. 1.2.25 m!mm
o_q _e _ge
omo _g _ge
_ogg) _m
1gmd __ _m
30
omdJm m_g _co. me _mCm__mmm mmqoo _m@m,
m_oood m!om _m mmqo_m cm_. mmCo gmm _o__m
Cmmm__ m!om` mmJC_mm. [cgm)mmj. q_m, Jo, omom, m,
md, gComg, Ommmm.
mq: mmgqoo (Mammalia)
q +m_ mmg_m memo_ ummd[ J758j
mmmmum` m@m OmTcm!. _g_ _e_qoo` mmm_ Ommo.
me g_eood me __ood om_m mmgqoo ! Oo__
Om__ _mmmoCo ogm_Jm_m. _o__m mmqoo
J. ccud C)mmmoo cm_. ccd Cgmud m!o o)moo,
mmOm o)moo cm_. mmg_m o)mo_m Cgmum
mm_mm_oCo.
2. Oooom_ mcd cm_.
3. mm!m_, o___ _cd cg)mgmmm cm_.
_oomq oomJggd cgm.
4. Jom@ood co _de. _o oc oqmd _q__m
g_go.
5. _gm _mm __o_c_. _gggu__ Cgmm_m
gmmood oe_ _Cm!q oo _de.
. Om_o moOmT_. _ Om_o _)
Comomoom _mo _qq_ggd om!md oCemom m@m
_)mmgoo _mq cm_.
mcm. 1.2.26 mmgqm m_oo
mm_mc m_oo
g1omcmm _mq
Om_m md
1omgmd
_moc
mm md
m ocmm
md
md
g
31
7. mdemmd gComcmm, O_qC)mcmm, cmCmcmm
gmmoo cm_.
8. m__o)moo ccg OooC _m_gm. Omm_
ogo_ _de.
0. _coo J_o. om _de. o_gd ccg
coCoC _cOm_m.
J0. _o q +@mo. gm-Co _mqggo cco.
_oomd _m_ _moqoo cm_.
_m oq J. mm1mmq11mcm _de_ q1)m1cmg1m
(Monotremata or Prototheria)
_o _c_m mmgqoo. cgm)mm. m_mqg gmmoo,
momqmd.
_m oq 2. mm!o mmem _de_ Omcmg1m (Marsupialia or
Metatheria)
_o Oooq_m mm!omm m@m mco. oo!J
_qocmmd Cgmm_m qoo _m@o mm_omom_m.
[cgm)mmj. omom.
mcm. 1.2.27 _c_m mmgqoo
omqmd
m_mqg gmm
mo! m
mcm. 1.2.28 mc mmgq
32
_m oq 3. omOomcmem _de_ _gg1m (Placentalia or
Eutheria)
_mTmm mmgqood ooo!Jmm_ om@o
_o_m. oom om_g Cgomm cm gm-Co _mqggo
ogmo gmm _)gg cggmmd Jcm. [cgm)mmj. mm, qu,
Jmom, mmgm, )m, _m, _m, mu, Oooomd.
m1o: )1m_oo (Primates)
_ggTm _momd _ooTo ! mT. mmg!oo
_ooToCeC coom!. )moo, Cgomm Cmmm_ memo_m
_ooTod coom. _omemoo J__g _o oo!Jco.
me memoo m)mood omgmo. meoo cm Ommoo
cmmoqo. coomo, coomomd, _om gm) m_ mgood
_c!_g C)mmm cm_. _mmmomdoo J_o. omdood ___
m)do_m_. m)doom _md _omoo cm_. Omm)d
_mmgm mmmmqgm J_mc__oo_. _o J_mmm oo!J
Om__oo_. _ omo_m _mq_m C_mJoom. _ooo
mm!o mmme! mm!m mm_ Om!.
Og1__ Oomo
Invertebrates
Scientific Names
Earthworm [mmq_j Lampito mauritii
Cockroach [o)mmm _Jj Periplaneta americana
House fly [+ooj Musca nebula
Locust [Oo_Joj Schistocera gregaria
Bed bug [_c _Jj Cimex hemipterus
Leaf insect [_e_Jj Phyllium sps
Stick insect [J_Jj Carausius sps
Water-scorpion [_!gCgoj Nepa sps
Butterfly [ommg_ _Jj Pieris sps
Rat flea [mu Ogo__Jj Xenopsylla cheopis
Scorpion [Cgoj Palamnaeus swammerdami
King crab [)m_ _m_j Limulus sps
33
Spider [Je_g_Jj Aranea sps
Apple snail [_mo _ggj Pila globosa
Freshwater mussel [_mm! _ggj Lamellidens marginalis
Star fish [_ogg) 1mj Asterias rubens
Vertebrates
Angel fish [mod 1mj Pterophyllum scalare
Guppy [om 1mj Poecilia reticulata
Frog [gooj Rana hexadactyla
Garden lizard [mmmj Calotoes versicolor
Cobra [_de mmmqj Naja naja
Peacock (mdj Pavo cristatus
Crow (omomj Corvus splendens
Sparrow (mj Passer domesticus
Parrot (Joj Psittacula Krameri
Rat (muj Rattus rattus
Dog (_mj Canis familiaris
Cat (_mj Felis domesticus
Tiger (quj Panthera tigris
Lion (Jmomj Panthera leo
Elephant (_J mmj Elephas maximus
Man [mmgmj Homo sapiens
Monkey [)mj Macaca radiata
Mongoose [JTmooj Herpestes edwardsii
Bear [o)qj Ursus arctos
Fruit bat (mg_gmm Oooomdj Cynopterus sphinx
Donkey (o_g) Equus hemionus
Rhinoceros [ommcmmomj Rhinoceros unicornis
Spotted deer [qoo mmmj Axis axis
Man [mmgmj Homo sapiens
34
J.3. mmg1 mem J. omd1mmqm
Ogmg - q1)m1cm1ommm
mq - d1mm1)m1ommm
m1o - _1mmd1mm1qm
omd1mmqm m@m _mgg om!_g g_mmoo mCeTm
C_m om)mmmmo. _o cce mmgm mCeTm omoe
cmcmJm_m. o! omod` mmm_m. mCeTm omoe
mmOm_momemmo _mm __Comm. mmCo Omm_ oomgm)ggd
_omoe ggm_ _JmmmgmJoo_.
o_q _em, omocoou__ Cgmm_m mq omoomd
_omod m_m_J__ mm _mq ogmc_. m)mmo _mqm om!dd
emOo)m(Charles Laveran) mCeTm C_mco!oom _)ggggd
omd1mmqm cToo _gud [J880j omcm!. momdCmmqggm
C_mmcmm gmm, m)od __ _Jo__ o!. 1)mmmd_ )md (Sir
Ronald Ross) J880d moJmm!. _g_Oom J002 d C_mmd mTJmm
_o! Om__m!. momdCmmqmo_m _mmmed Oomoo_m
_cC coo Ogmc!qoo J)mJ(Grassi) mmmm! mog_dummo
moJmm! [J800j.
omd1mmqm
_oT ! _oOod _)gg g_mmmm. _gm omgo
og_JOom ! __Oogmmm, _)ggm c_om Oomoo_m
m_Cgmmmoomog Cgom_Jm_m. mmgmm ccu@o _o
d1mm1)m1om_ m@m _ed _gJm_m. _mmed Oomooo
_o__ mmg!oocC m)qJm_m. Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum,
P. malaria, P. ovale mm _mmoo momdCmmqmoo mmgTd
C_mmcmoemm.
momdCmmqggm omgo og_Jd mmg!oo _c_e
m_1gmmoomm!. Oomooo _emm m_1gmmoo. _)m_
_cmoogm momdCmmqggm omgod Co_mm_oo cm_.
mmg1d _o_m og_J - o1umom
mmgTm ccu@o momdCmmqggm omgod
q_Jmm@ og_J, _oJmm@ og_J mm _ _eo_m_.
q_Jom@ og_J ode)ugm, _oJom@ og_J _)gg
Jom@oogmmo _o_m.
35
q_Jmm@ og_J
_og_J _m_ ode)d Oodoo@o mmudem _mOmo
__md _o_m. _)omomm og!oqo d1mm1)m1om_oo
_mmed Oomooqmmd _m_ ccu@o _gJm_m. _g_g mm
_m_ _)gg cggd o_C___ 30 _mcmoo o__Jm_m. mm
_o ode)um cq__oo O)qCem mmCcmgud Oodood
gmJm_m.
ode)ud _o J11cm1om_oomo cOm_Jm_m.
___ed Ooqmm cocm ccud __moo, mgoo _demmd
_o Ogmm_m. _go _omd cmm@m JTCcmCom_oo
mcm. 1.3.1 m1e1m g_mmm mmgo og_J
omm1cmom
o1umom
11) m 1om _
_oJmm@ _e
_. J. _
m1) m 1om
mm 1) m om 1
d1mm 1) m _oo
mom
mJd
o um m_
cmg_! o)
cmg_! _mom
cm m m g
o_c
d1mm! 1gmm_d
_gg) 1mmg)m
_) m
J11cm oomm_
J11cm -11) m 1om _oo
ode)d
O o d
36
gmJoo Oodoo _)qm _om_ OmTgmJm_m. ___ed
_o J11cm-oomm_ mmm_m. _Oodoo meomo mT__
[ oComomj _mm J11cm-11)m1om_oomo _)ggggd
oeJm_m. _o__d g Je 1m_m qg ode)d Oodoo@o
_gemm. m__o _)gggggoo Joq _@oo@o _gm.
_omgm ode)ud gmm omem 7 - J7 _moomm.
_oJmm@ og_J
Jom@o_o _gm JTCcm-1C)mCom_oo
_moo Ommoo cmomJ OomoJm_m. mm _o _1mm
_e` m Om_Jm_m. ___ed _o q1)m1mm1om_oo
mmm_Jm_m. _gm mggd Cgmm_m _mmg coo
)gg_g goom_m. Cmmg) _mqc ___e _gg) 1mmg)
_e mm_ Om!. _gmmm _o _mmg _g__ _omd OmTgmJ
oomm_ _e Om_Jm_m.
oomm_oo meomo mo__ 11)m1om_oomJm_m. _o
_g!J__ Jom@ oo) Jgg_ momdmmmd Ooom_Jm_m.
_o__cm Ooom_m ogOmmoo [_CmmCommj omog
om)mmmJm_m. 1C)mCom_oo 1m_m Jom@oog gmoemm.
_g_ co1_m m)md` (Autoinfection) mm_ Om!.
_omgm _)ggggd _o_m og_J 1omdom og_J
_de_ o1omom mm_ Om!. Ogmcm _og_Joomd
g_mmoom mmmo _goTm. me og_Jo_mm Je
1C)mCom_oo 1om1cmo_oomo cOm_Jm_m. mm1)m-`,
m1)m-` mm _oo ComCcmo_oo Cgmm_m.
mmC)mComCcmo_oom co J__. oCcmmomoggd
_c!_g cmm_. mC)mComCcmCom_oom cooo
OmTo. oCcmmomom Ogoomm_. _o ! Oomom@o _ggd
Com_m.
Oomom@o og_J - d1mm1)mom
_)gggg c_omo Omm Oomooomm. Omm _mmed
Oomooo momdCmmqmoo m)qJm_m. mCeTm C_m__
goTm _)gggg c_om Oomoo_@o momdCmmqggm
_mg_ _eo_m Oodgm. _m@m ComCcmo_oo m_Cm
Oomom@o mgm. m__o _g__m_m. ComCcmo_oo
mm_gdooc__ 1o1_oo m@m _mOmo OodoomJm_m.
_g_ 1om1cmom mm_ Om!.
37
1om1cmom (Gametogony)
___ogJ Oomomm cmmmgd _o_m.
mC)mommCcmo_oom co meomo mo__ oCcmmomo_m
mTocJ__. _gmmd og! oqmd me m1)momm_oo Cgmm_m.
___ogJ mdmom_Coom (exfl agel l at i on) mm_ Om!.
mmC)mommCcmo_ _g!Jc__ Omm _mOmo
OodemJ__.
_mOmo Oodoom gmJmm d1mm1)momm
Oomomm _)m@o mC)mom1_m, mmC)mom1_m
_mJm_m. _oCood _o__m cooo gm_cm gm_mo
oe__ m_Jm_m. ___ogJ Jmom(Syngamy) _de_
_mOmo Oodoom gmJm mm_ Om!. ___ogJd
Cgmm_m _m Oodu_ o_c _de_ o1om(Zygote) mm_
Om!.
o_c _om gmmc_. mmCo _gm _om
o_c(Ookinete) mmemm. _)mm oo)g _og_ Oooom
o_cmm_ _ooTm Oooq_ggd gqOomm_ gmm
o__ ! Jd_ c_ _mm. ___ed _o_c
mJd_(Oocyst) mmemm.
mJdqm co Ogmc!__ mTocm. _gmmd me _mm
og!oqo d1mm1)m1om_oo Cgmm_m. __gd Jd_ c_
_gogmd dCmmC)mCom_oo Oomomm cc_gd Oooc
m_Jm_m. _o ccu@o _o!__ Oomomm cmg_! o)m@o
Oom_ gmJ m_Jm_m. _Oomo CoO_mo) oqggmd _Oodoo
_o)_ _)gggg@o _g__mcemm. _ooo m)og
cOogggd` (inoculation) __ mm_ Om!.
m1e1mmm mooo
momdCmmqmoomd Cgmm_m C_m mCeTm omod.
__C_md Ogmc!__ _cOooood [m_ m_j omod m_m_m.
omod me mm C_)m _oemm. _)gg Jom@mu__
1C)mCom_oo Ooom_m Cood _)ggggd Oomcm_m
_o OmmoCo omog om)mm.
momdCmmqggd _mm ooo_m_. _oood C_m
g_@m Co_m_m.
J. omd1mmqm mmmd(Plasmodium vivax) - _gmmd Cgmm_m
38
omod _m_ _mo_ g __ m_m_m[48 mm g __j.
_gm mTm __g mCeTm omod mmemm.
2. . mmdJmm)m(P. falciparum) - _o _mgg C)o _m_ood _gom
coom. _o__m omod m_g mmgm m_m_ggemm.
_mmCeTmmmmd __qm C_Tcemm. _o gmm _)gg
Jom@oo J_ _)gg gmood _cmm m_m_g_m._gmmd
co__qoo mmgmcJm_m.
3. . m1e11(P. Malariae) - _o ccud _gogmd _mm _mo_
g __ omod Cgmm_m.
4. . g1m1e(P. ovale) - _mTom, Ogm _OmTom _m_ood coo
_oood Ogmc!__ _m_mo_ _mood omod Cgmm_m.
Cm__mc _mm momdCmmqmo_m _mq, omgo
og_Jomm ome _o _Jo__d mm_mqm.
m1e1m 1_m o_mm_
J. 1_m__m _mm)mm
momdCmmqmoo mg!_o c_mgg _m_ _)ggggd
gm_ogde. mmCo g__J __md __C_mg g_omem_.
_m_ ccud coo me _eoo momdCmmqmoo _gmg_omm
m__ Ommoo cOomooemm. Jm1ommm m)mcoou__
Jcm Oommm m__ oc__ 300 _m_oomo mmmmqd coo_.
_mm__ Ommo _qmcmo Oomm_ mmgqTm, _cmTm,
oCmmmm, ComC)mm, O)ComJm, mmmmmm mm_ me m__
Ommoo c_mgg Oom_Jm_m.
2. 1_mg g_q
mCeTm C_mg g_q _ ooood _memm.
[ ij mm_omq __oomo Oomooe, Oomooo Oo_m
oomqoo, oooo _Jo__ mmm_ggemm.
[ i i j g_ommmo momdCmmqmoo Oomdgm m__
Ommoo gm_Cgm_m cOomooemm. _gmmd dCmmC)mCom_
_de_ 1C)mCom_ _eood _o _g__m_Jm_m.
3. 1_m m)oo o_m_g_gd
C_m m)moomJ Oomooo ggmgm _em mCeTm
C_m ___gmmo o_m_ggemm. CgmJoo omoc _!oom 1_
_JOomdu m__oo Ogomgm _em Oomomm em!omoo
39
_goemm.
Oomooo _go DDT, mmegmm Cmmm_ m__
Ommoo mqd mmm_ggemm. mTgg)m JTomd Cog
Ommomd qo__gd, _m Oomooo me_oomgd Cmmm_
__o_m _c__gm_. Oomooom _! omg em!omoo
_o__ cm@m omm_Jm, Oemdcd Cmmm_ 1moo _mm!
_eood oo!mgm _em o_m_ggemm.
mmg1 mem 2. mmq_
Ogmg - _mmecm
mq - J1cm1mmcm
m1o - _e1omJcm
c1 - yhnlh khoia
mmq_oo _o mmqo. _o mod Cood
_ooo@o go_g__ mm _)md cm Cg_Jm_m. _o om_m
_ooo mg _)md _)mmmmd m_Cm _o mm@ Cmemo
OoooJm_m.
q_ _mq

Om1d1cmmm
m__
Oomom
_mm)moo
mcm. 1.3.2. mmq_ q_g1gm__m
__ _mq
1md _mq
ccd _m_o
Jg _mq
q1)md1cmmm
qm! gqq
ccd _oo
__q_g _o
meg_mm)m
q1)md1cmmm
__q_g _o
_mc _mog
_mm)moo
_m
_mOmo
_mm)moo
qm! gqq
mm
14
17
8
10
6
14
18
40
Ogm __gmmd ommm_m mmq_oo Omm_omo
emmmCcm mmTq(Lampito mauritii) _mgg om!_go. _o__d
ccd _m_, co oqmd, _mo omJ! gmmcm ommm_m.
_q_oo 8 _gd 2J Oo1 _o_m 3 _gd 4 m1 gqm@m cco.
_q_mm __q_ggd _c!ggmm m_q ___m o__ q_ggd
Ooo! gmm_m_. _gm ccd me omcmomoomemm_. ccd
omcmoom _cd omcc oTmoomoo cm_. _ooo
cc_omc mTmm ccum cq_gggm cm_. cq_ggd
omcmo_JcC Oocm(Septum) m@m _coo! cm_. _mg_
cc_omcmo_m ggg _mqco. _ooo ccd _mm_
OmcmOm1om mm_ Om!.
_gd cc_omcggm mggd om _ooo_. _gm
o__oo _gd cc_omcgg_ Om1d1cmmm (Peristomium) mm_
Om!. omm _m q_ggd _m cg_ _de_ q1)md1cmmm (Prosto-
mium) m@m _Jm_. ccum ocJ omcggd meg_om)_oo_.
_g_ m_qm (Pygidium) mm_ Om!. _g!_g q_ood J4 _gd J7
o)oo omcmoo _m__ gqg_oom. _g_ qm!ggqq _de_
JoOcdem (Clitellum) mm_ Om!.
ccd _m_o
ccd oo__goo J_ good _mm oo_g ccd
_m_oo coom. _go_ _m_o Oomo goo mm_ Om!.
_m_oo cce o__gm _m__oom. _o oqm m@m
Ommomd _mo. _o__m mmg mg_m __moo _Jm
_m__oom. _m_oo ` oqmd coom. gooom cgmmd
_m_oo _cm coo_om _gm. _m_oo _cOm!Jd
cgJm_m.
q_g_mm)moo
[ij __ q_g_ooo: _mm _g_ooo ccd Cmd q_ggm
mggd omc _cmoomood _m__oom. J0o_ cc_omcm
oou__ Ogmc!__ coom. cc_g g)om _g_om)m ogC
OooC_ cce _mg_ _m@Toou__ mm_omq gJ__.
[iij m__mg _mm)moo: - 7, 7 - 8, 8 - 0 _J cc_omcmoom
_cd _qq_mmo _m_ _mg_om)moo coom. _g!_g
q_ood _o__ mogd ommemm.
[ iiij _mc _mog_ooo: _o ! _mg _ooomo J4 o_
omcggm _qq_gggoom.

41
[ i vj m__ _mog_ooo: ! _mg _ooomo _o J8 o_
omcggm _qq_gggoom.
[vj O_"Tqg_ooo: J4 o_ cc_omcggu__ _omJ _o me
_mm _ooomo ccd __o_m m)moom.
ccd om!
mmq_mm ccd oo! +)mocm Ommmmm_. _gd
Jgomc __o_m_.
J_qJo: _o_ J_oo q_mc Oodoomd o)om_J__.
mOc!md(Epi dermi s) _de_ q_mc: _oomq )_
_mmmggug gommmd _m_. _gd o)m Oodo_m cm!
Oodo_m cm_.
Oc!md: _oo_ Omdu _mqg gommmd _m_. __ Cmgoo
mmgu Oodo_m co_oo go Oodo_m _qggommo
coo_.
gooo: _ __oomo q_ ocg goo_m co _oggoo_m
coom.
cc_g mggem: __Co ccd oo__m cq_ __omm.
_oo_ cc_g o__oo_.
cc_g
ccd oom cm ggmcd ! _om_
cc_gm_. _g _mqggommmemm _coo)md me
__oomo mTom_oo_. cc_gg g)oggmd _)mmc
mcm. 1.3.3. mmq_ - _ Om_g 1gm__m.
ccd _m_o
J_qoo
q_g1gmd
mcggo
_oggo
cd _J
m__q_ _)mq mcm
m__q_ _)gg gm
__q_ _)gg
gm
1om)1om_m
Oodoo
cc_g
O_"Tqm
cd
coo_ Oodoo
42
_g o__gm mmggum coo_. __m__ cc_g g)oggd
me _1mm_ Oodo_m_. _gg)om __q_ _ooom _em
ccum Oooq_ggd m)m, Cgmum +)ggmm mm_omm.
_gmmd Cgmdog oomom mogmJ__. _mOmo Oodoo
cc_gd Oomcm_ _momoom ogC OooC_Jm_m.
_cOm!J
mmq_oo ccd oo) oJ __ogmd _cmOm!Jm_m.
ccd ooTd ocg gooom omgemd ccd Omu__
_JcJ__. _m _md _Jc_g q_ g) m__ Oomm_
ccum mm mg __g_ Oomo_m. _omgm ccum ocg
gooom _oggooom __gg_g_ oJ __ogmd _o!__
Oodgm.
cm Oo1mmm c_mm
om _gd meg_oo) cmmmg ! _mc gemo
_m__oo_. _gd cc_omcggd mmg_ooo_. __g_oo
mmg _gd _)m_ omcmood _m__oo_. gqgg go oo!
Oommc Ogmmcmg _m_mo_, _mmomo_ omcmoogm coo_.
_gm o__gm Ogmmc o)oo cm_. __gmo_ cc_omcggd
cmggm __mo_ omcggd _)m mm coom.
_)omm cooTd oqm c_ cm_. _mc c_mg
_)o mu__ meg_om)m o) m)moo_. cmgum
Cmd oo__u__ q1em1omd m@m mqq cu@o _m__oo_.
_oomq cum com)moo _goTm.
mcm. 1.3.4. mmq_ - Oo1mmm c_qg Ogmg
Ogmmc o)
comm
_)mm
cd
Ogmmc
cm gm
43
cm_cm
mmmgoo mJ _moo Ommoo mmq_mm
cmomm. mm@cm oe__ cOomo_m cm OoTom_
cJ)Jom_m. mmmcmg mm_oo og Ommo_cm _mmog
oqoomo OooC_m.
_)gg o__mq
mmq_mm ccud _ _J m _)gg gdo_m_.
_o cm gd _)gg gm, cmgd Jg _)gg
gmoomm. Cmd _)gg gud _)ggm _mCmmJ _m.
_gum oo! omJ mTm _dqc_. Jg _)gg gud _)ggm
mmCmmJ _m. _gd J3 cc_omcmood Cmd, Jg _)gg gdoo
m_ _m gdoomd _mom_oom. _o___ mo
_gmoo mm_ Om!. _o _)gggg Cmd gu__ Jg gg
ocg_Jm_m. Cmd gd ccum c_qoou__ _)gggg Om_m.
Jggd c_qo_ _)ggggom.
og _ c_qoo
mmq_mm og _ c_qo_ O_Tqmoo` mm_
Om!. _o _m_qoomo cc_omcmood coom.
! O_Tqm, cc_g@o O_"1)md1cmm m@m
_ommd g___oo_. _gm o__gm Jemoo m@m
_mmgo_m_. _gm_g_ ! o) mgm __gd !
goom! Oommc mgm cm_. __gmg O_Tqg _o _em
Ooogg___oo_. O_C)mdCcmmmd CooTom_m og
Jumoom _ommmd mmgm _cm. _m Cmgm
__q_ _)gg
gm
mcm. 1.3.5. mmq_ - _)gg o__ c_qoo
cm mmg
m__q_
_)gggm
mo _gmoo
44
c_omc ogoo oeJm_m. ocJd O_Tqg_o ogC
og Ommoo OooC__m_Jm_m.
O_Tqmood _m_ ooo_m_. _o OmomO_Tqm,
mC)mO_Tqm, Ogmmc O_Tqmomm.
og _ogg_Oom cd oo__d 1om)1om_m Oodoo m@m
J_q Oodo_m_. _o og Ommoo Om__ cc_g@o
m___, mm O_Tqmoomd OooC__m_Jm_m.
_)mq c_qg Ogmg
Ogmmc 1md _)mm@gg)ooo _oOmm_Jm_m. _o
_m_mo_ cc_omcgggoom. _mmomo_ cc_omcggd Ogmmc
Jg _)mm@g g)oo_oom. Cmd-Jg _)mm@g g)ooo Tm
Ogmmc g _)mmqoomd _mom_oom. Ogmmc Jg
_)mm@g g)ou__ Tm o__q_ _)mq ocmoo mmCmmJ
_m__oom. _gd goOom cc_omcgggm g _)mm@gg)ooo
(a pair or one) cm_.
mcm. 1.3.6. mmq_ - O_"Tqm
O_"1)md1cmm
cc_omcm
cc_omcm
cc_omc og omdmm
O_"Tqm
_g mg
Ogmmcg
_)mmq
Jgq_ _)mq mcm
mcm. 1.3.7. mmq_ - _)mq c_qoo
OgmmcJg _)mm@oo
_o
45
_ou__ OmTdCcmmgg_ _)mqoo OodJm_m.
cc_omcgggoo _)mm@g g)ou__ _m_ _m _)mqoo ccd
oo___m c_qo_m OodJm_m.
Ogm_ cm! c_qoo, Cog cm! c_qoo, Oom cm!
c_qoo Cmmm_o cc_ oo__goom. _o gm oqo Oodoomo
_m _Jo_cm _m__oom. go cm!omd gmcm_m go
cm!_qoo __q_gggm oo, omom cm! c_qoo co
omgmmo ommm_Jm_m.
_mOmo c_qoo
gC) q_md _m-Omm _mOmo c_qoo cm_. mmCo
mmq_oo _mmum(hermaphrodites) mmm_m. m_g@oo _gud
_g!Jcogmd gmo_gd` gm!om_J__.
_m _mOmo c_qoo
+Tm m__ o)mo_m, m__ _momo_m coom. m__
o)oo J0o_, JJo_ cc_omcmood coom. _o m)d Cmmm_
_Joom _m__oom.
_)m_ _m m__ mo_m_. m__oo m__
_momoo@o Ooggg _ _m m__ _mo qmdoo coom. m__
_momoo J8o_ cc_omcggd _m _mOmog _om)ggmmd
mcm. 1.3.8. mmq_ - _mOmo c_qoo
m__ m
m__ m qmd
m__ m
m__ _mom
qm! gqq
m__ Oomo m
m__ o)
m__ o)
_mc o)
_mc _mom
q)md1c o)
q)md1c o)
46
Oood g___oom. _g_om)gg@o oem _m_oo cm_.
Tm q)md1c o)oo J8o_, J0o_ cc_omcmood coom.
_o__m o)qgg)om m__ Oodoo gmJmo mmm_J__.
_gOgmqo_ dOm!m1cm1mm!oo mm_ Om!.
Omm _mOmo c_qoo
! _m _mc o)moo J3o_ omcgggoom.
_o___omm _mc _momoo J4o_ omcggd Oood g___oom.
_m_ _m m__ Oomomoo 7o_, 8o_, 0o_ omcmoogoom.
_o -0 omcmood OooC g___oom. _moo
oemmCmm_ Om_m m_g@oo Como cgJm_m.
oemm Cmm_ _ mmq_oo ge _cm mm_gemo
_mJm_m. _oCood gm_m m_g@oo __gg q_mm
Oomom@o _gJm_m. _gmmm q_oo mT__m_m.
JoOcdem mgm Cmd coo o)m Oodoo gmoo_ o)mmmd
mcm. 1.3.9. mmq_ - qm!J
m__ mg_mm)m
m__ mg _mm)m
qm! gqq
qm! gqq
oem _m_o
mcm. 1.3.10. mmq_ - m__ 1omq, o_gd
m__ m
m__ m
m__ o)
m__ o)
m__ _mo qmd
m__ _mom
47
mcm. 1.3.11. q_m - q_ _mq
omd
m)d
__ _mq
om
o_g_
omd
mmd __
__o
mo
_om
ge
_e
J!
! gqgg ooggg Cgm__mJm__. mmq_ gm_ ccd
_ooomd _ooogg _mC_mJg goom_m. _oCood
_mc _@o_m Om_mc m__Oodo_m oogg@o Ooggg
m_Jm_m. _ooom ccd _m _md mT__ Oomom(Cocoon)
m@m oo!mmJ__. _g@o o_gd _o_m. o_coou__
ooo!Jmmd _om mmq_oo Cgmm_m.
mmg1 mem 3. q_m
_mgOgmg - __Oogmmoo
oq - m_ooo
oTo - Oomemmmm!md
oo - Oomemmm emm
m_ooom ccd __o_m m_gOggOom mm_m_oo_.
_o m_gOggOom __oo, _e, omd _mq Cmmm_o__
Om__oom.
q_moo m_m g_@c m_ooo[CoTCm_ooj. _o
Oom, o! _m_ood m)oemo omgJm_m. __g q_mood
m__ J0 J_mmmoo cm_. oo!q q_mood panter, fantail,
tumblers mm me ooo_m_. _o _mg_m Oomemmm emm m@m
oo og o_go.
48
q_moo og!oqom cco. _o__m _o 20-25 Oo1
_m. ccemm_ ge, o_g_, __cd, omd m@m mgo_c_.
cmc oqo gemg _mq_ggd o!mmm _e
mg Oomm_oo_. _eoom Cmdq_ggd gqgg )mm1mmgom
(rhampotheca) m@m c_ cm_. Cmd _eJm _qq_ggd g _m
_mJg_om)moo coom. _o__ o__gm J!(cere) m@m mgg Cgmd
mg coo_. ! _m omoo cm_. omoo o__ OmTo.
omoom mm_omm_ Cmd Jg _mo_m _qCcqm oo(nictitating
membrane) m@m Ommmce_m coom. omoom mmq_m g _m
Oomg_om)moo cm_. _o coomo Oomm_d g___oom.
_mc o_g_ cm_. __cd mgd Tm __oo_m
omdo_m coom. ccum mm _md Omm_ogo_g _om
(cloaca) _gmg Ogmc!__ omdmgm coom. omd mgd
_1)m_d o)(uropygeal gland) m@m mmOm o)moo coom.
_o o)m mmOm Ommo __oo _eJmmd _mm_
mm_omo cgm.
__oo
_mmmomdoCo m_oood __ooomJoom. _gd Cmd
o, __o, o mm _m_ mgo_m_. od _m_ m)d mgoo
cm_. m_omg Cooood __omm_ ccum moomqd Z` oqmd
mqg_ _m__oo_. _mq_ggd Cmdo, __o _mm Cgmd
mg _mmcm_m _de_ _em! mcem mm_ Om!. _Cg Cmmm_
mmq_ggd Cmdo ccgcm _mm Cgmd mg
mmcm_m mm_ Om!.
mcm. 1.3.12. q_m - __od __ _mq
1md o mgmq
_) mgmq
_mo mgmq
_emd_1m
_gd _e __oo
_)mcmm _e
__oo
49
q_m m_omg Cood ccd mc omdoo gmmJm_m.
cce J)mo __g_m ood(to balance) __ooo o__ _mq_mmo
Omm_ggm_oom. omdoom Ogmcmgoo ccd
ocgg_oomoCo _m_gm_ ! J_q _mmmm. omdood
_mm m)doo cm_. _gd m)d mmCmmJoo_. omd mgd
Oogdoo _m__oom. m)doom _md oo_omoo coom.
ccum omd mg _mc omd __oomd gm_oo_.
q_ocom
__oo q_gCgmum mm_mm_oomm. _o Ogmc!__
q_mom_Jm_ _mqoo. CmdCgmud _mc __d
__oo _mom_oom. _o _m__oo Comq_
Oc11e(pterylae) mm_ Om!. _cOoomgo_ m1m(apteria)
mm_ Om!.
ccud 3 oo __oo cm_. _o __o __oo,
cm __oo, _g __oo _m.
__o __ (Quill feather)
_gm mggd ! _omgoo_. _gm Cmd mg
)mJd(rachis) mm_m Jg mg md _de_ oemmd(quill or cala-
mus) mm_m Om!. md mgm Jgq_ggd Jg _meod (inferior
umbilicus) m@m _ooo_. _gmogmo __o_omm _)gg
gdoo _gm. o__ Cmdq_ggd 1md _meod _ooo_.
_gm _Jd Ommmmm __mg(aftershaft) coo_. __ m_q
)mJud _m__oo_. _ggoo _moomm _Jo_ _goo
_de_ mm!qoo(barbs) mm_ Om!. _goCo __ m)m
_mJm_m. _goom _q_gggm mm!m_d(barbules) m@m
mcm. 1.3.13. q_m - __ _omc_
_mmcm_m
Omm)d
m mcm_m
1om1om
__o
ccd
mmd
50
_mmgo_m _o__ gm_cOmmm_ Omm_g_m OomJo_m
coom.
__od 23 __o __oo coom. _gd Cmdod
_m__oo JJ __oo _gd _e __oo mmm_m. __od
coo J2 __oo _)mcmm _e __oomm. omd mgd J2
__oo cm_. _o mJ_ oqmd _mom_oom.
cm __oo o__ J_o, Ommmmmo. _o__m
_mmgood Omm_g_m OomJoo _de. _o ccum
Oomgg mm_omm. _g __oo mo Ommmmmo.
_o ocom
m_ooom _o ocom __g mccm ogomm_.
mgmqoo@o m__ _de. _o om__md _)mm_oom. mmCo
_o___ om_O_gmqoo` mm_ Om!. me mgmqoo _m__oogmd
mgmqoom mmmo _omoCooo_. mgmqoom
gmJm ocogg_ og__J__.
m_ggd gooo
me _mg gooo __oo_cm _m__ cgJm_m.
mcm. 1.3.14. q_m - __ mooo
__o __
_g_
_g J_
mm!qm mm!_do_m
)mJd
__ m)q
1md _meod
Jg _meod
quill or calamus
Ommm __ mg
mm!qoo
_o
mm!q
mm!_d
OomJ
51
Om1cm)med 1m_!(Pect oral i s maj or) _o Omm mm!qg
gooomm. ccd mcd __gd g mm cco. _o__m
_oggmd m_ggumCmm_ __ooom Jg_om m_m_m.
Om1cm)med mm! (Pectoralis minor) _o o__ _ommm J_
gooomm. _ooom _oggmd m_ggumCmm_ __ooom
CmCe__m m_m_m. 1om)1om)mJmed(Coracobrachialis) _J_
gooo __ooo Jg_o cgJm_m.
cm Oo1mmm c_qoo
omm gmcoo mm_m_ _eoomoom. _oommd
m_oo _de. co omm g)mgd _m_g _oemm
_Comm oqo _m cm_. _mJm Cmd q_ggd gqgg Cgmgm
oo _mqo_m cm_. mmq_mmo coom _oec__
Ogmmc mgmJoo_. m_ooom omd cmg _! o)moo
_de. ogogmmm Ommo o)m _m_ o)moo om@o
coom.
mcm. 1.3.15. q_m - Oo1mmm c_qoo
cmgd
_)mm
q1)mOmmq1ed
gmm
_m J_ cd
omm
om _mom
ode)d
ode)d _mom
_em
_J
mecd
1om1)mqm
_1)mqm
q1)m1cmqm
1om1om m!om mm1J
ge
52
cmgd Ogmmc mgd _omm. Ogmmc
__g_ _mc cmgd o_g_ mgd cm_. _gd
Jgmgd _om_ gmm Cgmm_oo_. _mm oo!
1ogmmc_. _g@o Comg o)moo coom. gmmm
__g_ _)m cm_. _)m _ mgoomo _m_gm.
_mmg q1)mOmmq1ed(proventriculus) mmm_m. _gd o)m
o)moo coom. _gm_g_ _)mm coo_. _mm
oo! gqgg gooo! Oommc_. _gm cooTd gqgg Cgmd
mgoo_. _)om@o J_ o_oo coom. _oomq cmo
_m _)o cgJ__. _omgm _m g _)o md` Cmmm_
Oodm_og ommemm. _)ommg Ogmc!__ cd
mgoo_. _mcd mg U`oqo q1mqmm(duodenum) _m.
oo_g mm cdmg _em(i l eum) mmm_m. _um _q
mgd Ommcd _de_ mecemJoo_. mecd
Omm_ogo_ _o ogC Oood g___oo_.
1om1om(cloaca) m@m Omm_ogo_d _m_ J_
__o_m_. _o __C _mq_ 1om1)mqm(coprodaeum), __q_
_1)mqm(urodaeum), Jgq_ )m1cmqm(proctodaeum) _m. mecd
ComC)mqggd g___oo_. J_ _)o _mOmo _momoo
_C)mqggd _qoc__oom. m)mCcmqm Oood g___oo_.
cm mmgd J)m o)moomo ode)gm om_m
_m__oom. ode)d _ o_qo_c_. oe_ o_q OmT_, _c_
J__. ode)ud mgg_!m _de. ode)ud Cgmm_m _ mgg
_momoo C_)qmo gmggmC qCmqmggd g___oom. qCmqm
oo mgd coo omggm _momoo _m_m qCmqm
_q mgd g___oom.
ommo c_mm
m_ggg Ogmc!__ _go _omd _u_m Cgo.
_gm Om___m ood oomo c_qoo J_mmq Om__oom.
oomo c_qoomo Ooo _mJg_o, Ogmmc, )doo,
oomogd, _)m)d _m__oom.
Cmd _eJm _qq_ggd _ q_ _mJg_ooo coom. _o
_o _mJg _ooomd Ogmmc mgd g___oom. coomm
Ogmc!Jmo coo Jomqd(glottis) m@m mg Ogmmc@o
g___oo_. Ogmmcg Ogmc!__ _ogd coo_. co
oqo _ogd, o_g_ mggoo_. mm!m_d _ogd )d
gu Omcommo(syrinx) _om_oo_. _gmmm _ _o Jo
53
gdoo coom. _o _)m_m _ _)m)doo@o _gJm_m.
_ogd, Jogd _Jo__m oo__d og__m gOggmq
oomoo coom. _)m)doo@o _o Jogdoo
__gg_g_ me _mm gdoomJoom. _m gdoo _qmd mo
_mm om__g g__JoomJoom.
_)m)doo gcmmm oc_mo Cmmm_ c_qoo. _o mem
mgmqo_cm gqoom. _)m)ugoo _o Jo gdood Je
mgmqoom om___o_cm Ogmc!q Oomm_oom. _)m)do_cm
Ogmc!qc gmm_ om__ mo_m_. _o __C m
1gmomc m, 1m o_g_ moo, +1m mm!q moo m__m
1m m__ moomm. om__ moo ccd Oomgg _goTg_
ccum mc _o cgJm_m. _gmmd m_ggd mogmJ__.
ommo __
m_ooom Ooo oomom __Jmd m_Cm m_m_m.
coomom mo_. gmCm _o_m. m_omg Cooood mgmmcg
gooo, o__g gooom _oggmd mm!Omgmq oomJgg_Oom
c!ggg gmgggm_J__. m_m Cood __ooog
gmmJoo mm!Omgmqoo _omem_. __ooom Cmd-Jg
_omoomgm __Oogmmm _ooomgm m_m Cood
oomom _o_m.
_)gg o__ c_mm
q_mmm _gggd _)m_ _TJooo, _)m_
OomqTJooo mm _mm __oo coom. _gmmd _u_m Om__,
mcm. 1.3.16. q_m - _)m)gm om___o_m
_o gd
geOmq
o_g_q_ om__m
om) mgmc om___
1mdo mgmd om___
mm!q q_ om___oo
_)m)d
m__q_ om___
54
_g_g _)ggmoo _gggd oeo ommde. _gmmd m_oood
gmmoo og _)gg c_m J)oo og _)gg c_m mT__oom.
gmmoo mg _)gg cm
oe_ OomqTJod _omm _)m)d gmm _J_m _g_g
_)gggg _)m)g Oomm_ Oodgm. _c_ OomqTJod
_omm Om_gmm, ccd o__Oom me Jooomo mT__
_)gggg m_g_ Oodgm.
J)oo mg _)gg cm






mcm. 1.3.17. q_m - gmmoo
gmmoo
1)Jd gmm
mm!qg gmm
oJ1omm gmm
Om)__ gmm
Jdcm gmm
_)m)d gmm
cc_g c_gmmJg gmm
1md c_gmmJg gmm
__q_ Om_gmm
_m)d gmm
omq gmm
J__)o gmmoo
_em gmm
m momc1 gmmoo
mmd gmm
momdq1 J)
mcm. 1.3.18. q_m - J_oo
o_g_ J)
1)Jd J)
mm!q J)
_m 1omd J)
m 1omd J)
ode)doo J)
ode)d 1mm!cd J)
_em J)






"1mm)d J)
omq J)
J__)o 1mm!cd J)
co _em J)
mmd J)
55
ccd c_qoou__ 1_m _u_m _g_g _)gggg me
J)oo _ggg C_mJ Oomm_ OodJm_m. _o_q J)oo
gmJm__ _ _mOmJ)oomom ! mOmJ)mom
cOm_Jm_m. _o oe_ _TJod g__gm.
_)mqg Ogmgm
q_mmm _od _m-, _c-, mm_ooo mm _m_
mgoo Ogo_ coom. Om _o _) 1omomoo mogd
ommoq _o mgoo. _o OmT, Comooqo mgoo. _m
_m _o!J o_qoo moJ_o. Oo1Omdem(cerebellum) m@m
J__o _mCmmJ _m_oogmd cmJ"memm(diencephalon)
m@m _c_o mg m___oo_. cmJmemmm Cmd q_ggd
Jmd c_qm _qq_ggd Jg _Jm m_cT o)mmmo
_m__oom. mm!m o_qoo _om momoogoom. mm
_om _om Jg_mJ _m__oo_.
cm! c_qoo
mcm. 1.3.19. q_m - _o
1md _mq
mo _mq
_o!J o_q
Om_o
_)1omom
mm!m o_q
omed
J__o
_om
mm!m omdmm
J__o
mm!m o_q
_om
mcm. 1.3.20. q_m - om
dJo)mq g_
om!mm
_md __
_1d
Oemo
Je1 _J
Omcm
om _)mq
mggg)
1om)m_ c_
dJo)mq c_
56
q_mood _o! cm! J_q_mde. Oooom_oo _de.
Oomm_ Cgmd mgd o__ qg__ _m__oo_.
q_mmm omoo OmTo. m_ggum Cmm_ omoo
o__oo dJo)mq g_o_m omoom Cmd m)m _qCcqm
mcemo_m omoo mm_omJm_m. om g)ogg@o coo __m
_J Omcm mm_ Om!. g)mm!od Omcm cgoemm m@m
og_ cm_.
J__)o _mOmo c_qoo
q_mmm og _ c_qoo Tm J__)omoomm. _o
Jo_g, _m_ o_qo_c c_qoo. J__! _momoom ogC
gmggmmo _ J__)omo_m _C)mqggd g___oom. J_ _!m
_de. _)_m og Oomm __ggd _T _memmo
_om_J__.
o mgJ_
mg - _
cT mgeg Cg!_Og_om
J. 2002m _m_ C_m_mmdOm!Jd _c_g qm cJ mm_mqm _qmcg geq
_j gC) _m _j _m_ Omm_omm omomem
_j Ogmc!__ gmmm _m +j og Cgo m)omoo
2. _mogg Ogmc!qoo oommqud ___om_ggo!
_j m! _j emmm!
_j om!dd cm!mm +j ummd
3. _)m_ _de_ _g_ Cm_mc __mem! g cT Co_mc
Om!oomd _m_o_
_j guoqom ggg Oomd _j g Omm mmOmmg
_j mgqc Om! +j OmT_ __
mcm. 1.3.21. q_m - J__)o, _mOmo c_qoo
J__)om
J__! _mom
m__ o)
m__ _mom
1om1om
m__ m
mecd
_mc _mom
_mc _mom
_mc _mo qmd
_m
Omm
_mc o)
57
4. Jg Oom_omcoood Cmmu cc_g Oommco mo
_j gcq_oo _j oog goq_oo
_j Omdgcuoo +j co q_oo
5. ___ Cm))o Commmqd _cm Om)mgo
_j _ooo _j o)doo _j _m gmo)moo +j mmqTmoo
. JgOom_omcoood _)gg q_ m_
_j JdCcmCcmmm _j qmm Comum _j CmJCmem +j _dCoTd
7. m_gg Ogmgd _gm_gud ge comom _cOm___.
_j o@omuoo _j ooggo q_oo
_j Omdgcuoo +j _gCgmuoo
8. Jgommmo__o, oogo q_oom, o@omuoom
_mmmemm ogm_J__.
_j _)mm _j o)mmm _J _j OmTCmcd +j Je_goo
0. _Cgmuoo Oommc J_q mmq
_j o_ omoo _j cc_g__ _mq
_j _mce _mq +j _! _)gg _mog Ogmq
J0. mmcCmc__ cT m_
_j 1moo _j m_ooo
_j ___mm cToo +j qC)mom!Cc_oo
JJ. 1mood omcmoom ommm_m cc_ gooo _oom_ _goemm
_j mCmCcmmoo _j Omm gooo
_j mgmqg gooo +j co__qg gooo
J2. Jgommmoood mo Cgmdm__ oo om!_go
_j _ omgmoo _j m!om _j mmgqoo +j 1moo
J3. _mmCm cTood ommm_m mmq
_j_mm omdoo _j _ omgmggmm
_j _mc mcemoo +j cmm__m
J4. Jgommmoood mmgqood ommmcmg mmq mo
_j cg)mgmmm _j oe_ momgmm oo
_j mmd o)moo +j om!mdoCemom
J5. momdCmmqg Ogm__ Oommc _e m_
_j JTCcmOom _j _mqem _j dCmmC)mOom +j 1C)mOom
J. mmq_md JoOcdem mg _m__oo omcmoo
_j 5 _gd J0 _j J4 _gd J7 _j J3 _gd J8 +j 20 _gd 25
J7. mmq_mm Cm_q_ c_ ooTd ommm_m gomemm mqq
_j cg)mgmmm _j cCemComd _j mCmCcmm +j gmqqm
J8. mmq_oom c_oo! mgd ommm_m ComC)mCom_m Oodoom
mm
_j OoTggd _j og_J _j og _om +j _mOmom
J0. C)mm_d o)m, q_moom ------ mgd ommm_J__.
_j omum Cgm__m _j cmgd _j _o +j _mOmo mmcem
58
20. m_ooom _o Oommc mgmqoo
_j _Cmq _j o_ mgmqoo
_j mmcCm_ mgmqoo +j oo mgmqoo
mg - _
moJ_ mco
J. c!Comom` o)_?
2. c! oommqud g_g mm_ _Tdcmqd` _gomc om)mm m_?
3. c! oommqum mmqoo mo?
4. _o_ cToo mm_md mmm?
5. _OmCcmJd_oo Oom_m Oodoo mm_gomc om)mm m_?
. C)mComCmm!` mm_md mmm?
7. _mmCm_oo mm_md mmm?
8. Cmmm__ m!om` mm m_ooo _gomc om)mm m_?
0. mmgqoom oooo mo?
J0. m)Cm_oom mgmo_ g mmmm _m_o?
JJ. JTCcm Comom_oo` mm_md mmm?
J2. _om o_c` mm_md mmm?
J3. Oc!m mCeTm mm_md mmm?
J4. moom_ _gmoo` mm_md mmm?
J5. Omcm` mm_md mmm?
mg - _
J. __gmmm mdgT mmmm moo?
2. J_mmm _mm` m__ OooCo_ Commm_oo _m_o?
3. memJm OmT_gum _qmc mgoo m__o?
4. ggg _m gmJmq _m_, gm_g _m_` Co_m_gg
cgm)mg_cm moo?
5. Ogmg _mucm m__ _q o)o.
. qC)mom!Cc_oo m__ J_ _q m__o.
7. m)Cm_oo` m__ moo.
8. mCeTmmm oooo _m_o.
0. mmq_oom Oooq_g _ooo m__ _q m__o.
J0. q_mmm m_o cgm gooo m__ _q o)o.
mg - +
mTomm mco
J. J_mm _mm` o)_? memood mdCo_ _oo m__ m__o.
2. oommqum mdCo_ __oo m__o.
3. __ _m@ooooom Omm_mmqoo mo?
4. momdCmmqggm omgo og_J m__ m__o.
5. Oomemmm ummmm` OoogCgm__ggm moTo.
. mmq_ood _mOmo mmcem m__m _mOmo __ m__
mTomo m__o.
59
2. Ood c1d
'cTmmoo _mg_m Oodoomd _mo. Ood mmm_
cToom Ood m__m _mmm _qmc _eomm. _gm Ood
Oomoo` mmemm. _Oomoo J838 - 30d mgmd dOoucm(Mathias
Schl ei den), gCmc! domm(Theodor Schwann) mmmo!oomd
Ooocmc_.
Ood Oomood _mm _J _momoo coom.
_mg_ cToom _mqm Oodoomd _m_.
g Ood, m_O_m Oodu__ Ood mTgummd comJm__.
Oodoo _ooom oo!J, comom m__m Oodo_omm
mm)moo coocJoom.
J0 m ___mmqd Ood cTe m__ __mmm og_oo
_mCmmJ m__m c!- Cogd __oom mqmqmm oo!Jmd
comm. _m_ cTud Oodum _mm __oq gm
mTomo Ood cTd(cell biology) oo!J Om__oo_.
cTum mmmm_ _go _omd __m_oogmd Ood
cTCem_ Ogmc!qc me qg mToo Cgmm_oom. _o, Ood
oommqd, Ood m)md, Ood Ooud, Ood Cogd, _eo_
cTd, Ood C_md, Ood gd _m.
2.J. _m1mmJd
Joemm gmmooc Ood moJ_ _mmmm. _gm
J_ _mqm go m_m gmmm _gm _m@_qo_m
Oodud odg_!o_ Oodum _mmm, Oodoom
omc_ m)omoomo _m__oom. Oodum _mq,
_eo_oom _mq m__m Oodoo m__ __ me omo_m,
og__o_m como m_oom.
Oodoo _mg_m 5-500m _cmc mc _omm
Oommco. _mmd me Oodoo J0-J50m _o mcgg_o gmm
ommm_Jm_m. JdcCm _mc!C_qmd(Systemae International(SI))
_eJm mq _oggm _e
J 1c!(m) = J000 mdu1c!oo(mm)
60
J mdu1c!(10
-3
m) = J000 mC)m1c!oo(m)
J mC)m1c!(10
-6
m) = J000 C_Cmm1c!oo(nm)
J C_Cmm1c!(10
-9
m) = J000 mCom1c!oo(pm)
_mdcm)mm() mmm_ J0
-J0
m
_ooe Oodmceggm mmm m__m OmT _eo_oom
_oo _mg_ cmCmom_gg m_J__.
Ommoo c__ C_mm mmgmm omo_ g _mc
_o gmm Co_m_g_m g_m coo_. _gg_m mog Co_m_ggd
g_m(l ) mmemm. __ O_ommm _qooo_ _cmc
mo_J _cOoo om@ogmm. mmgmm omoom
Co_m_ggd g_m0.Jmm _de_ J00m _m. _gmmc __g
_cOoo _mm omm _em_. mmCo moJ_ Ommoo
mm!mg_ _m c! Co_m_ggd g_m Oommc cmo)mmoo
Cgom_J__.
cOmm gmm mmm_ Co_m_g_gd g_mu__
Co_mc_ cOmom mmm_ Ommo _oo _gm mmmggd
OmTgmJ ommmgmm. Co_m_g_m g_m _goTommd
cOmogg m_m _goTggmd mmmmmm_ Ogoo__gmog
Cgmm_m. mmgmm omo_ cOmm gmm _de.
J050d m)mmJd C_mOom(Francis Janssen) m__m ooTmd
C_mOom(Zachari as Janssen) _JCm! _gm _gud o_
_mCmmJ comJmm!oo. _gd J0X m__m 30X cOmm
gmm Oommc _)m_ Oemdoo __gm. ouuCm ouu (Galileo
Galilei 1564-1642) mmmo! mo _mCmmJ comJ, _Joom
o_omoo _)m_gm!. _o)_ _mCmmJd gC) g
cOmo Oemd Ommggmq_g_. mm!OoCem mmdm_ (Marcello
Mal pi ghi , 1628-1694) m@m _ggmu _m co__mmmd
_)mJmo! _mCmmJ cmCmom_gg memood
gooo _)mJ Oogm!. )mm! _ (Robert Hooke)m@m _mJCe
_mCmmJ _)mJmo! J5d gmm comJ o_
_mCmmJmd goggomm Omdu mgm _)m_gm!.
gom gomd Cgmo_ Cmmd coo Oodo_ Ood` mm_
OmTcm!.
_mcm omm eom _m [J32-J723j (Anton Van Leeuwenhoek)
_mCmmJd g)m c!ggmc Oemd cmCmom_ggmm!.
_oc _mCmmJm cOmogg_m 300X. coo
61
gmOodoo _o! _gud _)m_gm!. Cmgm o_ _mCmmJm
g)m oo!J__gmmd Ood cTd Cmmmm_ _c__oo_.
o_ go _m1mmJ
___mCmmJood, Ommoo go)Ooog_omo, go
cmCmJom_J__. _gd coo ommmq mqoggmd _m Oemooo
Ommom cogg OmTgmJ mg_ c__ C_mmoTm
ommm O)qmmmd mgOoJm_m. _gd _)m_ Oemooo
coc__ gum _mmgood coom. c__C_mm Ommom
_Jd ommm_m Oemd Ommo Oemd mmm_m. om@
_Jmd coo Oemd, omm Oemd mmm_m. Jg__ om
gom _emmo Ommo go)m_J__. _oOomo Cgmm_m
_cgg_m, Omm_m _cmd _m_mo_ gommmm Oemo
_m__oo_. __ go Ommom Cmd m cgJ__.
mqe _o _m1mmJ (Dark field Microscope)
_ooo _mCmmJoom cgmmd mmTmoo
Ogo_ mm!oemm. _gd coo J_mmm mmmm Ommom ogmo
om goog!ood Jg_m goog!oo m_m Ommo
Oemo _@m mmmgg comJ__. _gm moomo comm
mmmmoo _o qeggd moOom_ OgTm. mmmm Ogoggmm
_gom Oommc_. T goo__d gooo mgm_ Cmmm_ mo
Cgmm_m.
mcm.2.1.1. mmm emm _mJm mo _m1mmJ
Oemd
Ommo gmmJ
o1Oom g
_mmog 1gm__m
momm_g 1gm__m
mm!mm1m
om
62
m)q 1m_m_m _m1mmJ (Phase contrast Microscope)
___mCmmJd Ommo Oemo m__m mmmm
gmmJoo J_mmo Ommggm_oom. _gmmd Ood co Ommoom
_mq Co_mm_oo mogOgoomo om_Jm_m. _gmmd c!
Oodum co ommm_m _mqoo omm m__mmd mogOgoomo
_go Co_m_g_m g_Cmm_ ommemm. ___mCmmJd
c__C_mogmmd, Oodoo OomdeCom m__m omm m__Com
Cgode.
mmOm mg _m1mmJ
___mCmmJd go CooTm Ommo OemJm
mmm _goTmg_omo de_m Ommo Oemom _cd
mmOm oom_oo_. __g __ _)_g)mmo mgm_ggmc
dOmJmmoo c__C_mo mmm_gg m_J__. mmOm og om@m
Oemooo _gog g_m Oommc Ommo Oemooo omqgm
oq cOmm gmm Oommco.
mmm@ _m1mmJ
3 _o Cmmm_ __g Co_m_ggd _ooo _omc,
mo__g _e_om Oommc mmm@oo, mmm@
_mCmmJd mm m_ggm_Jm_m. _oOmJd 20,000
_gd J00, 000 Comd c! mm_ed ! cCemo oo
Oomm_g_m Cmm_ comm mmm@ _eoo o_m_gg
m Oo mmom_g oooo om_g Oemomo mmm_Jm_m.
mmm@oo omm Comq Ommom ogmo Oogg_m
Cmm_, m_m Oooom mmm@oo, Ommo mmom_g oo
[Oemoj m OoJ__. oo [Oemoj cOmom Ooogmd
_qmd mmmmmm_ g)d Cgmm_J__. _gm qomc ood
mg og_ o) mcmmog gm! Ooemm. _ooo mmm@
_mCmmJ, ocg_m mmm@ _mCmmJ(Transmission electron
microscope - TEM) mmm_m.
o_ go _mCmmJd m_m_m mmmm om@m Ommo go
m__ Oomo_m mggg Ommg_ Cgmm_m. mmm@
_mCmmJd comm mmmmoo Ommom mgoo mmm@o
Jg_ Oom __ Ommggo. Ommom mmm m__m
_c!gg Ommg_ mmm@ Jg_um _o mm_m_m. mmCo
mmm@ _mCmmJmd ommm_m Ommoo mo Omdugmo
_o Com_m. +)mmm coo Oodoo mmm@ _mCmmJmd
omm _em_.
63
mmm@ _m1mmJmd om@m Ommo gm!m_g_gd
_gud Oodoo _de_ gooo Oomm_ Cog
Ommoommd c!_e CmmmC_ _em_g_gd Com_m. mm
_o__ O)Jm mcoggd qgg_, 2 m mm@ _omog
_mcmJ Omdu go_oomo Com_m. ! gmm) goqm Cmd og_
mmm@ _c!Ommoomd omCm__ Com_m. ce!_g gmm)g go_cm
omCm__ _m_ mgoo mmm@ _mCmmJd oo
Com_m.
d1omm mmm@ _m1mmJ (SEM)
_gm Co_m_g_gd g_mmm_ ocg_m g_m
_mCmmJ(TEM) mc_omm_ (>200) __g Cmmggm
Ommom Cm_q_ mgoo omc_og_ __ moJ__g
o mm
Oemd
O m m o
Oemd
1mc
m m m m
Oemd
cmdcm
_ g
mo
cOmm
Oemd
gom g)
1om)m
mm!mcm
O m m o
gmmJ
1o1gm c_
cmdcm _g
_1mm
mmmm Oemd
O m m o
Oemd
Ommo
mmm
mmm@ _m1mmJ
mcm.2.1.2. cOmJm mgo_m, goOodgm mmgm g_gd
go _m1mmJ
mmm
Ommo
64
omgmmmm. mmm@ og)md Ommo __mmo dCom
Oom_J__. Ommom Cm_m)md m___ m)gmuom_m
mmm@oomd mmmm comJ__. ___mCmmJmd Ogoomm
m__m _mTmmm mmmgg ommemm.
2.J.2. Oodeem cggoo
Oodemm_ go m_m gmmcm ommmg_
Ogoommgmo coo_. _gm C_)qmoCom _de_ mgm_ggCm
c__ C_moemm. C_)qmo ommmg_ Oodu@o mm_mc go qm
gmmoo Com_m. ommoom mmmmcmd Oodoo C_)qmo _
Oo _qm.
_J ommoo
coo Oodoo OomdemcmmCe Je ommoo m__
Oomo_Jm_m. ommoo Oodum co c_qoo _ooom
oo!Jg mm__m m__m Oodoomd mmgmcmmd __m m__Jm_m.
cgm)mmmo C_md mo-B (Janus green-B), mCcmommTm,
Comdo c_qoo omCm__m. 1gum _em (Methylene blue), mTm
Oodoom co C)mCmmqm _g omCm__J__. +d_
Oodoo _)d Joq (Neutral red) _de_ ommCom Joq(Congo red)
ommoo __Cm__Jm_m.
gooo mgm_g_gd m__m om1m__gd
_mCmmJm _em goood coo Oodoo m__
__mmo ____ Oomoog_ gooo me gmTq _eo_
cm_ggm_Jm_m. ommmqg _mcggm Cmd Ommo gm!
Ooog_ Oomdggd, _em_g_gd, omCm__gd m__m mgggd
_J _eoo coom.
J. Oomdggd m__m _em_g_gd(Killing and fixation)
_Ooummd Oodoo _de_ gooo gO)m Oomdem_
ccCm mgm_ggm_m. _gmmd c!_e Cmmm_ _mmCeC Ood
ommm_m. _de _em_ggoo(fixative) mmTmmmmd m_m_m
__gd m__m _Ccmeud Cmmm_ _ogoog gm!m.
Oodoom mdCo_ co c_qoog Ogoomo ommmg_m Oodoo
omCm__ggm _o gm! Oom. _Jq _mem, mm!mmdq__
Cmmmd o)od m__m om!mmd g)om Cmmm_o Omm_omo
mmm_m _em_ggoo _m.
65
2. _! Omo1__gd(Dehydration)
___ogJd Oodoo _de_ goood coo _!
CogOmmoo _em OooC__m_J__. mggmmd m__m OmmJm
Cmmm_ooo _Ooud +_m_Jm_m.
3. qgggd(Embedding)
cJ mm)mm Om_ goo_o Oogggm_ mm om
Cmm_ goo_ oqmg gmmm c_gm Jcmgmd _mcmom
mogmJ__. mmm@ _mCmmJood cmCmJo mo Omdu
_m_oo Cgom_ogmmd momdq Ommo qgggg
cmCmJom_J__.
4. _mcmgd(Sectioning)
qgggg cmc Ommoo Cgomm _omd _mcmo
mc Com_m. _g_omo mC)mCcmm(mi crot ome) m@m omgmm
cmCmJom_J__.
5. om 1m__gd
_m_oo ommood _gJ m_om_m Omm__ omCm__gd
Je mgood m__ mgoo omqgm _m _cOm_J__.
cgm)mmmo _CmJm(Eosin) _em oCcmmomom _om JommJ__.
_mcmdum(haematoxylin) _de_ Joq oe_g Co)mmm (Red with
safranin)coo _e__mmo omCm__J__.
. _! Omo1__gd(Dehydration)
om Cm__mc _m_oo mggmmud _go og_ _Tm
OooC__emm. gooo __o_m go m_m gmm Oommcgmo
mm_m_m. _! OooC__gd J)mo _cOm_m Cmm_ _Td mggmmum
_c!mm J)mo c!gg OommCc Oode Com_m. _qmd
_m_oo _doomud(absolute alcohol) CmmcCom_m.
7. mgggd(Mounting)
ogg m_ggmc _m_oo ommmq _mcggm Cmd mg
omg_ omcm mmdom(Canada balsam) mm_ Ommggmmm mcom
mmm_ggm_J__. _gmCmd ommmq Omm goqmmd(cover slip)
_qmmm mcoOmmo ce) oo Com_m.
66
2.2.J. omdmm mcem
_mcem, _mg_ Oodoogm q_ mdemo _m__oo_.
__ mo Omdu, 1ogmmc coo mcemmm. __ J_mmm
Cg!_Og_g_ ocg_m g_mmo _m__oo_.
momdmm mcem mo Omdu_. mmCo _gm me)mm
_mCmmJ _emmoggmm omm_qm. _gm _mmm omc_
Oodud ___ _gmg gmmo mTgOg_g_ c! Cogd
Comgmoo mmm_ggemm.
J805d o!cmm(Overt on) mmmoTm o__mq _mcem
Oom_q Ommoomd _m_ mmogmc_. mm o_g
mcm.2.1.3. mmm@ _m1mmJd mem Oodem mmg1 _mq
omdmm mcem
1omdo c_q
co c_
m_mmm mm1cmomo me
oqm mm1cmomo
me
co
m1cmomm1m
Om!_u1omm
co mm
Oom11md
e1om1omm
mcm.2.2.1. 1cme-1cmomm mmg1-Ood mcem
Oom_q mcemoo
q)g c_
q)g c_
67
_)mJmo!oom _qmm mq Ood mcemoo _)m_ Oom_q
__oomd _mo mm omc_m_oo_.
J035d Ccmu(Danielli) m__m Ccoom(Davson) OgTmgg,
mmgT oqoggm mq Ood mceggd _)m_ mo_m q)gmoomd
gmc Oom_q __oo cm_.
J00d )mm!um(Robertson) mmmo! me)mm _m o)mc
cgmcm _emce 1ommmqm o_mm!. _Commmqmmq
Oooq_ q)g __oo 2 nm mmmmo coom. _ooo Ogoomm
3. 5 nm mm@oo Oom_q mg mggd Oomm_oom.
_Oom_q mg mmdCmmum_ _eo_oomd _m_.
J072d Ooomm umo!(Si nger) m__m _Oomdom
(Ni chol son)mmmo!oom og_mq momdmm mcegg_omm
g)mggmm ocmq`(fluid mosaic model) coom Cgmm___.
_o_ooggmmq momdmm mcem g_m Om__ _mqc_.
_oommd Ommmmemm q)g _eo_oo mg__Oomm_m Je
Oodum co coo Ood _m@_qoo m__Oomm_m
ommm_Jm_m. Oom_q _eo_o_m _om gmm cco.
_mmmgT mcem mdem c! mcemo_m m_qc g Omm_omm
_mmmm.
Ood mcemmm_ Oodum coCo _de_ OooC Oodgm
Ommoom _omoo o_m_g_J__. _! m__m _gd
o)__oo Ommoom co-Ooo _ogdoom o_m_g_J__.
_mceggm ogmo _! oo__ m)gd _emmom _Td o)__oo
Ommoo m_od _de_ Ood m ocggd _emmom
OodgJm_m. _Td o)m me o)Ommoo q)g _eo_oo _em
ocggm_Jm_m. Oom_md o)m Ommoo Coommo
mmdCmmum mceggd o)__ co OodgJm_m.
mcm.2.2.2. g)mggmm ocmq mmg1 Ood mcem
Ood c_
e1mmq)g _ mcem
Oomedq)md
um1om e
mmd1mm e
J o 1 o m
e
Jo1om q)gm
68
2.2.2. m1cmomm1m
c! memoo m__m gmo)moom Oodood ommm_m
_g _de_ _oooo Cmmm_ _m@_qoo mCcmommTmoo
_m. _ooo _m@Toomm _domoo, qC)mCcmComomoo
m__m _ooogm ommm_Jm_m.
Comuo!(Kol l i ker) J850d oTggo Oodood _g_oo
_mm _gud omc__gm!. Ommcm(Benda,1897-98) mmmo! _g_
mCcmommTm mm OmTcm!. mCcmommTggd
_cOm_m JoComeJum mdCo_ _eoo O_!mm c!
Cogd _)mJmo!oo mmcm(Embden) m__m
Cm!_m(Meyerhof) om_mqggm!. _g_omo J022d mmcm C_mmd
mTo Om__m!. J037d o! C_md _cmd J)d(Sir Hans Adolph Krebs)
JT _me og_J omc__gm!. Oommq(Kennedy) m__m
Oemm_!(Leninger) J048-50d mCcmommTggd _cOm_m
JT _meog_J, _uo)m mmdCm m__m m__m Oom_q _me
_uo)mm _Jo__ moJm!.
! Oodum mCcmommTmoom mmmo _Oodum
oo m__m Oodoo Omm_gg_. Je Oodood
mCcmommTmoo _gommo ommm_m. [ cgm)mmj ocd
_!Jmm _mcggd J40,000 _gd J50,000 o)ommm_Jm_m.
_omgmoom _mcggd 300,000 mCcmommTmoo coom.
mum ode)d Oodood 500-J00 mCcmommTmoo coom.
Je _dom Oodood gC) g mCcmommTm ommm_m.
mCcmommTmoo _g _de_ _oooo _mq
Oommco. _gm _o 0.5m _gd 2.5m cco. moJ_gmo
_u1ommoo
mcm.2.2.3. m1cmommq1mmm _m1mmmg 1gm__m
1m1d
J1d1c _cOmo

J1d1c
J1dcm
Omomcem
co mcem
J 1 d 1 c
_cOmo
69
coogmd _gm o_ _mCmmJmd omm _em_.
mCcmommTmo o__ _)m_ Cmmmc mcemoo coom.
Ooomcem m_omo ommm_m. _g_m comcegg_m coo
_cOoo -8nm. comcemmm_ oo__ O_o__ ommm_m.
_gmmd comm mqqoo JTdCc(cristae) mmm_m.
mCcmommTmmd _)m_ mcemoo _mgmd comcem
mCcmommqT _cOoo _)m_ __oomo mTJm__.
Oooq_m coo __, Cmdq_ mCcmommT _cOoo mmm_m.
__ Ooo m__m co mcemo_ _cmc mgmm. co
__d _c!ggmm ogm mCcmommTd CmTd _)mm
coo_. _gd Oom_q, q)gm m__m oc DNA _eo_oo coom.
Ooomcem, comcem, mcemo_ _cd coo _cOoo
m__m CmTd mgood me O_mgoo ommm_Jm_m. _o__md
mCcmommTmoo Oodoom me _J Oodood +_m_Jm_m.
_o, _uo)mm, _)_m OooC__m, _uo)m mmdCm
m__m m__m oomo omJu _m.
mCcmommTmoo, om!Cmm_C) m__m Oom_q
Ommoom _uo)mggd _J mm oJmgmd _o__
Oodoom cmmmm oomo c_qoo mmemm. __g c! _uo)m
_ogmm Cmm_ _go _o og Ooocm_J__. _og
mCcmommTmmd _qCmmom q) mmdCm _de_ ATP oo
como mmm_J__. _Ooummd mCcmommTm Oodoom
og _emoo mmm_m. mem Oodood 05% ATP _eo_oo
mCcmommTm comJ__.
2.2.3. )1mm1ommoo
)CmmCommoo J_, _c!ggmm, cmc oqmd, _oooo
_mqco. _oood )Cmm_o q)gm ommm_J__.
_ooo mCcmommTm, momomomoo m__m oCcmmomom
mcm.2.2.4. m1cmommq1m
gmm) Ood
mem Ood
70
_Jo__m CmTud gmmo ommm_Jm_m. mmCcmmomo
oe m__m comd gqOomm_m ommmcemm.
)CmmComm m__ _gud moom _oggo! _. _.
mmeCc(G.E Paladae-1952). J058d _!. m. )mm!d(R.B. Roberts) mmmm!
_g_ )CmmComm mm_ OmTcm!.
)CmmCommoo, qC)mCoTm m__m CoTm Oodood
ommm_Jm_m. q)g Co!o J_mmo _cOm_m __g Oodood
)CmmCommoo mmCcm momooemcemoom Cmd gq
Oomm_oom. _Oodoo Coommo _cOm_m Oodoo om
Oodoo, momdmm Ood, ode)d Oodoo, mgmq Oodoo, oCmueT
o)md coo J)dOodoo, _)md coo _J o)moom
Oodoo, g)m_ Oodoo m__m mmdo)m Oodoo _m.
)CmmCommoo cmc oqoggd, J50 _gd 250 mcm
cco. goOom )CmmCommgm _)m_ mgoo coom. g
mg OmT oeo oqom cc_. m__ mg J_gmom OmT mgm
Cmdq_m Ogmm Cmmm_m ommm_J__.
)CmmCommooR.N.A [)Cmm_o _memj m__m q)gmoomd
_mo. )CmmCommm RNA(r.RNA), q)g Co!od _J mm
oJJm__. )CmmCommm q)gmoo r.RNA m Oodo_ JTm
mJoom Oodm_Jm_m. r.RNAOodoo o_m_g_o_ m)q
om)moomm.
2.2.4. _oomo me- mm1cmomo me
me)mm _mCmmJm ogmo Oodum _ Oo_g
Cgm__ggm _)mm Cmm_ _mTmmm Cgm__ggd ommm_m oe
Cmmm_ coc__ gdoo Jdc!Cm mmm_m. _ooo Oodum co,
mcm. 2.2.5. )1mm1omm
_mmgoo
71
mcemoomm. _ooo _omomoggd _gommo ommm_ogmd
_o__m _omomooe _de_ mmCcmmomo oe mmemm. J053d
Cmm!c! (portar) _OmTm ogmJmm!.
mmCcmmomo oem _m Oodo_ Oodoo mm_m_
ommm_J__. _)gg Jom@oo, _mc Oodoo m__m o_e
Oodood _ooe _mq ommm_ogde.
c!Cog mmoo o_m_g_m O_mgoo comm
mmCcmmomo oem Oooq_ggd _go mmmod
)CmmCommoo ommm_Jm_m. _gmmd _o _oooo Oommc
_mmm Om_Jm_m. _ooe oqm (rough) mmCcmmomo
oe (RER) mmemm. R E R q)gm comm _cmmm. )CmmCommoo
_demg mmCcmmomo oe m_omm (smooth) mmCcmmomo oe
[ SER) mmm_m. _o um_oom oo!Jg mm__ggd mm
OomoJm_m.
q_ _mmd mmCcmmomo oe _m_ _mqoo
Oommc_. _o g_oo(Lamellar), mgoo(Vesicular), gdoo (Tu-
bular) _mqoo _m.
mcm.2.2.6. mm1cmomome
oqm mm1cmomo me
m_mmm mm1cmomo me
co
)1mm1omm
mm1cmomo mem __
72
g_oo _de_ Jdc!1m
_o _mc, gcmm, m oqo _mqco. _gm mcm
40-50m. R.E.Rd _ooo O_mg gmTm mmd +_m_Jm_m.
Omm_omo _o omm ___mm m__m _)mq Oodood
ommm_Jm_m.
mgoo
_o _oocmmm, cooc_oo _mqoo. _ooom mcm
25-500m. Omm_omo mdem Oodoogm ommm_m.
gdoo
_o Jo Cmmm_ _mq Oommco. g_oo m__m
mgo_cm Co!__ oe _mmg gJm_m. _ooom mcm
50-J00m. _o mdem Oodoogm ommm_Jm_m.
mmoo
J. _o Oodo_ ocommo coom.
2. oo__ m)gd, m_od m__m Ood m ocggd _J
Oodmm_oo _em _eo_oo mTmm__m OoJm_m.
3. oo!Jg mm__gg o_m_g_m O_mgoo
comJm_m.
4. Oodum co, Ommoo ocg_og_ _o cgJm_m.
5. Oodo_ co, cm!oeoo ocg_Jm_m.
. Ood mTggmm, Ood mcem como cgJm_m.
7. m_omm mmCcmmomo oe(SER) um_oog
gmTJ__.
2.2.5. 1omdo c_qoo
_ggmu _)mmd _qm! ComCem ComdJ(Camillo Golgi) J873d
Comdo c_qoo omc__gm!.
Comdo c_qoo Omm_omo mdem mem Oodoogm
ommm_Jm_m. Jom@ Oodooggm) m_ mem Oodood g
Comdo c_q m_m ommm_m. Je Oodood me Comdo c_qoo
ommm_Jm_m.
_mg_ q_mc m__m _omc Oodoogm _o
com_m q_ mdem _cd ommm_Jm_m. _)mq
Oodood _o coo o__ ommm_m.
73
Comdo c_qoom _e, Jdc!Cm mmm_m. g
Jdc!Cmm mcm J m. _ooo mceggmd gm_
_cOooood o)q _! Oommco. Jdc!Cmoom Ogmq,
__oomo _m__oo_. goOom __Jm _cOoom _o
20-30nm. g Ogmgmm Jdc!Cmoo, qqCmComm(dictyosome)
mmm_m. Comdo c_mmm_ gdoo, mgoo, Jdc!Cm Cmmm_
oooo gmC_m_ gm_ _m__oo ! Joemm _mmmm.
Comdo c_q, c!Cog Ommoo comm _cmmm.
_ooo mmCcmmomooe comm q)gm, Oom_qoom m__
Ommoom ComJm_m.
2.2.. e1om1ommoo
_o mceggmd gmc _mm mgoo. eComComm, Ood
co OoTmmmggd +_m_J__. _Jmmo Ood co ommm_m
Cgodem, _g!Jc_g Ood _m@_qoo _gJm__.
eComCommoo _gud 'cog _c! c_qoo mm
_gomcm. J055d J.q. qCo(C.D. Duve) _g_ eComCommoo
mm_ OmTcm!. mdem mem Oodoogm eComComm
ommmcmgm, mmgqoom Jom@ood _o ommm_ogde.
go Oodood _ooom mmmo mo_. mmggu
Oodoo m__m o)m Oodood _gm mmmo _gom.
mcm.2.2.7. 1omdo c_q
o)q mgoo
oqm mm1cmomome
mcemmmg g_oo
74
eComCommoo cmc oqom cco. _g@o
_c!ggmm Ommooo ____oom. eComCommoom _mqm,
_c!ggm mm_m_ ommm_J__. _ooom _o 0.2 _gd 5m
_m.
eComCommd ommm_m OoTmmm O_mgoom mmmo
_m_m_ o) coo_ mm _)mJd omc___oom!.
_gd ommm_m Omm_omm O_mgoo, qC)mqCd, _oCd,
JoComoCcd, uCmd, mmdCmmuCmd, mmdmCcd m__m
odmCcd _m. eComCommoo, Comdo c_mmu_Cgm _de_
C_)qmo _omomo oeu_Cgm Cgmm_Jm_m. _gd ommm_m
O_mgoo Oodum coCo _de_ OooC ommm_m Cgo__
_de_ Jg_g OmT _eo_oo, Jgmg_Com _de_
OoTmg_Com cgJm_m. cgm)mmmo, g mem Ood cmmg
_emmo cmo coCo Oomm_ omCmm_ _ommg ccm
_m__ cmmm O_mgoo _emmo [ OoTJm_mj
_oooomJ__. _ggoo O_mgoo om!Cmm_C), Oom_q m__m
q)gmoo OoTo OoJm_m. Je J)m c_qood coo o)moo,
J)m O_mgoo Oood Oogg_og_ _m eComCommood Co!g_
og_oom. g Ood _g!Jmmd ____ m_m Cood
_Oodud coo eComCommoo cc__ _Oode __mmo
J)mg_ m_Jm_m. _Ood gmmC Oomdggd _de_
_CcmeJd(autolysis) mmm_m.
mcm.2.2.8. e1om1ommm Oodmm_oo
e1om1omm
g c O m m o
cOoded
Oo1ggd
Omo1__gd
Ooe__ _m@_q
1omdo c_qoo
_oomgd
75
Om!_u1ommoo
_o g mceggmd _m cmc oqo _m@_qoo.
_ooo qC)mCcmComom, _ooo, gmo)moo, __Oogmmoom
ode)d, J__)om _Jo__m Oodood ommm_Jm_m. _o___
J0d J.q. qCo(c.de.Duve) m__m m. mm_m(P. Baudhuin) _JCm!
Om!_uComm mm OmTcm!.
Om!_uCommd ommm_m CocCed(catalase) m@m O_mg
gm momm _)_m Om! _uoc gmo__ _! m__m
_u_mmo mm__J__. oo!Jg mm__ggm Cmm_ comm
_)_m Om! _u_ g gm momm _uo)
om)mmm.
2.2.7. Oom11mdoo
comm _Jd coo _ co oqo _mm gd
_mqoCo OomTCmdoo mmm_m. OomTCmdoo, oog
_de_ _ _gcm Ogmc!q Oommq_gmd _gm _qgg)o c_q
_de_ Cmod mmq(basal body) mmemm.
OomTCmdoo Omm_omo mem Oodoo, _dom Oodoo
m__m Je Om)m Oodood m_m ommm_Jm_m. _ooo
qC)mCoTCm_oo, Joq _domoo, +d Oodoo, _m gmo)moo
m__m oog _de_ _ _g Oommc qC)mCcmComomood
ommm_ogde.
OomTCmdoo 0.J5 _gd 0.25m mc_m, 0.3 _gd 0.7m
_o_m cc_.
goOom OomTCmd _de_ _qgg)o c_mgm gmm_ J_
gdoo q_ mded ocmmo om _cOood _m__oom.
goOom J_ggm _m_ _m gdoo Oommco. J_ gd gm_m
mcm 200-20. _J_ gd, _mq q)gmmJ qqum(tubuline)
um _eo_o_cm Co!_g _mmmm.
Ogmco omemood qg OomTCmdoo, m_omCo coo
OomTCmdoo mTogmmd comJm_m mm ogmc_.__g
og_ _go omem _eomde. qg OomTCmdoo
comJm_m(de novo) _de_ m_omCo coo OomTCmdoo
Oomm_ m)g m_om_J__.
me mem Oodood OomTCmd, OomC)mCommm _J
qoomm. OomC)mCommoo mcmJd OodmTgum _c_ed
76
oCcmmomo _mgdoo _mmgmd _ _o_moo
comJm_m. OomTCmdoo, _qgg)o c_q m__m __goo
cmcmJm_m. m_g@md OomTCmd omd _g
cmcmJ__. Cmgm __g, omd _goom _ogggm
+_m_J__.
2.2.8. co
Oodoom mo _Jmmm _m@_q co. __ Oodum
oo!Jg mm__m m__m m)md Oodoo o_m_g_J__. J833d
_)mm! m)m(Robert Brown) coo _gud om_mqg_oom!.
J803d g. O_!m (O. Hertwig) co mcem coo_ mmmgm
Ooom_ggmm!.
CoTmq Oodo_c mdem gmo), mem Oodoogm
co ommm_J__. _mmgm CoTmq oo om!_g Je c!
gmo)mood coo odec gdoo, mmgqoom _)gg
Jom@oo _Jo__d co ommm_ogde.
Omm_omo Oodoo g co(mono nucleate)cm ommm_m
_o g__ co Oommco mmm_m. mm@m Je Oodood
gm__m Cmd cooo ommmcemm. _gmmq _)c co
Oommco (binucleate) _de_ me co Oommco(polynucleate)
mmemm. me co Oommc mem Oodoo _m Ood mmm_m.
[cgm)mm: mgmq Oodj
comm _mq cmc, _o ocm, _de_ g_oqom
ccgmo _oemm. Je Oodood cooo g_mo__ com
cco.
comm _mc _o 3-25m _m. comm _o,
oCcmmomo _om_ C_! mJgggd _m__oo_. comm
_o _gd ommm_m C)mCmmCommoom mmmo _de_
Ogmg Omm_gg_. C_om_ Oodum co qom_ Oodum
coo omqgm J__.
comm o__ co c_ coo_. _o _)m_
mcemoomd 5-J0nm mmm cco. co comcem, c_mmd
gmmom_oogmmd _gm co Cemmm(nuclear lamina) mmemm.
co comcegg o__ Ooo comcem coo_. _)mq_m
_cd coo Ooo co mceg(perinuclear space) mmm_m. _o
J0-50nm _oem Oomm_ g)oggmd _)mmc __mm.
77
co Cemmm q)gggmd _m oe Cmmm_ mg. _o
moJ_mmm _mqco.
co c_md ommm_m _ooo cog_ooo
mmm_m. g _om mcm J0nm _gd J00nm o) coo_.
cog_ooo, co mceggm m)momd m__ 5 _gd J5
m_om_ Oommco. co c_ _emmog Ogmc!Jmo Oodgm
_eo_oo _g_ooo ogmoggmm OodgJm_m.
comd _)mmc Ogoomm, ogm mg comomom
(nucl eopl asm) mmm_m. C)mCmqm _goo, comm
Cmmm_ooo co momoggd coom. comomom _oCm
q)gm, q)gmoo, O_mgoo m__m gm_ cqoo Oomm_oom.
co momoggd ommm_m omc _goo Cmmm_
_mqoo C)mCmqm _goo mmm_m. _ooo Ood mTgum
Cmm_ mmmmJ gcmm C)mCmmCommmo mm_Jm_m.
_C)mCmqm _goo q _u)Cmm _o _mem (DNA)m__m
q)gmoomd _mo.
com@o gm_ _de_ me cmcmm, Oomemcd[ogmj
_mqoo coom. _o commoo mmm_m. commm
_o _ooom Oodmmqm Ommgg_. _gm mmmo
Oodood gm_, _)m_ _de_ _mmomo ommm_m. Cogd
_mmd commd, comm comm DNA, _mm
RNAoooo, 70 oomm )CmmCommm q)gmoo, RNAo
mcm.2.2.10. TEM d comm 1gm__m
mcm.2.2.9. co
cog_o
co omom
co mm
co c_
78
_mm q)gmmm __oCed m__m RNAOo_m __oCm
q)gmoo coom.
)CmmCommm _mmg comm comJ__.
)CmmComm comoggd coo Ogmco _e, oo!J _e, _g!J
_e _Jo commm _m_ OooCo_ mgood
_cOm_J__.
1)m1mm1ommoo
Ood mTgum Cmm_ C)mCmqm _goo g_mJ
C)mCmmCommoomJm_m. _ooo gmmmoCo _)qmcm gmmm
m)mmoggd _J mmqm oJJm_m. C)mCmmComm J842d om!d
_mu(Karl Nagli) mmmo! gmo) Oodood _gud omc__gm!. J873d
m. Oomc!(A. Schneider) Ood mTgum Cmm_ C)mCmmCommoom
Oodoo moJmm!. J887d Ommcm(Benden) m__m CmmoT(Bovery)
C)mCmmCommoom mmmo gC) _mggd ommm_m cTood
mm_mgm mm omc__gm!. J022d q.m. mm!om(T.H.Morgon)
m__m m. _de!(H. Muller) mmmo!oo mg_Jd coo _mm
C)mCmmCommood 2000 o) m)m@oo coom mm omc__gm!.
J024d _)mm! mdO_m(Robert Feulgen) mmmm! C)mCmmCommoo
DNA md _mo mmmgm ommmggm!.
g _mc _mgg om!_g cTood C)mCmmCommoom
mmmo mm_mgm. _mOodoomm m__ m__m _mcmood
g Ogmg C)mCmmCommoo ommm_Jm_m. _gm C_om_
Ogmg(n) mmemm. cc_ Oodood _)m_ Ogmg _de_ _Cmmm
coo_. _o qom_ Ood mmm_m. mmd _mOmoggd
C_om_ _e Oommc _m m__m Omm _mOodoo
_mogmmd qom_ _e m_m_J__.
C)mCmmCommoom mmmo
omgm)mOm! __md Om! 1)m1mm1ommoom
mmmo
J. m)CmJm m. _C)um 30-40
2. _)m _. odCoTd 32
3. m_ + mdom OcmOmdqom J2
4. mg_J qC)mCommdem 8
5. q_m Oomemmm umm 80
. OomTdem OomTdem OomTdem 48
7. mmgm C_mCmm Comm 4
79
C)mCmmCommm _omm mcmJd Ood mTgum ___e
(metaphase)d _omcCmm_ _gm _o 0.25m _gd 30m o)
coo_.
goOom _egm C)mCmmCommm _mq mm_m_J__.
goOom C)mCmmCommgm _gm _oomJd ommm_m g
Ogoomm mg OomC)mm! _de_ omCcmCom! mmm_m.
_OomC)mm! C)mCmmComm _)m_ mgoomo mTJ__.
goOom mgm C)mCmmCommm o)m mmm_m. OomC)mm!
_m__oo _cggm Ommg_m, C)mCmmCommm o)ggm
_mmm Ommg_m C)mCmmCommoo qCemOomT,
_C)mOomT, oOmcm OomT m__m Omcm OomT mmemm.
2.3. q__ 1_m c1d
Oodoom _mTgmmm Omm _e q__C_m(cancer) mmm_m.
_gmmd o_ocmom oo!J, m_ gooo _J)mggd m__m
_)ggm _de_ _m_!oo _em ccum me mmomo_m m)m
_)mcmm _e Cgom _de_ OmcmdCcJd _e m_m_J__.
Como!` mm_ om!gg _eggm Ommgd _m_` mm_
Ommo. q__oq Como! mmm_m. _oq o__oo mgg
J)oo _mqm omdoo Cmmd ommm_m. q__C_m m__ __md
mT _mome_(oncol ogy) mmm_m. _mome_ mmm_ JC)o
om!gg. _mCom(onchos) mm_md oq` mm_ Ommo. _mTmgmmmg
go oo!J _Cmmomom mmm_m. ___Cmmomoggo m)m Co_
momggmd _gm CmuOmm(Malignant) mmemm.
mcm.2.2.11. 1)m1mm1ommoom mooo
[_j q1emOom1, [_j _1)mOom1,
[_j oOmcmOom1, [+j OmcmOom1
_ _ _ +
80
m)em_
q__C_m mgmomemooCe __mq_g_. J0m ___mmqd
O_!mmm C_m _em! __C_mm gmm Ogo m_ggmm!.
Cmgm _o!oo q__ Oodum gmm m__m oooo moJm!. 20m
___mmqm _ooggd mdem oomm q__ C_mo_m
omc_mcm. mmm! _g_omm om)mmoo m__m JJo
__ood oomm Oogggmc_. J775d Om!Jod mm(Percivell pott)
mmmm! qoCmmJoo oggm Oomo!o_ q__ C_m oog
om_ q__ C_m oTg_oooo om)mm mm o_mm!. _gmmd
g_e m__m Ogmg_om!qm om)mm mm Jgomcoood
omc_mc_.
J. _e Jd mmOm(shale oil) - Cgmd q__C_m -
Ogmgemo!o_
2. ogTo gm_(radio active ore) - _)m)d q__C_m-
o)mo mmmo!o_
3. Jcm O_gemm(Beta-napthalamine)- J__! m q__C_m-
_)m! Ogmg_ome
mmmo!o_
4. qo Ommo(cigarettes) - _)m)d q__C_m
Je o)do_m q__ C_m om)mmmoemm mm m_omeggd
c_g Oomc_. )md om!Commm o)d _gud q__ C_m om)mm
mm moomc_. g_omeggd mmgmm T-Oodood m_m_m
gComm m@m q__ C_m HTLV-1 o)d om)mm mmomc_
m_oo_.
Jeoo q__C_moo mm)mmT C_mmo ogm_Jm_m.
O)qCmmmomdCcmmm (Retinoblastoma) m@m ommd m_m_m q__oq
mm)mmTmmo m_m_J__. Ommcum mm)mmTmq __ ! mJ
mmmmm.
q__1_m c1d
q__C_m cTum oo!J mo Coommo coo_. q__
C_momm __mmm om)mmoo omc_ _gm Ood _de_
_eo_ _omd _)mJoo _cggm_Jm_m. mm@m g_omm
coo og_oo q__C_momm JJo Cmm_mmmgmo _de.
Omm_omo oo!Jd ccud coo Oodoo mcmq Ood
mTgum _em mT__, Co_mm_oo _c__ mdCo_ J_q Oodoomo
81
mm_Jm_m. mcmq Ood mTgd, oo!J m__m mm_mm_ _cgd
Cmmm_ _ogoo Oodud coo m)m@oo o_m_g_Jm_m. __g
m)m@ood m_m_m g! mm__m _de_ _gCoo Oodmm_ q__
C_m om)mmmJ__. mmCo _gm Tc comom(monoclonal)
mmemm. q__C_mm Ogmc!Jmm oo!Jd comm Co
Oodood g! mm__moo m_m_ogmmd me _m Oodoo
Cgmm_Jm_m. _oood Je _m Oodoo Coommo ccum Co_
goo_ m)m gmm Oommco. Cmgm _o q__C_momm
JJoood mmgmcmmd mg!m ogcooomo coom.
q__ Oodo_Oom_ gm mmqoo coom. _mCmmJm
_em q__ Oode c__ C_mJmmd _o omgm)m Oodoou__
Co_m_ ommm_J__. _ooom co OmTgmo coo_.
mJgmom)mq comm _o oCcmmomogg mc q__ Oodood
_gom coo_. comm mogOgoomo coo_. _Oodoo _gm)
mcoggd Ogmc!__ om_m gmm cco. _ggoood coo
Oodoo mo__g _o gmm Co_mm_ _cJm_m. m__ Oodoo
Cmmm_ _demmd go oo!J Om__ mmqm _o OodmTgd mmm
_g__ Cmmogde. o__oo m__ gooom q__ Oodoo
_J)mm gmm Oommco.
Ogmc!Jmm me _ogoomd omgm)m Ood q__ Oodemo
mm_o_ q__ Ood comom(carcinogenesis) mmm_m. ___ogmd
Ogmco _e, oo!J _e, Omm_e, mm__ _e, mTgd _e
m__m m)m _eoo cm_. m)m _ed _J)mggd(invarion)
m__m OmcmdcmJd(metastasis) _J _eoo coom.
_g!J _c_g q__ Oodoo o_ocmom oo!J mmm
Om__oom. omgm)m Oodoo Cmmm_ Oodum co m__m Ooo
oo!J o_mm_ _ogJoo q__ Oodood ommm_ogde.
Ogmcoggd q__ Oodood _mTgmmm oo!J m_m_m. _ooo!J
mqmqmo _)gg cgg _g_ m_ogmmd _ooom oo!J
___ m_J__.
q__1_m _eo_ c1d
_eo_ cTd __oo mmm_gg q__ Oodum
_mmm ____ Oomooemm. _)m_ Oodmm_ __oo
_eo_ _omd _cOm_Jm_m mm omc_m_oo_.
J. Ood oo!Jg gm_m _Cmmmm mg
qC)mCcm_mCom_moo (proto-oncogenes)mmm_m. DNA _gd
coo _mg gmcm_m Cmm_ Oodum oo!J _goTJ__.
82
DNA_eo_ _mq g! mm__ggmmd qC)mCcm _mCom_moo,
_mCom_moomo mm__mcemm. Cmgm q__ Oodoom
C)mCmmCommood _)qmmgd, _gd m__m _cm mm__mggd
_Jooo m_m_Jm_m.
mmg1d q__ oq cmmm _m1om_moo
_m1om_m q__1_mm mo Oodmm_ om)mm
J. _md JJ(hox) _)gg q__C_m _cmm__m
(acute T-cell Leuckemia)
2. m! B-2(Erb) mm!mo m__m _mco Amplification
q__C_m
3. L-m(Myc) _)m)d q__C_m Amplification
4. O)(ret) g)m_ q__C_m DNAd mm__ _mggd
mmg q__ oqd _mCom_moo g gmgg Oodmmqmmd
(ampl i fi cat i on) gmcm_o_m. _Ooummd q__ Oodood
m)m@oom Ood g_m _goTm. omgm)m OodoCom_
gm_od _)m mcm _gommoCo q__ Oodood _ggo
gm_gdoo _cOm_Jm_m. _Omm__ _eo_ cTd
odgm!oo _mCom_moom Ooomm_ Ommoo _)mJ
Oo_ oJm_m!.
2. omgm)m Oodoom oo!J omommm_m
o_m_g_o_m(suppresor) m)m@ _m. q__ Oodood coo _Cmmm
mgd o_m_g_m m)m@omo Oodm_m mg Ooe__ CmmJ__.
Oodoom oo!J o_m_g_m gmm Ood _g__ m_ogmd
_mTmgmmm Ood Omom m_m_J__.
m) m@ q__1_mm mo
APC Comem mg / mecd q__C_m
BRCA 1 mm!mo / _mco q__C_m
1NK 4 Cgmd__m Ood q__C_m, _)m)d
q__C_m, _ooq, _)gg q__C_m, _m_! o)m
q__C_m
Rb O)qCmm momdCcmmm
PTEN _ooq, J__)om m__m _)m)d q__
C_m
83
o_m_g_m` m)m@oomd Cgmm_m Je qC)mmoo
Oodoo Omogg g_m. __g m)m@oo Ooe__ Cmmogmd
oqoo oo!JcJm_m.
mmgmd q__ C_m comm __mmo _ogoo
__o) _mm __mde. _mmd _mCom_moo gmcm_ggm
o_m_g_m m)m@oo Ood _gm_m q__C_m comogd m__m
m)gud _J om)mmoo mmgOgT o__oo_. gC) Cood
_om)m_ oo m)m@mmgqm m_mcmd mooo _Tgmmo
_m. __ mem)m@ mo` mmm_m._gmmd q__ Oodoom
Omm _e, _J)mqg gmm m__m OmcmdCcJd g_m
_goTJm__.
2.3.2. q__ 1_mm mooo
q__ C_moo _ooo Cgmm_m goo_ m_m
OmTcm_Jm_m.
J. om!Commm(sarcoma) - _mq goood m_m_m oqoo.
[cgm)mmj _dqCmom!Commm [mgmqj.
2. om!JCmmmm(carcinoma) - mmgu goood q__C_m.
[cgm)mmj _)m)d om!JCmmmm, mm!mo om!JCmmmm.
3. umCmmmm(lymphoma) - _m_!g goood
4. gComm(Leukemia) - _)gg Oooo _@ood
q__ 1_momm om)mmoo
Jeoo mgo ogomoo m__m g_e om)moomd
q__C_m m_m_m.
J. qoe
35% q__ C_m __m_ mgmo_ g ood qoe
cmCmom_g_o_ om)mmmo coo_. _)m)d q__ C_m __md 00%
qo mqmgmmd m_m_J__. qomqggemd _)m, cd,
omm, _mOmo J__! _mom m__m oomommg mmgmcm.
Ommq Cmm_gd, qoe ooggemd om m__m oomo mmgoo
mmgom_Jm_m. qo mqm mgom _demgo!oo, qo
mqmo!oo m_m qo _o!__ coo_ggmd _o!o_m _)m)d
m__m _)gg q__ C_m m_mcemm.
2. _moomm og!mooomm X-og!oo, ommm og!oo, q_mgm
og!oomd q__ C_m comoemm. _og! mooo DNA _goo
84
ccmgmmd g! mm__m m_m_J__. T og!oomd Cgmd
q__C_m cmcmJ__.
3. Ogmc! c_ggdoo: Je oo cmoomd cmmmgd
Ogmc!Jmm c_ggd m_m_ q__ C_mo) om)mmmoemm. _go
_o Oom_q, c! og Oommc mem q)gmoo, cq _de_
qommd mgm_ggmc cm Ommoo _Jo__md mm!mom,
Ommcd, _)m m__m cm gdood q__ C_m m_m_J__.
4. mg_o!oom _Cemomm_ cmCmom_g_m m__oo q__
C_m om)mmmm.
5. o)d m__m g_mmoomm JdCcmCommm, ode)d q_o_m q__
C_m om)mmmJm_m.
q__ 1_mm __qm
q__ C_mm _g!J _e mmgmm m)mggd _qJ__.
_g_ q__ Oodoom gmgg mmqoo om)mmmJm_m. omgm)m
Oodoom oo!J Jeom)moo o_m_g_Jm_m. q__
Oodo_ _ooo!J om)moo Cgom_ogde. mmCo
_Oodoo Ood oo!J o_mm_oo _m_ oo!Jm_m.
omgm)m Oodoo, go _ed gmC_m_ gm_ Co!__
ommm_m. _mmd q__ Oodood g_m gmm _. _gmmd
_Oodoo gooom ogmo mogd_)gggg@o Oodeemm. mm
ccum m__ mgo_ m_g_ Oodem_ qg q__ oo!J
om)mmmoemm.
q__ Oodoom mTgd mo Coommm_. Je q__ Oodoo _)gg
_mogCgmm_ om)moo comogmmd qg _)gg _momoo
q__ oq@o Cgmm_Jm_m. _ooo mdem cm
Ommoom m_g_ Oomoogmmd, omgm)m Oodood cm
_mm_ m_m_J__. _gm _qmd omgm)m Oodoo m__m gooo
cmmm_ mqJm_m.
q__ 1_m o_mm_
Ogoomm mTComgmm _qmcd gmm q__ C_momm
JJo _mm. _mCmmJ _em q__ Oodoo _cmom
om@gd, (Biopsy tissue) Oodoom Cmd ommm_m _cmomoo
__gd, Ood Cogd __oo, Ood m)md m__m dComm, X-
og!oo mTComgm __ _J mTComgmoo cm_.
85
mg_o!oo gmo_o mg_o _qoo gm_,
JJo __oo mJ!__ Oomoog_ _eoo _mq __
_oJmmJ__. [cgm)mm, _e J, _e 2j. _eoo o)_ggd
q__ oqm _)mmm, go _e _de_ _Jgoo gooo _de_
c_qo_ m)mm _e _Jo__m _qmcd _mm.
mTComgmo_mm q__C_mm JJooo, __o
JJo, m__ JJo, og! mo JJo m__m _m!Cmmmoo
JJo __oo _mm.
oc_g ___mm_ o) __o JJo __ m_m gmm
J_qc JJo __mo ogmc_. c! go C_m
Comgm(bi opsy)m __o JJo __ Cgom_J__.
q__oqmm_ _gd _ed _mc _cgg_o __gmd __o
JJo _em _J mcemm. g_ome __o JJo __d
mmgomc mg m_m _om_J__. _gmmd c_qoo __o_mmo
_om_m _og gm!o m_oo_.
og!mo JJo __
J805d C)mm_m(Roentgen) X- og!oo _gud omc__g_m
J800d JTm(Curri es) og!mo om_mqqo_m q__C_m
JJo qg ogoo Cgmm_ om)mmmm. og! mo JJo
__d _go ogOommc _moomm X-og!oo, ommm og!oo
_de_ _@mm _mg _oooomm Jcm _oo, _go og Oommc
me)mmoo, _)mmoo mmm_m og!mooo gooog
_og_ Oodgm gmmco. _ooo DNAo mmgmgmd
Oodood __q _de_ g! mm__m m_m_J__. _JJo __ q__
Oodoo m__m omgm)m Oodoom gmmm gmmCo_m _mJ__.
mmCo q__ Oodood og!mo __d Oogg_m og!mJm _o
omgm)m Oodoo mmgomg _o _o Com_m.
m__ JJo __
_JJom _J C_mom q__ Oodoo Omommd, m__
gooo _J)mommd m__m m)ommd g_m_gmm. JJod
cmCmom_g_m CogOmmoo Oodoo Omgd m__m q__
oqm oo!J mmgJm_m. g_omm mdCo_ m__oo
JcJm_m. _ooo gmmoCom _de_ ocmoCom
cmCmom_ggemm. mm!mo q__C_m Cmmm_ Je oooo _m!Cmmm
om!_go. mmCo _JJo __ood _m!Cmmmo_m cmCmJo
m_Jm_m.
86
Cmmmc omc_m __, JJo __oo ___m q__
C_mmd m_m_m __q mJgm _gommoCo coo_. __C_m o_gmm
mTComgm m__m JJo Ooog mc o)mmd g_mCg J__ggmm.
70% _gd 80% q__ C_mo_, g_e gmm om)mmmo coo_.
mmCo Omm_ moocm o__q_gg m__ mgqm! Cgo.
__gmmd 33% q__C_m qoemmd m_m_J__. mmCo
qomqgge g_ggd m__m qoe cmCmo m_gge
o_m_g_gd Cmmm_ _coqooo ocmmmo Com_m.
cmmmgd m_m_m q__ C_mg gm!o _m! cm Ommoo
cm_ Oom_q cmoog gm!oemm.
_)mm _eCe omc_gd m__m oTmm gm!q __ odm
Cmmm_ooo gmm q__ C_mg g!omm.
o mgJ_
mg - _
cT mgeg Cg!_Og_
J. Ood Commmcg OgTmggo!oo
_j mmcm m__m Cm! _m _j decm m__m doomm
_j q. O_. mm!om +j Jmo! m__m _odom
2. Ommom _oo omqgm mmmggm _oo OmTgmJ
ommmm g_m _oom_ _gom_m
_j Co_m_g_m g_m _j m_m Oodgm g_m
_j cOmm g_m +j ocg_m g_m
3. Ood` mm_ OmTco!
_j eom _m _j _)mm! mOom
_j _)mm! _ +j oeuCm
4. _mCmmJd Ommom 1_ go _gm ogmo mom_J__
_j mmmm Oemo _j Ommo Oemo
_j omm Oemo +j mmOm og Oemo
5. Ommom _mTmmm mmmgg omm cmCmom_g_o_
_j o_ _mCmmJ _j mm qe _o _mCmmJ
_j ocg_m mmm@ _mCmmJ+j dComm mmm@ _mCmmJ
87
. _mCmmJ _md coo omCm__ cmCmom_g_o_
_j __)d Joq _j C_md mo
_j _CmJm +j O_OmcmJum
7. Oodud cggood Cmmmd o)oe cmCmom_g_o_
_j _em_g_gd _j _! OooC__gd
_j oggm_g_gd +j mg oggd
8. _e mce Commmqmmq momdmm mceggm _mm
o_o!
_j go!cm _j Ccoom
_j _)mm!om +j _Comdom
0. momdmm mceggd coo _ Oom_q mcemoom g__oo_
_j qC)mmoo _j om!Cmm_C)_oo
_j _! _eo_oo +j _o _mem
J0. _uo)m mmdCm m__ggd mCcmommTmmm mmJm
moJo!
_j Oemm_! _j mmcm
_j J)d +j Cm! _m
JJ. Jgommmoood Oodum oomo _m@qoo mm_
_gom_mo
_j )CmmCommoo _j eComCommoo
_j Comdo c_qoo +j mCcmommTmoo
J2. )CmmCommoom _J mm
_j mmdCm m__m _j oomJggd
_j q)g Co!o +j _uo)mm
J3. Jgom@m _m@_qood mo Oodum co, Ommoo
ocg_m Ogmm om!_g_
_j mCcmommTm _j eComCommoo
_j mmCcmmomo oe +j )CmmCommoo
J4. Comdo c_qoo _demg Oodoo mo
_j mmgu Oodoo _j o)m Oodoo
88
_j _)gg Jom@oo +j o)q Oodoo
J5. eComCommoo comm _cm
_j mCcmommTm _j )CmmCommoo
_j co +j Comdo c_qoo
J. oogoom _ogg o_m_g_o_
_j momdmm mcem _j co
_j _qgg)o c_q +j )CmmCommoo
J7. mmgqoom _)gg Jom@md ommm_m cooom
mmmo
_j gm_ _j me
_j _)m_ +j gm_m _de
mg - _
J_mc go
J. OoduCem_ Ogmc!qc qg __md mToom Om!oo mmm?
2. _mCmmJm Oodmmqd Co_m_g_m g_m mm_md mmm?
3. g o_ _mCmmJm mmomoo mo?
4. _J omCm__oo mo?
5. mCcmommTmmd _cOm_m __J c! Cogmmoom
Om!oo mo?
. o)cmm _de_ Ommmmm mmCcmmomo oe mm_md mmm?
7. gmmggmCm _gggd(autolysis) mm_md mmm?
8. OomqTCmd, _qgg)o c_q mm_ mOmm__ _gom_m.
0. C)mCmmCommoom o)moom _mq _qmcd
C)mCmmCommoom oooo mo?
J0. momdmm mceggm g)oggmm ocmq mmgT mm_md mmm?
mg - _
J. Ood Commmc m__ _q o)o.
2. Ood cTud cmCmJom_m OooCo_ _eoo mo?
3. TEMm__m SEM oom Co_mm_ go.
89
4. Comdo c_mm _mm moo.
5. OomTCmum _mq _e m__ _q o)o.
mg - +
J. _mCmmJoom oooo m__ Ogmqg go
2. _mCmmJm _em C_mo moom_ Ommoog gm! Oo
Com_m mmmgm moT
3. mCcmommTmmm _mq m__m Oodoo m__ o_)
o)o
4. Oodum comm _mmm m__ Ogoomo moo.
90
3. mmg co__mmd
3.J. co__mmem m)em_
memoo, gmo)moo ccg coomo ommm_m
c_mmmm __ _gm mT __mud co__mmmd
(Anatomy) mmm_m. __o JJo, mg_om Cmmm_ mmgm __oo
Cgmm_ Cmmmm_ _c_gg_ _mTmm mmooCm om)mm.
J. _. 2500 d mJg!oo mmgmm cce m__ _m
___g_gm!. _o!oo cce m)m_o_oomo _m mmcm Oo_
ogg_gm!. _g_ mmm` mm_ Om!. _g_Oom co__qoo
__o Oo_, _Jm_ mm_omq Oogm!. _o!oo __o
JJogm cc_g mgmqoo oTOooggm g_m Om___gm!. J._
500-40J _m_ood __gmmd odgm, omc)m(cataract) om
__o JJo Oogm!. __o JJo __oo m__ J.m _gd
___mmqd Oodod m@m C)mm mg_o! ! _d Ooocm!.
'J.m J543 qggo Ooomqd ! _J _m_. _oommqd
co__mmmd m__ _dummo m_g ! qggogg _mq1d
Omomed mmmo! Ooocm!. J28d mdum _m!m _gm, _)gg
gmoom Oodmmqm moJmm!. _om_mqqoog Ogmc!__
ccud mdCo_ c_qoo m__ _mg_ Oogo_m Oooo)g
_omJm. g_omeggd c_qoogoo Oodoom _eo_ ocmq
m__m ____ Oomo_m __Jd +_m_oComm.
J1)m co__mmd
(Grays Anatomy)
mmg co__qoo Ogmc!mmo me qggomoo
Ooocmq_gmgm O_m_ JC) _o!oomd m_gmc
Anatomy : Descriptive and Surgical m@m _d J_mmmgmo coo_.
___um _gd mgq _od J858d Ooomm_. Ogmc!__ J45
_m_oomo ___d mgmd coo_. _mmd 2000o_ _mqd
mTomm 38o_ mgq Ooocm_oo_.
O_m_ JC), _mJem_gd, mmo! m@m _cggd J827d
m__go!. J8J o) omg_gm! emcmm qmg. _m!_ mg_omm
odgTd mo J__g mmmo)mo momJo!.
91
3.J.J. 1gmg_qoo (Integumentary organs)
Cgmemq ccum Cmdq_m __o_m Cmm!omo _m__oo_.
_oomq ccd co__qoo mm_omJ__. ccd _! _mmgeg
g_J__. ccd Oomgg mm_omJ__. ccg ocmm D
gmTggoJ__. Ogm_ cm!J, ou_gd, Oomm_gd Cmmm_
cm!oo ccg cm!g_J__. _omgm meg)mc mmoo
Ooogmd Cgme mdOgmgd m_mmm!` mmemm.
Cmd Cgmemm_ _1mmOc!md [JgOc!mdj m@m Ood m)mm
1_ _m__oo_. _CmmOc!md, Cgme _qd coo mgmq,
goo_cm _mm. Cmgm Cgmum _)mqoom _)gg
gdoom Om__m.
Cgmud Oc!md, mOc!md [CmdOc!mdj mm __J
gooo cm_. Oc!md _mqg gomu__ Cgmm_m. _ggoCo
Cgmgomm _qmc ogoggm. _mgd _)mq _qoo,
C)mmmoom _qmgoo, Ommmg gooo m__m o)moo coom.
Oc!md mg _)m_ __oo Oommc_. _o Cmdq_
mmmdeT __(Papillary layer), Jgq_ O)qem! __(Reticular layer)
_m. O)qem! __ Oc!mum _J mgmm. _mg
_c!ggmm gmmcm JgOc!mocm Ogmc!q Oommqm.
mcm.3.1.1. 1gmgm _1mmOc!mom
mmOm o)
mOc!md
Oc!md
_1mmOc!md
m!m o)
Oom_q
_ ) g g
gm
_)mq
1)mm mmeJo
_ O ) c m ! m e
[ Ommgoj


1)mmm

92
1mdOc!md (Epidermis)
_mg __ mmggu gommmd(stratified squamous epithelium)
_m_. _g_m Oc!mom _cd ! Jgmcem cm_. CmdOc!mJd
Cgmum __gg_ om)mmmm __m Oodoo coom. CmdOc!mJm
Oodoo Oo)mqm(Keratin) m@m q)gOmmo gmTJm_m. mmCo
_o___ Oo)mq1mmo_oo(Keratinocytes) mm_ Om!.
mmOc!mJm _qq_ Oodoo mcmJd Ood mTgemd qg
Oodoo cmcmm. _Oodoo Cmgoo mg Oodoo OooC_mJg
goom_m. OooOodoo, Cgmm_m qg Oodoo mm_omm.
OooOodoom _mqm Cogg gmmm mm_gecm.
_Oodood Oo)mqm _)mqm. _g_ Oo)mqmmom mm_ Om!.
_oCood CmdOc!mo ___ Ogoomm __oomJ__. _o Jg
__, dm1mmom __, J)m@1emom __, gJcm __,
om!mm __ _m.
Jg __ mmOc!mJm _qd coo_. _gd )_ gm
mmggu Oodo_m_. Oo)mqmmom _m _omm. _gm Cmgoo
dmCmmom __Jd 8-J0 __oo mm_o Oodoo cm_.
J)m@Cemom __ __g_, Cmd coo_. _gd 3-5 __oo gcmm
Oodo_m_. _g_m Cmemo gJcm __ coo_. Omdu
_oo_Jd ___g OodoCooom. Cmd q_mmo om!mm __ coo_.
_Oodoo Oo)mqmmd _)mm_oom. _o___ oqm Oodoo mm_
Om!.








m m dem
Oo) m qm
Jg mcem


dq1)cm 1mod
dq1)cm dm1mmom
dq1)cm gJcm
d q 1 ) c m
J) m @1em om
dq1)cm om!mm
mcm.3.1.2. mOc!md
93
Cgmemm_ gqg1gm _de_ OmmmmoCom _oemm.
gqgg 1gmed Cm__mc ___ __o_m cm_. om!mm
__Jd _go Oodoom. coomomd, coomo, m)d _mood
gqggCgmgm_.
ccdm)q Ommmmm Cgmd Oommc_. _gd mmggu
__ood Ood __oo __gm. J)m@Cemom __Jd
_)mc_ Oodoo m_Cm _m.
1gmdg gqq(Callus): Ogmc!__ c)m coo _cmood Cgmdg gqq
m_m_m. _gd om!mm __, me __ Oodoo
Oommqm.
1gmem __m
__moo Cgmum __gg cmcmJm_m. om!mm
__Jm _c!gg, _qd coo _)gg cm Cmmm_oo_m
__mooemm. __mmm_ Omemm __moomd Cgmm_m. ____m
Cgmd, C)mmm, omoo Cmmm_ mgo_ __mom. Tm, UV
og!oou__ cce mm_omm. _o cmcmm Oodoo
Ome1mmo_oo _m. _ggmTq m)m@ om!_g_.
_m!Cmmmoo, go Cmmm_oo_m __mm__m cmcmoemm.
1gmem mm_mm_oo
1)mmmoo : _o Cgmum mm_mm_oo. g C)mmggd
Co!mgm _mc gm_mg_m_. Co!mg Cgmu@o coo_.
Co! mgm Jg ! _om_ mCmmm_ mgoo_. C)mmm ___g
Oo)mqmmm Oodoomd _m_. C)mmggm mggd Om_dem
mgm _gm o__ om!Ocd, J_qJo mgo_m coom.
Om_dem, C)mmggm m _o.
mcm.3.1.3. mmeJo mgd 1)mmggm . Om. 1gm__m
Om_dem
om!Ocd
J_qJo
co mgge 1m! c_
Omo mgge 1m! c_
Oc!md 1m! c_
1)mmm

94
C)mmggm __mmm_ Omemm _o, oo om!_g_. __ !
m)m@ mmq. ogmmmd Omemm _o _m. C)mmmoo
Oommmm. _) _qd` o__ Oommmm C)mmmo_cm
___gm Oommmm C)mmmoo oe_gm.
Co!q_ Ood _goTmmd C)mmm oom. oo!J ! _ed
_m_m_m. m_ mm mg C)mmm cg!__ qg_ Cgmm_m.
_m_ _m_oo oom C)mmm J-2 _m_oo oo)mmd Oo_m.
C)mmg_cm _)cm! me(arrector pili) m@m go Oodoo
_m__oom. C)mmm Ju!m_` _de_ gg_ __m_`
Cmmm_o___ _ggo OodoCo om)mm.
m!m o)o_m mmOm o)o_m Cgmud
coom. mmOm o)moo Oc!mJd coom. _o o)m
mmOm Ommo Jmm(Sebum) mmm_m. _o _moggm ogC
C)mmg_cm _m__oom. mmd o)moo mm_mmcc_g m!o
o)moo.
m!o o)moo gd oqo_co. _o oomm gd
oqo o)moo. _o C_)qmog Cgmud g___oom. _o)md
Jgmg ! oomom Cmdmg _mcgemom coo_.
coomooo coomomdood _o _gom coom.
_om: _om _)m_ mgoo cc_. _o _oCo! m__m ccd mg.
_oggm ccd mg Ogoomog OgTm. _oCo! Cgmummd
_cm_oo_. _oggm _m m__m moom_ mgoo
_omqqoomd gm_oo_.
mcm.3.1.4. mmd o)
ommq
Oom_q
mmd _mom
o) o_q
95
3.J.2. mgmqoo [_oocomj
mcm.3.1.5. _om
_oOm_g 1gm__m
_o1m!
_o m_o
_mmmJm
Omo )m
ccd
_o moom
_o mqq
g@em
_mmmJm
1md _mq
_o1m!
mcm.3.2.1. ccd mgmqoo
mmc1m_
Jgggmc
om)Ogmq
_dmm
1)qd
mmo_ mgmqoo
c o o m o
mgmqoo
m)doo
omum
O g m c
mgmq
coomomd mgmqoo
mm!Omgmq
mem mgmqoo
_ _ O o g m q g
Ogmc!
gOmgmq
1m_o mgmq
Jgomd Omo
mgmq
1gmo mc mgmq
_ g m o m d
Jdg
_momd mgmq
gmomd mgmqoo
m ) d
mgmqoo

96
_m_ ccum _oocoggd mgmqoo, gOggmqoo,
uoOmm_oo _m__oom. _oomq ccg ! oqoggg gJ__.
Cmgm gooo _mog_ mgmqoo _cmoJm_m. _oocom ccd
mcg gmmm. mmcCm_ Cmmm_o co__qoo
mm_omJm_m. _ocom _cOm!Jd cgJ__. Oom_q,
gm_cqoo Comm _cmmJ__. Jom@oo mgmq m__d
c_mggmJm_m.
mgmqoo _mCcm, J_gmoCom, gcmoCom _de_ g_mo__
oqoggCem _oemm. o, omdood _mc mgmqoo coom. J_
mgmqoo _om_ oqom Oommqoemm. mmo_ mgmqoo(Carpals),
gmomd(Tarsals) mgmqoo J_o. gc mgmqoo Omdu, gcmm
gmmco. mmcCm_ mgmqoo, mem mgmqoo, mm!Omgmq,
Cgmomc mgmqoo Cmmm_o gc mgmqoo. _oOogmqo_m
_ogOggmqo_m g_mo__ oqo_co.
! _mc mgmm _mq
mgmmmm_ OmTmdqm(periosteum) m@m c_md
_cm_oo_. _o_m Cm_mg _m!oo Oommc_. _mgd
_)gg gdo_m _)mqo_m cm_.
Om1 _dqm
mcm.3.2.2. _mc mgmq - OgmcOgmq
__ Oggmq
mmJd
m m J d
g_
Ommm mgmq
oqm mgmq
cmmJd
Om_dem g
mmcmdqm

__g ge
o_g_
ccd
_gmomd Jdgmoom
97
oom _o mgmmd _m_ mgo_m_. _mc mg cmJd
_de_ mgmqg gm_ mmm_m. _mg _c!ggmm mgmqg gommmd
_m_.
mgmqg gmqm _qmgd mmJd m@m o__
Ommmmm mgoo_. _gm Cmd c_ oqmmmm_. mmmJd,
cmmJd _cd ! mo!Jgg_ coo_. _mg _um
gOggmmmmd _m_. mgmmm _oom_ oo!J _mgd _o_m.
mgmqg gmqm mggd Om_deT g coo_. _gmm
cq_mmo mmcmdqm _de_ mgmq cmcem coo_. gm@o
moo m__ coo_. __ Oom_q m_g _q1mmd gommmd _m_.
mmmod mg@o coo Om_deT gm@o Jmq m__ coo_.
__ _)gg Oodoo gmTmd cgJ__.
moo, odgTood o__gomm ce!_g mgmqoo mmm_gg
m_Jm_m. mgmqoo _o _m_g_g _cgg Omm_g_ OmTcm_m.
_omgm OmTcmc mgmqoo _)m_ oooomo mTom_oom.
_o J. _o ocom, 2. _m_q ocom.
_o ocoggd mmcCm_, _m_ mgmq, __Oogmq,
mm!m_ mgmqoo coom. _m_q ocoggd o, omdoom
mgmqo_m _o _m__oo mm!Omgmq, __Omgmqoo _cmm.
mmgmm ccud 20 mgmqo_m_. _o _o ocoggd 80 mgmqoo
_m_q ocoggd J2 mgmqo_mmo coom. _o ocoggd
mmcCmqd 28 mgmqo_m, __Oogmqg OgmcTd 2 mgmqo_m,
mm!m_d 25 mgmqo_m, J _m_ mgmq mm mgmqoo coom.
_o ocom
cce C_)mo oggo _ocom cgm. _ggoo
mmcCm_ _o mm_omm. _oOogmqoo gm_ocgg_
mm_ommoJm_m.
_j mmc1m_
mmg!oom mmcCmqm Oomooo J500 om Oo.1 _m.
Cm_mgd 22 mgmqoo coom. _o _o mm_omJm_m. om,
om_ Cmmm_ cm!_qo_ _g) _mqoomoom. mmmqmo
_de_ JgggmcOgmq mmcCm_cm _m__oo
J_Omgmmmm. mmcCmqd m_ mgmqoo coom. _o
98
ooO)gmq _de_ Om)cd(Parietal) - 2
ommOogmq _de_ OcmOmm)d(Temporal) - 2
_gOegmq _de_ m)mmcd(Frontal) - J
_qOogmq _de_ dJmm_(Sphenoid) - J
mc)Oogmq _de_ _umcd(Occipital) - J
mgmmOcgmq(Ethmoid) - J
_oOogmqoo _mg_m _omd Ommg_gdoomd (sutures)
gm_cOmmm_ Omm_goom. _ooo Ommg_gdoo _om __
oo om!_go.
gem _mq_ggd J4 _oOogmqoo coom. _o,
CmdgmcOgmqoo [_j mmudem(maxilla) - 2
ommggm ooOgmqoo [_j o1ommmq(zygomatic) - 2
_mmOogmqoo [_j mmecm(palatine) - 2
omm! o)mmm mgmqoo [_j em1md(lacheymal) - 2
_JmcggOcgmqoo [_j 1_od (nasal) - 2
mcm.3.2.3. mmc1m_
ommOmgmq
Jgg gmcOgmq
1md gmcOgmq
omm moOgmq
_Oogmq
_qOmgmq
omO)gmq
_gOemq
om g
99
_Jmc Jg omom(inferior nasal koncha) - 2
Jgggmc mgmq [_j mmmqo (mandible) - J
_c)mJOgmq [_j 1mmm! (vomer) - J
mmcCmqm mmq_m coo OmT mgmqoo ooO)gmqm
(parietal) mc)(occipital) mgmqo_Cmmm. _om mgmqo_m
_omd Omm__gd Oomm_oom. gem _momoogm
ooO)gmqoo _)m_ ommOogmqo_cm(temporal) _m__oom.
ommOogmmgoo OmT _omm_ Omoom_g_o mmm_m.
_g_om ogmoCo gu _eoo Oomm_m 1_ m_Jm_m.
gem moomqd ommOogmqoom _mq_ggd
_qOmgmqoo(sphenoid bones) _m__oom. _qOogmmm _m
omm moOgmq _de_ o1ommmq mgmq(zygomatic bone)
Omm_goo_. _oOogmq _oggd mo m_mmm mgmmmm. Cmd
gmcmm_ mmJdem mgmmmemm_. Jgggmc mmmqmd(mandible)
mgmmmm.
_oggm _mq_mmog Ogmm_m _J mgmqoo
_gOegmq(frontal), ommooOgmq(zygomatic), Cmdgmc, Jgggmc
mgmqoCo. mmcCmqd Ogmm_m _Jg_om)moo omComo
go_m, Oooom_g _oo_mmm. om _ooo o__oo
mgmqoo omoo mm_omJm_m. Cmgm _o omoo _om
gooo _mm _cmmJm_m. _omgm omComomoo o__oo
mgmqoo _gOegmq(frontal), _qOogmq(sphenoid),
omO)gmq
ommOmgmq
c)Oogmq
mcm.3.2.4. mmc1m_ - mo _mq
_omd __
_gOegmq
_qOmgmq
_Oogmq
omm moOgmq
1md gmcOgmq
Jgg gmcOgmq
100
ommooOgmq(zygomatic), Cmdgmc mgmq(maxilla), omm!
o)mmm mgmq(lacrimal), mgmm_ mgmq(ethmoid),
_mmOogmqoomm.
mmcCmqm _qq_ggd mmc1m_
Om__ooo_. _gm ogmo _om _oggu__ gm_ocm
Cgmm_oo_.
mcm.3.2.5. __Oogmqg Ogmc!
o_g_ mg
mm!q mg
__q mg
gOmgmq mmd mgmq
mg
_o mgmq
c! _o mgmq
_oOogmq _cgg_
_oOogmcg _o
_m _J
gOmgmq
mmd mgmq


mo _J




101
_j _oOogmqoo
_oOogmqoo o_C_ S` oqo_c __OogmqgOgmc)
_mg_oom. _gd 2 mgmqo_m_. _o 5 mgoom coom. _o
o_g_[5j, mm!q[J2j, __q[5j, gOogmq [om)dj -J, omd mgmq[Jj _m.
_oOogmm _mq
! _oOogmmm _J, mcgmmm mg Oomq)m(centrum)
m@m mmgmm. __gg_gg _ _oOogmqoom
mmgoom _cd gOggmq _cgg_oo cm_. ! _o
mgmmm mmgm Cmdq_ggd ! _oOogmq mo cm_.
_ooo ! _)mq omdmm g__oo_. _omdomd
gm_mcm coo_. _oOogmq oomd me mgmq _Joo cm_.
mmgm _q_moogm _mo _Joo coom. Cmd q_ggd
! __)d _o cm_. ___Joo gooo _mog_ _cmoJm_m.
Cmgm, _m, mm _oOogmqo_cm Omm__m ood _1md, _Jg
_Jo_oom.
_gd o_g_ _oOogmq _ed _de_ _Oogmq
mmm_m. mmg__ _oOogmq mmcCmcg gmmm
ood oqom Om__oo_. _)mcmo_ _oOogmq c!
_Oogmq(axis) mmm_m. gOogmq mgm _oOogmqoo
_m__ _Comm oqoggd ! gOogmmmJoom. omd
_oOogmq ! mm__ mJ c_mmm.
mcm.3.2.6. _oOogmq
ccd
mem mgmq
mo _J
_o _J
_cg_o
_cgg_
mo _J
_o
mo mg
_o _J
ccd
ccd [ Oom)mj
102
_j mm!m_
_m_ ccud J2 _m mem mgmqo_m_. _o gmggmC mm!q
_oOogmqo_cm _m__oom. _mq_ggd _gd J0 _mmem
mgmqoo mm!Omgmqcm(sternum) _m__oom. _ommm_Oom
_mq gOggmqoo coom. mm!Omgmqcm C_)qmo _m__oo
_gd 7 _m mem mgmqoo cmm mem mgmqoo mmm_m. 8,0,J0o_
mem mgmqoo _m__ 7o_ mem mgmqcm Omm_goom. _o
Omm mem mgmqoo mmm_m. JJ, J2o_ _m mem mgmqoo
mm!Omgmqcm _mmde. _o___ mgm mem mgmqoo mm_
Om!.
_m_q ocom
_ocoggd o, omd mgmqo_m, mm!Omgmq mom,
__Omgmq oo_m coom.
mcm.3.2.7. gOmgmqm mmd mgmqm

mmd mgmq
gOmgmq

mcm.3.2.8. mem mgmq o_
Jmm_ _J
om)Ogmq
_gd mm!q _oOogmq
1gmomc mgmq
1m_o mgmq
_mq gOggmq
12m_ mm!q _oOogmq
mm!Omgmq
103
mm!Omgmq mom _de_ 1gmmcmq
o mgmqoo _ooog_cm _m__oom. _omg_m
gooomd __omm_ ccgcm _m__oom. _oommmd ccd
_ooo mogmJoom. ooo me _eood oggcm _gm.
mm!Omgmq oom _de_ Cgmomcd, _)m__m
mgmqo_m_. goOom _mgm g CgmmcOgmqm(scapula)
mcm.3.2.9. 1gmomc mgmq
m1)mmm _J
oOgmq Omm__ g
_moOgmq
_)Ogmq
1m_oOgmq
1gmmcOgmq
om)Ogmq
mmo_ mgmqoo
coomoOgmqoo
m)d mgmqoo
mcm.3.2.10. oOgmqoo
104
g om)Ogmqm(clavicle) coom. _Comm oqo CgmmcOgmq
gcmm_. _gm Cmd )ggd o mgmq Omm__ g coo_.
_mg Cm_oOgmqcm _m__oo_. _mc om) mgmq, o__ S`
oqo_c_. _gm _mm mogd Cgmod ommemm. _oOogmq ooo
ccgcm c)J)mmd og_Oomo_m.
__Omgmq mom _de_ Omdmd (Pelvis)
_ooom om)m m@m gOmgmmmgm Tm om1o m@m
__Omgmqoomgm _m_. __Omgmmmm_ _m_ mgmqoom
_momd _m_. _o _em _de_ om_ mgmq, _dJm _de_
__mOmgmq, _d _de_ _Omgmq _m. _oooggd
coo Jmmg(acetabulum), omdoo _m cgm.
mcm. 3. 2. 11. __Omgmq
mom
gOmgmq
Jmm g
_dem
_Omgmq
_dJm
mcm.3.2.12. __Omgmqm omdo_m
__Omgmq
Ogmc mgmq
_gmomd Jdg
_momd mgmq
Jgomd OmoOgmq
gmomd mgmqoo
coomomd mgmqoo
m)doo
105
oOgmqoo
Cgmomcu__ _gmoo)goo omg 1m_o
mmm_m. _mg@o __m)d(humerus) m@m 1m_oOgmq coo_.
_oOogmmm Cmdmg CgmmcOgmmm Omm__ gm@o
Ommggm_oo_. Jgmg _mo mgmqo_cm _cmg_
_m__oo_.
_m o
_mg Cm_o_m mmo_ mgm _cgoo_.
_gd _)m_ mgmqo_m_. _o _moOgmq(ulna),
_)Ogmq(radius)oomm. _moOgmq om_m)d mommom
_)Ogmq ocm)d mogggmmo _m__oom.
mmo_
_J_ mg m_ mmo_ mgmqooc_. _o _mm
_mmomo _)m_ oToood coom. _oOogmqo_m uoOmm
mmm_m _m!mgm _m__ mmoqm _mmgd ! omdom
_mm m_m_ggoom. _g_ mmo_ omdmm mm_ Om!.
go _mmoo, _)mqoo, _)gg gmoo _gm ogmo o@o
_gJm_m.
o
o ocom, coomo mgmqoomd _m_. _o mmo_
mgmqo_cm _cmg_oom. coomo mgmqoom _mq __md
coomod gg gmmoo_.
od ___ m)do_m_. _gd ! ocm)gm _mm
m)do_m _cmm. goOom m)gm _mc m)d mgmqoomd _m_.
oc m)ud _)m_ m)d mgmqo_m m_ m)dood _m_ m)d
mgmqo_m cm_.
mcm.3.2.13. OgmcOgmq
106
omd mgmqoo
omdoom mgmq oTo o mgmqoom _mm gg_oo_.
Cmdomd mg, Ogmc mmm_m. _gd coo gmgg, _mc mgmq
Ogmc mgmq _de_ Jm!(femur) mmm_m. _oOogmmm Cmd
_md __Omgmmm Jmmgd Omm__m gemgoo_.
Jg_md Jgomd mgmqo_cm _mm _)m_ qcqoo coom.
_gmomud ! _om_, gcmm _gmomd Jdg(patella)
mgmqoo_. __ Ogmc mgmmm Jgmgd Omm_goo_.
omd [Jgomdj- _mg _gmomgm o@omgm _cd coo_.
_gd _momOegmqm Jgomd OooOgmqm coom. _o__d
_momOegmq OmT_. _oOogmq omum mcg gmmm.
mcm.3.2.14. oOgmqoo
mmo_ mgmqoo
coomo mgmqoo
m)doo
mcm. 3. 2. 15. __gg)m
_mq
mgmq
_m!c_
__g g)mm
_mq gOggmq
mcm.3.2.16. omd mgmq
_gmomd Jdg
Omdmd
1mdomd mgmq
_momd mgmq
J g o m d
OmoOgmq
o@omd mgmq
m)doo
_domdJd
coomomd
mgmq
107
o@omd (Ankle)
_mg m_ o@omd mgmqoomd _m_. _oOogmqoo
Jgomum _momOegmq, OooOgmqo_cm o@omd mgmqoo
cmed(talus) m@m mgmd _m__oom.
coomomd
_mgd coomomd mgmqo_m m)d mgmqo_m coom.
_o, od coomo mgmqoo, m)d mgmqo_ _mmmo.
__oo
ccd c_qoom _mg_ oo _oo_m, gooomd m_m_m.
_m_ mgmqoo mgmqg goo_cm _m _m_go. _o__m
_oggmd mgmqoo __om_m. mmCo ccum _om_ __oo
Cgo.
! __ _)m_ mgmqoom Omm__gemd m_m_m. _mg_
__o_m _og gmmco _m_. me __oo _mc _o
m_Cm _o cmcmo oqo.
__ mooo
_m_ oomm __o_m_. _o _mTmq __oo,
gOggmq __oo, mgmq __oo mmm_m.
_m1mq __oo
_oood, __oo _m! _mmmd _mom_oom.
_m__ood _o _ _de_ _de. mmcCm_ mgmmm
_omd __o_m Jg omugoo _momOegmq, OooomOegmm_
Jcemm _mqm _oood _mo.
gOggmq __oo
_oood _ mgmqoo _um gOggmq _de_ _mc
_um gOggmmmd _m__oom. _gd oo __Omgmqo_m
_)mcmm oo _mOmgmq _cgg_o_m cgm)mmoomm.
g)m __oo
_m__oom _cd ! g)o Ommo cm_. _gg)oggd
o_o!o), qC)mmoo, Oom_q Cmmm_ooom. __ ! c)mg
g)ommm. [cgm)mmj. _gmo, _gmomd __oo.
108
3.J.3. gooo
memoo _mg_m ccd _o m__m _cOm!J mmqoo
cco. ___ogJoo _goo, oog Cmmm_ Ood
c_qoomCem _de_ gooomCem m_m_m. goomoo o__ _go
ogom_g _ooo _m. _m_ ccum mgmqg gooo _ooo
m_m_g_oCgm_ ccg _gJ oqoggm gJm_m. ccu@o coo
co c_qoom oo!g gooo omg_mo __o_m mm_ cgJm_m.
_o__d goOodoo J_ __g)moo Cmmm_ Oodm_ omdoo,
_gm Cmmm_ me c_qoom Oog mooJm_m. _omgm
mom Cmmmc gog gooCo ccum _mg_ _omo_m
om)mmmJoom.
_mq, Oodg_m, c_o _Jo__m _qmcd gog go
_m_ oom_m.
Jj mgmqg gooo _de_ m1cg gooo
_o mgmqo_cm _m__oom. goOodoo _m_,
Jumc! oqmd coom. _ gooomo _m_ mmmmo_
o_m_ ccd _ooo cmcmJm_m.
2j co c_qg gooo _de_ m1__ gooo
_o _)gggmoo, _)m, cd Cmmm_ co c_qoom
oo!ood coom. _ggo Oodoo og!oqom cco. _o _m_
_o o_mcmg _m gooomm.
3j _gg gooo
_o _gggm oo__d coom. _ggo Oodoo co
oqmd Joggm. _om _m_ _o o_mcmg _m
gooCo.
mgmqg gooo
_o go _mmoomd mgmqo_cm Omm_goom. gooom
_o mo mgmqo_ ocgg go_mmoo cgJm_m.
_ggooo gomcem(facia) m@m _mqggoomd _cm_oom.
go_mmoo
_o 1ogmmc _mqg go c_qoomm. _o
ogomm mcoo Cmmm_ mgmqo_cm Ogmc!q Oomm_oom.
_o__m __g_m m__ dd ommm g_md mmgo
109
cc_. J0 m.1 _oo coo go _mm 00 - J000 JCem mcg
gmmoemm.
go om (facia)
_mqg goomd _J _oo mgmqg gom 1_ ! mce
Cmm!omo coo_. _mcem Cmdq_mmoCom _de_ _gmmoCom
_m_goemm. Cmdq_m coo oo, o_ggo!c _mmmo
Cgmgm gom _cd _m. _gmmm oo Oomem_m
_goomd _om_ 1ogmm__ c_mo gooo o__m.
_o goo_ _cmo Oom_ mgmqo_cm _m_gm.
go mqmmoo
_)cg go
_ g e g
go
1_g go
+1_g go
_1ommg go
mg go o_)g go
me_g go
_J go _mg go om1ommg go
mod go
mcm.3.3.1. go mooo
110
gooom oqmgm _omgm me mm_mm_oo cm_. _mq,
__qg god go_e _Jo__m _qmcd gooo _)m_
oom_m.
J. _mg gooo : _ooog go _m!oo __qg go
_mmooom. gcmm J_ gooo _m_ocm _de_ _mc
mc oqmd _oemm. ! gmg gomm_ _m!g gom ___o_m
_mqoemm.
2. omg gooo : _ooog go_m!oo __qg go omomo
coom. gooo _Comm oqom _de_ __ oqom Oommqm.
__ oqog gooo g__ Jo_, _)c Jo_, me
Jo_ _de_ o__Jo_oomo _oemm. Je gooo oo
_mqco.
gooom Om!oo
_o, _mq, _mcm,Oodg_m _Jo _qmcd
gooo OmTcm_oom.
mqmm _o
Ocdcm_ [_j _Commggo Cm_! [_j Om_go
omqC)cd [_j _m_Commggo mm! [_j J_ go
JC)Jud [_j Omu_g go emmod [_j _o go
emqdmd [_j _om_ go
go _moo _cm
mOod [_j _geg go cm!o - __q_g go
)Ood [_j _ggeg go OmOcm)mud - mm!qg go
omTOod [_j _mmgeg go m)mJ - oggo,
_m go, mm go
m)q _e _om
m!mumud - Cmdm)qg go mdOcmom! - _Jg go
_mc!md - cm)qg go Ooom! - mcg go
qC)mmmcd - _gggo omdqTc! - og go
go _cmoo
_j geq_g gooo
geq_ggd _)m_ oog gooo cm_. _o,
mmc1m_-_oggooo, Omdgmgooo _m. mmcCm_-
111
_oggooo _oggd coo, omComo o__ mg, om mgoo, _,
_mJg_ooo, cg_oo, ommmoo, om, om_ mcdoo, Cmd ge _J
mgo_cm Ogmc!qco. _o _ommmmg
gooo`mmm_Jm_m. _o__d cgcog gooo J_mmmo.
_ommom` Omm_omo cgcommmgm cgc oggm
__mmgm m_m_J__. _ggo mmmm om!_g cgcooo
cg_cm _m_g me gooomgm om g__oo Cgmd m)mmmgm
_ogJm_m. cgqm _ggm_m _om_` _!memTd
_Td(Orbicularis oris), mJCmc! gooo(buccinator muscles) om)mmm
coom. mmCo _o___ _ggg gooo mm_ Om!. JTgg _o _mq`
u1ommmdqod 1m_!- mm!, e1mc! _me 1d m__m
11om1d(zygomasticus major and minor, levator anguli oris and risorius)
Cmmm_ gooomd m_m_J__. cg_g gooomd _ogJ mm!o,
_oooq Cmmm_ _ogCgm__moom m_m_gg _gm.
cm oom gooo[Cmog goooj Jgggmc _omm
m_m_g_Jm_m. _ggooo, mmOoc! OcmOmm)med (masseter
temporalis), Oc1om_(pterygoid) _m. _mmm _ooo coom!_g
gooomgm Oooq_g gooomgm _o_m. coom, Ogmmcm Cmd
mg, co _m Cmmm_ c_qoom gooo cmo m_mo cgJm_m.
_j o_g_ mgg gooo
o_g_ mgm _ooo Oo!ood(cervical), Cmd_m_
(suprahyoid), Jg_m_ (infrahyoid) m__m __ _oOogmqg gooomd
m_m_Jm_m.
mcm.3.3.2. geq_g gooo
_!em1d _1d
mm dc!
mm!d 1)mm1cmed
1emmc! 1e
Ommcm ed
m1mm __1)mJd
_1em! gooo
mm!d _Jcmed
o1om1mqod gooo
dc!1mmJo1cm mmdcm_
omqdmm
_!em1d _e
112
_j ccd mgg gooo
__Oogmqg Ogmccm _m_g gooo. cce ooom
gmm cgJm_m. cce C_)mo _m!gg __o __g ogomm gooo
cgm. _mgd coo _Jg gooo mO)cm! dmCm (erector spinae)
emmJdmd (longissimus) m__m dmmmed (spinalis) _m.
oomJgggOom _mm _J goo_oom. coomommm_
doem(scalene), Ooo mem mgmmcg gooomd _o_m. co mem
mgmmcg goo_m Ogm)mJd(thoracis) goo_m Ooooomog
gooomm. cg)mgmm_m oomoggd cgJ__. _o_q
go_m!ggqmmd _m_.
o__q_ gooo _gCoommm Ooooomom[_m_gdj,
om_gO_ggd, mem ogggd, J__! ogggd, g_g Om_gd Cmmm_
_ogJood cgJm_m.
__Omgmmm Jgmg Omdm cg)mgmmggmd
_cm_oo_. _gm Jg OmTmm (perineum) m@m mgoo_.
OmTmm m__m m_ g)ggooo J__)o _mOmo Jg goom!
mcm.3.3.3. __cd gooo
q)JJd
O m 1 c m ) m e d
1m_!
_m Oo!1)cd
Ocdmm_
mOod
O)cd
_cmmmd
113
mmm_Jm_m. _mg Ommoo o__oo _ed o mcmmd
__m_oomJm. g_g m_mm m_ _mc
cc_m_Joomd _gm oT Ooemm.
+j 1m_og gooo
ooo mm!Omgmq oog_c@m __Oogmqg Ogmcc@m OmT
gooomd _mom_oom. _o q)JJd(trapezius), Om1, J_
1)mmmm_oo(rhomboid major and minor), e1mc! d1oq1e(levator
scapulae), emqdmd cm!o(lattissimus dorsi) Cmmm_ gooomm.
emqdmd cm!o gcmm, OmT, _Comm oqog
gomm. _ggo OmT_. __ mm!m_m Jgmggm Jg __q
mggmmo m)moo_. _ggooo Cmdo mgmm _m gom,
_cm, og__m mmm_Jm_m. _ggooom cgmmd ooo
mmq_m mo_qm. ge Cmd ooo c!gg cce Cmu_oemm.
_md, _m_gugm _o cgJm_m. _g_g coomogggm _o
cgm.
1md Oo!1)cd (serratus anterior), Om1cm)med 1m_! (pec-
t oral i s maj or) gooo mem mgmqoo CgmomcOgmqcm
_mg_oom. Om1cm)med 1m_! Cmd mm!m_u__
o___ o) m)m Cmd o _m. _ggo mJ_
oqo_oo_. _ggomm_ Cgmom om) mgmm_m mm!mm
_mq_mmo coo 7o_ mem mgmm_m _cd m)moo_. _q
ooo _mmmom moomqgm _oo cgJ__. m)Cm_gd
Cmmm_ _omo_ cgm. coomoggd _m OoJ__.
Cm_od 1om)1om)mJmed(coracobrachi al i s),
_geg go, _ggeg go, )mJmed(brachialis) Cmmm_
gooo coom. 1om)1om)mJmed gooo Cgmom
Com)om_ mgmqood Cgmm_ ooom _mo mgmqood
_qocJm_m. ooo _mq_mmom moomqgm _oo
cgJm_m. _geg go, OmT, og!oqog go. Cmdq_m _
_mq mgoo Oommc_. _o __C Com)om_ mgmqc@m
Cgmo__c@m _m__oom. Jg _m Jgom _) mgmqcm
_m__oo_. _ggeg go _m_ Cmd _mo_c_. _o
Cgmomc mgmqc@m Cm_o mgmmm Cm_q_gggm
_m__oom. mmo_, o, m)doom _ooo me _o,
q_ggooomd m_m_m. _o__ m__ mTomm moomoo c!
oqood Om_emm.
114
2j omd gooo
omum Ogmc mgm _ooo Cmdmg, mm momg,
_gmgood coo gooomd m_m_m. Cmdgooo _emod (ili-
acus) m__m 1ommmd 1m_!(psoas major) gooomm. _o
Ogmcmgm _mCmmJ _oo om)mmmJm_m. mm
qcmg(buttocks) _qd mmJmd gooomd _m_. omd
_ooo Cmd Ogmcg gooomJ mmq1Ood
"1mm1d(quadriceps femoris) m__m om!1cm1d(sartorius) gooomd
m_m_m. _m_ ccud om!CcmTd ! _ommm gomm. _ggo
__mu__ _gmomd o) m)moo_. o@omd, m)d _m Cmmm_
mgoom _ooo me _o, q_g gooomd m_m_m. _o__ m__
mTomm moomoo c! oqood Om_emm.
3.J.4. cm Oo1mmm c_qoo
mmgTm cm_cm C_mCemCom oo om!_g_.
_oood ccgomm cm Ommoo OoTmmmggm _em
JcJm_m.
mcm.3.4.1. cmmmg
Ogmmc
cmgd
_)m
omm
Ommcd
meg_mm)m
comm
ggm
J_cd
cdmmd
ode)d
115
OoTmmmggm Cmm_ OmT cm _eo_oo _)md mggd m@m
Cog _ogJmd Jg__ J_ _eo_oomJm_m. ___ogJ
mmomoo` m@m O_mgoomd _o_m. _oood OoTmmm c_qoomo
cm mmgm _g@cm _m_g OoTmmm o)mo_m coom.
cm mmg om _gd meg_om)m o)gm _mqm.
ommgm Ooo mommd cg_oo coom. mqqoomJ
cg_oo cq_mmo Omdu mceggmd _cm_oom. coomm _
momoogm ommggm oo!oo coom. _ooTd +)ggmmc
__ dommd mmggum coo_. cg_o_m omm_m cmo
oomggm, Cmogugm cgJm_m.
_m
__ _om_ go_mmm. _o_q coomm g)mgcm
_m__oo_. _mJm _mmg _mm_ coo_. _mJm
_qq_ggd 1@em(frenulum) m@m mg _gm coomg g)
mgcm _mg_oo_. _mJm Cm_q_ggd me mmmdemoo coom.
Jeo__@o oo _mqoo cm_. Oc!mmd odod m@m m moom
_mmm _ mgoomo mTJ__.
m_oo
mmg)_ omd 32 m_o_m_. _o _egg m_oo mmm_m.
_o _mm oom_m. ___e mm_mc mdem mm_ Om!.
mcm.3.4.2. md _m
1md gmc
Jgggmc
Om_m md
1om)md
I _m ocmm md
II _m ocmm md
I m ocmm md
II m ocmm
mdIII m ocmm
md
116
_m_oo __C Oo_m m_oo[8j, Com)m_oo[4j, _m
ocomm_oo[8j, mm ocomm_oo[J2j _m. md gg)m mmom
__d _mm.
Oo.m 2 ; Com.m J ; _.o.m 2 ; m.o.m 3
2 J 2 3
_de_ 2 J 2 3
2 J 2 3
goOom mdugm _m_ mgoo coom. _o Cm_q_ m_JTcm,
o_g_, Co! mgoomm. m_JTcggm Cmd g Je Cmd
oo!Joo`(cusps) coom. mdum Ommmg Ocmcm m@m Ommomd
_m_.
Cmdq_ggd m_oo, mmmmd m@m oqmmmm mgmmd
gm_oom. md qgmc _cmood Ocmcmmm_, JOmmcm m@m
Ommomd _cm_oo_. _Ommo mdeg gmcood Ommg_og_
cgJm_m. mdum cq_mmo m_og g m@m g mgoo_.
_mg mdum 1m! omdmm mmm_m. _gd _)gg gmo_m
_)mqo_m coom. _gm _qq_ggd g___oo_.
Cmd, Jg gmcoom momqood coo good m_oo
qg__oom. _mgd gmcoo _c!ggmm _m! _mqg
gommmgm __ mmggug gommmgm _cm_oom. _mg
md +_ mm_ Om!.
X 2
Ocmcm
m_og g
1m!omdmm
m_og gg_mm)m
mcm.3.4.3. ! mdem _mq
m_ Jo)m
o_g_
1m!
mmmmd
OoOmmcm



117
cmg _! o)oo
_o coom __o_m m)m ommm_Jm_m. _o__d _m_
_moo OmTo. _o Cmd _mm o)moo, Jgggmc o)moo,
_moq o)moomm. Cmd _mm o)moo OmTo. _o omgm
_mq_mmo gem _momoogm coom. Jgggmc o)moo
Jgggmcm mommmOmq coom. _moq o)moo J_o. _o
omm g)mgd Comg mceggm Jg coom. Cmgm me, J_,
oooqo o)moo omd cm_. _o Cmd_m o)m, _mm o)m,
coom o)m, cg_ o)moomm.
Ogmmc
_mg m__ mTomm moom oomo c_qoo` mgd
coo_.
cmgd
_gd Ogmmcu__ _)m o) _m_oo_. __
25Oo.1 _o_cgmm. _gd __Oogmmm _mq_mmo, _o gum
mmmmd mm!m_m 1qmdqmm mgd coo_. cg)mgmmm ogC
Jg_mJ _)mcm Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_. _gm oo! gqgg_. _gm
cq_ oo__d +)ggmmoo Cmd, Jg mgood og gooo
coom.
_)m
_)m ! _om_ m Cmmm_ c_mmm. o___m Cmd
mgd Jcmcggd _m coo_. _mmm_ _g mg,
m1em1 mg mm _)mcmo mTom_oo_. cm gd
_)mm _gmgd g___oo_. _mgm _c_ q_ggd
mcm.3.4.4. cmg _! o)oo
1md _mm o)
J g g m c
o)
_mmq o)
1md _mm o)
118
mmcd (fundus)m@m mgoo_. _)mm Ommmg m
mgmm. _mg _oec__ mCemT mgmJoo_.
_mgm c_mgm _cgoo _om)m mCemT og
gooomd _m_.
J_cd
_cd _m_ mgo_c_. _o _mJ_cd,
__mm(jejunum), mmJ_cd(ileum) _m. J_cd mg 1c!
_o_c_.
q1mqmm [_mJ_cdj
_mg 25 Oo.1c! _o_c_. _mg o___@o J80
0
ooomooo_. ode)gm om_m _g@cm _m__oom.
__mm, _em
_o __C 2.5 1c! 3.5 1c! _o_co. _o _mmd
_mJ_ce gg_oom. _m@m J_cum _oo mmq_mmo
J_gmJ Oodgm. J_cd, Ommcd _mm _cm _e1m-Jod
o_gq mmm_m. _mgd me Omdu oog gooo og
gooom coom. _g_ _e1m-1ome mmd mm_ Om!.
ode)d
_o_q ccum OmT co__mmm. _gm mc J.3 J.J)mm.
_gd OmT _c_, oe_ o_qoo cm_. om1c, mmq1) m@m _J_
o_qo_m cm_. ode)emd o)om_m mgg_! mgg_!md
CooTom_m. ode)gcm _)m_ mgg_! _momoo Ogmc!q
Oomm_oom. _o _m__ mggm _mog_cm Omm_omm mgg_!
_mogg m_m_ggoom. ___mom _mJ_cud g___oo_.
mcm.3.4.5. _)mm Om_g 1gm__m
_g mg
m1em1 _mm)m
"mmcd
cm gd
cmgd _mm)m
m1em1 mg
ccd
119
gg_! m
_mmm_ ode)um _qmgd coo_. __ 8 Oo1 _o_m 4
Oo1 _oe_m cc_.
omm
_o)m _mo_oo, _momdem o)mg gooomd _m_. _momdem
o)m mgd omg g_oo coom. _o _moem,
_oomm Cmmm_ _m!Cmmmoo o)Jm_m. _mo_oo o)q
mgd momd` m@m _cOoooo coom. _o ! J)m O_mgg
Ogmm o)Jm_m. omggd me o_qoo cm_.
_o_qoou__ Cgmm_m J_ _momoo _m__ OmT om
_mommJoom. ___mom Omm_omm mgg _! _mog_cm _m__oo_.
Ommcd
Jom : _mg Ommcd, J_cdoo _mm _cgggoo_.
__ Oo.1c! _o_c_. _g@cm _m__oo cd omd 0 Oo1c!
_om Oommc_.
Ommcd : _mg J.5 - J.8 1c! _o_c_. _gd m_cd
Jccd, __m cd mm _m_ mgo_m_. _o___g_
Jmm_ Ommcd coo_. _cemm_ mecud _qocm.
mecd : _mc _gum oo!, gooomd _m_. _gd
meomdomd _qocm.
meomdmm : _mg 2 Oo.1c! _o_c_. _omdom
meomd _qocm. _mg@o _)m_ og gooo cm_.
mcm. 3. 4. . q1mqm mg
ode)d
gg m
omm
Omm_mmm gg_mom
om _mom
ode)d om _mqdem
q1mqmm
120
3.J.5. ommo c_qoo
oomo _ogJd om__ _)m)e _)qm, om mm__m _o_m.
_u_m, om!mm-c _u_ ocg_gd _o_m. ___ogJo_Oom
oomo c_qo_m _)gg o__ _mqo_m coom.
oomo c_qoomo _mJ_, Ogmmc, )dmo, _ogd,
Jogd, _)m)doo Cmmm_ c_qoo coom. _o 1md, Jg
ommo mmgoomo _m__oom.
1md ommo mmg
J. _mJmoom : _mJmoom m@m mg Ooo_mJm
__g_oo_. _, _oggm m_mmm _mmmm. _Jm coomo _gm
_g)Oom gOggmqg g_oo coom. _ _mJ mmgo_m
_cd _cOgmqo_m mmcCmqm _gOegmq, Cmdgmc
mgmq _Jo__m _Jo_m coom. _o__md oomo mmgmm_. _
__oomooo_.
2. Ogmmc : co omm _mJmmgm Ogmmc@o
g___oom. cm mmgm cm ggm, oomo c_qo_m
Oode Ogmmc mg ! Omm_omm mmgmo coo_.
Ogmmcd _m_ mgo_m_. _o _mJmgg
Ogmmc, commg Ogmmc, )dmog Ogmmcmm.
_mJmgg Ogmmc, co_mJg_ou__ co _m
mcm. 3. 5. J. 1md ommommg
_mJ_
_
mem
_ m J m g g
Ogmmc
c o
_m
comm Ogmmc
cmgd
) d
mogOgmmc
_ogd
121
mg o) _m__oo_. co_m, coomm mmmgm
Ogmmc mgm _cd coo Ommmmm
Ooooo!Jmm. cm, oomo mmg@o _gog co_m
g_g_m_m. _gOgmmcm cooTd _g gm
mmgumoo _m__oom. __om_ mg _ com_ gdoomd
_gOgmmcd g___oo_. _oommd Oooq_gg_m
__omg_m _cd om__m __ggm om_em_ggm_m. Cmgm
_mgm coo__d cmmJd m@m _qmm_ _mqoo coom.
_o C_mgg_md cgm. _m@m cmmJum oo!Jmd
oomoggd gcC_m_m.
commgOgmmc mgmm_ co_mJ_m )doo
_qm _cd coo_. coom g_m _cggm _Jd _
_m 1md _mm cmmJd oo!Jo_m _mmq cmmJd
oo!Jo_m coom. )dmog Ogmmc mgmm_
)doo _qm cm ggm _cd coo_.
3. em1md(larynx) _de_ )dmo : _mg Ogmmc mg
m__m coomm __g_oo_. _mgm o__gm 3 _mdem,
_m gOggmqoo coom. _o gooo, uoOmm_oomd
_mom_oom. g)m_, J1om_, mJomqd Cmmm_o
_mdem gOggmqoomm. _oood g)m_ gOggmq
OmT_. _oOogmCm o_g_ om mmm_ogmm. JTom_
gOggmq emTmJm _qggommm. m_ gOggmqoo JTomqm
Cmd _mom_oom. mJomqd g)m_ gOggmmm 1_
_m__oo_. _o_q )doog _om _m ! mm_omq _qmo
coo_. cm Ommoo _o gu@o _gogg g_g_m_m.
)doo@o coo uoOmm_oo )d ge _mmoomo
_m__oom. _o__m _cd coo _o Jomqd mm_ Om!.
)d gu _mmoo _o__ ocm om__mmd _g!oc__ gu
m_qJm_m. _g!oo _goTmgmd gum _goToemm. )d
mcm. 3. 5. 2. )dmo
mJomqd
J1om_ gOggmq
gOggmq momoo
_m_ mgmq
g1)m_m_ mcem
g)m_ gOggmq
122
gu _mmoom _ogg mm__mmgmd gum gmm mm_c
Ooemm. _g_ gOggmqcm _m_g gooo cgm. _mo_
)d gu _mmoom _om _gommm_. )d _mmoomd Cgmm_m gum
gmm _m, cg_oo, m_oo Cmmm_ _mqoomd mm__ meoo
om!gg coTqoo cmcmoemm.
4. _o gd : _gd ! oo _mmmm. _gm oo!
_mqg goomgm Ommmmm gooomgm _m_. J5-20 C` oqo
gOggmq oomoo _gm ooTd og_c _m__oom.
_oomq _oge _emog g___oo cgm. _o gum
coo__d ! Comg mcem coo_. _mceggd _g gm
mmgug gooo coom. _goo Ooou__ om
goOmmoo Comgg g)og_cm Oooggoo cgJm_m.
_ogemm_ J0-J2 Oo.1c! _o_c_. _gm co mcm J2
m.1c)mm. _gd Ogmmc mgu__ 5o_ mm!q _oOogmq
mgo) _m_oo_. _gum Jgmg _ J_ _gd_e
_oJo gdoomo mT__oo_. _mT m_m_m _cgggoo
gOggmq omTmm(carina) mmm_m. Ooou__ go_gemo
co_gm Ommoo _omcgg _c_gmd m_g mocm _md
m_m_m.
5. _)m)doo : _m_qoomJ _)m)doCo oomo
c_qoomm. _)m)d omq oqo_c_. _)m)um Jgmg
cg)mgmmggm Cmd _m__oo_. oe_ _)m)d 20 J)mm mcoo_.
___)m)d o__ OmT_. _c_ _)m)um mc 50 J)mm _m. oe_
_)m)ud _m_ o_qo_m _c_ _)m)ud _)m_ o_qo_m
coom.
_)m)doo mm!m_@o coom. _)m)doo o__gm
o_)m mcem coo_. _mcegg_m _)m)gm _cd o_)d
_cOmooo_. _omcOood o_)d g)mm coo_.
mcm. 3. 5. 3.
_)m)doo
)d mo
_o gd
om1mm
o_)m
_o _m gdoo
_)mcmm _e
_o Jo gd
_gd_e _o
Jo gd
123
_)m)do_ _cd coo mg 1qmdqmm mmm_m.
mmgmJ 1qmdqmggd _gm, _ogd, cmgd
_Jo coom.
_gd_e _oJo gd, _)gg gmoo, _)mqoo, _m_!
_momoo _)m)doom co )ggd ! _mc mgm ogmo co
_gJm_m _de_ OooC_Jm_m. _mg _em mmm_m.
_mgd _gm _mg_ _mqo_m Omm_omo _)m)d 1m!
mm_ _mcm_Jm_m.
_)m)u@o _gd_e _o Jo gdoo mToc__
_)mcmm _e _o Jo gdoomJm_m. _oood _c_
_)m)ud _)m_ Jogdo_m oe_ _)m)ud _m_ Jo
gdo_m Cgmm_m. _o Cmgm mToc__ _m_mm _e _o Jo
gdoomJm_m. _m_mm _e gdoo 1m_m mT__ _o
_mgdoo _Jm_m. _gm mcm J m.1c! _omuoemm. _o
Cmgm me __ mToc__ _mm _q _mgdoo
comJm_m.
_o geCmmm_ _gd _e _o Jogdo_m C`
oqo gOggmqoomgm Ommmmm gooomgm og_cm_oom.
_q _mgdoo J_ _o J___ood _qoc__oom.
_J___oo Omdu oo)memm om__moomm. _moom oo!
oomog gommJ__. _oo! mo Ommmmo _m__oogmd mogd
ommm__m _ogemm. oo! gqq 0.05 m)mmoo _omum.
mmgmm _)m)ud 300 mdum J___oo cm_. _oo_oom
Ommgg m)mo J43 o_) 1c!oomm.
. mm!m_m omm ommog goo_m : _)m)dood
coomo_m, Ooo oomo_m C_)qmo _ogogde. mm!m_m
Oomooo m__m om___gg Co_mm_oomCeC oomom _o_m.
oomJggud mm!m_m Oomooo mm_mm_oo me gooomd
_o_Jm_m. _o__m coomo-Ooooomo gooo mmemm.
cg)mgmmm, mem mgmmcg gooo, mm!qg gooo, dCoem
Cmmm_o _ooog gooomm.
3.J.. _)gg o__ c_qoo
memoom mTmmm mm__moomd meOod ccd _mq
Cgmm__. _ggmmmd _)gg o__ _mqoo Cgmm_emm.
_oommmmd ccum me mgo_m Cgomm Ommoo
ocggm_Jm_m. Ommmmemm memood _q _)gg gmoom
124
ogC _)ggm Oodgm. _oommd _)gg o__ om)mmmo
_gm _m__oo_. mmgTd m_ mmgqoo Cmmm_
_)co__` _mq __ cm_. _oommd _qmc o__d
_g _oggmd _)ggm ccum me mmomo_m Oom_ gmm
om. _g_ Jdcm _de_ ccd _)gg cm mm_ Om!.
_CgCmmm_ _gggu__ _)m)g _)ggm Oom_ 1_m. _g_
_)m)d _)gg cm mm_ Om!.
ccd, _)m)d _)gg cmoo
_)gg cggd mo _J mg _gmmm. _o_q !
_om_, go_mmm. _g@o _mm __o_m omdo_m cm_.
oe_ mTm, _c_ mTm, oe_ OomqTJo, _c_ OomqTJo
Cmmm_o __oomm. oe_, _c_ momoo ! _coo)md
mTom_oom.
Jdcm _de_ ccd _)gg cm
_)m)d gmm _u_m Om__ _)ggggm
_)m)doou__ _c_ mTgg_ m_g_ Oodgm. _gm _mm
Cood _c_ mTggu__ _c_ OomqTJ_ Oodgm
_)ggm mm, Om_gmmm _em _gggu__ OooC_m.
Om_gmm ___omomm J_ gmmoomo mT__ ccd __o_m
_)gggg m)qm. gmmoo me__ Jog_ 4 X J0

_m gmmoo
Cgmm_m mmomJcm_oo_. c_qoo@o _gmc _mm
mcmo_ g__Joo Cgmm_emm. _Cg mmmod _mJ)oo
[Oom_dooj Cgmm_m. _mJ)oo _m__ J)oo Cgmm_m.
mcm. 3. 5. 4. ccd, _)m)d _)gg cmoo
gog g__Joo
_)m)d g__J
_g _c_q_m
gmmoo
J)oo
gog g__Joo
_g me_ q_m
125
__gd Cmd, Jg OmJ)oo Cgmm_ _)gggg oe_ _TJ_
m_g_ OodJm_m. _omgm _c_ OomqTJou__ ccd __o_m
o__m_, mm _)ggm 1m_m oe_ mTgg _cog Jdcm
_de_ ccd _)gg cm mmJC_mm.
_)m)d _)gg cm
_o__m _gd _ed oe_ mTggu__ _)ggm oe_
OomqTJo _cm. _mJ__ _)m)d gmmm _em _)ggm
_)m)e _cm. _)m)uu__ _u_m Om__ _)ggm _)m)d
J)m _em 1m_m _gggd _c_ mTgg o_gcm. _omgm
oe_ OomqTJou__ _)m)d ogmo _)ggm 1m_m _c_
OomqTJo Oom_cog _)m)d _)gg cm mmemm.
1mm!cd _)gg cm
ccd _de_ Jdcm _)gg cggd mmm)d, omm,
_)m, J_cd Cmmm_ c_qoou__ 1_m J)oo C_)qmo
_gggcogde. _o_qoou__ ode)d Cmm!cd J)m
_em _)ggm, ode)e Oom_cm. _J) co__qood
g__Joomog _omJ ode)ud 1m_m g__Joomo _qocm.
ode)ud _gg__Joo 1m_m gmJm__ ode)d J)mJoom.
_J), JgOmJ)cm Co!__ oe_ mTgg Oom_cm.
_gmC 1mm!cd _)gg cm mmJC_mm.
_)gg o__ c_qoo
_)gg gmoo: _gggu__ _)gggg OooC__m
gmo_ gmmoo mm_ Om!. J)oo _ggg_ _)gggg 1m_m
Oomm_ oJm_m. gmmo_m J)o_m _o _m__oo
_cgg_Co_m OmTcm_oom. _gmoo _o m__m oo!
_mmm _qmcd oom_ggemm. mmm _qmcd
gmmoo ocg_m gmoo, m)oOom gmoo, gc m_m_g_m
gmoo mm oom_ggemm.
J. ocg_m gmoo: _gggu__ OooC_m Om_gmmm
_gm _J Joo_m _ooo om!_go. _gmoom oo!
1o gmmc_.
2. m)mOom gmoo: _o c_qoo Oom_cm J_
gmmoomm. _o c_qoo@o Jog_oom. _o__m oo!oo gog
gmmco.
3. gc1_m_g_m gmoo: _!qCmdoo _de_ _m
gmmoo _ooomm. _o J_ gdoomo _m@m _o__m
126
mcm. 3. . 2. mmg - gmmgOgmq
_c_ Omm_ oC)mq gmm
co mm!qg gmm
_c_ oggmm
m_ _Cm!cm
__m _Cm!cm
o__q_ Om_gmm
Cmd o___g gmm
J__)og gmm
_mOmo mmceggmm
Jg o___g gmm
Omm_ _um gmm
Ogmcggmm
_dmm! gmm
C)qd gmm
Cgmo gmm
oe_ Omm_ oC)mq gmm
oe_ oggmm
oe_ Cgmo-geggmm
co _em! J)
Ooo _em! J)
_c_ o J)
Cgmd-geJ)
Cmd OmJ)
ode)d J)
Jg OmJ)
_mOmo mmce J)
J__)oJ)
co _um J)
Omm_ _um J)
OgmcJ)
oe_ oJ)
mC)Jd J)
C)qd J)
_m qmd J)
_dmm! J)
mcm. 3. . 4. mmg - J)gOgmq
127
mcm. 3. . 4. _-gmm, _-J) _mq gJ_
[_j [_j
q_mom _Ommqm
q_mom _mOc!mm
q_mom 1qm
1o gmm mcem
mm1cmgem
oo! gog gmmcgmo momm. mmCo _o Cmdq_
gcmcmm gmmmd _)gg __gggg _oemm.
4. Oom_od - mmmod` gmoo: _o g__Joo.
_gmoom oo!oom ogC _)gggg_m goo_m _cd
Ommoo _cmm__m Om_emm. _oood _u_m, om!mm c
_u_, cmOmmoo, _!, _moo, ocmmoo, _m!Cmmmoo,
mg!_o Cmmm_o oo!oo ogC ocggmcemm.
5. _)ggg 1gJ gmoo: OmT J)oCo _ooo
gmoomo coom. _ggg C_mJ _)gggg Oomm_om
_gmoo me _oood coom. _o gmoo_ oo__m 1o
gmmmd _)ggggg Cgm _dq Oomm_oom. _gmmd __g
__gggggm _o m_g _o _)gggg Oomm_oom. _ooo
J)oom mmmo _gom.
_)gg gmoom _mq
_)gg gmood me _mq Co_mm_oo cm_. _m@m
_o__d Je _qmc _mqoo ommemm.
! _)gg gmd oo! mgm co _c_m coom. oo! mg,
_m_ Ogoomm q_m`(tunic) m@m __oo cc_. _o
q_mom _mqmm _de_ co __, q_mom 1qm _de_
_c_, q_mom mdc!mm _de_ Ooo_ _m.
co __omm_ mmCcmgum, Omdu _mqg go, 1ogmm
_m!oo Cmmm_o__md _m_. __m_Jd Omdu go Oodoo coom.
_oo_ _gd omggm mTggm om)mmmJ__.
Ooo_ _mqg gooomemm_. _)gg gmm gqmm
_gmm mcm m__m ooOmm_gg_.
_)gg gmm mooo
J. Om1 1o gmmg gmmoo: _ooog gmmoom oo__d
128
1ogmmc _m!oo cm_. _o__m oo! J m)mm _oc_.
_o _gg _qmmd omJ mTm.
2. go om! gmmoo: _o OmT, J_ goggmm Oommc
gmmoo. OmT gog gmmg gmmoom oo___ 1ogmmde.
_o__m oo! gqgg_. oo__d 30 - 40__oo Ommmmm gooo
cm_. _)gg cgg o_m_g_ogmd _o___ _)ggm m)qm
gmmoo mm_ Om!. _o__m mcm 30-40 m)mmoo _oc_.
J_ gog gmmoom oo! omJ, mTm _dqc_.
3. _m gmmoo _de_ _!q11mdoo: _o
gmmoou__ _)gggg g__Jo_ ocg_Jm_m. _o omJ,
mTm _dqc J_ gmoomm.
4. g__Joo: _o _m gmmo_m _m J)o_m
_cd m)moom. _o__m _o 5-8 m)mmoomm.
5. _m J)oo: _o gcmm, _o_c _de_ meComm
mmCcmgud Oodoomemm gmoomm. _mJ), me g__Joom
gmJmmmd Cgmm_m. _gm _oo 30 m)mmoo.
. J)oo: _o _m J)o_m OmT J)o_m
_cd coom. OmT J)oo _)gggg _ggg_
ocg_Jm_m.
2 m. 1c! _oom_ Cm_mc J)oo@o omdoo
cm_. omdoo m_ o_g)m oqo_co. _oomdoo
_ggg C_mJ _)ggm Oodog c_gm_g_Jm_m.
_)gg gmood Jooo
Je omm gmm _)mcmo mT__ _qocJ__. _Joo_
_q Jooo mm_ Om!. _q_mood Cgmm_m gmo_
mo Jooo mm_ Om!. gmmoo _mm _cmo_
_mmdc1mmJd _de_ _mcmoo mm_ Om!.
_)gg gmo_ _)gg cm
m_ cc_mgood coo c_qoo, gooo, Oodoo Cmmm_
mcm. 3. . 5. g__J gm
g__J mm1cmged Ood
co
129
_)gg gmoom oo___m cmOmmoo Cgo. )o
_Ommoo _gmood coo _)ggggu__ oo!oo@o
_gemm. _m@m J m.1c! _om_ Cmd _oo cc
gmood __ _em_. _ggo gmoom Cmdq_ggd mmom
mm1om)m(vasa vasoram) m@m mo _mm _)gg gmoo m)moom.
_o _)gg gmoom oo!oom coomo _g___o___
_)gggg _oJm_m.
_)gg gmoom _)mqoo
_)gg gmoom oo!ood mT _)mqoo m)moom. _o
gmoom go ooTm _ogg o_m_g_Jm_m.
_gm
_gm ! coc__ go-_m! _mqc c_mmm. __ o__
omq oqom _de_ m)m oqom cc_. m__ m)doo _m
mcJ _q _m_ oo _oemm. Omm_omo Jg__ Cmemo _gm
_om J2 Oo.1c! _oemm. _gm _om_ mgd, _oo 8-0 Oo.1
_oemm. ! _mm ccud _gggm mc 230-280 J)mm.
mm!q c_qoomJ cmgm, _gm, cmgd Cmmm_
mgoo _m__oo ! coo Com_mg 1qmdmm (medi-
astinum) mm_ Om!. _gm 1qmdmm mgd o__ omomo
_m__oo_.
_ggg o__gm _)mc_ mcemmJ Om1om!qm c_
_m__oo_. _o_d Ooomcem _mTgOmTom!qm mmm_m.
_gm cq_mmo Oodmce Om1om!qm _m__oo_. _ggg_m
OmTom!qgg_m _cd coo _cOood Om1om!qd g)mm
_)mmoo_.
mcm. 3. . . _gggm _mmc_m, Omoq_g 1gm___m
1qmdqmm
Om_gmm
_)m)d gmm
_)m)d J)
o1)mm1 gmm
JgOmJ)
_)m)d
cg)mgmmm
130
_gggm oo!, _m_ oo! __oomd _m_. _o
mom!qm, m1mom!qm, mm1cmom!qm _m. mom!qm
_gggm Oooq_ggd coo_. mmgd coo m1mom!qm
_gggog goomd _m_. _g _oggd _mg _J
mmom__J__. __ mmgguggmemm mm1cmom!qm _gggm
cooTd coo_.
3.J.7. _m_! c_qoo
ccum g)og gmm mm_ommgd _)gg o__ c_qo_cm
_m_! c_qo_m _J mmom__Jm_m. _m_!, ccd gooom
_!ggmm mm_omom cm mmgu__ Oom_q
Ommoo cJ)Jom cgm. _m@Toom gmgd, co _gm
_oOmmo mmgq _Jo__u__m _m_! mm_omm. _m_!,
_m_! Oodoo [em1mmo_ooj, _m_! _momoo, _m_! o)oo,
cmmJdoo, mmm)d, gmd o) Cmmm_o _m_! c_qoomm.
_m_! Oodo_m goo_m
_m_! c_qood _m_! gooo coom. _ggoood
umCmmo_oo mmm_m _m_! Oodoo coom. Cmgm _m
mm1)m1m_d(macrophages), cmq)q Oodoo, memmd
Oodoo Cmmm_om coom. umCmmo_oo goo _)gg
Oooo@oomm. _o Joq mgmq m__d c_mggmJ
_)ggggm _em m_ _m_! c_qo_m goo_m m_g_
Oodem_Jm_m. umCmmo_ood me ooo_m_.
B-em1mmo_oo _de_ B Oodoo Oooq_ggu__ ccu@o
_gm Cog _eo_oo _cmom om_ _gm mg!
mcm. 3. . 7. _gm - co _mq
1md OmJ)
me_ m1m
_mgg mmd
me_ Ommq1Jo
Om_gmm
_ o_g) mmdoo
+1gg mmd
om!1c Ocmq1m
Ommq1em! _com!
JgOmJ)
131
_ooo c_mgg Oooqo. T-umCmmo_oo o)doomd
mmgomc Oodoo _cmom om_ _gm. B`, T`
umCmmo_oo mgmq m__d coo _eOodoou__
Cgmm_Jm_m. T-umCmmo_oo gmd m@m _m_! c_m@o Oom_
m_Co _g!JcJm_m. B` Oodoom _g!J mgmq m__CeC
_o_m. _om)mmoomd gmd, mgmq m__ Cmmm_o__ m _m_!
c_qoo mmemm.
gmd
_o_qoo Oommc _o_q o_C___ _Comm
oqo_c_. gmd 1qmdqmm mgd mm!Omgmm_m
OmTom!qgg_m _cd coo_. _gm _o _m_ ogOmm_g_
mm_m_m. m__g g_gm ccud gmum mc J0-J5 J)mmoo _m.
oo!Jd _o _m_m.
gmd o_mm o__gm Omdu _mqg gommmemm
c_ coo_. gmd, _)m_ __oo Oommc_. cq_ __
Om_dem mmm_m. Oooq_mmo q_m _de_ om!Ocd mgoo_.
umCmmo_oo om!Ocd mgd ommm_Jm_m.
_m_! o)oo
_o J_, Comooqo _mqoo. _o__m _o J-25 m.1c!
_oemm. _o _m_! _momoo m)moo mgoo _mgggm
coom. _m@m Ogmcmg(inguinal nodes), oo_oqd (axillary
nodes), o_g_ mg(cervical nodes) _J _m_ _cmoogm _o _gom
coom. ! o)mm cq_mmo omd m@m _c_e mgm_.
_gm o__gm mmComoq Oodoo _m_gm.
cmmJd _de_ _q_m ogoo
_o ccum moOmT _m_! o)moomm. mmTmoo, m_
CogOmmoom gmguu__ cce mm_omo cgJm_m.
OmTo!oom Ogmmc mgd _o mqmqmo m___ mcemm.
Ogmmc mgm cooo__d _m_ oo cmmJdoo cm_. _o__d
Cmd _mm cmmJdoCo, ogoggd cmmJdoo` mm
_mcm_Jm_m. _o coom __m Ogmmc mgm
_cd coom. Ogmmcq_ cmmJdoo`(pharyngeal tonsils),
_qmm_oo mmm_m. _o co _mJ_ Ogmmcmgd _mm
_cgggoom. _mJm _qm)md coo _m_! o)moo _mq_
cmmJdoo mmm_m.
132
mmm)d(Spleen)
_o_q __ommo _q ooc_. o___m _c_
mggoo_. mmm)ud Jmq og, Omoo og mm _oo
_m_!g gooo cm_.
_m_! cm
ccd gooou__ _m_!g g__Joom _em _m_!
OooC_m. _ggo g__Joo q_gCgmd C)mmmoo, _omoo, om!mm,
_gOggmqoo, m _)mq mmcem, mgmq m__ Cmmm_ mgood
_de. _m_! g__Joo _m__ _m_! _momoog Cgm__
mg_oom. ___momoo _m_! o)moo C_mJ OodJm_m.
___momo_m _m_! o)mo_m _mommCo ccd mgood
Ogmqoomo coom. _ggo Ogmqoo [Jj ge m__m o_g_ [2j
Cm_o mg [3j omd mg [4j o_-__q mgoo [5j mm!q Cmmm_
mgood ommemm.
me mgoom _m_! _momoo oe_ m__m _c_ _m_! J)
Cmm!cdoo ogmo J)ood _qocJm_m. __Oogmq mgd
m__ m_ _m_! _momoo J) Cmm!cd gmood
o_ggmJd g___oom.
mcm. 3. 7. J. _m_! c_qoo
oJ1omm J)
mm!q gm
_m_! o)oo
_m_! _mom
133
3.J.8. _)mq_qg Ogmq
mmgmm _)mq c_qoo _mggm m__ __mmo ____
Oomoo_ __mud ! oomemoCooo_. me mdum Oodoo _o__d
coom. _Oodoom me mm_mc OodoCo mmg!oom _cggm
mmqo_m om)mmmJm_m. mmCo __mum me __oo
om!_go!oo _gm __mmo __m __Jood +_m_oom!.
_om__ _oo O__momemmo _cOm_Jm_m. _m_m
_)omomm __mem!, _om _mq Ood g_m m__
_)mJood +_m_oom!. _o m__ __mmog
OgT__Oomoo co__mmmd, cc_Ooud, _eo_ cTd,
comd, mg_om Cmmm_ me __ood Cmgm om_mqqoo
Cgom_J__.
_qmcd _)mq c_qoo __)mmoo` m@m _)mq Oodoomd
_mo. cm!oo __)mmoo ocg_Jm_m. Cmgm Om__ cm!oo
__m, _ Oom Comq Oom _o om)mmmJm_m. _o
_omo_Oom gooog gmcmgm. _o, gm_ocm, _)mqoo
_Jo__d me Ogmc!qo_cm _m__oo __)mmoom Ood __oo
mom Joemmo.
! __)mm _qmcd ocmm m@m Ood _mmmmd _m_.
ocmmm _Joo Ocmq)_oo, Ocmq)mmoo _m. m_o__cm
Ogmc!q Oomo_m _mc _J _omm mmm_m. ocmmoom
_mmgm Ocmq)mmoom mmmogm _ommm _mmgm
Co_mm_oo cm_.
! __)mm _Jgoo m_O_m __)m@cm _qgg_
mgmmd Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_. _ggo Ogmc!qo_ ommd
mm_ Om!. _q mgd _)mqoo goo_cm Ogmc!q Oomm_oom.
_gOgmc!m_ _)mq-go _mqoo mm_ Om!.
! ccd _)mm _mq
! _)mq me _)mq _m!oo _m_. _ggoo _ummoo oomm
Oodoomd(schwann cells) _cm_oom. _o mmJe(fasciculi) m@m
o_oomo coom. _o_oom mmmo _)mqood Co_m_m.
_o_oom Ogmq m__1m m@m c_md _cm_oo_.
gmggm o_oo Om1__1m c_md gmqm. _g@o
mm1cm__1m m@m _mqg go cm_.
! _)mmd mm__Tm mg 30-70% _m_gm. _ggoo
Oom_q, _)mm_ Ommmggmm _om.
134
OmT__Tggd __gg_gg __oomo me gcmm mm_o
Oodoo coom.
_)mmm coomqo_ mmom O_!1mmom m@m _mm
_)gg gmoo _)gggg m_g_ Oodgm.
_)mq_mm
_)mq_qoo gm_cOmmm_ Ogmc!qco. _o__ me
Ogmqoomo mToemm.
_j m _)mq_qoo(C N S)
_gOgmmd _om gm_mc_m coom. _o
mgmm_oo@o mm_ommmo coom. _omm_ mmcCmq@o_m
gm_ocm __Oogmmm __)d omdom@o_mmo _m__oom.
mmc1m_ Om__om ogmo gm_ocm _ou__
Jg_mJoo_.
_j Omo Ood _)mqoo(P N S)
_o _)mqo_m gm_oc _)mqo_m OooOod _)mqoomm.
_o _)mqoo J2 _mo_m gm_oc _)mqoo 3J _mo_mmo coom.
_j m1 _)mqoo
___)mqoo _o, gm_oc c_qoou__ co__qg
goo_ Oogoo m_g_ OodJm_m. _o _m _)mmm
mm_m o_m_Jm_m(involuntary nervous system).
I. _o
_o_q mm_ommmo mmcCmq@o coo_. _m _m_
c_oo _gm g__oom. _o_oo _ mToomo o_emm.
J. mmJOmmd(Pachymenix) - q_)mCmc! c_
2. Oe1cmOmmm_d(Leptomeninges) - _)mmm_ c_, mmCmc!.
q_)m1mc!
_om Cmd c_mm. _o_ 1ogmm__ _c!ggmm
c_mm. _gm_g_ _)mmm_ c_ coo_. __ m
c_mm. _)mm_, mmCmc! c_o_ _cd Jg
_)mmm_ _cOoooo_. _mgd _o-gm_oc g)o_m
_)gg gmo_m coom. mmCmc! _om Jg c_mm.
_o_m 1_ _)gg g__Joo m)moom.
135
mmgTm _o J.3 J.J)mm mcoo_. _gd g mdu@m
Cm_mc __)mmoo coom. oo!J _qmcd _o _m_
mgoomo mToemm.
J. q1)momJ"mem [_m _oj (Prosencephalon)
_mgd Om_om cmJ"mem mgo_m coom.
Om_omm_ _om OmT mgmm. _mg ! m
ommmd _)m_ _)Comomoomo _m__oo_. _Comomoo
_qq_ggd om!md o1emom m@m _)mmg _mmmd _m__oom.
Om_om Cmdm)m_ om!Ocd _de_ ommmd __mg
mm_ Om!. _mg 2-4 m.1c! _c!ggoo_. _gm cq_mmo
Ommm mgoo_. Om_om Cm_q_ggd o)` (Gyri) m@m
me mqqoo coom. _o om!Ocum Ooom)moo _goTm.
_o___ _cd coo J_ moomo_ odo` (sulci) mm_ Om!.
Om_o _)Comomoo _mm o_qoomo mTg_
ommemm.
_mo_q [_j m)mmcd(Frontal) - gem _mq_m coo_.
1mdo_q [_j Om)cd(Parietal) - co_gegoo_.
moo_q [_j OcmOmm)d(Temporal) - _om _q_moogm coo_.
Jgo_q [_j _Jmcd(Occipital)- _om _qq_gggoo_.
_mmmqqem
mcm. 3. 8. J. mmg _om coomq
Om_o
gm_mcm
mmmd
_om
_ c 1
o)
J_ _o
om!md o1emom
136
_m _om cmJOmem _ mgoo Oommc_. _o
__C gemmd, _1mmgemmd _m. _mg Om_om
_oggmq_m _cd coo_. _Cmmgemmd mT _)mqo_cm
Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_. _mgm _qq_ggd qmd oqo
_m"mmqqem coo_. _o_q m_cT o)mm
__C)m_CmmmJocm Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_.
II. _c_o _de_ 1omJ"mem(Mesencephalon)
__ _om J_ mgmm. _gm Cm_q_ggd _mm J_
ocoqo c_qoo coom. _o___ om!Cmm)m omqTO_mmm (cor-
pora quadrigemina) mm_ Om!.
III. m_o _de_ 1)mmmmJ"mem(Rhombncephalon)
_m_o mgd _om, mmmd oC)mu(pons varolii), J__o
mm _m_ mgoo coom. J__o, _)m_ o_qoo Oommc_.
_gm Cmdq_m me mqqoo coom. _o Cmmum(folia) mmm_m.
J__od _m_ mgo_m_. _o
"omo1om1_m_em! o_q(flocconodular lobe)- J_ Cmd _mqoo.
Om!md(vermis)- m, _J mg
mo 1omomoo(lateral hemispheres)- _)m_ OmT _)Comomoo.
mmmd(pons) m@m mg _oggm Cmdmgd coo_. _mg
co, OooOodgm _)mqoom gcmmo coo_.
_om, 3 Oo.1c! _o_c_. _mg gm_ocggm Ogmc!Jmm.
gm_ocgg_m _om _cd _mq mmemmo coo_.
_oggm_
_om, mmmd, _c_o _J _m_ mgo_m _og gm_
mmm_Jm_m. _mg gm_ocgg _ocm _mJ__. J2 _o
_)mqood J0 _)mqoo _mgm ogmoCo _ocm Ogmc!q
Oomm_oom.
gm_mcm
gm_ocmmm_ mmcCmqm Om__ou__
_)mcmo_ __Omgmq mgo) _m__oo_. _mg
__Oogmqg OgmcTm mc _oggd _omm_. _ _cmood
gm_ocm _om_oo_. _o __C o_g_ qcq (cervical en-
largement), __q qcq(lumbar enlargement) mmm_m. __q qcmm
Jg, gm_ocm _oec__ omq oqmd coo_. _mg 1ommd
137
Om_dem1d mm_ Om!. _gmg Ogmc!__ _mqggo _m!oo _m_
_m__oom. _g_ _q _m! _Joo(filum terminal)mm_ Om!. Commd
Om_demTd, _q _m! _J _J mgoo g) omum _q mg
Cmmgoogmd _g_ g) mmd` _de_ omcm +mmmm(cauda equina)
m@m Om! cm_.
gm_ocggm _ Oo_g Cgm__ggd mmgd ommmd
__ mgmm _gm o__gm Oomm __mgmm
ommemm. ommmd __mgd _)mq Oodoo, Ocmq)_oo coom.
Oomm mgd _)mqg gcmoo coom.
gm_ocggm Cmgm J_m oTmoomoo coom. 3J _moo
gm_oc _)mqoo Cgmm_oom. goOom _)mqm Cmd Co!, Jg Co!
mgoomd gm_ocg_cm _m__oo_. Cmd CoTd, CmdCo! _)mm@
cm_.
__oo
_om gm_oc_m _m__ ! coc__ gd Cmmm_ gmm
Oomm_oom. _o@o coo __oo OomqTJooo mmm_m.
Om_o _)Comogg@o coo OmT g mg mo
Ommq1Jo(lateral ventricle) mmm_m. ! mo OomqTJo gm_mo_,
_)mcmo_ OomqTJooom _momd m_m_oo_. _q_mo
OomqTJoo_m _)m_ _c Ommq1Jo _ooom(foramen of
Monro) _em _m__oom. mm _o cmJmem mgd coo
_m_mo_ OomqTJo@o g___oom. _m_mo_ OomqTJomm_
_ogg@o coo _mmomo_ OomqTJo __@o g__gm.
_ommq ! _J omdomm(aqueduct of sylvius) ogmo m_m_m.
_gmg Ogmc!__ gm_ocggm momdom _m_gm.
momdommm_ gm_ocggm __go) m)mm.
mcm. 3. 8. 2. gm_mcm _ Om_g 1gm__m
ommmd __ mg
Ommm __ mg
gm_mc omdmm
1md moom
138
_o gm_mcg g)mm
_gg)om _om OomqTJo __oo@o_m
gm_ocggm m gu@o_m m)m Jcm. _gg)oggd 80-00%
mo OomqTJo __oo@o coo J_q OodoomJ mOmmcmd
Oodood(ependymal cells) c_mggmJ__. mJ J0-J2% g)om _m_mo_,
_mmomo_ __ood coo _ooo Oodood c_mggmm.
mOmmcmd Oodoo, _g)g go, Ogmc!qc _)gg gmoo
_Jo _m_m _m__ 1om)m_ _mqoo (choroid plexuses)
mmm_Jm_m. _mg, _om c_mJ mmCmcTm co C_mJ
oo!Jmd m_m_m.
3.J.9. cm! c_qoo
o__q_ggu__ go, Oomm, gu, Cog og_J, __ggm,
Ogm_gd, _Jcgd Cmmm_ me cm!oo cToo Om_emm. _o__
cmm _mqo_ cm! c_qoo mm_ Om!. _o_qoo
gmmoo Om_m cm!oog gm_gdoomo _)mqoom _em
ocg_Jm_m.
Cgmum Ogm_cm! c_qoCo mo mo cm! c_qoomm.
_o gmgg _)mq Oodoomd _mo. m_ cm! c_qoo Joemm
_mqoo cco. _o_qood coo J_q mgoo cm!oo
cmm. omo_m om_o_m mo _J cm! c_qoomm.
om
! om _m_ c_oo Oommc_.
c_oo mgoo
J. Cmd c_ [_j _m! c_ dJo)m(sclera), om!mm(cornea)
2. m c_ 1om)m_(choroid), Je1
c_q(ciliary body), _1d(iris)
3. co c_ [_j _)mq c_ mggg)
ommm Oommcem dJo)m mmm_m. ommm Ooom)md
Ommmgm __ _qoo_. _mg omm_ __mm
oqoggg gm. mm_omq _om.
ommm _m mgd go m__m ood coo __m__ mg
om!mm mmm_m. _mgm ogmo go m__m. _mg
Oomem_m, 1o _goo, qC)mqCmJoomoo Oommc _mqg
gommmd _m_.
139
om Comoggm ___ mg _)ggg g__Jooc_. Cmgm
_mgd Omemm __mo_m coom. _mgC mgm o_q
mcemmJ__. _mq_mmo _o_ JuT c_mmm _Td(iris) m@m
go _m _mmmm Oomm_oo_.
JuT c_md Ommmmm JuTg gooo coom.
_ggooom _oggmd mgOemJm oqom mm_emm.
ommm __ mg _1d _m. _mg oq, m_q _de_
mgm __gguoemm. __ _d(pupil) _de_ mgmmm
o__gm omm _dqcm _m_gm. gomm_ _mgm
ogmoCo omm@o _gm. _gm gom _omm _Td
o_m_g_m.
Oemo
dJo)m
mggg)
1om)m_
Je1 c_q
om!mm
ommmm
_1d
mcm. 3. 9. J. om - Om_g 1gm__m
mcm. 3. 9. 2. om - _m q_m
Je1 c_q
Oemo
ommmm
_1d
om!mm
_md __m!
140
omComoggm co c_ mggg)mm. _o_m
Oooq_mmo __m mggg)m cq_mmo cm! mggg)m
coom. cm! mggg)mm_ go cm! gmmc_. _mgd
cm! Oodoomo omqoo(cones), Joo(rods) m@m _mqoo coom.
omqoo 7 mdumo_m Joo J20 mdumo_mmo _m_gm.
omm_oo
omm@o _)m_ _J __o_m_. mgOemJm _mmmo
! J_ __m mm q_mmo ! OmT __mmo _o _m_gm.
_mq_ __ Cmgm _)m_ __oo Oommc_. _oood
_gd __ om!mmm_m _TJ_m _cd coo_. _)mcmo_ __
_TJ_m mgOemJ_m _cum. _om __o_m _md
__m![aqueous humour) m@m Ommomd _)mm_oom. _Ommo
omm@o coo __gggg mm_omm.
mgOemJm mmq_m coo __ OmT_. _gd m1d
__m!(vetreous humor) m@m ogm Ommo coo_.
mcm. 3. 9. 3 mggg) - omqo_m Jo_m
omqoo
om __)mmoo
J Ood
mcm. 3. 9. 4. J Ood
emOmd1e
m1cmommq1m
co
mcm. 3. 9. 5. om __oo
_md __m!
m1d __m!
141
mgOemo ! J_mmm _mmmm. _oomq go
m__ooq _q_m m_g _mmmm. _mg _mc gm
mmggud Oodoomd _m_. _o___ Oemo _goo mm_ Om!.
_omgoo@o J1dcemoo m@m q)gmoo _)mmoom. _
om __o_m _cd mgOemo Cmd-Jg _mqoomd
_e __ggm_oo_.
omoom Ood g_@ _m c_qoomJ ommmoo,
omqom, omOmm mcem, omm! o)m Cmmm_o cgJm_m.
O___ mgd Cgmm_m m!o omm@o __mommd
omqom g_g_m_m. C_)qmo Tgo omoom 1_ m_gem
)o omqom g_oemm.
ommmo_m _gm mommd coo C)mmmo_m go
Ommoo omood m_ogg g_oemm. cq_mmo ommmoo
_mm _cgggoo J_ Joq-_oJoq ___c oo!J
om)mJo(caruncle) mm_ Om!. _mgd mm_mc m!o o)moo
coom. ommmoom comommd coo o)moo ommmo_
+)ggmmoJm_m. Cmgm _CgCmmm_ ommmoom cq_mmo
Omd1mmmm o)o_m cm_. _o__m o)m_ Jmm mm_ Om!.
ommmoom cq_gggm omoom Cmdq_gggm m)moo
Omdu mcegg_ om_mqmm(conjunctiva) _de_ mg Omm mcem mm_
Om!.
om gm Cmd ) mommd omm! o)moo coom.
_o)moo g _mo g m.u m@m _omd omm) o)Jm_m.
_omm! omm)m gJoom_ gmmo oggo cgm.
ommm Jg )ggd J_ _ooo cm_. _o___ mmcm(puncta) mm_
Om!. _g_o omm! _m omdom@o g___oo_. omdom !
m@o _qocm. _oomq _gomqmm omm) _o cgm.
Oomoo
Oomoo gu cm! c_qoo. ! Oommm_ cOom, __Oom,
OooOomOm _m_ mgo_c_.
OmoOom: Oooq_mmo ogm__oo Oommcd coo_.
_mg 1ogmmc gOggmq m__m Cgmummd _m_.
_gmg Ogmc!__ OooOom gm coo_. _gmm cooTd
C)mmmo_m Om_Ommo o)mo_m coom. _o Ooou__
142
goOmmoo _gogg g_m. gmm _qmd Oomm_ coo_.
_o_q _o_c oqmd _m_ __oo Oommqm. _mg
OooOom, __Oommgoom _cd coo_.
__Oom: _mgd _m_ Oom J_O_gmqoo coom. _o ogg,
mcc, _momq mmm_m. ogg mgmmm(malleus) _ _Joo
Oomm_cm Ogmc!q Oomm_oom. mcc mgmq(incus) _q_m
coo ogg, _mooq mgmqo_cm Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_. _mooq
mgmq(stapes) cq_mmooo coomgd _qoc__oo_.
cOom: _mgd mmcCmq@o coo mmgo_m __o_m
cm_. _g_ mgmq emmT_g mm_ Om!. _gd _m_ mgo_m_.
_o omom(cochlea), Oodq__d(vestibule), _)oc omdomoomm.
_o_qoo gu cm!o __ cgm.
3.J.J0. _momdem o)oo
_m_ ccud _)m_ _J o_mm_ _mqoo cm_.
_o _)mq_qo_m _momdem o)mo_mmm. _o ccd c_qoom
_ogg o_m_g_o_cm gmJm_g _omo_m
om)mmm coom. _momdem o)moo Cog _eo_oom _em
goo_omm o_mm_ Oogoo _@qJm_m.
_m_eo_oo _)gg cggm _em ocggm_Jm_m.
_m_eo_o_ _m!Cmmmoo mm_ Om!. _m!Cmmmoo ccd
c_qoom Oodoo o_m_gg ccd _eoo J)mo
_momq
Omoom_ mcd
_)mc omdmm
omom
ogg
mc
Oomgd
mm!m _)mq
Oom
Oomm_

mcm. 3. 9. . om_ - coomq
J_O_gmqoo
143
oggo cgJm_m. me _momdem o)moo _m_ ccud cm_.
m_cT, g)m_, mm)g)m_, omm, _Tmdoo, m__
o)moo, _mc o)moo Cmmm_o _J o)moomm.
_o)moom Oodoo __mmo __ogmd me C_moo
o_m_ggemm.
_c1 o) _de_ _1mmgemmd
_o_q m_ _J _m!Cmmmoo o)m. _o ccum me
_ogJoo o_m_g_oCgm_ m_ _momdem o)moom
_Jm_m. _om _Cmmgemmd mg m_cTcm
_m__oo_. m _c1 o) _Cmmgemmd _Jmm.
_c1 o)m _mq
_o)m J Oo.1c! _oo cc_. _gm mc 0.5 - J J)mm
_m. mmcCmqd _omgm g)d coo dJmm_ mgmmd
Oodem c!Jom(sella turcica) m@m ! moom cm_. _m _o)moo_.
_om _Cmmgemmocm m_cT o)m _mmmqqem(infundibulum)
m@m _Jmd Ogmc!q Oomm_oo_.
Cgmm_gd, Oodoo _Jo__m _qmcd _o)m _)m_
mgoomo mTom_m. _o mm m_cT _de_
__C)m_CmmmJd(neurohypophysis), _mm_cT _de_
_qCmm_CmmmJd(adenohypophysis) _m.
_c1
g)m_ mm)mg)m_
omm
_1md
m__ o)
_mc o)
mcm. 3. J0. J. _momdem o)oo
144
m _c1 _de_ __1)m_1mmmJd
_o_q _ocm Ogmc!qc_. mmCo __
__C)m_CmmmJd mmm_m. ooo!Jd _om Jgmgd
_CmmgemmJm Ogmc!Jmog Cgmm_m. _om Jgoo!Jmd
_mmmqqem Cgmm_m. _gm _mmg OmTgmJ mmm_cTmJ__.
_o)mm _m!Cmmmoo, __C)m_m!Cmmmoo mmm_m.
_m_c1 _de_ _q1mm_1mmmJd
ooo!Jd coomm o)mg Cmd q_mmo oo!J__ !
m _mm Cgm__mm. _g_ )mg1om m` (Rathkeys pouch)
mm_ Om!. _mg mm m_cT C_mJ oom. om mgm
Ogmc!mm _g__ _mg _mm_cTmJ__. _o)m _m_
mgooc_. _o mm!d q_m)med(pars tuberalis), mm!d
qdcmed(pars distalis), mm!d _mc!1qm(pars intermedia) _m.
_c1 _ogOgmc!q
_Cmmgemmud me _)gg gmoo cm_. _g_ _gd_e
g__J mmd mm_ Om!. _mgu__ _m m_cT o)gm
_1mmgem1mm _1mmJd 1mm!cd gd _m__oo_. [!
Cmm!cd _)gg gd g__Joomog _omJ g__JoomoCo _qocmj.
_Cmm!cd gd _m m_cTm g__J _qJd _qocm.
_CmmgemmJd c_mggmm __C)m_m!Cmmmoo _gd_e g__J
mmmud Comom_m.
g)m_ o)
_o)m _)m_ o_qoo Oommc_. _o _ogum Cmd
mcm. 3. J0. 2. _c1 -[ _j __g 1gm__m [ _j _o Om_g 1gm__m
__1)m _1mmmJd
mm!d q_m)med
mm!d qdcmed
mm!d _mc!1qm
[_j
_q1mm_1mmmJd
_1mmgemmd
_mmmqqem
[ _j
145
mgd _ momoogm coom. _o_qoo _J _d_md
(isthmus)m@m g)m_ gommmd _mo. _momdem o)mood
g)m_ OmT_. _gm mc 20 J)mm._o_md me _)ggg g__Joo
cm_. _Jd coo m_ gooomc _o_q mo Jommm_.
_g@o me Como oqo mmuJooo cm_. _o__m ooTd omq
oqo mmggu Oodo_m_. mmuJom __md ! _cOoo cm_.
_omcm g1)m1omqem(thyroglobulin) qC)mmmd _)mmm.
_mg _go _omd g)m_ _m!Cmmmoog CgJoo oq_.
g)m_ o)mmd o)om_m _m!Cmmmoo g)mJm, omdJCcmmm
_m.
mm)g)m_ o)oo
_o g)m_ o)mcm _m_Cg coom. g)m_ o)m
o_qoo goOomm_m mmq_gggm _o qg__oom. _mm
mm)g)m_ o)moo cm_. coomo Oodoo _c!ggmo coom.
_Oodoo mm)g)m_ _m!1mmm o)Jm_m.
_1md o)oo
_o J__)oggm Cmgoom. _o__ o__gm _qCmmd go
coo_. _o)moo ! _mqggo c_@o coom.
_Tmd o)moom cq_m Om_demm Oooq_mmo om!Ocd
mg_m_. _om mgo_m ooo!Jd _Co_ gooou__
Cgmm_om. Om_demmd mm_o Oodoo O_ommo coom.
om!Ocud Oodoo J_o. _Oodoo _m_ __oomoom. _o
ommCemom __(Zona glomerulosa), mmJCecm __(Zona
fasciculata), O)qCecm __oo(Zona reticulata) _m.
_Tmd Om_dem, mmO_Tm [_Tmumj , _m!mmO_mTm
[ _m!_Tmumj m@m _Jmmm _m!Cmmmoo o)Jm_m.
mcm. 3. J0. 3. g)m_ m__m mm)mg)m_
mcm. 3.J0.4. g)m_ . Om. 1gm__m
_o gd
g)m_
mm)mg)m_
o)q Oodoo
_Jmd
146
om!Ocd mg _m!Cmmmoo, om!qomd(cortisol) _dCcmdqC)mm
(Aldosterone) _m.
omm
omm, _)mm _mJ_cgm _m__oo _cggm
oo mgd coo_. _gm mc 85-J00 J)mm. _o_q J5 Oo.1c!
_o_c_.
omm, _mo_oo, _momdem o)mg gmmoo cc_.
_momdem o)m mgd omg goo [emmo!_mmm g_ooj
coom. _o__m mmmo 500,000 - J,000,000 _m. _gg_ood
_dmm[) Oodo_m(20%), Jcm[) Oodo_m [75%) coom. Oodoo
_oomm _m!Cmmmm Oodoo _moum _m!Cmmmm
o)Jm_m. _m_mo_ oomm Ocdcm Oodo_m [5%) coom.
_Oodoo CommmCcmdcmqm _m!Cmmm o)Jm_m.
3.J.JJ. J__)o c_qoo
J__)o c_qo_m _mOmo c_qo_m o oo!Jd
mm_mco. Oodood _om)m_ c_qo_m mm_mc
_dqo_co. _om)mmoomd _om c_qg Ogmqo_m
gmggmC moTom_oom.
J__)omoo, J__! _momoo, J__!m Cmmm_o J__!
c_qoomm.
J__)omoo
_o _o)mg oqo_c_. J__)om m_q oe_g Joq
___c_. _o o___m mm ooTd gqoom. _c_ J__)om
mcm. 3. JJ. J. mmg - J__)o
c_qoo
J__)o J)
J__)og gmm
J__)om
J__! _mom
J__! m
J__! omdmm
147
ode)um _emd o__ Jg_mJ _egoo_. J__)oggm _om JJ
Oo.1c!, _oem Oo.1, mmm 3 Oo.1c! _m. _mood J__)oggm
mc J50 J)mm[Ommood J35J)mmj.
J__)o co )ggd coo gmg _em(hilum) mmm_m.
_mgd J__)og gmmm _)mqo_m J__)ogg@o _gJm_m.
J__)o J)m J__!_mo_m OooC_Jm_m. J__)ogg o__gm !
_m! _mqg go c_ cm_. cq_ggd om!Ocd, Om_dem m@m _
mgo_m_. cq_m coo Om_dem mgd me omq oqo J__)o
m)m_oo coom. _m)m_oom _J mgoo [Om_deT _Jooj
om!Ocd[q_mj mggoom. m)m_oom _mmg J__)o
mmdem mm_ Om!. _o J__)o omd mgd g___oom.
mmmdemoo o__gm qmd oqo _mmd J_ omuooo(minor calyces)
coom. _ooo _m__ OmT omuooo (major calyces)cmcmJoom.
g J__)oggd 8-20 J_ omuoo_m _)m_ _de_ _m_ OmT
omuoo_m _oemm. OmT omuooo gmJm__ OmT omdommo
Tmd Omdmd cmcmJoo_. Tmd Omdmd mm _oec__ J__!
_mom Cgmm_oo_. ___mom J__! md _qocm.
O_")mm
J__)oggm Oodm_m _e O_)mmoo. g J__)oggd
J.3 mdum O_)mmoo coom. _o__d ccm omg __g_
450, 000 O_)mmoo Oodm_gd Cgo. ! O_)mmd Tmd
om!mod(renal corpuscle), _m _m _mom, O_mCem oom, mm
_m _mom Cmmm_ mgoo coom. mm _m _mom J__! CooTm
_moggd g___oo_. Tmd om!mod, _m _m _mom, mm _m _mom
mcm. 3. JJ. 2. J__)oggm _oOm_g 1gm__m
J__)og gmm
q_m
J__)o )m_
_em
Tmd Omdmd
J__)oJ)
Om_em
omeo
J__! _mom
148
Cmmm_ mgoo om!Ocd mgd coom. CooTq _mom, O_mCem
ooggd g mg, Cmmm_o Om_dem mgd coom.
O_)mmoo 50-55 m. 1c! _o_co. J5% O_)mmoo
OmTo. OmT O_)mmoo Om_demmm _Jd coom. _o
Om_demm_gg O_")mmoo (juxtamedullary nephrons) mmm_m.
_o__d OmT O_mCem oom cm_.
! O_)mmm Tmd om!moud ! Omommmm Jmm_m
g__Joo _qom coo_.
Omommmm Jmmggd Ooooo!(parietal layer), coo!(visceral
layer) mm _ __oo cm_. Ooooo! __ mmggu goomd
_m_. coo! g__J _qJm o__oo_. _ooTd
1mm1cmo_oo(podocytes) m@m J_q Oodoo coom. g__Joom
oo! Omdu mmCcmgud Oodoomd _m_. mmCcmgud
Oodo_m CmmCcmo_o_m _cd ! mcem _m__oo_.
_oomqoo _mg_m Ommggggd oqggd mcem` (filtration membrane)
mmm_Jm_m.
omm_eJm g__Joo J__)o _)gg gmo_cm Ogmc!q
Oomm_oom.
Omommmm Jmmm _m _m gu@o g___oo_. _gd
_m mo gd(proximal convoluted tubule) mmm_m. _mg J4 m.1c!
_o_m 0 m)mm _ mc _om Oommc_.
J__)o _m gd
Omommmm Jmmm
_)gg _momoo
cOodgm _)gg
_momoo
omm_ed
OmoOodgm _)gg
_momoo
O_m1em mo
1oo1q _mom
mcm. 3. JJ. 3. O_")mm
149
mmq_ggd, _m _mgd, O_mCem ooggd g___oo_.
_oooggd __m ggm m_ ggm cm_. Om_demm@o _gm
oomg mqmqmo J_gmJ__. m_gmm oo! mo Omdu_. mm
_m gd cmm_.
J__! _mo_m J__! mm
J__! _momoo J__)o OmdmJu__ Cgmm_ JgC_mJ
OodJm_m. _o J__)o _em mgd Cgmm_ J__!md
_qocJm_m. J__!m g_omuommo J__) Como cgm. _m
coc__, go oo! Oommc _mmmm. __ Jg __q mgd
coo_. _mm _o J__Tm _omm Ommgg_. _gm
Oomooo J20-J30 m.u _m. _go mom 500 mu o) J__)
Oomooemm. 280 mud J__! ogq m_m_m. J__momoo mm mm
momood co _gJm_m. mm _mq_ggd Jgmo J__)o omdom
coo_. omdom md _m__oo _cggd o_g gooo coom.
_g_ cq_ oggo mm_ Om!. _Cg Cmmm_ ! Omoq_
og gom cm_. _o J__! omdomd J__! OooC_og
o_m_g_Jm_m.
_mood _mc omdom Jmd m@m oem c_mm _m o)
_m__oo_. _gm _om J8-20 Oo.1c! _m. Ommoom omdomm
_om 4 Oo.1c!, _oem m.1c! _m.
3.J.J2. _mOmo c_qoom
Ogmmm
mmd__ _mOmom __om ! _T _ogJmm.
___ogJmd oommm __gg ge__ Cgmm_og_ meoomc
o_ggm! Cgmm_Jm_m!. mmd__ _mOmogg_Oom cTmmoo
me goomq goo ocmqJm_m. _gmmd co _mq,
coomq, _cgg mm_mm_oo Cgmm_oom. mmgTm cq_, Oooq_
_mOmo c_qoo mom C_!ggmmo. _m@m Ooud
moo. _o__m Oodg_mmm_ mm_e, _m!Cmmm o)q _Jo__m
c__ge om!_g_. odm _Jg_cm mmgTm _mOmo c_qoo,
_o Oodm_m __ Cmmm_ _mggm _@o_ me go_mm,
Coqgm Oodood +_m_geg gm!m.
_m _mOmo c_qoo
_mm _mOmo c_qoomo m__ o)m, mmcqmd
[m__ _mogg)oj, m__ _momoo, J__! omdom, m__m, q)mdCc
150
o)m, mdCmm_Tggd o)m, m)m, Jmd [oem_qj Cmmm_o
coom.
m__ o)
_)m_ m__ o)moo cm_. _o _gd_e _mOmo
c_qoo. _o m)m@o(scrotum) ! J_qg goomd
__ggm_oom.
m__ Oodoo Oomm cm! gmmco. _o__m oo!J
ccd Oomggd mmgmcemm. mmCo _om m__ _mogg)_m
[mmcqmdj ccg OooC m)mgoom. _m Oomm _.
mcm. 3. J2. J. mmg - _m _mOmo c_qoo
J__! _mom
J__! m
m__ m
q)md1c o)
J__! omdmm
mcqmd
m__o)
Jmd
m)m
meg_mm)m
m__ _mom
mcm. 3. J2. 2. m__ o)m _o Om_g1gm__m
qmom _dq_mm
m__ o)
m__ _mog g)o
omc m_go _mgdoo
m__ _mom
151
_c_ m__ o)m J Oo. 1c! __mJm. _o)m 4-5
Oo.1c! _o_m, 2-5 Oo. 1c! _oe_m cc_. _gm mc J0.5-J4 J)mm
_m.
m__ o)mm Oooq_ggd q_mom _dq_mm(tunica
albuginea) m@m Oomm __ c_oo_. cq_mmo o)m@o me
__m__ _coo!oo coom. _oo!oo m__ o)mm 300-
400 J_ o_qoomo mTJm_m. _o__@o m_gmo _mgdo_m
(seminiferous tubules) _cm_ Oodoo _de_ eq Oodo_m (Leydig cells)
coom. m__ Oodoo _mgdoo@o Cgmm_m.
m__ o)m _m gdoo mom _mco. Ommggggd
_gdoom _om 800 1c!oo. _gdoo me J_, C_)mm gmoom
_em O) Ocdqd`(rete testis) m@m gd oe@o g___oom. O)
Ocdqd` m__ ocg_m _m _momoo@o g___oo_. ___momoo
_mg_m cq_mmo _g mmggumoo Oomm_oom. _o
m__ Oodoo ocg_og_ cgJm_m.
mcqmd _de_ m___mogg)o
_o_q m__ o)mu__ Oooom me oooo
Oommc _mgdoomd _m_. __ m__ o)mm mm mgd
_m. _o_m@o m__ Oodoo _g!JcJm_m.
m__ _mom (Vas deferens)
___mom mmcqqmum _q mgd Cgmm_m. m__
o)mm mmq_ggd CmdC_mJ _m_gm. _mg _)gg
gmoo, _)mqoo O_mJoo_. _ooo _mg_m goo_cm
gmJm__ __q mgm _cJm_m. _gOgmm_ m_go
o__` (spermatic cord) mm_ Om!.
m__ _moggm _q mg _mqdem(ampulla) m@m _om_
mgmJoo_. _moo Ommmg gooo omJ-mTm
OgmcTom(peristaltic contraction) Oommco. _omom m__
Oodoo ocgg cgm.
m__ Jo _mom (Ejaculatory duct)
m__ _m _moggm _mqdem mg _Jd m__m coo_.
_m m__ _mog_cm _m__ m__Jo _mogg (ejaculatory duct)
cmcmJoo_. _gm _om 2.5 Oo.1. _o q)mdCc o)mm ogmo
J__! omdomd _qoc__oom.
152
J__! omdmm (Urethra)
_mm J__)o omdom J__!mu__ Jmd _de_ _m
oem_mm _mo) _m_oo_. _gm _om 20 Oo.1c!. _omdom
J__!, m_g@oo Ooo Oode Omm_omm mmgmm. _omdom
_m_ mgooc_.
J. q)md1c _1g)m(prostatic urethra)- _mg J__!mm
_Jd coo_. q)mdCc o)mm ogmo Oodgm.
2. Ommmce _1g)m[membranous urethra)- _J_ _Tg)m mg
q)dCc _Tg)mmm Ogmc!J.
3. Omm _mq _1g)m _de_ Jmum _1g)m- __
_Tg)mmm _mc _mmmm. Ommmce _Tg)mmu__ Jmd _de_
_m oem_mm _om __o_mmo _m__oo_. _mgm cooTd
me _mm Comg o)moo cm_.
Jmd _de_ _m oem_q _de_ qm! c_q
_o_q _)m_ mgoo Oommc_. _o )mqd(radix)
_de_ Co!mg, om!md (corpus) _de_ ccd mgmm. )mqd mg
oem_m Jg o__ mgd _mg_oo_. mJ oem_q
mgC om!md _m. _mgm Cmd, Cgmd c_oo_.
om!md mg@o _m_ m)qmcmm gooo coom.
_ggooo@o _)ggm mmogmd m)q m_m_m. _ggooo _c_ m__m
oe_q_ om!1mm)m omm!1mmom (corpora cavernosa) m__m mq_
om!md dmmJ1mom Jmd(corpus spongiosum penis) _m. om!mum
Ommmg om!Cmm)m omo!Cmmom goomd _m_. om!md dmmJCmom
Jmd, J__! omdom o__ _m_cm Jmum _m
_mmggm coo_. _mmgd __ _om_ omq oqo Jommd
Jmd(glans penis) _mmmJoo_. _gm J_oo _om_ mg Oom1)mmm
Jommqd _m.
mcm. 3.J2.3. Jmum _ Om_g 1gm__m
om!1mm)m omm!1mmom
om!md dmmJ1mom
Omm _mq _1g)m
153
Jmum Cmgoo Omdu Cgmd go!Jmm __d q_mom
_dq_mmcm _m__oo_. Jmum _m q_ggd _gCgmd
mTm_d(prepuce) _de_ _mCgmemo coo_. _mgd me mTm_ud
o)moo cm_.
m__ moo- _o J_ m Cmmm_ _mqoo. _moo J__!mm
mecgm _cd coom. _moo 5 Oo. 1c! _o_co.
m__g g)oggd 70% _m o)om_m.
q)md1c o) - o__ ogomm _o)m, o)mg gmmm _m!g gog
gmmm Oommqm. _o_q _Tg)m _omm _cggd coo_. __
3 Oo. 1c! _oo cc_. _gm mc 8 J)mm _m. q)mdCc
o)mm gog gmmmd m__g g)om oemm Cmm_ o_mm_cm
m__ Jo _moggmd Oogggm_o_ mogmJ__. o_ _gm _ed
_o)m OmTgmJ__. _gmmd J__! ogggd mmgmcm.
md1mm-_1g)d o)oo(Bulbo-urethral gland)- _o J_ cmc
oqo o)moo. _o J Oo.1c! _oco. Ommmce _Tg)mmm
momood coom. _o__m o)mmd J__)o _mOmo mmgood
Cgmm_m C_moo o_m_ggm_m.
m)m- __ ! _m!ggo mmm. _g@o m__ o)mo_m
_o__cm _m_g _momo_m coom. __ _ momoo Oommc_.
_c_ q_m Jg_mJoo_. _gm Cgmd Ommmmm_, __moo Oommc_.
_gd me m!o o)mo_m _)mq _qo_m cm_.
Omm _mOmo mmcem
Ommoom ccum coomo coo _mOmo c_qoo _mc
o)moo, om, om _momoo, oemomdom _m. Oooq_ggd
_Omgmq Cm_(mons pubis), Cemm CmC_m)m(labia majora), Cemm
mCmm)m(labia minora), JoCcmTd(clitoris), Oooq_ o)moo coom.
_mc o)oo (Ovaries)
_o _m c_qoo. _o __q mg@o omm
_ momoogm coom. _o)moo om oe_g _oJoq
___co. _o 3 Oo.1c! _om, J.5 Oo. 1c! _oem, J Oo. 1c!
mm@co. _mc o)m ccd mm mgm cooTd
mcemoomd _mom_oom. _mqg gom_ 11om1m1m
154
(mesovarium)mm_ Om!. Cmgm _o)moo me uoOmm_oo (liga-
ments) _mggm.
_mco)m _mq
_om o_ _ed _o)mm o__gm _mc o)m
Cmdm)q mmggum cm_. _gd )_ omq oqo Oodo_m_.
_gm Jgq_ggd q_mom _dq_mm m@m mm_omq c_
_m_gm. _o_ Comem_m gommmd _m_.
_mc o)mm Cm_q_ggd om!Ocd(cortex) _de_ q_m
mgm coomo Om_dem(medulla) mgm coom. om!Ocd
mgd o)mm mmuJooo(follicles) coom. Om_dem mgd
_)gg gdo_m _)mqo_m _qoc__oom. _Omgmm
_mc o)md om!Ocd mg _Jg_om Om_m. _mgd
J__! _mom
_mc o)
om
J__! m
oem omdmm J__! omdmm
Jo1cm1d
1emm1mm)m
1em 1m1_m)m
meg_mm)m
mcm. 3. J2. 4. mmg - Omm _mOmo c_qoo
om _mom
mcm. 3.J2.5. _mc o)m go _e _mq
11om1m1m
q_mom _dq_mm
om!Ocd
Om_dem
om!md gqm
gom _mc!mm
_gd _e mmeJo
J) m @1em om
Oodoo
_)mcmm _e mmeJo
_odmmd
155
mmuJoo_m me _oo_c om!Cmm)m gqm _mqo_m cm_.
_o__m _o, o_ _de_ mmgmcm og_J _e Omm_gg_.
om!Ocum Omm mg dC)mmm go _cggm. mmuJooo
_g@o qg__oom.
_mc o) mmeJooo
_mc Oodoo Cgmm_o_ me Joemm _ogJoom _qmd
m_m_m. m__g g_gm _mc o)md mmuJooo cm_. _o
om!Ocum Cmd )ggum. _o__d _gd _e mo_oo cm_.
_oCood moqm _o 25 m. 1 _m. _o goOomm_
o__gm )_ gcmm mmuJo Oodoom. Omm
_g!Jcm Cood [_Om_odj mmuJoood mm_gdoo
m_m_m. _o me _eoomo mTom_m.
J. _gd _e mmeJooo:- mmuJo Oodoo gcmm _de_ omq
oqo OodoomJm_m. mmuJooo mcem _de_ Ommm)mm
J)m@Cemom(membrana granulosa) me __oo _mm Om_m. mo
_omd OmTgmm. _gm Ooo )gg_ 1ommm OmdgJcm (Zona
pellucida) mm_ Om!. mmuJo Oodoo mToc__ J)m@Cemom
OodoomJm_m.
2. _)mcmm _e mmeJooo:- _o 20 m)mm _oco.
J)m@Cemom Oodoo moc o__oom. co, Ooo gomoo
oo!JcJm_m.
3. _m_mm _e "mmeJo(Tertiary follicle)
g mmuJo m_Cm ___ecm. ___ed _o
_omd OmTgmm[2 m.1j. _o J)mmm mmuJo mmm_m. mo_m
_gm o__oo Oodo_m gq_g _eu__ _mqom_
mgog _omJm_m. _qmd mmuJo Ooqg_ coomo
o___@o Oomcm_Jm_m.
ooo! _eCeC mo_oo Cgmm_m_m. Omm
Joomm 5 mmg _ed _mc o)md 7 mdum mo_oo
o) _oemm. m_m _ed Omm Jomm _mc o)md J
mdum mo_oo _m. Omm _Om_m _ed 40,000
mo_oo cm_. _o__d _mOmo omeggd 400 mo_oCo
_mc _@ c_mgg gm! _ed _m.
om!md gqm
_oomq _mc _@ OooC_ _ed _mc o)md
Cgmm_m. omumo coo mmuJum oo! mqqoo Om__ mm_m_m.
156
mcm. 3. J2. . mmg - Omm _mOmo mmcem
_mc o)
_d_md
om mg
"mmcd
Oo!md
Oo!mod mmdmm
_dqm
Om1Omq1m
mm1cmOmTm
m1mOmq1m
om
oem
omdmm
_gd coo J)m@Cemom Oodoo OmTgmJ gqd OodoomJm_m.
_o _m!Cmmmoo o)m. o_gd _og__ g___gmd om!md
gqm _eggm. _deOmd _o J0-J2 _mo_ m_
_g__m_m. _o__m _mqg go Oodoo OmTgmJ Oomm __m
Om_Jm_m. _g_ om!md _domd mm_ Om!. omeCmmJd __
m___ m_J__.
om _momoo [mmCemmm gdooj
omm _q_gggm _)m_ _mc _momoo cm_. _o
gmggmC _mc o)mcm Ogmc!qco. ___mom J0 Oo. 1c!
_o_c_. ___moggm _mmg _om_ _m"mmqqemmo coo_.
_mg co o__ mg@o g___oo_. _gg_q mg _dqm
mmm_m. om gud _m_ mgo_m_. _o __C
_mmmqqem _Jgoo _mqdem ommJgoo _d_md
m__m omm _g gemm.
om (Uterus)
__ ! coc__ ommmm ooc gomgmm. _o_q
_mc CmTom oqo_c_. _gm _om 7.5 Oo. 1, _oem 5 Oo.1. _gm
mc 50 J)mm. o__ omeggd _gm mc g JCemJ)mm o)
_goToemm. _gm _om_ mg "mmcd(fundus) mmm_m. _J mg
Oo!md(cervix) _m. Oo!md Jg C_mJoo_. mmg
ccd(body) mmm_m. ommm_ Oo!ood omdommo oem
omdmm@o (vagina) g__gm.
omm oo! _m__oo cc_. Ooo_
Om1Om1m _de_ J)d __ _m. __ __ m1mOm1m.
__ gooomd _m_. cooTd mm1cmOm1m coo_. _oo!
Comg mceggmd _m_. mmCcmOmTm mmgmcm og_Jd _J
mmom__J__.
157
oem omdmm(Vagina)
__ ! _m!ggo gemm. _gd J0 Oo. 1c! _o_c_.
om _gd Oooq_m o) _m_oo_. oem, mmgmcm, g_g m_q
Cmmm_ _ogJood cgm.
Omoq_ c_qoo
Oooq_ c_qoomo Oodqm_d, Cemm CmC_)m, mCmm)m,
JoCcmTd Cmmm_ooom.
oem omdomm Ooo om mgd _mm Oo_mm m@m
Omdu mcem cm_. _mcem __o_mmo omdom _qmgde.
__ mogd mmgmcemm. Je _mcem _mgde. _gm
mmm OgTmde.
o mgJ_
mg - _
oTmm mcg Cg! Oo
J. Oo)qmmom Oomc Cgmum __
_j gJcm __ _j Jg __
_j dmCmmom __ +j om!mm __
2. C)mmm Ju!ggum Cmm_ omm gooo
_j cg)mgmmm _j _)cm! me
_j q)JJggo +j gqd Cmumd
3. _ogOggmqoom mmmo
_j 2 _j 25
_j J4 +j 22
4. geg gmmm mgmq
_j mc! _Oogmq _j o_g_ _oOogmq
_j gOogmq +j __Omgmq
5. _om_ gooo -------- mm_gom_Jm_m
_j Ocdcm_ _j JC)ued
_j emmod +j emqdmd
158
. oomo _om _cOm_gud Ommo mm Oomoo_
_j dCoum _j Ogm)mud
_j cg)mgmmm +j mem mgmmcggooo
7. cmg _! o)md moOmT_
_j Cmemm o)m _j Jgggmc o)m
_j _moq o)m +j Cemd o)m
8. mmg qCmqm mgm _om
_j 8 Oo. 1 _j J.8 1
_j 0 Oo. 1 +j 25 Oo. 1
0. oomog gc m_mc om)mm
_j _uCm Comu omd __gd _j cmmud o)m OmTgmgd
_j mCemT o go __gd +j go_mmoo 1cm_gd
J0. go __ggm _og_ om)mm
_j ocg_m gmoo _j gcC_m_g_m gmoo
_j Oom_od-ommod gmoo +j _)ggg CgJ gmoo
JJ. _)gg _momoo omggm mTggm om)mm
_j q_mom _mqmm _j Oom_od- ommod gmoo
_j q_mom 1qm +j q_mom _omqJm
J2. _)gg _momo_ _)ggm Oom_mo
_j omom O_!Comom _j Oom_od-ommod gmoo
_j omom omCom)m +j _)ggg CgJ gmoo
J3. mmm)d ------- m _cmommo coo_
_j o__ mg _j mm!q mg
_j _)m)d +j J__)om
J4. ommudoo ------- _cd ommm_Jm_m
_j _)mq m__m gooo _j _)mqg go
_j g__Joo +j c_qoo
159
J5. _om _)Comomoo _momqm _)mqg go
_j om!Cmm)m om!qO_mmm _j Oom)m_ moud
_j om!md oCemum +j omcm +mmm
J. mmg om coo_ggm como om)mm
_j _od _m! _j mTd _m!
_j _og gm_ ocgg)om +j _m_!
J7. _Cmmmuu _ocm _mm_
_j mm!d qm)mud _j _qCmm _Cmmmud
_j _Cmmgemmd +j mm!d qdcud
J8. g Ommmm J__)o mc
_j J50 J _j J35 J
_j 75 J +j 250 J
J0. omm coo! mgd ommm_o_
_j OmTOmTm _j mCmOmTm
_j mmCcmOmTm +j Oo)d mcem
mg - _
J. Oo)qmmom mm_md mmm?
2. m_m mgmqoo mm_md mmm?
3. g)o __oo mm_md mmm?
4. mgmqg gooo, co__qg gooo` - Co_m_g_o?
5. _ggg gooo mm_md mmm?
. mmgmm md gg)m m_?
7. oTmm mm_md mmm?
8. Jdcm og_J mmg m_?
0. B umCmmo_oom Coe m_?
J0. go _)mmm mm_md mmm?
JJ. Oom)m_ moud mm_md mmm?
J2. OmdCmmm o)m mm_md mmm?
160
J3. C)Com m mm_md mmm?
J4. CmmCcmo_oo mm_md mmm?
J5. m)mdqC) o)mm mm m_?
mg - _
J. _oggm _mm m__ moT?
2. mmg _oOogmmm _mm m__o.
3. mmg Jgomd gom m__ _q o)o.
4. mmg ode)e moTom.
5. emTdum _m m__m _m__ gOggmqoo m__ m__o.
. Cmm!cd og_J` m__ _q m__o.
7. gmd o)m m__ m__o.
8. OooOod _)mq _mq m__ m__o.
0. mmgg omm!g Ogmmm _mm moo.
J0. omm _momdem o)mmo Oodm_o_ mmmmm?
JJ. mmg J__)oggm _mm moT.
J2. om!md gqm mm_md mmm?
mg - +
J. mmg _o ocoggm _mmm moo
2. coom mgd ommm_m J)m c_qoo mo?
3. _)gg _momoom _mq m__m mgmoo moTo.
4. mmg _om _mmm mTomo moT.
5. _Cmmmuum _mm moo.
. mmg _m, Omm, _gd_emmd c_qoom _g@cm
Ogmc!qc m__ _mqoom moT.
161
4. kua
mm)mmT mmqoo m__ __mCe m)md _m.
cTmmoom gmggmmoo mm__d Om_C_m!oocm__
o_ggo_ ocggm_Jm_m mmm_ m__ _oo_md m_g_)
Jm__.
mmg o)em__d, Coommm _omJ omegg_m m)mgm
O_mJ Ogmc!q coo_. _mCcmq omgo Cm_Oommc mmg!oo
mggm)m _m_o_ _m gC)cggd _oomog gmog
_omJm!. ___ed, cmomo Coommmd +_mcm!. mmg
_moTom me Commmood oo) Coomm m_me!J oo Oog_.
_gmmd mTc, oo!o m_omm gmo)moo mmg!oomd _mmomm
_q_g_. me oomm mT_ __oo comJm. oo!q m__
m!oo Cg! Oomcm.
m!g Ogmgg _mmo memoo mmm_g_m
__o_m comm. me memoo mmgTm o_mmqd
Oomm)mcm. _omemoom _mOmo __oo OgoomJm.
_gm moomo, oeq _mOmo __oomd qg _mmoo
comomcm. oemm g), _m, _m, omd_c Cmmm_o
comomcm. _oom_mo _m_mc omgmd m)md og__
_dmmoCo mmm_ggmc_.
__md Tgmm m)md _@__ f bkl
mmmo)md _gm _gud _omomc_. _o)_ gmmc _!om, +_mm_
_o__m moomo igr rilt m@m gmo)ggd _)mJoo
Cm_Oomoomcm. _o)_ _oo _mg_m qoo mo)moom
_qmcd _m_g_g_ _mcggo_.
J000 _m_ mm Ommcum _)mJ _qoo qg_!
Om__m, m)md oo) oo Oogm. cTd, _mCmmJ, c!
Cogd m__m _gm Ogmc!qc me __md __oom oo!Jmd,
m)md gm_ oo!Jm cogg _c_g_. _m_ _ooo!Jm
moomo m)md mooo goOomm_@m _qmc
om)mmoo OgoomJm_m. go oo!q, m)md Ogmgd _mm,
cTOgmgd _mm Cmmm_ __oommd mmg _mm gm_ o)mm
oc_g _gogg __om 1_ Oogg_J__. _m@m,
Ogmgd_m __ m__m g_m Ogmc!__ Cmmm_gemd _o!Comom
_gmu__ omom_m mmm_ c_g. m)md _gm Ogmc!qc
_mg_g __o_c@m _ggo __Jd mm OomoJ__.
162
4.1. g TL mf
g_omegg Ommu oggmmq, m_g g m)q mmmm
o_m_gg _ m)m@oo _de_ m)qom)moo[_mooj coom.
_o ggg C)mCmmCommood gC) mcggd ommm_Jm_m.
_ggo m)m@oo _ Co_mc _ed Cgmm_, Co_mc
q_gCgm__ggm Ooom_g_Jm_m. _o__d gm_ m
gmmc@m m_O_mm_ g_m gmmc@m coom. mm_mc
mmmm comm _ggo m)m@oo mf (alleles) mm_m
_o Ooom_g_m q_gCgm__m mf wnjhwf (alleleo
morph) mm_m _gom_Jm_m. _m@m g _mc
c!gOgmod _)mq@m Cm_mc _dedoo ommmcemm.
_o gTL kugQ mf mmm_Jm_m. _o__m me
m_g_ om_o_cm mooemm.
1. Kaf w
__ggm _qmcd _doo ___ oooomo mToemm.
_o wKsit [_g_g m_q __mj yh [Ooo!m_q __mj
khya mndhf m__m mndhf mmm_m.
gl. 4.1.1. Kaf gy wf
wKsit
yh
khya mndh mndh
163
_mme _dmCmmoo Oomm_g_cm om_, _, mmg
_mood o__gg Oommco. g ___oo, [ggg_e- homozy-
gousj m__m g _dmCmm, _doom oemm F
1
, F
2
ge__oo
JCg Oom_om_oom.
Om_C_m! CC x c
a
c
a
(___oo_) (_dmCmm)
F
1
Cc
a
x Cc
a
(___ooo) (___ooo)
F
2
CC Cc
a
c
a
c
a
25% 50% 25%
(___ooo) (___ooo) (_dmCmm).
_ggo oeq, ___oo mmq m mmq mm_m, _dmCmm
mmq g_m mmqm mm_m OgoomJ__.
_gCmmmC_,
bgnwh CC x c
h
c
h
(___ooo) (_mme _dmCmm)
F
1
Cc
h
x Cc
h
(___ooo)
F
2
CC Cc
h
c
h
c
h
25% 50% 25%
(___ooo) (___ooo) (_mme
_dmCmmoo)
bgnwh c
h
c
h
x c
a
c
a
(_mme _dmCmm) (_dmCmm)
F1 c
h
c
a
x c
h
c
a
(_mme _dmCmm)
F2 c
h
c
h
c
h
c
a
c
a
c
a
25% 50% 25%
_mme _dmCmm _mme _dmCmm _dmCmm
Cm_mc oeq Comgmoo C, c
h
,c
a
mm_ me _dedoo _d
__m comogd mmCo_Jm_m mmm_ OgoomJ__.
164
bgnwh c
ch
c
ch
x c
a
c
a
F
1
c
ch
c
a
x c
ch
c
a
(JmJdem)
F
2
c
ch
c
ch
c
ch
c
a
c
a
c
a
(JmJdem) (Ooo!ommmd) (_dmCmm)
___oo mmq, Ooo! m_q omm JmJdem mmm@ m
mmmmJ__. _m@m JmJdem x _mme _dmCmmoom
F
1
,F
2
(C
ch
C
a
) ge__o_m , JmJdem x _dmCmmoom F1,F2(C
ch
C
a
)
ge__o_m Ooo! ommmd __gg Oomm_oom.
kugQ Mf (ndhil) btghL (~ndhil)
CC, Cc
ch
, Cc
a
,Cc
h
___ooo [_dmmmoj
c
ch
c
ch
JmJdem
c
ch
c
h
,c
ch
c
a
Ooo! ommmd ommm
c
h
c
h
,c
h
c
a
_mme _dmCmmoo
c
a
c
a
_dmCmmoo
2. kj d ABO uj tif
K. nyOd m@m __md __! ABOm@m mmg _)gg
oooo omc__gm!. _ooooo A`m__m B` m@m _
_mq_moo _)ggggd ommm_ogm _qmcd _m__oom.
_gmmq mmg _)ggm A,B,AB,O m@m _mm oooo Oommc_.
_o nyOd uj tiff _de_ ABO uj tiff
mm_gom_Jm_m.
_)gg oooo m)qmmqoomo o_ggm
ogmom_Jm_m. _ooo _oo, m)m@oom Ooommqd
coo qg Commmoo moJm_m.
A` oo _)ggggd A` _mq_@m B` oo _)ggggd B`
_mq_@m coom. _mqO_mo_cm Ogmc!qc vbghUf
[ _mqmmqooj u m@m _)gg mgd ommm_Jm_m. g
mmgmm _)ggggd ommmcmg _mc g _mq_@omm
mg!OmmCo __g _)ggggd comJ__. _)gg ooood
ommm_m _mq_moo m__m _mqmmqoo mmom _comd
Oom_om_oom.
165
uj tiff Mo# u cs vbghUf
A A _mq B
B B _mq A
AB A m__m B _)m_mde
O _)m_mde _mq A _mq B
A oo _)ggggd ommm_m mg!Ommoo B`oo _)gg
mTmm Jom@oog g)o[agglutinize) Oom g_m Oommc_.
_g CmmmC_ B` oo _)gg mTmm mg!Ommoo B` oo _)gg
Jom@ood g)J comJm__. AB` oo _)gggd
_om mg!Ommo_m _de mmCo __ mooo _)ggggm
g)o Ooogde. mm_mo O` oo _)ggggd _om
mg!Ommo_m coogmd A` oo m__m B` oo _)gggm
g)o OoJm__.
_gmmq _mc _)gg mTmm mooo _)ggm
Oogggmcemm mmm_ JCg Oom_om_oo_.
tHFnth bgWnth
A A m__m AB
B B m__m AB
AB AB
O O, A, B, AB
_oocomm mq AB` oo _moTc_m Om_Com)mom,
O` oo _mom ogmCom)mog gogo_ qToJ__.
ABO mTomm m)m@m@ I m@m _m_ ogmom_oo_.
I
A
, I
B
_dedoo __C _mq_m A, B omm O_mgoo
comJm_m. I
O
m@m _dedoo q)gm mgm comogd mm
Oomoogde. _oom_mo _dedoo __ oomm m)m@
_omoom _mm oomm Ooomm_oom Oomm_oom.
ujtif (btghL) kugQ Mf
O I
o
I
o
A I
A
I
A
_de_ I
A
I
O
B I
B
I
B
_de_ I
B
I
O
AB I
A
I
B
166
I
A
I
B
m)mmoggd ommm_m I
A
m__m I
B
_dedoo _)m_m
m gmmcm gm mmqoo _mmo Ooom_gg
OomoJm_m. __ iz XF jik mm_gom_Jm__. I
o
mm_ucm ommm_m m)mmomood I
A
m__m I
B
m gmmc@m
I
o
g_mgmmc@m ommm_Jm_m.
thR uridfS uj tiffS
_)gg oooo omc___ omTo m)omoo
g!omcemm. Om_C_mTm _)gg ooo_ m_m _o!oo_
omTooo_ _)gg oo omgg o_oo mJom_Jm_m. _mc
Om_C_m mooo _)ggmToo g_goo m_o _em_
mmm_m qemmJ__.
bgnwh thRf rhaKsit rhakwit
O x O O A, B, AB
O x O O, A B, AB
O x B O, B A, AB
O x AB A, B O, AB
A x A A, O B, AB
A x B A, B,AB, O _de
A x AB A, B, AB O
B x AB A, B, AB O
AB x AB A, B, AB O
Rh uj tif
nyOd m__m d [J040j (Landsteriner and Wiener)mmg
_)ggggd Rh om)moo omc__gm!. _um ccgo Tod
_m )mJm _)ggm m__m_ g_mm__d cmcmom_J__.
mg!Ommooo Oommc _ggo _um J)m mmg _)ggg_oood
oem Omm__ g)J m_m_Cmmmmd __g _mc mmgmm
_)ggm Rh
+
oo om!_g_ mm_m _deOmd Rh
-
oo mmm
__m_J__. mmCo _)ggCm__m Ooog_ _mq go ABO
_)gg oocm Rh om)momm Comgmm Cm_Oomo_gd
_oJmmJ__.
Rh
-
gm Rh
+
ooggmmo_ omm _)ggggd g)J
m_mcom)mmmJ__. _ggo mmmmg _ogoo, _gd o_gud
167
_ogmmd mmom o_gdood _cOm_ omqoo coom.
___ed uj t brf mW uj nrhif
(haemol yt i c) mmd o Oomdem_J__. __C_m vnuh
shnlh ~nl (erythroblastosis fetalis) mmm_J__.
4. 2 ms mogil gf
fljgLj.
rhy lh gm_ __og Cg!Commmqm
_mm Omm__ _ mgmmm Co_mm_oo om_m!_gm!. _o
bjhlntWghLf, bjhluw ntWghLf mmmm. Je mmqoo
gO)mg Cgmm_m Ogmc!J__ Co_mm_oo Oommq_gm.
Ogmc!J__ gO)mg Cgmm_m Co_mm_ooC Ommcd
gm_ _m@omo Cg!_Og_ggm!. cgm)mmmo, c)mmm
gmo)moo ooggmo)mo_cm oeq Oo_ F
1
ge__ c)mmm
gmo)moomo oo!og omcm!. F
1
ge__m coeq
Oom Omm__ F
2
ge__d _go c)m Oommc gmo)moo
m_mdem_ oommm gmo)mo_m oo!ogm omm_q_g_. _Tgmog
Cgmm_ _cmc gmo)moo _o! oggd Oomoomde.
_m@m J0 _m ___mmqm __gd m)md m__m
qood odgm)mm fhl Ogmc! Co_mm_oo _)mogd
+_mm_ Oommcm!. _o Cgmm_m mggg __ OmT_m _m_m!.
_mmqo_m m)qmmqoCo mm_m!_gm!. _o__@ msL
gf [_o __ mmqoo- metrical charactersj mmOmTcm!.
_oom_mo 20 _m ___mmqm __gd bklaf
m__m c mslhf mm _mToomo m)md odg_!oo
Oodmcm!. Ommcu!oo_ og_mq m)qmmqoo, g)ggmd
Co_m_, Ogmc!J__ ommm_ogmom, c! _omcmo!oo
og_mq _o Ogmc!mmqoomom _omd Co_m_
__mgmom, mm_mc og_oo _omeggd _emm. Cm_o_
og_oo _)mqgCm )o cmmC coo_ mmmg
b#hfr m@m __memo! mcmmOoqd _oggg _oo
cm!ggm.
[J00j m@m __md odg_!, _om_ mmqoo gmmc
_dedoo me m)m@oomd o_m_ggm_Jm_m mm_ ___gm!.
_ggo m)m@g Ogmmd _mc g m)m@ _mmmm
Ooommqd g J_ mmoC m_Jm__ mm_m o_mm!. g mmmm
Ooom_g_m me m)m@oo m)m@gOgmqoo` (polygenic
systems)mm_gggm!. __ g TL fhuf` Commmqd
moom_J__.
168
g TLfhuf (Multiple factors)
kj w ntWghLf
C. B CcomCmm! m@m m)memo! oc _OmTo mood __
Co_mm_ m__ _oo _cggmm!. _gm _qomo __m m)qmmmmo
ge__o_ mTmm_m_m __m moTggm!. _gmmq o_q,
Oooo __gCgmTcC _cOm_m gmmmoo Kynlhf m@m
F
1
ge__ comJm_m. _deCcmoo _cmc __gg
Om__m!. _deCcmoocC _cOm_m gmmmoo __g@m
Cm_mc me _mm __ Co_mm_oo Oommc F
2
ge__m
comJm_m.
_Co_ mcggd(loci) ommm_m A ,Bm@m _ m)m@oo Cgmd
__m cmcmCmmmmd AABB m)m@omom cooo! o_m!oomom,
aabb m)m@oo Oomm_oCom! Oooo!oomom _m!.
_deCcmoo Aa Bb m@m m)m@ _om Om__m!. F
2
ge__m!
__g_m Cm_mc __ Co_mm_oo Om__m!. _m@m __
Co_mm_oom mmmo oggd Oomo_m Omm__ 4 _de_ 5
_m m)m@oCo@m _mmq comoggd mm OomoJm_m mmm_
__oJ__. _ggo m)m@g Ogmgm Ooommc Cmgm
gggmm Uj kugQfS (modifing genes)coom mmm_
g_Cmm_ OgT oJ__.
_gCmmm_ me _oo, me mmqoo md o_
om)moom o_mmqd cooOgmmgg OgoomJm_m.
cgm)mmmo mmgTm c)m, mc Cmmm_ mmqoo o_emm.
Co_mc mcmood ommm_m me _m m)m@oo _ggo
mmqoo o_m_g_Jm_m. goOom gmmc m)m@m
_mc mmmm Cmd Oomm_oo gmmc gmogg_ mo
_gommm qoo mo)moo Cgom_Jm_m. _ggo qoo
mo)moo c! qood, c! omJd cmo)mmoo m__m Ood
__oom ogmo CooTomc Comqoo_.
4.3 gh za
cToom mmd _mOmom m__m _m, Omm Co_mm_
__om _dmmm _ogoomm. mmd _mOmom,
cTo_JcC Co_mm_oo(variations) comJm__. mo
C_!ggmo _m__oo _m, Omm Oodmm_ ccem, mmd
_mOmom Oo__c og OoJ__. mmd _mOmoggd mm
Oomo_m _mOodo_m _J _mOmo c_qo_m Kj iy
169
gh gfshwd. _m Omm om!_g m__ mm_mc ccem
Ooem, _coqooo _guo ulh iy gh
gfshwd. _ggo _m Omm Co_mm_ gh t U
njhw mmm_J__. _C_o memJmmood mmd _!mm m)q
ogCeC _cOm_Jm__. _m@m Co_mc me __oo
mmd_!mggd ommm_Jm_m.
m. gh Fnuhnkhnrhfsh za
shu bk s [J002j mmmo! C)mCmmCommoomd mmd
_!mom_J__ m@m ogg Ooocm!. _o! Oo_Jo
[ ~oa ~bgnalj ood _cOm_m _mOodemogg
oomggm!. _o!ood Omm 24 C)mCmmCommoom _m 23
C)mCmmCommoom cc_Oodood Om__o omcm!.
_gCmmmC_ _c_Joo m__m om_oo _guo__gm
_m_ mmm! __mc_.
_oom_mm _)mJoom moomo _mmd cTood _
mgmmm C)mCmmCommoo coom mmm_m OgoomJ_. ccd
_mqood mmCo_m C)mCmmCommoo cl Fnuhnkhnrhf
_de_ brhnkof Fnuhnkhnrhf _de_ Mnlh nrhf
mmmcm. _gCmmm_, mmd mmqoo _!mmgmd gh
Fnuhnkhnrhf (X m__mY) mm_go m_Jm_m. mmd
C)mCmmCommood Co_mm_oo cm_. X C)mCmmComm _mc,
_m!_g J Cmmm_ _mqc@m, Y C)mCmmCommoo J_gmom
oo_g g _mc@m ommm_m. mmd C)mCmmCommoom mmd
_!m __d cToo _ oooomo mToemm. _o J.
Co__dq _mOod [ O_qC)mComqj _moo 2. Co__dq
_mOod Ommoo mmm_m.
nta dbr Mf :-
_ooo mmd _!mggd, _m cToo gm cc_ Oodood
gC) g X C)mCmmComm m_Cm Oommco!oomJm_m. _m
Oodemoggm Cmm_ _o _ mgmmm m__oo c_mgg
OoJm_m [X C)mCmmComm cc, X C)mCmmComm ___j. mmCo
_o nta dbr Mf mm _gom_Jm_m. Omm
cToo _ X C)mCmmComm Oommcooomom gC) oomm
_mc Oodoo [X C)mCmmComm ccj m_Cm commo
oomom coom. mmCo _o xja [ C_mCmmComqj
dbr bgf mmm_Jm_m. goOom mTm Oomm_oo
_mmToo JCg _comd ommemm.
170
M. kugQ juhR KiwnfhghL
mmd C)mCmmCommood ommm_m m)m@oo m_Cm mmd
_!mggd mm Oomoogde. mmd _c oooo, mmd cmT
oooo(intersex, supersex) _Jo__ m__ ____ Oomoo_, mmd
_!mggd ommm_m Joemm __ qT__Oomoo oo
OoJ__. C. B mT_d [J02Jj mmmo! m)m@g g)mo __md mmd
_!mgg moJoom!.
f
cf cf
Fnuhnkhnrhf
gh
Co__dq
_mOod
_m
cToo
Co__dq
_mOod
Omm
cToo
XX - XO
Ommoo-2X
_moo - 1X
XX - XY
ZO -ZZ
ZW - ZZ
Ommoo-2X
_moo - XY
Ommoo-1Z
_moo - 2Z
Ommoo-ZW
_moo - 2Z
__g_Joo
ommg_ _Joo
_mCcmq __g_Joo
1moo, m!om, m_mm,
Je mmgqoo
mmgm m__m mmgqoo
ComC)mmem, Je _m
gmo)moo
omudCmTm dm)mud
Cmmm_ gmo)moo,
cmmoo, Oo_Jooo
gl.4.3.1. onuhnrh~igyh f(gHf)
M
bg
Fnuhnkhnrh
Mnlhnrh
gh Fnuhnkhnrh
Fnuhnkhnrh
171
_CcmCommo_m (A), X C)mCmmCommo_m _cC
om@m mJgmom)Cm mg_Jm mmd _!mgg o)_J__.
goOom _CcmComm Ogmgm Oomm_oo _m gmm
om)moom mgq J` _m. goOom X C)mCmmCommgm
ommm_m Omm gmm om)moom mgq J.5` _m. mmCo g
_dmmm _m (AA + XY) _Jd _m-Omm mJgmom)m __C
2:J.5 mm omJc _qJ__. m)m@g g)mo _oT _mmo oo)
oo OoJ__. _gCmmmC_ g _dmmm Omm (AA + XX) _Jd
_m- Omm mJgmom)m __C 2:3 mm_mJ__. mmCo _oT
Ommmmo como m)qgg)mo cgJ__.
kj gh za
mmg _mggd mmd _!mm XX - XY oo om!_g_. __
mg_Joo gg_ _J__. Y C)mCmmCommd _m gmmomm
m)m@oo coom. mmCo _C)mCmmCommmd _m gmm
_!mom_J__. X C)mCmmComm Ommgmm _!mm.
_g_omm omm_oo Fiw TLbtghL (Syndromes) oocm__
Om_emm.
kj gh df [Sex anomalies)
ld Fiw TLbtghL (XO Ommooj _o!oo _dmmm
Ommoo Cmmm_ _demmd, me_ggmmc@m,
ooggmmc@m _m!. _om_ o_g_ m__m mm!qcm, __
o!m__o!oomom oTmo oo!J_mg mmd m__m _mc
o)moo Oommco!oomom _m!.
jhrhu
btghL
X Fnuhnkhnrh
viff
Mnlhnrh
bjhFf
cmT _m
cmTOmmoo
a
ghd
bgf
aghd M
mmd _ccT
_m_ mm
_mm mm
_)cmm

3
g__ mm
X/A
2
3
1
2
1
2
4
4
3
2
1
3
2
3
0.33
0.5
0.67
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1
172
is~bgl nuhf: _mood g X
C)mCmmComm _gom ommm_ogmd cmcmm g _
o_Ooommcmm. _ X (XX) C)mCmmCommoo Oommc g
_omgm)m _c Y C)mCmmComm Oommc omgm)m m__omd
o_J__. _o!oo oTmo oo!J_mg m_gomo_cm, oo!J
_, _mc o)moo, Ommm oe_g Jo )gc@m ommm_o!.
cgg bgf: _o!oo me X Oommc Ommoomo!;
_dmmm Ommoo mc g X C)mCmmCommm _gommo
Oommqm!; [ 44; _CcmCommoo +3 X C)mCmmCommooj ;
me_ggmm Oomm_, mm oo!J__o!oomo ommm_o!.
XYY Mf: _o!oo g Y C)mCmmCommm _gommo
Oomm_oom!. mmoo!J__o!oomom, __ mmCmmc@m
ommm_o!.
Ugh cjik: g X m__m Y _gommo Oommqm!.
_mcomoo m_gomoo _)m_m ommm_m. mmdom!_g q_
c_qoom oo!J o)_o m_ogde.
. xiw ka Mf (myJ) xiw - uil ka Kiw
m_gmm o_cm oo!J m_mqoo, Cgmoo,
omoo _Jo__d _dmmo ommemm. __Jood o__
_)cm _coo Omm cToomom, o_m g__m _coo
_m cToomom oo!Jm_m.
Cgmoqd _)mmg Cgmoo _ oo _coo
[ Cm_o_ __dj __Jm_m. _)mmg Cgmoo,
oggooo _J m__ Oomo moou__ m__
OooC__gg o_m_g_Jm_m. _gmmd _mg_
_coogm o_gd _cOm_o_ _de. o__ _)c m
_coo, Omm [Coeom)gj CgmmoCom, _)mmgCgmmoCom
oo)emm. __g cm_cg_cm oom Omm Cgm Coeom)g
CgmmJ__. __ _c_m g_m _m_ ommm_Jm__. o_m
g__m _coo _m CgmoomJm_m. _ooo mmd _!mm,
Cgmoc mmum md cOommcgmo momo oo OoJ__.
bghah G gh za
F. ghr [J035j m@m __memo! bghah o m@m
oc_q_md mmd _!mm moom_ _cOm_J__ mmmg moJmm!.
_Omm q_oo 2. 5 Oo. 1 _oggm _m_mo oqomomc
cc_ocm Oommco. _g_ mm_mo _m q_oo
_mCmmJd mm!m ood moJ_omom, ccd oo!J
173
m_ooomom ommm_Jm_m. Omm q_oom coCo _m
q_oo g_mmmo omgJm_m. _ooo cToo _mg_m gC)
mmgTmm m)q Ommog Om__m@m, Omm q_oom
qC)mCmmud m@m _m mgd gq Oomo_m _om cToo _m
q_oomoCo oo!Jm_m. gmg_ oom _om cToo
OmmoomJm_m. Omm q_oou__ mTom_m _om cT mmd
_c cT (intersex) mJ__. Ommq_oom qC)mCmmud Oomm_oo
_m!Cmmmoo Cmmm_ Ommo Omm gmm _g_ _m
gmm oo!m mmmg _gmmd __emm.
4.4 nahouh[ (gKf kugQf)
g m)m@ _mc g mmmm o_m_g_Jm__ mmm_
_mo)mgm gqOomoomc oggmJ__. _m@m _omg
mdem _eoogm cmmmogde. m)m@oom Ooomm_`
m__ _oo, me mmqoo g m)m@omd o_m_ggm_og
moJm_m. _ggo m)m@oo Je mmqood _go mmgm
m_m_g_gd, Ka jhf mm_m Je mmqood J_go mmgm
m_m_g_gd, ulh iy jhf mm_m __m_J__. _ggo
me mmqoo o_m_g_m m)m@oo gKf kugQf _de_
nahonuh kugQf mmm_m. onuhnrh~igyh ggg
_ed coo g_m m)m@ vr wFf como om)mmmJm_m.
_mm)m@ __oo comoggd m_m mm Oomoogde. [Jj
__o_ mmq_ggd Cgmm_m om_e c_qoo [2j _mOmo
c_qoo [3j _mc c_mgg [4j _omem [5j ccud ommm_m J_
oc C)mmmoo _J mmqoogm gmogg m_m_g_Jm__.
idnlh}ah mmm_ mmgTd ommm_m m)m@ C_m
_m. __cCm)_ _)ggm, J__! m__m _o gm_ oc
g)oggd ~id my m@m CogOmmo _om@ _gommo
gl. 4.3.1. bghah o-gh za
bg G
M
aif ms
M
174
ommm_J__. __mmqm momm m)m@ Co_ me
mmqoom mmgJm__. _oom_mo _c _mg_
mmqoom Fiw TL btghLf _de_ JmC)mmoo
mm_gJC_mm. _o oo!J _, Oo_m_oocC _go
_cOoo, ccud _go omqoooo, _go m!o, __m__ C)mmm
m__m omoo _gum _ o_ OoommcmJ__.
A
Y
m@m m muo_ moo __gg Oom_J__.
__m g mm_o m)m@omm. __ __gg m_mdem_ c!_eg
[omgoomemj gugm mm OomoJ__ A
Y
_ded ccd__gg m_m
mm__ogdemmd, gOggmq comoggd _J_ m)mgg
m_m_g_m.
fmth br nrhif (sickle cell anaemia) m@m m)md C_m
mmgTd omm_J__. Hb
S
m@m g!mm__ m)m@ _ded __C_m
om)mmmJ__. _mm)m@ _ded, _)ggggd _dmmm _CmmCommm
comogg g_J__. _gmmd _)gg Jom@oo gm_ _dqg
Cgm__gg _g__ og!_Tomo Cgm__gg Om_Jm_m. ggg
_ed _mm)m@oo _)gg Oodoo _go _o _gJm_m.
_oo_ m)mgg m_m_g_Jm_m. _m@m Hb
A
m@m _dq
m)m@cm _o Co_mc _ed (Hb
A
Hb
S
) ommm_m Omm__
mCeT C_mg g_qog _goTJm__. cmg_g Jom@oo
mCeT g_mm oo) _g)oomgde. mmCo mCeTm m)m
_cmood __g m)m@ _dedoo g omgommm m)m@omJ__.
_omcmood _mm)m@oo ggg _egm Co_mc _ed
m)m@ OommCcm! _mm)m@og gmmCom! _Jm_m!.
bgnwh Hb
A
Hb
S
X Hb
A
Hb
S
F
1
Hb
A
Hb
A
Hb
A
Hb
S
Hb
S
Hb
S
Hb
A
Hb
A
-

_dmmmo!; A
-
oo _CmmCommm Oommco!
_dmmm Jom@ OommCcm!,
Hb
A
Hb
S
- og! _Tomo OodComo C_m gmmCom!, _dmmm
m__m cmg_g Jom@oo OommCcm!, [ _m m
gmmjmCeTg goom Om_C_m!.
Hb
S
Hb
S
- og!_Tomo OodComo C_mmd mmgom_Com!,
_om ogd m)mm _cCom!, mm_mc _CmmCommm
comCom!, Oomdgm ComoC_m OommCcm!.
175
4.5 gh rhj ghuga
_C_o mmqoo _CcmCommood _m_gm
m)m@oomd o_m_ggm_Jm_m. _ooo mmqood me
Ommcum mgoom mq ge__o_ OodgJm_m. X _de_
Y C)mCmmCommood m__m mmqoo Ommcu mJggg
ocmqmgde. mmd C)mCmmCommood ommm_m m)m@oo X
rhj kugQf mm_m Y rhj kugQf mm_m [C_memmcTj
_gom_m. mmd om!_g mm)mmTm, X om!_g, Y om!_g _de_ XY
om!_ggmo _oemm.
X rhj ghuga
m)qmmqoo mmum _qmcd ge__ood
mTmm_m_Jm_m mmm_ T. H. khf J0J0 _o!oomd
qC)mCommemmd _cgg _mm _em OoomJ_.
__Jood, X om!_g m)m@ Oooo omoo comJm__,
__ _dmmm Joq omo_omm m)m@mm g! mm__ g_m
m)m@ _ded mmmg moJmm!.
tf bg x btisf M
Joqom Omm _Jm Ooooom _@cm oeq
Oom Omm__ Jcm _mg_ F
1
ge__mm [_m, Ommj
Joq omo_cm ommm_Jm_m. mm@m F
2
ge__Ommoo
Joq omo_c@m, _mood 50% Joqomo_c@m 50%
Oooo omo_c@m ommmcm!.
btisf bg x tf M
g Ooooom Omm _Jm Joq om
_m_Jcm oeq Oom Omm__ F
1
ge__d _m _Joo
_mg_m Oooo omo_c@m Omm _Joo Joq
omo_c@m comJm_m. F
2
ge__d _mood 50%
Oooo omo_c@m Ommood 50% Oooo omo_c@m
Cgmm_m. Ommgg F
2
ge__mTd 50% Oooo omo_c@m
50% Joq omo_c@m Cgmm_m.
176
kj gh rhj ghuga
_C_o mmd om!_g mmqoo X rhjitna. J50 mmqoo
_ooo om!_go mm _mom_oom. _o__d g_m gmm
OommcoC _gom.
wFUL
mggg)d ommm_m J Oodo_m, omq Oodo_m
mm!m g_m Oom_Jm_m. omq Oodoo Joq, mo, mgm
_J ommmoo mTgg_ cgJm__. _o comogg_ X
om!_g m)m@ om)mmmJ__.
__g m)m@mm g_m mmq_ded omq Oodoo
_co _Jm__. mmCo ggg _e g_m _ded
Ommo_m mmg _e (hemi zygous)g_m _ded _mo_m
__cCm! _Jm_m!.
bgnwh
F1
F2
gl.4.5.1. onuhnrhigyh tf bg X btisf M
tf bg
btisf M
tf bg tf M
btisf M
tf bg tf bg
tf M
177
wFUL M x aghd bg
g ___ _m _dmmm Ommm mmm Omm__ F
1
ge__m! _mom _dmmmo!oomo m_Jm_m!.
_m@m F
1
ge__ Ommoo, gmmJoomom coom!. _o!oo
omgm)m _m mmm Omm__ F
2
ge__m! 3:1 mm_
mJggg Om_@m 50% _moCo mmgom_Jm_m!.
Ra kL
gF - m
J. mmgTd ABO _)gg oo
_j moCmC)mmum _j mdo_ _dedoo
_j X- om!_g mm)mmTm +j Y- om!_g mm)mmTm
2. Rh om)m om_mqggo!
_j omdcm _j CcomCmm!
_j emmdm! m__m mm! +j Jom)md Om Jod
3. __g_J m__m ommg__Jood mmd _!mm
_j XX - XO mgm _j XX - XY mgm
_j ZO - ZZ mgm +j ZW - ZZ mgm
4. cmT Ommood X / A mJgm
_j J.5 _j J.0
_j 0. +j 0.5
5. C_memmcT m)m@oo ommm_o_.
_j X- C)mCmmCommood m_Cm _j Y- C)mCmmCommood m_Cm
_j _CcmCommoo m_Cm +j X m__mY C)mCmmCommoo m_Cm
gF - M
moJ_ mco
J. mdo_ _dedoo mm_md mmm?
2. _mme _dmCmm _doom m)m@ _om go.
3. B X B_)gg oo om!_g Om_C_mTm o_gg _)gg oooo m__o.
4. mTgC)m momdcmud Jcmud` Joo Oomdgm om)mm m_.
178
5. c! _omcmo!oo_ m)md m__ og_ m_?
. _deCcmoo mmCmm! m!?
7. _mmd cT mm_md mmm?
8. m_gmm o_coo!J mm_md mmm?
0. C_memmcT m)m@oo mm_md mmm?
gF -
J. ___oo _d X _dmCmm oemmggm F
2
ge__oom
mmqoo mo
2. O_)ggoo _mom ogmCom)mgd mmmmm?
3. mTgC)m momdcmud Jcmud mm_md mmm?
4. _o _qmmqoo mm_md mmm?
5. c!m! m__m JomOmdc! JmC)mm m__ _q o)o
. Ommmum q_md mmd _!mm m__ m__o
gF - <
mTomm mco
J. ABO mmg _)gg oo m__ _q m__o
2. mmd _!mggd m)m@g g)mo Oomoo moT
3. mmd om!_g mm)mmTm mm_md mmm? qC)mCommemmd X om!_g
mm)mmTm m__ m__o.
179
5. omd [omo1dj
mmd __ _mOmoggmd __gg_gg ge__ood
__mm C)mCmmCommoom mmmo c_g Oom_J__.
_Ood o_c Cgmm_um _em _o_m. o_c, ! gmOod
_mmmm. oo!Jd _Ood me _eoo oc__ me
Oodo_c o _mmm comm. _g_omm _eoo, moggd,
+)_ oComommgd, __emomom, c_mmom, oo!J,
gogCgmm_d Cmmm_omm. cTmmoo me mm_mc ccd
_mqoo omg__oo _Jo__ Oommqm@m ooo!
_eoo, oo!J, mm_mmccgd Cmmm_o OmcmComomood gC)
mmgTmoCo _o_m. _g! _eoo Cgmm_m o) oo!Jd !
_qmc g__mm_. _ooo! _eoo _oT om!_g
_mo)em__mm gggm.
qg ge__omm _om cTm Cgmm_gd __
__ogd _m _mom _!o_m_. mdemm_oomoCo
_mOmogg m__ __ogd _!om __gg_omm _gm)moo
cm_. __g mg_oggd ! md odemo momm odgm
om_ggm` Jm 2 _de_ 3 _m ___mmqd m_gmqoemm.
___ud gmm o__d g_g Cgmm_gd moTom_oo_.
omud _1dcmqem [J. _ 384 - 322j _qoo mom
mgmmmo. _o)_ De Generat i one Ani mal i um m@m _ud
memoom Cgmm_gd moTom_oo_. Cmgm _o)_ De Historia
Animalium m@m _ud Comgm ooo!J _mcm_oo_. me
memoom _mOmo _ogoo gm_ _gm _qmcd
memoo _o! oom_ggmm!. Comg _cd ooo!J
_eoo _)m__ _g!_g cToo _mg_m comdem mo
_eu__ _omJoom mm ogmm!. _ogg_
mO_mJd` (Epigenesis) mm OmTcm!. _ggo om_ mqqo_m
mmmmo_m omd` m@m mT Cgmm_ ogoggm. _gmmd
_Tdcmqd _m_ omeg Cgm__mggo!` mm Cmm__m_J_m!.
JC)o J_gmmo!oo_g_ 1m_m J7 _m ___mmqd
__mem! omud oomm Oogggg _omJm!. omm Cm!(Van
Baer), m. O_od(E. Haeckel), .O_!m(O. Hertwig), _.m. mdom(E.
B. Wilson), dmCmm(Speman), J.mm. od_(C. M.Child), mom(Maclean)
Cmmm_o!oo ooo!J m__ me cmmoo Ooo_oom!. qg
180
omd, __mum _mg_ mToom mmm_gg Oomm_
me ooood Cmmmcg_omJ_. qg mToomo Comgm
omd`(Experimental Embryology), Cog omd(Chemical Embry-
ol ogy), gqm omd(Comparat i ve Embryol ogy) , moo
omd(Descriptive Embryology) Cmmm_o Cgmm_m. _o__md
_m_ mmm_m Commm __oo, go oo!q, _eOod
oo!q, Oo_o o_gd, c_q mm__m, m_oo!J gm_gd. go
mm__m Cmmm_ mg_o Ogmgd_m __oo oo!J Om__oom.
_mOod cmmom
mmd __ _mOmo_c memood ooo!Jm
_oommo _mOodoo como_m, o_ggm _m__oom.
_mOodoo Cgmm_gd _mOmo c_qood _o_m. _g_Oom
_m, Omm _mOmo c_qoomJ m__ o)mgm, _mc
o)mgm _mOmo _e Oodoo _m__oom.
m_g@mmom
__Oogmmoom m__o)mood m_g@ 1gmm_m _m
gdoo cm_. _o__d coo J_qg gooCo m_g@oo
comJm_m. _ggooom _mOmo _eOodoo,
dOm!m1cm1ommm m@m m__g gm OodoomJm_m. _o
3 _m c_qoo
mcm.5.1.1. A-m_g@mmom - B-_mc _@mmom
m__g gm Ood
mo!_e
_ g d _ e
m_ g @mm o
Ood
_)mcmm _e
m_g@ Ood
A
B
m_g@ _mo
Ood
m_g@
_mcg 1gmm_
Ood I
1 _mcm
_mc g 1 g m m_
Ood II
mo!_e
_mcg gm Ood
_gd _m c_q
_)mcmm _m c_q
181
oo!__ _gd _e m_g@mmo Oodoomo mm_m_Jm_m.
_Oodood qom_(Diploid) _em_. _o mmJd __d
mTocg _omJm_m. _gd mmJd mTomd _)mcmm _e
m_g@omo Oodoo Cgmm_Jm_m. _)mcmm mmJd mTomd
dOm!mmq_oo m@m m_g@ _moOodoo Cgmm_m. _o
_mom_(Haploid) _e Oommco. m_g@ cmm__ _ogJmd
dOm!mmq_oo, m__ Oodoomo mm_gd Om_Jm_m. ___ogJ
m_g@ Cgmm_d _de_ dOm!mCmO_mJd mmm_m.
_mcm@mmom
___ogJ _mc o)moo@o _o_m _m _mOmo
_eOodood _o_m ___ogJmd mCommm, _gd_e _mcg
Cgmm_ Ood, _)mcmm _e _mcg Cgmm_Ood Cmmm_ _eoo
m_m_m. ___eoo mmJd Ood mTgemd _o_m. _q _ed
Cgmm_m _mc _@ C_om_ gmmc Omm _mOmo
Oodemm.
o_gd
ooo!J _cOm_ o_gd Cgo. o_gemd qom_
gmm ccd Oodo_ Jcm. Cmgm ooo!J mq_eoo
o_gd gmqm_J__. gC) _mggm m_g@m _mc _@m
Ogmc!q Om_ogmd o_gd m_m_m. _mc _@m@o _gm
m_g@ __gg_gg mm__moog gmqm_m. _ggo o_gd
_ogm_ Jmom(Syngamy) _de_ _mmJd(Amphimixis) mm_
Om!. o_gemd o_c Cgmm_m.
5.J _coom mooo
o_c@o oom om_ cm Cgo. Cgom_m
cmmm _o, oo!J omegg Omm_gg_. mmCo me cToom
_cd coo cmmm _o mm_m_m. _omm_ ocm
mm_ Om!. _om om Oom_q _de_ om
q1)mmmo _m_gm. _Ommoo _mco@ Cgmm_gum
Cmm_ _mco)md JcJm_m. om Commmd _g!J__
_mcm _omd OmTgmm. _ omgmood om o@ _m
g_oomo _m_gm. _o mmdmqm, e1mmmqem m@m
qC)mmoomd _mo.
ooo!Jd me mq_eoo ommm _omm
Omm_ggo. moggd, +)_ Comommgd Cmmm_ _ogoo
ommm _om_ m_m _o_m. mmCo omo _qmcmo
Oomm_ _coo oom_ggemm.
182
ommm _om _coom moo_m
Je cTmmood ooo!J mommm_. omu__
Ooom_m _om cT mo ccd _mq Oommqm. _gm
_q)m, ocd _!Jm, _mmmod, gm-1o _mqggo
[momOomcmj Oommc mmgqoo Cmmm_ memood ommemm.
_oToom o _cd oo!J omem _Jgmd om
_omoCo coo_. _o__m _co_ m1)mOeJggd _de_
_e1omOeJggd _coo mm_ Om!.
m_ memood _om cToo )o oo!_g oom!qggmm
Oommc _eCeC _cu__ m_mo Comq
_oJ_oo_. mmCo _ooo _cood _mc _o om
coo_. _o___ 11omOeJggd _coo mm_ Om!. oog
gocu q_oo, Omdgcuoo, _!-_emmgmoom _coo
_ooo om!_go.
Je memood ooo!J OmT _omd mm_gdoo
cmcmm. mmCo oo!J omem _gommm. _oCood om_
cmooo _go _omd om Cgom_m. _ooo
_co_ OmomOeJggd _de_ Cm1)mOeJggd mm_ Om!.
_m_coo m!om _mmoogm m_ooogm cm_. _o__m
_coo omdJm Ommomemm _co. _oCom_, _coo
_egguc mm_omq gJm_m. _c _co_ Jo1cm
(Cleidoic) _coo mm_ Om!.
om m)md
o_cd m_m_m moggd, +)_ Comommgd Cmmm_
ooo!J _eoo _mg_m _ggoo om m)oe
mcm.5.1.2. 1omg _c
_
om
oemom
_mcem
om___
o1cmomo g_
_dqOmm
mcem om
183
om!__oom. om _cd m)moo __oo meomm. _o
om_e m)md, g_m m)md, Oomq1)mOeJggd _coo.
J. om_e m)md [ _j 1_m1mmOeJggd [ _j _1omOeJggd
_coo
_ooo _cood om oCcmmomom __mm
m)moo_. Cmd _m, Jg _m, mmg _J _mg_
_cmoogm om omJ)mo m)mJcm. _m_cood moggd
mo _gommog Cgmm_ Cmd, Jg _moo _mm ood
_mm. mo _omm _o om Oommc mC)mOeJggd
_cood _ooo m)od cm_.
2. g_m m)md [_j 1emOeJggd _coo
_mg_ oo _co_m _oggmm cm_.
_ggmmd Cmd _m mem _m mmm Jg _m om
_m mmm mm_mqm. ommm _c!ggmmC _ggo
_o Co_mmq_ om)mm. om Jg _mCeC g)_m.
oCcmmomum cocm Cmd _md _mm. Jg _md
m)od g)m ommm _omm Omm_gg_. _omgm _oggmm
Oommc _co_ CemOeJggd _coo mm_ Om!.
mcm.5.1.3. om_e m)md _c
mem _mm
mg! _mm
mcm.5.1.4. g _m m)md _c
om
co
mem _mm
om _m
184
Omm_omo 1ComOeJggd, mmC)mOeJggd _coo _mg_m
CemOeJggd _coomo _mm.
3. Oomq1)mOeJggd _coo
_mg_ _co_m Comooqmd _mgde.
__Oogmm__ memoom _coo _ooc oqo_co. mmCo
_o__d moggd, +)_ Comommgd Cmmm_ _ogJoo mm_m_m.
_Joom _coo _ooc oqo_co. _o__d om
_cm mggum. _Cgmuoom _coo mgmeomo
__Oogmmoom _coo gggm.
5. 2. om Omogm moo_m -
gmom o_c
o oo!Jd _gd _o _ogJmo oggd` _cOm_m.
___ogJmd g OodememJ o_c me Oodooc
oComommJ__. o_gd _ogJmd moggd _omJ__. _mmd
omm _mOmom` mmm_m o_ge__ o mo!Jd` moggd
o_m _cCeC _omm.
momOmod _ogJ Ogmc!_g me mcmJd Ood
mTgdoomd m_m_J__. _gmmd Cgmm_m Oodo_
omd1cmm!oo _de_ oComo J_Oodoo mm_ Om!.
_Oodoo ooo!Jd oComoggm me mgoogm mc!__
_m__ ccd c_q Oodoomo mm_m_Jm_m.
goom o_cd Cgmm_m _gd mogge _gm
_gemo domm!cmm(Swammerdam), mmmo! J738d om_ moTggm!.
goo o_cm mom Omoe __mmo om_
moTggo!oo mTod_, _mmd,(Prevost and Dumas), J824 d mm_ _o!
_o!. _mCmmJoo Jcggmm ocd _!Jm, _ogg) 1m,
_mmmod, Comgoo Cmmm_o__m o _cood momOmod
_ Oomc_.
mcm.5.1.5. Oomq1)mOeJggd _c
om
o1cmomom
co c_

185
_ggo _oou__ mom Omogomm Ood mTgd,
mcmJd __ mmm_ OgoomJoo_. _Ood mTgd m)md
_ogoq_. ocd _!Jmoom _cood 30 _mcmo_ g
__ momdCcmm!oom mogge ommemm. Ogmcm
___ogJd momdCcmm!oom _o J_gmJ__. moggumCmm_
momdCcmm!oo oo!Jcogde. _gmmd oComoggm _o
mm_mgm. mom Omoemd Cgmm_m oComogg_ Omm_em
mm_ Om!. __Co mm momd_emomJ__. momd_emmm cg
mg omd1cmJd _de_ o1omog mm_m _gm oo!
m)m_ omd1cmOc!m mm_m Om!.
oggd m)qoo
o_cm moggd m)qoo me mcmood _memm.
_mmcmoom _qmcd moggg oomm_ cm_.
J. _m o (Meridional cleavage)
moggud mo moom Cmu__ Jgmo _ _omoom
_mm ood C_T_m. _gmmd o_c _ ommmm _)
Comomoomoemm.
2. 1_! o (Vertical cleavage)
moggd m)qoo _o _mq Comq_ _q_moogm
_memm. moggd moom _ _omoogmmo _mm. mo__
Oodoo om _omd _mgde.
3. m Jc1om_ o (Equatorial cleavage)
_moggd m)q mmgd JcComcmo _mm.
_moggd o_c _ ommmm Cmd, Jg _)Comomoomm.
4. Jc1om_ o (Latitudinal cleavage)
_moggd m)q m mg CmemoCom _de_ JgmoCom
_m_goemm.
ogged ommm gmom
ooo!J Ogmc!__ _cOm_ om Cgo. o_cd
_mg_ oo!J _eo_m __mo _cOm__md m_Cm __gg
ge__omm _om cT Cgmm_ _qm. _omgm om
Cgom __Co__ __mmm oo!Jm Om_m ood
memoom _mOmo __oo J)c__oom. _m@m
ommm _ommmd m_m_m oo!_e mmgqoo moggd
_eCeC Ogmm_Jm_m.
186
ommm _ommmd moggud Jgomc oooo
ommemm.
J. __m oggd [ _j 1_m1emomdq oggd
_oood moggum oTmoom o_c __mmo
mo__ m_J__. _gmmd Cgmm_m momdCcmm!oo m@m oComo
Oodoo om _omCem _de_ mm_mCcm Cgmm_emm.
[_j. om _o __m oggd
_ooo moggd om _omooo mC)mOeJggd,
_ComOeJggd _cood _o_m. _gmmd Cgmm_m oComo
Oodoo gC) mmgTmmooomo momm. cgm)mm. _mmmod,
gm-Co _mqggo [momomcmj Oommc mmgqoo.
[_j. omm__ __m oggd
)o o__ _gommo om Oommc 1ComOeJggd,
CemOeJggd _cood moggemd Cgmm_m oComoOodoo
mm_mc _ocmomo momm. oComo Oodood J_
mC)mm!o_m OmT mmC)mm!o_m cm_.
2. g mg oggd _de_ 11)momdq oggd
_oood o_cd om mo _gommo coogmd,
moggd oCcmmomo_oo Cmd _oggCem [ mmC)mOeJggd
_cooj _de_ o_cm Cmd m)mCem [OomqC)mOeJggd
_cooj moggd _cOm_m. _gd _ ooo_m_.
[ _j . 1md g_ oggd
mmC)mOeJggd _coo ommm mo _gom
Oommco. _gmmd oCcmmomom Cmd _oggm ! J_ mgd
m_Cm _m_gm. moggd _ogoo _mg_m _J_ g_
Cmmm_ mgCeC _og__m_m. _g_ g_oqo 1C)mmomdq
moggd mm_ Om!. cgm)mm. m_ooo, mmCmmqTmoom
o_coo.
[_j. 1mdm)q oggd
OomqC)mOeJggd _cood om _cm
mgggm oCcmmomom _gm o__gmmo _m_gm.
moggd, Cmd m)mgoo oCcmmomoggd m_Cm _o_m. cgm)mm.
_Joom _coo.
187
oggd mgoo
o_cood meoo moggd __o_m_. m__
_mg_ _coogm gC) mmgTmoggmm moggd C_T_m.
_moggdoo Je Omm_omm mgo_ o_mco.
J. om mg (Sachs law) [J877j
ij o_coo moggumCmm_ ommmm _ooo oComo
OodooC Cgm__mo _gm.
iij goOom qg moggd oTmoo_m __g oTmoogg_
Oomggmo _mm.
2. mmd"1mm! mg (Balfours law) [J885j
o_cm mmggm _o_m moggum Coom, _moo
ommm _om_ mg!m_g Ogmc!q Oommc_.
gmom o_cd _o_m oggd
goom o_cd omm__ __mmoggd cm_.
moggd, Jgomc __d _o_m.
J. _gd moggd oTmoom Cmu__ Jgmog Cgmm_m [_omoj.
Cmd _oggd Cgmm_m oTmoom Om_omo Jg C_mJ m)m.
_gmmd o_c Cmu__ Jgmo ommmm _omd _)m_ oComo
Oodoomo mom.
2. _)mcmo_ mogggm Cmu__ Jgmm _o moComm. _mo
_gd moo Oomggmo mTm. __ __m moggemm. _gmmd
_mm oComo Oodoo Cgmm_m.
mcm.5.1.6. gmom o_cd o
_gd oggd
_m_mm oggd
_mo
Jc 1 o m _
o
o1omom
o1omom - Om_g1gm__m
o1omo om! m)q
o1omog
_)mcmm oggd
_mo
188
3. _m_mo_ moggd JcCom_ moggemm. _moggd m
mg Cmd Cgmm_m. _gmmd _gud Cgmm_ _mm Oodo_m
mTocm. m_ oComo Oodoo Cgmm_m. _o__d _mm OmT
Oodoomo Jg _oggd _mm. _o___ mmC)mm!oo _de_
oComo OmOodoo mm_ Om!. Cmgoo _mm J_ Oodo_
mC)mm!oo _de_ oComo J_ Oodoo mm_ Om!.
4. _mmomogmo, _)m_ _o mogggomm oTmoomoo Cgmm_m.
_o mC)mm!ood _Tgmmom mmC)mm!ood Om_omom
mom. _gm _qmd J oComo Oodoo Cgmm_m.
5. Ogmc!_g me moggdoomd me J_ oComo Oodoo Cgmm_m.
_gd mmg Cmgooo J_ mC)mm!oomom
J_ooo OmT mmC)mm!oomom momm.
moggum __gd oComommm_ o__ _Jc__ !
_o_c oqogg Om_m. _g_ Ommem mm_ Om!. _gm cq_m
coo g mg o1omo g mm_ Om!. _g Om_omo
OmTgmJ oComo cmgd m)m. _m@m _g mgm
Cmd _mm mC)mm!oom mggd m_Cm ommemm.
oComo Oodoo gm_cOmmm_ gqOomm_ !
mmggu mcemmJm_m. _g_ o1omo mcem mm_ Om!.
_mcem Cmd _md _ __oo Oommc_. _omgm
__mmm oComo gm, oComo mce_m Cgmm_ _ed
_om_ omd_em mm_ Om!.
J2 __ moggd _og_g mm oComoggd 400 Oodoo
_oemm mm omc_m_oo_. 20,000 Oodoo Oommc _ed
! momd_em __gg _emJ +)_ oComommgd _e
Oodeemm.
! _qomm momd_em mmm_ me cc_mgoo cmcmm
Oodoo Oommc oComommm. _Comoggm goOom Oodum
_qomm _mqm omc_m_oo_. _omgm, Cgmm_m mgoo
mcm.5.1.7. gmom o1omom - Om_g 1gm__m
mem _mm
mg! _mm
o1omo J_ Oodoo
o1omo OmOodoo
o1omo g
189
oComoggd o)mcmmo _om_oom. _g_ c_mmo
mgoom m)mcm mm_ Om!. _gd q_mc, _cmc,
_omcd Cgmm_m c_q _mcm_oom. __gg _ed
_cOm_m cOoded, cggd _ogJood mmCo_m Oodoo
_cmom ommm_oom.
5.3. gmo: +)_ 1omommgd _de_
1od_emmmom
Cod_emomom oComommge Ogmc!__ _o_m !
Ogmc! _ogJmm. ___ogJd oComo mce Oodoo _cm
Om)g_omJm_m. _o!Jmmd _o c_qoo Cgmm_m cT
_cmoocJm_m.
mmgd ! _mc _cgggoo omce Oodoo
_Jc__ ! Jom _mmm Om_Jm_m. _Oodoo
oComogg@oomo _o)g_omJm_m. _gmmd Cmd q_ggd !
J_ moom Cgmm_m. _moom oComo g@o m)m
_!Oomq)mm _de_ omdq1)mJd m@m qg cgmmg
Cgm__mm. _gm Ooog_om)ggm o1omog _o
mmemm.
! J_ J__mog Cgmm_m oComog_o Om_omo oc
oqogg Om_m. _gm Cmd momq, 1md cg_ mmm Jg momq
J_g_ mmm _gom_m. oComoggm m)md coo c_mmo
Oodoo oComog _om ogmo co _gg _omJm_m.
_g_ cOodggd`(Involution) mm_ Om!.
_ooggd Ogmmc mgomm _omc Oodoo co
_gJm_m. ___og oComog _om Cmd cg_ mgm
ogC m_m_m. _m co _gm _Oodoog Ogmc!__ m_
Oodo_m _gJm_m. co _gm Oodoo oComo gd
_mJm_m. _gmmd Om_omo oComog _omd J_gmm. co
_gm Oodoomd m_m_m qg gm_ _ec_g _de_
omdq1)mJd (Gastrocoel) mm_ Om!. _gC _ecd _de_
mcm.5.1.8. 1md cg_ 1gmm_gd
1md cg_
190
_!Oomq)mm (Archenteron)mmm_J__. _ecum cmg
mqmqmm mm_gdoo Om__ Ogmmc mgg Cgm__mm.
__Co _mcd mgmm. _oCood m_ _cmc, _omc
Oodoo gmooT _eoo o_gc__ m_Jm_m.
cq_ggm _omc Oodo_m Oooq_ggm q_mc
Oodo_mcd _cmc Oodoo _mJm_m. ___mm
__mc Oodoo cOoded _em coCo _g__m_ogmd _o
m_omCo __g _cggd q_mc Oodoo _mJm_m. _omgm
q_mc Oodoo Cm_q_ggd mc!ge m1mme (Epiboly)_de_
Cm_mc!gd mmemm. ___ogJmd Codqemmm Cm_mg __o_m
o) _mggd` Cmmm_ q_mc Oodoo _mm.
mcm.5.1.9. _omc Oodoom co _o!
o1omog _om
1md cg_
OmOodoom co _o!
o1omo 1md mcem
o1omo g
mcm.5.1.10. gmom o - +)_ c1mgd
o1omo J_ Oodoo
o1omo OmOodoo
omg_o
_cmmm
o1omo g
omdq1)mJd
_cmc
1md cg_
o1omog_o
q_mc
_omc
191
_gmmm oComog_o Je _omc Oodoomd
_com_m. _Oodoo omg _o _cmmm Oodoo`
mmemm. oo!Jm Cmm_ _Oodoo co _g__m_Jm_m. _gmmd
oComog_o J_ moomo _mJ__. Codqemomom m@m
_ogJd ! oComommm_ _mo omJc, Comooqo
_o_ omdqemomJ__. _gmmm m_m_m mqmqmm mm__moomd
_)mq gd 1gm__m _og__ __em Cgmm_m.
__emmmom
_)mqgd Cgmm_gd _ogJC __emomommm.
___ogJmCmm_ _cmc, _omc Oodo_m mm_gdoo
Om_Jm_m.
__emomoggd oT _m-mmmmo _oomqd
_Jcg _omm. _gm __ q_ggd q_mc Oodo_m_.
_o__d _)mq c_qoomm Oodoo m_ Oodoou__ mm_mcg
mcm.5.1.11. gmo o1omom - c_mmo m)mcm
g__q
_)mqgg_ q_mc
mmd __mc
___mm
ccd __mc
mog g_ _cmc
om_
mgOemo
mcm.5.1.12. gmom __em
cmmmg
_o
__)d omdmm
__ _mm
Ogmmc
om
cc_g
meg_mm)m
ode)d
192
_omJm_m. _Oodoom Ogmm_ Om_de1 g_ _de_ __)d
g_ mm_ Om!. _gg_ mg gqg_ ! Cm_ Cmmm_ _mm
Om_J__. _g_ __)d mqq mm_ Om!. _mmqmm mggd !
__)d oTmoom Cgmm_m. _moom Cmgm _gmcm. _gm
Cm_q_mmo __)d mqq ! _q Cmmm_ _mmmJ ! __)d gd
Cgmm_J__. _gd q_ __ Oodoou__ m_m_m. mm __)d
gd _)mq mmcemmJ__. ___e om_ __em mm_ Om!.
__emomo _ogJCeC __ _mm _cmc ggm ccum
_omc o__mqm Cgmm_m_m.
__em _gm _ed good me ccd c_qo_m
Cgmm_g _omJm_Jm_m.
5.4. gmod cmmom
q_mc, _cmc, _omcu__ Cgmm_m ccd
c_qo_omm _e _mqoo Cod_emomom, __emomom
Cmmm_ _eooCeC Cgmm_m_Jm_m. __gg _ed c_mmo
_gd _e _e _mqoo, me _)mcmm _e _e _mqoo
Cgm__mJm_m. _o me c_qoomom c_qg Ogmgoomom
mm_gd Om_Jm_m.
q_mc c_qoom omo!J
goom __emmd _m_oo q_mcg goo_m_.
_o Cmd- Cgmd q_mc, __)d q_mc, __)d _m Oodoomm.
A
B
C
mcm.5.1.13. gmom omd __emmmom
__)d g_
o1omog_o
__)d _o
__)d mqq
193
1md 1gmd q_mc
_ooo q_mcd Cgmm_mo cm! c_qoo, Oomoo,
moCom_ cm! c_qoo, __g__qoo, q_Ooooo, coom
mcem, meg_om)m Cmmm_omm.
__)d q_mc
_oo_ Oodoou__ m _)mq mmce_m Ooo Ood
_)mq mmce_m comm.
_cmc
_oo_ c_qoomog Cgmm_mo omdoo, _o ocom,
_gm, _)gg gdoo, J__)om, cc_g m__m _mOmo
c_qoomm.
_omc
cm mmg, _)m)doo, omm, J__! m, Cmmm_o
_J _omc c_qoo.
gmom _gm 1gmm_gd
co _g gm 1gmm_gd
_omc
mm1cmom!q mJ mg
mm1cmom!q gm
Jg 11omom!qm
A
B
C
_cmcm coo_
194
_gm ! _cmc c_q. _o_q Ogmmc mgm
_qq_ggd Cgmm_m. ! _mc gd _mmmog Cgmm_ mqqoo
Om__ _gm comm.
o mgJ_
mg - _
c1 mcg 1g!_Og_om
J. dOm!mCmO_mJud _cOm_m Ood
_j m_g@ c_mgg _j dOm!mmq_oo m__ Oodoomgd
_j m__o)m Cgmm_gd +j co mm_gd Om_gd
2. OomqC)mOeJggd _coo Cgm__mm cT
_j goo _j mmg!oo
_j m!om +j _Joo
3. Cmdm)q moggd m_m_m _coo cmcmm cToo
_j m_ooo _j _mmmod
_j _Joo +j _!-_e omgmoo
_omc
m1mom!qm
Om1om!qm
mm1cmom!qd gm
Om1om!qd __
_omc
Om1om!qm
Om1om!qd g
_gg
m1mom!qm
mm1cmom!qm
mcm.5.1.14. gmom omd _gm 1gmm_gd
D
E
195
4. om`Jm mg _g@cm Ogmc!qc_
_j _mOodemom _j moggd
_j +)_ Comommgd +j c_qg Cgmm_d
5. +)_ oComogg@o Cgmm_m g
_j omdC)mJd _j oComo g
_j oComog_o cg_ +j g
mg - _
J_ mc g)m
J. memoom ooo!Jd C_T_m _eoo oTom_gg o_.
2. omeg Cgm__mggo! _Tdcmqd mm_ o_ogm om)mm
mmm?
3. g_omegg omud` ___ Cgmm_oo __md mToo
mo.
4. mC)mOeJggd _coo mm_md mmm?
5. Omm_em mmm_ m_?
. _o momm o_.
7. moggd Ogmc!mmm mmdmTm mg m_?
8. c_mmo o)mcm` mmm_ m_?
0. cOodggd` mmm_ m_
mg - _
J. OmomOeJggd _c m__o_.
2. OomqC)mOeJggd _c mm_md mmm?
3. moggd m__ _q) g)m.
4. om` mg m__ o_.
5. goom ooo!Jd q_mc, _omc c_qoo o_.
mg - +
m1mmm mgd g)m
J. meoo o_coo m__ mTomo m_gm.
2. o__ _cd _o_m moggd m__ m_gm.
3. ! _!-_e omgmm o_cd _o_m +)_ Comommge
moTom.
4. goom __em _mmg g)m.
196
. Ommomgm)_m memeo_m
mmgm Cgmm_ omem _gemo memoo cmomom Co_
me om)mmo_omom mmm_gg m_Jm_m. __od goOom
memJm_m _g_Oom cT _Jg_om Oommq_g Cmmggm Je
memoo mmg@ _mm mmmomom, Je gm mmmomom
coom. Cmgm Je, [ _Joo Cmmm_oj cm Cmmm_ __o
oomo_omo _m_cm Cmmq_Jm_m. mmCo _m_ Ommomgm)
_mCm__gg_ _ggo memoo m__ __o_ _oJm.
.J. mmgm memoo
_m_ Ommomgm) m__gg_ cgm _mm OoJm_ memoo
mm g memoo` mmm_m. __J, mmd Cmmm_ mcog_oo
cmoom ommom, m_ Cmmm_ _c oooom, _g_, mmom
Cmmm_ me!_g Ommooom memoo _mg gJm_m.
__md, _m_, Comg, Cgmoo, _)_Joo, m__Joo
Cmmm_o _ooo om!_go.
.J. J. mmo mm_ cmmmm-[1om)dj
mooggm mgq m__m J_q m__ __Comm. _m@m
_o__m cTd o)em_ m__ _m _mom OgT ommde.
JOemc1)cm Ogmg om!_g moo mmuqoom q_ocomoCo
mmomm_oo _Jm_m. _ocomoo omdJm om!mCmc
Oomm_ comomco.
moomm_ comm cTmmoo ocmoomo
omgJm_m. _o _) C_)ggd cm cOomomo. gmoo cce
moo o_o_o __g_ Oomoogmd, moud moomm_oo
c)__o Cmmm_ Cgmm_Jm_m. _) C_)mood cce OooC
_q _mgdoo _og_ _) Cg_m Omm__, gO)m c!
Om__g Cmmm_ mmgCgm__gg comJm_m. _omJ
_T@o _gJ __Cgmcm coog Cmmm_ Cgmm_J__.
cc_goood oom Nnrjyh (Zooxant hel l a) m@m
gmo)ggmd moo, m_q mo ommmo_cm _o
omJoJm_m. goood comm __m Oodoo, _o__@
Joq, _oJoq __gg Oom_Jm_m.
197
moomm_oo _gm__ 20
O
C m _mg Oomocdood
m_Cm ommm_Jm_m. oemod _demg Ogoomm _!, _o oo)
_oJmmJ__. _oTmmoo ocud coo omdJm om!mCmc
Oomm_ q_ocomoo _mJm_m. _Oog Cm__mc
Oomm Cgom_Jm__.
mmomm_oo cmmom
ocud _! mcgg_ _qd _mm_oo m)mmmmcmmo
omJoJm_m. mmum _mOmoggm moomo comm
om@1e`(Planulae) mmm_m _om cToo ocmmo __g Oom_
g _cggd gmJ oo!Jm_m. _o_gd, mo_gd Cmmm_
_mOmo __oomd _go mmuqoo _o comJm_m.
_gmmd _mm_oo oo!Jm_m. g_Cmm_ coo mm_oo
mdem)omomm _m_o_ _mmC) me mdum mmuqoomd
comomco _m.
mmomm_m mooo
_m_ mgmmm moomm_oo coom. _o o)1m)
mm_oo, g_q mm_oo, momm_oo(Fringing reefs, barrier reefs
atolls) mmmm.
o)1m)mm_oo _gm__ oc_mg, _J _em)mm o)Cm)
oc_mg, o)Cm)g goo o__oo oc_mg _gu _cmood
_gm__ oToomo ommm_Jm_m. _ggo mm_oo __g
gmo_mggm OgmComqd _)mCmdo)gg_ _Jd OgmcmJ
omJug Ogmc!Cmmd, gg_q gmmq OodJm_m. Cm_
oc_o) mgmm o oocm mggm _o__ ommemm.
mcm.6.1.1. Corals
Fungia
Acropora
Oculina
Tubipora
198
Ogmc! g_q mm_oo _J _emg _de_ go_
_mmo coom. _o o) Oo Ogmemd ocud, _e
g_q oo! Cmmm_ _m_gJm_m. ocJg _dgC)u
oc_o) _mmo 20J2 J. 1 _oggd momg_qmm_
_m__oo_(The great barrier reef). _ggo mm_ood __Co mo
_mcgmm.
mo mm_oo g_omc oomoo Cmmm_ oqco.
__mgd _gm__ _)Oommco. _o ocgcm gq_m
Ogmc!qOommc mT (lagoon)oomo omJoJm_m. _om m__m
oTmm goo _ggo mm_o_ Om! Om__o.
Ommomgm) _Jg_mm
1om)dem _m)m`[Com.O_mmuj (Corallum rubrum) m@m Joq
omm me!_g moomood _m)mmoo Oom_Jm_m.
Ogmm_gmmd g_moomoo (Tubi pora) _m_ m_gmo
mmm_Jm_m. occm o_gd, ome _mggd _Jo__d
mcm.6.1.2. mmomm_m mooo
mmomm_
mmomm_
m1meggoo
c! ocd mcm
gmgocd mcm
o)1m) mm_oom _Om_g 1gm__m
mmomm_
eom
eom
mmomm_
gmgocd mcm
c! ocd mcm
Ogmc! g_q mm_oom _ Om_g1gm__m
mmomm_
mmomm_
gmgocd mcm
c! ocd mcm
momm_oom _ Om_g 1gm__m
eom
199
_omm_oo (Porites) mmm_Jm_m. momgmmm mm_ood
OmmJm` _gom coogmd JOmm` c_mggd _o
cgJm_m. _o om), ommmmq c_mggd _qmc
OmmomJm_m. Oooom, mm _Tq _Jo__g g_m mm_omq
_)moomo _o ocud momJm_m. momg mm_oo,
m_ooo gmm o)mmemoomJ Oomm1mm`(Guano) m@m m_o
mom m mgoomJm_m. _mm_oo moOmT gmJ_q Om__
omgcmoomJm_m. _m om_m __Oogmm__ c!oom oooo,
_o__m _mTmgmmm mmmo, _mm_oom gmggmm,
Joemm ccem _Jo meg)mc moo 1moom mTmmm
oo!J om)mmmJm_m. _gmmd me _m_ood _omcmoo
o__em J_m Om_Jm_m.
.J.2. mmq_ mo!q
Ogmgd _mCm__m, moOgmo Omom, _o!q_ oo!J
_gu om)mmoomd ogOmmoo mmm mom_Jm_m.
o__q_gg mmom_g_m og Ommoo _oom_m. _o
Jg_ ogoo, Jg_m ogoo mmm_m. _o__ _og me
_m_oo oomemo m__Oomm_oom.
__gm cmc me _m_ood moomm, Ogmg_omeoo, _m_mc
m_ Oodmm_oo _Jo__md c! ogoo comom_Jm_m.
Ommgg ogood 0% c! ogoComm.
_ggo ogoo m_og_J Oo _mm, og__oo
om_mom_oom. _o__d gm_ mmq_ oo!qg Ogmgd_mm.
_gm mmmo q_ c)m` m__m _ me mmq_ q)gm _m
JcJm__.
__gm m_m_g_m 2500 mdum cm c! ogoo oTmm
ogd m_og_J Oom_mmmmd 400 mdum cm gmo) cm_cm
c_mgg Oomcemm.
q_ mo!q
o1momemmo q_ oo!q me _m_oo oo!__oo_. 1@
Oom_om_m Commggomggm meC__m, m__m_ _Jo
_g_ om)mmmJm_m. __g me q)g cmomm mmq_, Comg,
1m Cmmm_oo_ _de m_gmJ__. ogOmmoo cm_
Jgmgmmd moJ__g oeq c)m Jco og OoJm__. g
ocggd, g mmq_ J000 _gd J500 o_ggoo comJ__. 2000
_g!_g q_oo )mm_o J mdum q_oomo OmJm_m.
200
mmq_g 1g! m__m mo!q
nynlh khUil, bgnah vfntl (Lampito mauritti,
Perionyx excavator) Cmmm_o __gm, gmem__ _J _m_ood
oo!om_Jm_m. bAnyhoy ~nghol, ybgf
%bgy (Hel odri l us f oet i dus Lumberi cus rubel l us)ceoOmmm
ommm_Jm_m. mj Athahdh, vbrah ~ngholh,
oy vna(Amynthas hawayane, Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus
engeniae) Cmmm_o ogOmmooo omoogd mmm_gg
m_Jm_m.
q_ oo!q __ _cgg_ _cm mm_m_J__. oo!q q_oo
oo!q mcoggd _m oo!__ Omo oq gmmcmomo
_ggd Com_m.
q_ oo!q c)g 2. 4 1 _om J. 2 1 _oem 0. 1 _g_m
Oommqm_ _de_. _omcggd 50,000 q_oo oo) _gm. 5,000
_gd ,000 mmq_oo oo!o m)Omqoo [5JOo.1 X 3Oo.1 X
J5Oo.1jCmm_mmmo. mm, om_g _!ggmo)moo, ooo, ommm,
m)ggo, cm, __J mmcmoo _Jo__ Oomm_ oo! mcom
gmTomcemm.
Cmmg _o , cm Jcm oo!q mcoggd _o _m
oo!Jm_m. _mg_ c! ogo_m co_goC. _m@m
qc!_m _J Oomdu m__oo Cmmm_ CogOmmoo oeq
mcoggd oe__mcmmd mm!g_ Oomo_gd _oJm.
mmq_oo q)gog_[5%j Oom_q[J4%j om!Cmm_qC)
[J4%j ommmd og_ [3%j _J cm_c Ommoo Oommco.
mmCo 1m, __md Cmmm_oo_ oggmm gommmJm__.
oeqq_ c)m(Vermicompost)
moom ogoomm oComd, omq oo, omd ogoo,
ommm, m_o mom _Jo q_oomd Jgom_ c)mmo
mm__m_Jm_m. _g_ oeq q_c)m mm_ Om!. __ moom
_emo_ _deOgm __o c)mmo mmm_J__.
.J.3. mmm_ _Joo
_Jmmood me, mmg mmm_Jm_m. mmmmqm
_qmcd _o__ _)mcmomToemm. _o memg _Joo,
cgm _Joo mmm_om.
201
I. memg _Joo [Ommog _Jooj
mmg@ mmm_Jm_ me Ommoo _o _oJm_m.
1gm, m_, _) Cmmm_o _o__d _Jg_om om_go.
_. 1gmoo
_o o_gm _Joo, ocmmo omgmo, ocm __o_m
o_o_mmo _mmo. _o me!oom mo)_gm m__m m_mm
cm@Jm_m. Cgmood _mm _mmoo _m _mqd ommemm.
_o__d _m_oo Cgm CooTmgd _m cgJm_m.
J. V lhbrlh [meg1gmj (Apis dorsata)
__Co __gmmm moOmT Cgm _mmmJ__. __ mo _go
_omd Cgm CooTJm__. omm! 4 _q _o_oo OmT Cgm oc
como ode_. mo c)mmm m)mood _o_oo ommemm.
Oom_) _dqc _o__ mgom_g_o_m oo!momood
oo!m_m _em_.
2. V ~nshuh (Apis flora)
m__ Cgmoo mc oqmd J__. mmCo JmmgCgm`
mm_gom_J__. _o__m o_oo moJ_o. qg!oo
m_o)oo Cmmm_ _cmood _o__g gmo_oomo
ommemm.
3. V ofh (Apis indica )
__ g omgm)m __ggCgm. V. lhbrlh, V. ~gnshuh
_)mq@m _cmc ccd _o Oommc_. me _m Cgm
o_oo o_Jm__. m)Omm__oo, ooo, Jm__m cmg
Cmmm_ mm_ommmm _cmood _o__ ommemm. _ommg
Cgmoo m_Cm mgom_ggm Cgm oo!md +_m_ggm
_gm.
Cgm OooCo_ me!ood m_m c_J m_mJ__. _oom_
gmmd CooTomc m_, _moo O_mgoomd me mm__moo
_cJ__. mmm! Cgmoqd cmgm_ 1gmmo Comom_J__.
Cgm m__m Cgmcd Jcm Om_J@omo Cgmoo
oo!m __m modo! (Apiculture) _de_ 1gm mo!ggd
mm_gJC_mm.
1gm m__m 1gm Om_Jm mmoo
CooTom_m meTm gmm OmmgCg Cgmm __m m__m
mmm _mJ__. 1gm c! cm_c mgq Oommc_. J J)mm Cgm
202
33 J.oCemT og g)ode_ mmomJcm_J__. [_gm _qmcd
200J Cgm = JJ.5 u mmd = J. J.J mmemc=330 J)mm mmmomj. Cgm
gommm _)ggComo, meo_ Cmmm_ooo _Jm__.
_md, oo, omod Cmmm_ooo mm_g_m m_gmJ__.
C_m mg!q og Oommc_. _)ggggd _CmmCommm _oggd
cgJ__. om m__m cud m_m_m qmoo ___ ode_.
_!Cogm m__m mmm m__ood mmm_Jm__. O)mq,
Cooo, mdo gmTmgm Co!om_Jm__.
Cgmcu__ 1gm Om_ Om_m_J__. Cgmoom
o__mgd coo o)moo __g Om_o o)Jm_m. _g
omgmOmmoo, _o_ooo, m__ oomqoo, o!mmoo,
Oomggc Ommoo, momdq Ommoo, Om_ mmOm,
oTggmo m__m me c Ommoom gmTmd CgmOm_
mmm_gg m_Jm__. Ood _o_g Cgomm _m
Oo_g_m_ comoggd _oocoo Oo
mmm_Jm_m(microtomy).
_. m__Joo
me!_g Ommomm m_, m_ q_mm oqu__
C_!ggmm _emo JcJm__. _de g)m om_g m_ _e,
__md _!ommo, __omo c_mgg Oo_ _de me m_mm
Oogd Oo1odo! _de_ m__J mo!ggd mmm_m.
m__Joom mooo
J. _oOomc m__J ( gh bkh) (Bombyx mori)__
oo!ggg co_g_. _oOomc _eoo _q_ cmmgmd
_oOomc q_ _de_ mdOm1 q_ mm_gom_Jm__.
_gu__ Om_m_m m_ _d Oommmm_. _ooo m_
mdOmTm_` mmm_m.
2. cu! m__J [Mjna gh~ahj (Antheraea paphia)
Om!, , omd, _gg Cmmm_ m)mood __gq_oo oo!Jm_m.
mcm. 6.1.3. m__Joo
_g!_g _m
_g!_g Omm
203
oqmmmm, og ogmmm Comg _cm _ooo o_oo
_q_oo comJm_m. m_q omm cu! oom_ _d
_ooo o_oou__ m_om_Jm__.
3. _om m_q_ ( Mjuah m[hbkj (Ant heraea
assamensi s)__ _dummd mo _J qogOgmgemJ__.
_q_mmm _dumm mm_egg om!_g_. __g m_ _om m_
mm_gom_J__.
4. m1m__J [mlhf idj (Attacus ricinii)
_mm _eoo _q_oo cm@Jm_m. _o__m
go!_g o_oo m@m@m__ m_ _eg gJm_m. _m@m
___d _mc_mo cgmo. _ooom_ _)mqm_ mmm_m.
m__J oo!ggd J)mm Cmmmmq@ cgm _Jg
Ogmgdood gm_mm. _gm _gud mcmc qm_g Omm
ommoC omm. _gm _@omoo me ___mm_oo _mm
___gomde. mm@m _m_ ceo _omd m_ c_mggd _mm
_J _cgg Om__oComm. g)m om_g mdOmTm_ m_mdem_
m__ _mg_oo m_q_o_m _m ooJm_m. _mg_
)omo_m g_Cmm_ _m _mqCeC gmTom_Jm_m.
mqm mmoo
m_ _d O_o Oom_ mcmco_m _mooo_m
Oom_Jm_m. m_m coo, [mm)m_ooj _g_omm o_oo,
gmqdoo, mmmd odecoo, OgmeCmJomm gcomq
oooo, g_gdem Ogme ommJoo, cm_g om!oo)moo
_gum Oom_Jm_m.
_. _) _J (Lac insect)
mcm. 6.1.4. _) _J
_) g_o
_om c1
204
_Joocm__ Om_oq m_O_m Ommo _) (lac)
ny~g nyfh mm@m Oogd _J gm mm_omqomo o)m mJm
Cmmm_ m_q __ OmmCo _)` mmm_m. __Joom J_ _om
cToo mqcTg gmo)moom ogm__mm Joood
gmJm_m. _m gmm o__gm _)Jm o)Jm_m. _)
g_g Jooo CooTom_, _) mTgOg_om_J__. mmm!
__ ce!ggm_ mgm_ggm_ oco)omJ__. _) comm
m)moo mmoom. om, Om!, mqd m__m omd Cmmm_o. _mm)moo
Cm_g Ogmc!J meood ommemm.
_)Jm mmoo
me _T mmqoo Oommc __ me mgmood
mmm_Jm__. momdq Ommoo, mooo, Cgmd m) Coemm_oo
_guo__d mmm_ggm_J__. mm Ogmg_omeood mmgc
OmOomOm, om!q mmgc omgmmoo _gum comoggd
mmm_Jm__. Ommoo mm_omom _g m_ggm mmm_m
OmOomOm, o!mmoo, Cmmm_ooom gmTmd mmm_J__.
momom omJgmoo, _Td o)m _o m, _oqo,md go_oo, gg
goomcmoo, oodoo, Om_ o!mJoo, _oommmq
ocmoo _Jo gmTqood mmm_ggm_J__. _gg) _)
gmTmd _J OmmomJ__.
II. cgm _Joo
me _Joo mmg@ _om_ mdCo_ Oodmm_ood
cgJm_m. mo)_g Co!od _o _J mm oJJm_m.
mooe _m Comcmg oooo _Jm_m. gm
Oom cTmmoo o_o oggo cgJm_m.
mmc1mm"1mod (entomophagous) mmm_m _J cmmoo _o__d
_Jmmmo. m)md mmmod Omooq _Joo _o
o_m_g_Jm_m. _J cmmoo qg_mmoo, g_mmoo
mm oom_ggemm.
qg_mm _Joo
mcm. 6.1.5. qg_mm _Joo
1eq1m! mm_
g) mm_
mdem
205
gmm cm@m _Joo mc _o _omd OmTo.
Cocm_m memoo Cmmm_ _o gm_ _)g gmm
mqg_m@Jm_m. 1eq1m!` (lady bird beetle) m@m J_ Joq om_
_g_ cgm)mmmJ__. m)md mmmod OmJ, _mc _moo
om_m _oom_oo _go cmo cm@Jm_m. _o__m _om
cToo oc mdCo_ g)mc _Joo cmomJ OomoJm_m.
mmCo moomo_ _mm!oOom_ _o__ _mcemm. V~
ya (Api s l i on)m__m g) mm_oo _gum _ooo
_JoComm.
g_mm _Joo
_o gmm om!__oo cToomc J_o. omgmd J__
omeggCm _de_ __mmoCom _o cToom ccud
Ooem_Jm_m. mqTm ccum coCom _de_ OooCem
ommm_Jm_m. cJm(tachinid) oo _Joo ommo _Jood
g_mmmo omgJm_m. gmo) Cmmoo, ommo _Jood
)momm_(Brachanoi d) oo _J g_mmoomJm__.
_m1mmm(i chi neumon) g_mmoo me oo_Jo_
g_mmoomo momJm_m. _oom_ Ogm_g) Oom _Joo
o_m_gg _Jmmoo cmCmJm_ c!mg o_mm_
__ood (biological control) gm_mJ__.
mcm. 6.1.6. g_mm _Joo
cJm
ommo q_ 1md cJm o_
q_oo mo!gd
ommo q_m@o _m1mmm
om _c_gd
__g _Jm _o1m 1md
)momm_ o_q_oo mo!gd
206
mo)_g 1o!od _Joo
Cgm, om, m_mq, ommg_ _J, om_ _gemmo
mo)_g Co!od cgJm_m. _mo, CmT, momd m__m me
omo_oom c_mggd Cgmoom mm mom _oJmmJ__.
om, Jm!mm, _gg Cmmm_o mo)_g Co!oomo, _JooC
__mmo om!_gJm_m.
_Joom _ mmoo
gmo)moog gm@m me _Joo, oo o_mmqd
OmT_m cgJm_m. nfnlh sho nfnlhu (Cactoblastis
cactorum)m@m ____Jm ommoq_, _dgC)ummd oo
Ooqmm ommggooo (Opuntia sp.,) ooge o_m_gg
mmm_Jm__.
.J.4. __md, od __md, _m_
_. __md (Prawns)
__md c_mgg 1mmq Ogmgdood mo _Jmmmgmo
ogm_J__. m__mg Ommood mo _Jmmm gm_mJ__.
ocd cm ooood __md _gd g)mmmgmo ogm_J__. ceo
m__m co_m_ o_good mom o)Co_qc Ommomo
momJ__. ood m_mdem_ cm_cgggm __
_gmmmmgmo momJm__. q)gm, ocmm A m__m D _gom
Oomm_oo_. _m_m mqmm _omd JoCom_m, gm _mCmm
_memoo _Jo__ Oomm_oogmd _o__m ogm__mm
mg g _m oocm coo_. Oom_q Ommo _omo
coogmd gm_ mc m__ mgqm!cCm! _mo)mgm mom
mmmm_J__. _mq mCeJm, m!mm Cmmm_ Ooo_m_o_ _gm
ogm__mm _ _omc mg m__mg Oomc_. _m_ _mmm
_J _OmTo _m_o_, mgm_gg c_mg_, m__mgmJ__.
__ _m ___ Ooemom _gom_ggoo_.
Ommomgm) _Jg_mm mm_g __g __mdoo
nda ofh(Penaeus indicus) bklhnda lnrh(Metapenaeus dossoni)
. nkhndhl(P. monoton) bk. nkhndhu(M. monoceros)
. #ghf(P. japonicus) bk. m~(M. affinis)
nknuhnua nuhrbg(Microbrachium rosenbergii)
nk. kfnrh(M. malcosonii) bk. nufh (M.brevicornis)
ngnahk blbg(Palaeomontenuipes)gh.fo(P. sculptilis)
ng. il~bgu.(P. styliferus) ghuhndil~bguh(Parapenaeopsis stylifera)
207
_mm! __mdoo _m _mqm _mg_ mT m__m omood
ommm_Jm_m. _o _mOmo omemood og_o _!
_eo_ _cm Om!Jm_m. cgm)mm, 1m1)m 1)Jm,
mme1mmm. _gm__ o)Cm)ocdood ocd __mdoo
ommemm. 1md, mm)1m1mud m__m Omcm1md
Cmmm_o _o__o _Jmmm _mmoomm.
__gmmm o)Cm) O_d odood, _omm! _gd m)d o)
__md oo!om_J__. _gm _)mcmo_ __ocOmC_
o_emm. _m__ _mm! __md c_mgg _goTo og
Oo_oo_. mqomccm __mdoo mmoqoomd o__m_,
co_m_ o_go_ m_g_ Oodem_Jm_m. moOmT
_mmoo, mmmmomo_JcC c__ed oom_Jm_m.
moJ_ oooo _ _om_ Coooom_, ccmqmo
mmoqood mm_omom_Jm_m. Ooud ce!g_gd, cm_gd,
m_om gmTggd Cmmm_ __oogm __mdoo
mgm_ggm_Jm_m.
_. od __mdoo (Lobsters)
od __mdood _mm _J oooo coom. _o
_omooc _de_ cmmmm od __mdoo, _o _de_ mm_
__mdoo, mmd _de_ mgq __mdoo, moo __mdoo
_guomm. _m _mqd ommm_mo _o __mdoComm.
ghDu ghngf, gh. nAhku, gh. Xudl kW
gh. btnfhy (Panulirus polyphagus, P. homarus, P. oronatus,
P. versicolors)_gum Ommomgm) _Jg_om om_go.
od __md mqm Ogmgd, o1momemood gmm _Jg_om
Om__oo_. Ooo_m_ood od __md Om__oo o)Co_mm omc
mmCm _ommm mc mgq _m cm)mc_ [q)gmJ5-24%j. _o
__md o_gd _Jg_om Om__ _m_ood g_Cmm_ __gmm
gm_mog gogJ__. _mm, m)od, Oomgod, gg_q, Oomm,
mcm. 6.1.7. __mdoo
ocd __md
_mm! __md
208
mmcmm, ComgCom_ _J _cmoo _gOgmgud J___
momJm_m. od __md 80 _gd 00 ogmgm ocCm_
oc_o)Ce gmm mqom_Jm__. _mgd gh. gh~ngf
_mCm _gom ommm_Jm__. _g_cm gh. nAhku m@m _m_m
coo_. Jg oc_o)d mm. mmuCmod, mm. gO)Omcd Cmmm_
_mmoo ommm_Jm_m. mmmm! oocmmgd,
moomm_oo coo _cmood m_Cm _o mqom_Jm_m.
ocm __o_m od __mdoo mqomcmgm qomm!, _moT
mmgmoCo coomemmo momJ__.
Ooo_m_ood od __md J__g cm oomo
ogm_J__. mmCo mqomcoood Ommmg omcm,
m)mmd, dOmm, Omd_m, oocm _m_oo, C_mmom, Jmo_!,
_mJCe _m_oo(UK), _OmTo _J _m_oo(USA) Cmmm_
_cmo_ m__mg _Jm_m.
mgg ocd 1mmq _)mJ __omm(CMFRI) od __mdoo
m__ _oo _cg_Jm__. cTd, cc_Ooud,
_mOmom, _om cToo comgd, oo!ggd, mqggd
m__m Omgd Cmmm_ __ood _o __mdoo _)mm_
oJm_m.
_. _m_ (Crabs)
_o mg_ _mq c_qoo Oommco; J)dCcJm
oom om!_go. mT_g ge-mm!q`(cephalo-thorax) mg
cco; mmdog _ Cgm__m Oommco. o__mg _mood
_Jm, Ommood _om_m coo_. _mOmo omemood Omm
cToo gmoo _coo om__ Oodog ommemm.
__g _! _eood _____@m Cm_mc _m_ oooo
coom. _m@m g Je _mmoCo cmomo Oomoom_Jm_m.
mcm. 6.1.8. od __md, _m_oo
od __md
Jdem Oo)c!cm
1mm!_md om_1mmOmmcd
209
kLlh Yd, yh brulh, nghLd, rndhbyl m__m
rho FUnalh (Mat ut a l unari s, Scyl l aserrat a, Port uri us
sangui nol ent us, Charybdi s cruci at a)Cmmm_oC _gommo
mqom_Jm_m.
.J.5. _g_J (Pearl oyesters)
_g_` _Tgmo Jcooq me mgqoo
_o)ggmmo_o gm_mm. _g_JmoCo _gg
comJm_m. _ _qoo Oommc(Bivalvia) Omdgcuo_o
llh (Pinctada) m@m JmoCo _ggo g_m Oommco. _g_
c_mgg Ommgg ood __gmmd . ~flh (P.
fucata)m@m _mCm mom _Jg_om om_g_. Om!J oocm,
Oomocd, o oocm, mmmm! oocm, mm_e o_g Cmmm_ me
mgood _o m)m ommm_Jm_m. mmmm! oocm m__m
__g, _emo oc_o) mgood coo mm_oom [c)__
moom_oogmj momqood _gommo ommm_Jm_m. _o
_ggmo)oo` [_g_ omJooj mm_gom_Jm_m. ommmmT
_gd _)mCmdo)gg o) _m_ggmo)oo ommemm.
gg_q mgood gmm _g_ c_mgg mo _gommo mg
Oom_oo_.
_g_ m_ooou__ _)omomm Jmoo m_o
m_Jm_m. goOom Jmo_m g _g_ comJ__. me
_g_oo oqmd J_momoCo ommm_Jm_m. _gJ
oqog_c@m momoqc@m, _omd OmTgmom coo _g_ _de
me Om_J__. mmCo Jmoo oo!g_, gm_gdo cm_gg,
_g_oo c_mgg Oogd, emmo)mmoCo _mm. g)mmm _g_
comm Jmoo oo!m Ogmgd _mggd __gm Oo__
mmgd coo_.
_m _mqd _g_ oo!q` m__ Ogmgd _m m_J CMFRI d
mcm. 6.1.9. _g_J
mcm. 6.1.10. mmmd
210
_oom_J__. JmCm_g _@oo _oToom ogm__mm
ccud 1memJ (Mantle) _Jd _gom_Jm_m. gm!m_ggmc
_Jmoo om_ood _com_, Ogmmo_cm _mom_,
_gm__ mgood ocu@o Ogmmomc m_Jm_m. JmCm_g
_@oo o__ _g_ comm Ommo, CmemJ o)J__.
JmCmqm cmgd CmemJ o)m OmmCo _ggmo c_J__.
mmCo CmemJd o)m omdJm om!mCm m@m gm_ cq m)m
c!oTm om!mcCm _gOgm go!J__.
momom Jm, _, mmmm)Ommgd gm_g_` mmm_J__.
Ommggmmoo m__m oeOmmomoggd _o mmm_gg m_Jm_m.
.J.. cm_c mgqc 1moo
ocd 1mmq __ommoo cm oogg OmJm_m.
c_ _e m__m mgm_ggmc ocd cmoo Ooo_m_o_
m__mg OoJm_m. _gmmd _m_ ___ Ooemom
_goTom_J__. 1m mqm _goTm_cm cmomog
Cg!_Og_omc ocd cToo oo!ggugm o1m omemood
oomm Oogggm_J__. mgg ocd 1m mqq _)mJ __omm
(CMFRI) mgg co_m_, og_o _!omg cTmmoom oo!q
__ommoo (CIBA) CgJ ocud __omm
(NIO), mgg _mm! omg cToo oo!q __omm(CIFA), CgJ ocd
Ogmg__m __omm(NIOT), ocdg Ommoo m__mg Cmmmm_
_Jom(MPEDA) Cmmm_ __ommoo Oodm_ogmd mdCo_
__ood __ mTomom_Jm__. ocd cTd, ocd, _mm!,
og_o 1m mqggd ocud Cmmm_o _g__oomm. 1m cm
cOomoCom! mmmo g_Cmm_ omommo oqoJ__. m)gCo
Ommomgm) mmce comom(E E Z) o)Cm) _m_o_ _TOgm
ommmJ__. ocd oomoo Cmmm_gg, _mm Ommomgm)m, o_gmm,
cm c_mgg, Cmmm_o__d _mCm__mc _de omq coo_.
mg_ogggm, cm_cgggm 1moo Oomm_oo mgq
Ogmm_Ogm_ __mc gm_. 1mm ogmg 20% q)gOmmo
Oommc_. q)gm m_mm_ Oom_q m__m _! Cmmm_ c!Cog
Ommo_m 1md ommm_Jm_m. _gmmd cm_cggm
_qmcd m_ooo, mmgqoom mmmogg gm_mCmm_ 1m
c!ommgmoCo ogm_J__. 1mm ogmg, _mg_ _J
_mCmm _memoom Cgomm _o Oomm_oo_.
__g omod 1m [oukhoa mb#aj _mCmm J)mm
_qmcd _gd g)mmo ogm_J__. mogd J)mo ode
211
g_g cmomo mmm_J__. mmOm mo __g 1m
C_m__g Cg_Com! JmmTo Oom_J__. mgm_ggmc 1m
m__m 1m cm oooomc, mo 1moCo _go cm_cm
Oommco. _C)mJmmm md, mgmq oo!J mggmJ__.
1moom mg_m m__m Ommomgm) _Jg_mm
1m mmOm
1mm ode)d, ocmm A m__m D _Jo__ Oommc_.
[ c. mj o_m ode)d mmOm, om ode)d mmOm. __ To
JC)mgmdmm, _mm!o Cmgm om, Cgmd, Comgmcem,
_oOogmqood Cgmm_m cm__ _mm_ C_m o)mmd
g_om, m_gmom mmm_J__.
1m ccd mmOm
1m ccum _mg_ mmomoou__m __ mTgOg_o
m_J__. om!cm`(sardine) Cmmm_ cm J_q Om_mg J_ 1mo_m,
1m mgm_g_gud g_om_m 1m ogo_m __g mmOm
gmTmd mmm_ggm_Jm_m. __g mmOm [Jj _me
Comqoo, o!mmoo (paints), Om mmOm(om!mq) [2j Cgmd
mgm_g_gd [3j dd m__m CogOmmo Ogmg_omeoo [4j
cOmmo (Lubricants) m__m Om_o!gg gmTq Cmmm_o__d
mmm_J__.
1mgmmm
1m ogoo Cooog_ _)g_ omoom_ 1m
gomm` Oom_J__. __ Comg m__m memo_ J__g
gommmJ__. __ _c m__m mmd c_mgg OmJ__.
1mmm
moJ__g q)g cmomo __ momJ__. Com_m, Comom
Cmmm_o__cm oeom_ Cooo, O)mq, mdOo_oo, qoo,
_mq oooo Cmmm_ cm mmcmoo gmTom_Jm_m.
1m c)m m__m Oomm1mm
1m mmcmoo gmTmd OooC__m_m ogoo 1m c)mmo
mmm_Jm_m. 1m mmOm gmTmd ogomo Jcm
qmmm moJ__g __o c)mmJ__.
1m 1om__
cmOmmo gmTmd mJ mgmq, Cgmd, __q Cmmm_
mmomoou__ 1m Com__ gmTom_J__. __ _deOgm g_
momo mmm_J__.
212
_dumJomd (Isinglass)
Je oo 1moom om__mood moJ__g Oome_m
mmm_m Ommo mTgOg_om_J__. _Ommo _dumJomd
gmTmd mmm_J__. gm, J!, Oomo! Cmmm_o__g Ogo
m_g_gud mm m_ggm_J__. momdc!oo, J_q JOmmoo
_Jo gmTmd __ mmm_Jm__.
1m1gmd
o_m Cmmm_ 1moom, mgm_ggmc Cgmd om, Ooq,
mmm Cmmm_ooom gmTmd mmm_Jm__.
g1mom Oom_q _mem
uCmmu _mem, OcComoO_ommCmm _mem (DHA),
mComoOmmcmmCmm _mem (EPA) Cmmm_omm. (DHA)
g_good qgg o!mm, OmTCm!o_ _mom__em
_goTo ode_. ooo!J mom _oJmmm_. _gm _de
__d _mom, _moum Coegg_m _goTom
cgJm__. __omg C_m _og_ _Oom_q _memoo
mom _oJmmJm_m. _ggo Oom_q _memoo 1mood
ommm_o_, m__ mmmomood _demg J_q _mommm.
. J. 7. Oomm1mm (Guano) m@m m_m
momd
1m cm@m Com, om!Cmm)m, Omuom Cmmm_ ocd
m_ooom momd OomoCmm` mmm_ogmm. Om,
ouCmm!mm, _mTom Cmmm_ _m_oo o__gm ommm_m
good _m_ooo ommemm. g o_) md mdeo omm!
5,00,000 m_ooo ommm_Jm_m. _ggo moOmT m_o
ocmoo omm! J000 cm 1moo gm_m gm_ cmomo
OomoJm_m. J8J0 d Ogmcmomc OomoCmm m__mg J85 _m
_m_ 50, 000 cm mc mqoo_. _)o __ommoo __g
m_ooo mm_ommCgm_ mo me cmCmogg_Co__om_
mm__ _mJm_m. omm! JJ _gd J % _)_m 8 _gd J2%
mmdmmT _mem, 2 _gd 3% OmmCcq Cmmm_ o_ Ommoo _gd
_cmJoom. __g Ommo moJ__g c)mmJ__. moom
c_mggd _o__m mm OgT_g mmqgmm 1md coo _)_m
m__m mmdmmT _meggm J_q cm)mc_. J__g OomoCmm
mdoo mg__ Om` oc_good ommemm.
213
.J.8. 1m mo! _em (Aquarium)
m_oo_ __g_ me ommmood, _gcm
omJggo_ 1moComm. _o ccd _m, oqom, _o
_mgggm _omm Oommco. _o__ _gm_gud m_o_
co_m q__m og_ oo!g_ mJg_go! Jm!oCo _o!. g_Cmm_ 1m
oo!Cmm)md mmmm_m mom)memmm gmo1moo` omgm)m _mm!
om!` _m 1moou__ _o!oomd Om_mcoC _m. mmCo
gmo 1moo, _mm! om!` oo om!_g fuha` (Carassius) _m
1moComm.
1moo mm!o_o_ g_goo _gd OmTCm! o)
_mo)mgm mmmm_m gm_mm. mmCo 1mOgmq mmmm)m
_o)mood OmT o)Co_m Om__oo_.
1mOgmq _mggd
gmmc mmm +_mm_ _mo Comq _cm, mm oog
_o__m _qmcd go! 1m Ogmqm _oog Cg! Oogd
_oJm. _de ocmqoo OgmqooC Cg! OoCom_m.
_mc C_)m mm!oc oogmo ommmqmd Oomc Ogmqoo
mmm_gg Com_m. _gm__, _om_ OgmqoCo _go _o
mmmod 1moo oo) m_omo _Jm_m. mOmmd om__cm
Ogmc!qc _! m)q _goTom_ogmd 1mo_g Cgomm
_o _u_m Om_ oogOm_J__.
Ogmq _m!g_m _cgg oTmm ood Cg! Oo
Com_m. 1moo m__m gmo)moo _m_mog OgTOgmqd Oooom
omomo m_gd _oJm. mmCo Ogmq ommum _qocd
ogmc ommg _Jd Jg _ommo T gom_m mgggd
ooemm. Ogmq _m!g_m _qmg c_g om_ggmom, om
mcggd coogmom _ggd _oJm. mmmo _mo, cmmc
oogmm _mqoo Oommqggd _oJm.
Ogmqd oJ _deOmmg c_g Oo_ Oommc mm J %
OmmcmJm Om!mmmoCm g)oggmd oggm_gg Com_m. mmm!
1mOgmq gm_Td me__ o_oCom_m. Ogmqm
_qmmoggd __og_g Cgomm mme oc_o) _de_ ___
m_ooou__ CooTo Com_m. __g mmd, _Tmmd
oggm_ggmc Com_m. Cmgm _o Oommqm _mJmoo
_gm mgmmo _gmmg gqd __ Cc__ Com_m _de_ _de
Ooud omoggd _oJm. _oom_ gm! Oomc mme
Ogmqm _qd ommmo _cCom_m. _g_ Cmd J_ o_oo
_cCom_m.
214
1m Ogmqd mmm_m _1m g)m
1m Ogmqood mmm_g_m _! oggmmm mg_)moCom
_de_ gm _)moCom _oemm. gm _Td, 1@g gmJgm
ComTm oeommd mm!g_ Oomoo_ _de_. _ggo _! T
_moo Comomcmm mmm_gg mcemm. oqmg gmmc
_) mmm_gg mm gmm cmCmJggd Com_m. 1m oo!m@
co_g _ggo _), Ogmqm _qd mm oemgom_ m__
Com_m.
gmm)moo __gd
1mo_ _gd, m_mcm, qoucm _ooode
_!ggmo)moo Cg! Oogd Com_m. _o 1m Ogmqoo
_emoTm_ m_mdemmd Je oo 1mo_ cmomJm_m.
Cmgm _mOmogggm cgJm_m. _ggmo)moo goCo!o
Ooogmmd _! _u_Cm__m Oom_J__. mo O_ommog
gmo)moo _mmmmmd 1mo_g Cgomm _u_m
Jcommd Cmmo omqm_.
1m OgmqCo__ gmo)mo_o meoo cm_. _o
c)mmm mgm Co!Oommco mmed1m1m(Vallisneria),
111m"dem (Myriophyllum) Cmmm_o. Ogmqd __og_
_mq gmo)moo _m_mo o_oCom_m. 0. J % OmmcmJm
_gmmm o)oud _eJmm _mmTd me__ o_gd Com_m.
__ mmmmod 1moo g_mm C_mu__ ommm__
_oJmmJ__. gggm Oomc gmo)moom Co!oo Oogg
gmoo_ _cd mm_ommmo, ommgom_ oomc Com_m.
mm _ggmo)moo m) __Jm cgmcm Ogmq@o mm_mc
Com_m. mmed1m1m Cmmm_ OmT gmo)moo mmmo_m _c!_g
gmo)moo _eoogm _mmm_ mm!g_ Oomooemm. Ooo)mm
oo 1mo_ mgm gmo)m _oJm Com_m. _ooo 1moo,
mgm gmo)moom _@oo, _mOmoggm Cmm_
mgo_oo oc mmm_g_Jm_m.
go__gd
Cgomm _o go 1m Ogmq _go Oom_J__;
gmo)moom goCo!od cgJm__; 1moo _)Cgc go
_oJmmJ__, 1moom oo!J mom Cgom_J__. _de T
go mmTmoo oo)oggg_g_ 1m Ogmq _C)mJmmm
ge _oJ__. g mgmmm _ooo 1mOgmq _ 0 om
mdqoo m_ mmC_)m mTo_ Cmm_mmm_. gmo) oo!J m__m ommmm
Oooogg_ gom mooo (Fluorscent lights) Cmemmo.
215
omgm)m _emom) 1moo
q +@m 1moo
om (Guppy) - bybl buoFnyl
gc1m (Platy) - ~ngh~nghu kFnyl
Oommq 1m (Sword tail) - ~ngh~nghu bAy
oq Cmmu (black molly) - bkhbaah ndh
_c __mm
Jm1d mc! (Siamese fighter) - bglh bybl
)mog Ooo)m (Giant Gourami) - nfhrh ~ngnalh
Jdum Ooo)m (Kissing Gourami) - bAyl[nlhkh bld
gme 1m (Angel fish) - Onuh~igy nfny
gmo 1m (Gold fish) - fuha fuha
mcm. 6.1.11. _emom) 1moo
gme 1m
Jm1d "mc!
o
gmo 1m
Oommq 1m
216
1m Ogmqo 1m m_gd
Ogmqm Cm_m)q, o)__oo _u_mm _o, 1mm
_o _Jo__ OmmgCg 1m Ogmqd oom 1moom
mmmo _cmm. J Oo1 _o_oo 1@ 75 Oo1
2
Cm_m)q
_oJmmJ__. 75 X 30 Oo1 _ooo Ogmq, J0 Oo1 _o_oo _m_
1moo oo) Cmm_mmmgmm.
gmo)moo _cm_ _)m_ _m_ _mood, Ogo_g _Td
1moo mcemm. _Cmm_ _Tm _u_m, ___ed _o
ommJ__. 1moo 2% OmmcmJm Om!CmmoCm o)oud
_mgg mm Ogmqd mcemm. __ 1mood g_mmg
gmgeg g_J__.
cmmoggd
o_oom Cmd oom mmJ oooo, Oommq1m, Cmmu, Jdud
Ooo)m Cmmm_ 1m ooo_ _de cmomJ__. gd q_oo,
o)mmmd q_oo, Oomoq_ Cmmm_o 1mo_ m__ q)gm ___g
c! cm Ommooomm. 1mo_Co cT gom oooom
cmCmJoemm. Cgom mmgg_m m_m g _mo
T__oo cmoooemm. 1_g cmg_oooo, ogOmmooo
_Jo cmoogg 30 _mcmood OooC__mc Com_m. _g_
)m! gmm mmm_ggemm. _Tm _o _m Omm__, Cgomm
_o mg _)Cm, ComTm oeomg gm _)Cm mmm_ggemm.
oemmm
_gomom _ommmm _ooo om_ mJgm m_Cm
_emom) 1moo oo!om_Jm_m. ccd C_m_C_m!, C_mu__
CgCom! mm _mg Om_Jm_m!. ommmo! _mom mmmJgJ
_cJm_m!.
mem ommom [moomJ omej
om memoo m__ mgqm!, moomJ omeo_
_de momm)m Oom_g_oo_. ceo moOgmod mg_ ogmgm Cm!
goOom _m_m moomJomeoo mm!o_Jm_m!. 350
oo memJmmoo __gmmd CooTom_oom. goOom
_m_m omm! 50 mdum moo _o__ mm!o_Jm_m!. Omm__
CmmJ@omm mmmJgomm memoo mqom_ moomJ
omeood _cggmcm. _gm mmmo Oom_ 20 _m_ood
ommemoo mqg_ oo!m __md __ _m mT__oo_.
217
_g__ om memJmmoo mm_omgge moomJ
omeoo _J _Comomo Oomoo Com_m mm_ m_ge
mm __g _)ommom ou_g_Jm__. _g_Oom, _J
q)g_oo __g ommemg__ JmmTo Oo_oo_.
ommem omgcmoo g_Cmm_ _gom_ oogmd me
ommemoo _gm _eg goom_oom. mmCo
omJoggd oom_m memoo ommgg gm), _g__ om
_mmoom c! mmmo c!g_oggm moomJomoo
oomm Oogg_Jm_m. __o oomoo m__m ommemoo
mm_ommgmd ceJd cToo _e Om__o og comJ__
mgqm!mm oo!m _cmmom moomJ omeoo
momJ__.
_1omo
me Co_mc cTmmoo ___g _m _mqd ommem
oooo omm Omm_m moomJomoo m_g_oom.
__Como Jgomc mgmood __Co__m_J__.
J. _g__ om memJmmoo omggd
2. mm!omo!oo mggd __o oomoo, g_e ommmm_
m__m ommemoo omggd m__ mgqm! m_m_g_gd.
3. __o ogd, __md _!ommo memoo m__ __
ommoggd.
o)mmemoo _de_ om_ mem ce _mom (Safari)
_o moOmT __o ge CmmmC_ _momc
J_mmm moomJomoomm. mqomc memoo _m
og_g)mmo ceog, mm_ommmm omommooCem J_mmm
mmgooCem Oom_ mm!omo! om_oooemm.
_J moomJomoo
J. __g)mom_g memJd _mom, momomqmm,
__g)m)Cgom.
2. C_ memJd _mom, _g)mmmg, __g)m)Cgom.
3. _dumm mm_e memJd - gmo)md _mom, Ooo_mgg
_dumm.
4. ooom_g cTd _mom, mmmm, Jom!.
5. CgJ memJd _mom, Ocdu.
218
. omem C_ cTd _mom, _omgmmmg, _)mg.
7. _ omm)mC__g) memJd _mom, m!, o!mmcom.
8. __gmomm cTd _mom, gTum.
0. mCo_g) OoogT memJd _mom, mom.
J0. __! _mmm memJd _mom, omcg!, gmg_m_.
JJ. omm_! memJd _mom omo!, cgg)m)Cgom.
J2. cTd _mom , odoggm.
.2. gm Oom memoo
memoo m__m gmo)mo_ mmgm m_m_g_m
memoo gm Oom memoo mmm_m. omgm)mgOgm_g)
Oom o)mmm _J _gd mCeTm, mCeTm Cmmm_ C_moo
m)qm Oomooo o) mdCo_ _Joo mdCo_ ooood mmg@g
gm m_m_g_Jm_m. C_m m)qm cTmmoo, _o memoo,
Cogm_g_om, moOmmoo m__m ccmoog gmom mm
_o__ _mm oooomo mToemm.
.2.J. 1_m cmmm c1oo- Omc!oo(Vectors)
C_mm comm cToo, Ooc!oo mm_go
m_Jm_m. omem omemmo C_mmd mdem)omomm mmg!oo
cTg__oom!. memg _Joo me mgmood C_moo
m)qJm_m.
J. omgm)m + :- [kfh blhkofhj (Musca domestica)
me g)mc _cmood +oo ommm_Jm_m. mmgcm
O_mJ Ogmc!q Oommc _o mmOom og _om oTmo Oo
mcmmd _oggmmo ommm_J_Cgm, _mOodemm _m oo!mo.
_g!Jc_g +oo g_mm )ogg om!_gode. _o __J,
Jgomc OmmooC cmomo OomoJm_m. _o
__g)ogd, C_mm)qm Jmoo gJOom_ m)qJm_m.
cmm_ [rhbkhdyh il~ngh[hj JgCmg [vlgh lofhj
ome)m [nah dj Cmmm_ C_moo _g_ cgm)mmoomJm_m.
cmOmmoo _oggm_g_ogm ogmo _o __C_moo
m)qJm_m.
219
o_mm_
+oo _m_ mgmood o_m_ggemm. _o oomgm)
__oo, Ogmgd_m __oo, Cog __oo mmm_om.
oomgm)__oomo c)m, m, cm, mmg Oodmm_ og m__m
_g) c!oTmOmmoo mm oTmm __d OooC_ _om
Oogd Com_m. Ogmgd _m Tgmo, oTmm oe Cmmm_ g_q
Ommoo, _Joo mqm Omm_oo, mo Oommc omJgmoo
Cmmm_ooo cmCmJoemm. Cog ogd 2% mmemgCmm, J%
Com!Ccm _de_ umCcm, 0.5% qO)mCmmd Cmmm_ooo
cmCmJg_ _om cT` _ed coo +oo _goemm.
2. mmd + : ~nghnlhk ghglh (Phlebotomus papatasi)
4 m1 _o ccd _o Oommco. _o__d OmmmmCm
_og_ c_om om_q Oommco. _o memoom _)gggg
c_J qmo. _mmm g_mmmo omgm_, +)mggg
cmomo OomoJ__. ccud oc C)mmm Oommc moJ_
_Jmmoo _omm.
_o omem - _o! (Kala-azar) m@m C_m m)qJm_m.
Znkah (Leishmania) m@m g Ood g_mmC __C_m
comJm__. __ mmg _)ggggd c! omgJ__. mmd +oo
gmoo _mcmoomm _e __ood ___ _) C_)mood
mcm. 6.2.1. _J - Omc!oo
+
mmd +
me cmm
1mm Oomo
_Oed Oomo
_mm"ed
Oomo comm _e
220
OooC_ mmg ccud _)gggg c_oJm_m. _)ggg_cm
Oodgm C_mJm _Jm ccud me mm_gdo_m_Jm__.
mmm! _C)mJmmm mmg@ mTmm_ m_J__. ode)d,
mmm)d mgmq Com_ _Jo___ Oodgm g__JooCeC
_o _gommo ommm_Jm_m. _)gg Como, ccd memmm Cmmm_
___oo __C_m_C_mTd ommm_Jm_m.
o_mm_
5% DDT / BHC Ogoggd __Jm o_o
oJ__. mTgTm` m__ oomm ccum OoogOgTm
mmomood gcm _Joo oqomgom_ mm!g_ Oomooemm.
3. me cmm (Rat-flea)
ndhyh bfnah (Xenopsylla cheopis) me cmm
mm _gom_J__. C_m__ _m, Omm mugoo ghLbuyh
bgo [CmTmj Cmmm_ Jmoo mmg@ m)qJm_m.
_Jmoo g mmgmu__ m_O_m mmg@
m)mm_Jm_m. __g CmTmoo Cgmum ogmo _m_!
o)moo Oom_cJm_m __ q1mmm 1o
mm_gom_J__. Je ommood _)ggggd oo) _)mmJm_m.
___e OoqOom(septicemic) 1o mmm_J__. Je C_)mood
_)m)ud oo!Jm_m. __ _1mmm(pneumonic) 1o
mmm_J__.
C_m__ mum _)gggg c_omCmm_ mCoo
cm_mm@m mmTmoo, cmmoom o__ Oom_c__
mdJ OmJm_m. __Joo oqm Omm__ oqomm ogmo
mmgmm ccgo OodJm_m. __Joo OooC__m meog
mmgmm ccd Cmd _cm_J__. OomTm Omm__ Cgmum Cmd
m_m_m J_doom ogmom _Jmoo mmgmm ccu@o
OodJm_m.
o_mm_
mu Cmmm_ Oom_m memoo o_m_g_ogmd
__C_m o_m_ggm_J__. J _gd 2% ComC)mCcm _de_ 2%
Y- BHC Cmmm_ m__oog Ogom_, _Joo memoom Cmd
oo)mmd g_J__. 5% DDT mCo Cgmm_m omemood,
Cgmm_mcmood Ogooemm.
221
4. mmg1mm [bgoFy kdj(Pediculus humanus)
mmg _)gggg cm_ om_m q_ g_mm _ggo
Cmmoomm. _o mdem _cmoogm ommm_Jm_m. _o m)qm
C_mo_m C_mJmoom JCg ommemm.
1_moo 1_m m)qm Jmoo
Ogmc!omod bghah d
cmd omod bfah d
qO)m omod bfah d
o_mm_
gm_Cgm_m oggd, oggmmm _c _mgd Cmmm_ _de
mgomoommd __Joo oo)mmd g_oemm.
5. Oomooo: mndy, y, Vbl(Anopheles, Culex, Aedes
sp.,) _mmoo.
_o _mg_ _cmoogm m)Jm_m. _)md _mm
_o oo), _!gCgomoo, o_q _emoo, +)mmm _em Cmmm_
_cmoo _oJm. Omm _mmoCo _)gggg c_o ode
om_qoo Oommco. _o o)d, g Ood cT, co
q_oo _guo__g gmmJ Oomomomom, m)qomom
Oodm_Jm_m.
_ed Oomooo, mCeTmud m@m mmomd
C_mm m)qJm_m. __C_m crnuah nguh~o (Wuchereria
bancrofti)m@m coq_ g_mmoomd cmcmJm__. __g
g_mmoo "m1e1d q_oo mm_gom_Jm_m. _o
mmgmm _m_! _momoo, o)moo Cmmm_o__d omgJm_m. _m
_Omm q_oo mC)m mCeTmoo` m@m _om cToog
Cgm__mJm_m. _o _dmmo _) C_)ggd [J0 _gd 2 mm o)j
ccum Ooommomood oggm _)ggggd ommm_Jm_m.
Oomooo mC)mmCeTmoo _)ggg_cm c_J
OomoJm_m. _o C_mJmoo __g)ogd gJ
Oodogde. _o__m ccud C_mJm q_oo me oo!J
_eoo _cJm_m. __g Oomooo m_O_m C_m__ mmgm
oqm Omm__ _omom cToo mmgm ccgo
Oogggm_Jm_m. ccum Oooq_ mgu__ mmgmm _m_!
_momo_ _o mmm OoJm_m. _m_! _momood mmd
_g!JcJm_m. __C_mm o_mmm _ed _g!Jc_g
222
_q_oo _m_! _momoo _cg_ OomoJm_m. _gmmd o
omd, m__m, mmd o)m Cmmm_o mom OomoJm_m. ___e
mmomd 1_m mmm_m.
_Cmmmed Oomo mCeTmo` cmcmm g Ood
cTmm momdCmmqgg m)qJ__. _gCmmmC_ mOcd m@m
Oomo, o)umd m_m_m moo omod` m@m C_m m)o
om)mmmJ__.
.2.2. _o c1oo
gmm cm@m, gmm, cToocm__ mm_omg_
Oomo_m Omm_ Je gm cToo mm_omq _momoo
Oomm_oom. momummm moJ_ omgm)m Oom_m Oodoo
_gd mo Oomq _o Oommc _momoo o) _o meg)mco.
_oggmm Oommc cToo mmmecmom. _o__o moJe
_Jg_om om_g cToCo _m _mcm_oom.
"momem :- (Physalia)
_o ocud om_m gcuoomm. ocud ___m Omm__
gm1_ mg!mm)mmd Cmm_Com) gm_ Oom_m Oodoomd o_mmog
gmJm_m. _ggo Oom_m Oodoo _oToom cm! gd
(tentacles)ood ommm_Jm_m. _gmom)mmmo, oqmc _cmood
mom m_m_Jm__. Je C_)mood m)mm oc ommmJ__.
1go :-
ccum __g omcggd mqOom_` ommm_J__.
_Oom_Jm _qmg _oCmmm_ _mqc_. _mmg
o!mmmgmo, mqgg coCo Ooggg oq gmmc_. _
_o _c oqom Oommc o)moo _o o)Jm_m. Cgo o__m
mcm. 6.2.2. _o c1oo
"momem
1go
_)mm
223
mm mg gJ _mmommo oog_ oggmd g_og
Cmmm_, mgT cTm ccud _o mmoJm__.
Cgom _o, omgm)mmmo g __Oogmm Oomde oq
g_m Oommc_. _m)Ccmmd`(Androctonus) oogCgom _o
g _demmmmm mqgg@ gmmm_.
_)mq Oodmmqmg gmm _omqm m_g ou
m_m_gg oq_. Je C_)mood oomo m__m _gggooo _cJ
c) CmmJ m_J__. _g_omm mg! _oOmmoo g_Cmm_
gmTom_Jm_m.
_)mm :-
ceJm _mg_ mmomoogm _o__ ommemm. mm m__m
mJ Ommood, o_o_ _qd _o ommm_Jm_m.
nfhnyhbguh b#fhona (Scolopendra gigantea)m@m _mm
omgm)mmmo 2 Oo1 _om oo) oq_. _gm ccud moOmT
oo_g _ _o _oo ommm_Jm_m. _o__m _mmg
o!mmmo. _o Ommomdoo` mmm_Jm_m. ou
Oom_o oqgmo _m@m, _o__m _o g_good oc
m)mgg cm_ mm@ogde. mm@m . b##hofh mmgm
Oomdgm gmmc_.
1gmoo m__m omoo :-
Coeom)g Cgm[oo!J_m Ommj m ccum mmmgd
Oom_ coo_. _gm _m oT OomJooCm, _ooCm
Oommc_. Oomqcm Cgmm ccud ___ _oo m_m_J__.
mmCo Cgm gm omg_mod gC) g __ m_Cm Oomcgm.
Cgm Cmmm_ _dem_ omoo gmoo Oom_Jm
Oom_omu__ __g_ OomoJm_m. mmCo _o 1m_m
Oom_og_ _gm. omoo, _coo mqTm ccud
__og_ __g Oom_oo cgJm_m. mJd m__ogCmmm_
mcm. 6.2.3. mq_Joo
1meom)g 1gm
om
Oom_
224
mqm mqToo Cgmud m__m_J__. omoom mqm
_dcmm` (histamine)m@m CogOmmomd _m_. _o
Oom_ogmd ou m__m mom m_m_J__.
mq1moo :-
1mood 700 m Cm_mc _mmoo mqo)moo
Oommco. 1mood _ _eood mqm ommm_J__. ccum me
_cmood mqo)moo ommm_Jm_m. Je 1moom go
mqggmm Oomm_oo_. _ooo 1moo cmmg_ m__o
_de.
_gOggmq 1mood me mqggmm cooo. _o
_C_ommo _oggmmoo Oom_ gm_ Oomm_oom.
cgm)mm, Oom_ 1m [Trygon). _m1moom omud coo moom_
mooggd Oom_m c_q ommm_J__. _o gmogmd
oum_mdem_ gooo cm!o__ m)g_CmmJm_m.
_mmmm, Om)mcm (Barracuda) 1moo gmoo goood
mqggmm OommqJm_m. _m1moo cOomo_m Omm__
mcd, om_g, oomd __om, o, omd __ood ou Cmmm_o
cmcmJm_m.
Ogmm1m mm_gom_m [Oc)cmmj 1m ooC mom
_mmo)mmm_ _o__m _mcomoo, cd, J__)omoo, Cgmd omoo
_gum, Oc)cmum mmm_m _)mq Oodooggmo oq
mqgg ccm. __g mqggm __m mm__ m__ _m@m
om_mqomcmde. __ om_ mqggmc Oomq_. _)mq
mmg, __ omgm, Jdomgm _gu C_moomd cmcmm ou
Cmmo __g mqgg mo _!gg _ed m_gmo mmm_g_Jm_m!.
mcm. 6.2.4. mq1moo
Oom_ 1m
Om)mcm
Oc)mm
225
mqmmmqoo :-
_de mmmq, o_mTm, om)mmmq, ocd mmmqoo _mg_m
mqggmm cooo. _o coo mmmqoo, _o__m omd
Oogdoom _o, go_oo Cmmm_ me _mqood coo
Co_mm_oom _qmcd _cmom ommemm.
_de mmmq :- (Cobra)
_o __gmmd mom)memmmo. Jmcm_m Omm__
___momoo ge c!gg o_g_ mg Cgmum mTJm_m.
_ggmggmm mcm m_ggd` mmm_m. __g mcggd _
oomoo Cmmm_ _ ommm_J__. __ ommmq _
mmm_J__. Je, _o oc g__ oom OommqJm_m.
_ooo mmmqoo omomoggd ommm_J__. Je mggo
_oom Oommqmgde. _m_m _m_m [ _de mmmqj ,
gmCmCmod _mmm [)m__momj mm _ _mmoo __gmmd
ommm_Jm_m.
o_m1m. (Krait) :-
_o __gmmd omgm)mmmo ommmcoq mmmqoomm.
_o__d _m _oom_. _o omgm)m gfhu Uy
m__m _ mcoomo Oommc gfhu ~ngnal
mmm_om.
mcm. 6.2.5. mqmmmqoo
__g _de mmmq
g__ mom
ommmq_
____
o_m1m
m1m
ocd mmmq
226
m1m mmmq. (Viper) :-
_oomm mTmoo ommm_Jm_m. omo_m
_mJg_oo_m _cd ommm_m __` [Cem!j mgd _m
OgTm mgggd moom gm_ ommm_J__. _ggo moogg Je
mmmqoo Om__mgde. Je mTm mmmqoo q +@Jm_m.
mTm mmmqoo gmoo Cmdgmc _om g_m
Oommco. cmCmomdemg Cmm_ mqggmm Oommc
Com_m_oo, mmmommo mqg_ coCo oom_oom.
omgg_m Omm__ _o C_)mo _m!__ oqmg_ gm)mJm_m.
gm_ _mJoom ogmo _oom__m memmo OooC__
_o__@Co cT J__gg Ooom_g_Jm_m.
moom__ m1m (Pitless viper)- itguh u, [rhiugh) v
fhndlh. (Vipera ressellir Echis carinate)
moo_oo m1m (Pit viper)- ObkRu d.(Trimeresurus sp.,)
ocd mmmqoo :-
m__ mmmqoou__ ocd mmmqoo mogd Co_m_ggemm.
ocd omg goomomo omd mg __q Cmmm_ moomqd
gcmJoo_. _mg_ ocd mmmqo_m mqm Oommco.
cgm)mm. iAonuh~ d, viAodh d.(Hydrophis sp.,
Enhydrina)
_om :-
_ommm_, g _m _o o)moo, g _m _o
_momoo m__m g _m Com)m_oo Oommc_. Cmdgmc
mgm _ moomood, omo_m JCg mm mommo Tm
mcm. 6.2.6. 1om)md m__m _o o)o_cm mmmm gmcmg
_o o)
_o _mom
_omd
_m
227
_o o)moo ommm_Jm_m. __g o)moo mm__momc
cmg_! o)moomm. o)mu__ _momoo ogmo _o m_o_
m_g_ Oodem_J__. Com)m_oo, __md _o
OommcooomoCom _de_ g__g _mc moomOommc
ooomoCom ommm_Jm_m. _oom_mo _m_oo mgTm ccud
mqgg m__og_ m_omo _m__oom.
_mom gm_m mgm
_demmmq mg!m mm Oommcgm_. gmm Jm_m
Omm__ me C_)mood _gu__ gmm m_mg_ OomooCo
_dJm__. m_)g gmog gm)mm Omm__ __ Jgggmc JCg
__J omg g_Jm__. _gmmd _o__m Com)m_oo _m!o
m_, gmom_m cTm gog _oog gm)mJm_m. om
__m Omm__ _o o)moo __ggm_ mgTm ccu@o _o
Oogggm_J__. _omg_m om _qgg_m _m m)omo
_c__ _q__ m_J__.
_o
mmmmm _o _oom_m. g oo _o _)mq mmceggg
(Neurotoxic)gmooq_; om _)mmm mmgg_ ommm!o
Cmmo oq_. Cmgm m)mm _)mq(Phreni c nerve) mmm_m
cg)mgmm _)mmm mmgg_ cg)mgmmgg Oougo OoJ__.
_gmmd oomom gcm_J__. m_O_m oo _)gg c mmcegg
[_Cmmeq-haemolyticj mmgJm__. _)gg Jom@o_m, _)gg
_momo_m Jgo m_Jm_m. _gmmd Ommo _)ggm,
_momoo m_ OooC_ goo_Jcd c___ m_J__.
mcm. 6.2.7. _o m_oo, _o coo m__m
_o ___ mmmqoom oqmm _oo
_o mmmq
_o__ mmmq
)dud m)m1m
_oOommc md
_demmmm g__g moom
Oommc _o md
228
.2.3. 1ogm_g_m _! mmgmm (Fouling organ-
isms)
me _!omg cToo _Td _gJoo m)qoo
Cogm_g_Jm_m. Tcggd _)_g)mmo gmJo oq,
_cOm!J Oomg ocd cTmmoo Cogm_g_m(foul ers)
gmmcm. _o o_m)m, mgooo, mc, omd Cmmm_o__
Cogm_g_Jm_m. __ Ommomgm) mmgqoo m_m_g_Jm__.
Coggg o_m_g_m Omm_ _oTmmoo m__ _oo
Cm_Oomoo m_Jm_m. _oToo ceJm mdem mmomoogm
ommm_Jm_m.
_o _Td _gJoo m)qood gqOomoogmd, omum
cgg_ mg!q mo comJm_m. _gmmd omum _m
g_m, Coom _om_J__. Cmgm _oToomd
cmmm_ogmd __g)moo m_gcgd, _Tm Jg mc o
_om omoom g_m _gd Cmmm_ _c__oo m_m_Jm_m
Cmgm _)ommo mm_omq omdoo _mg_m
Cogm_ggm_Jm_m.
omdoo, Ogmg_omeoo, mmOm oggoTq _eoo,
_@og _emoo, _!omg cTm oo!mcmoo Cmmm_o__d
cmCmJom_m cq_! OooC_m gmood _oTmmoo
oo!__ _cg_ OomoJm_m. _gmmd moOmT mmgqoo
m_m_Jm_m.
1ogm_g_m c!oo mo)om)mmoo
_Td _mm mmomood _ooggd g Cm__o comJ__.
cmcmoo, _ooo, __g _o mmTmoo _Jo
_gd ommm_Jm_m. __o _gd _e 1m__o(Primary film)
mmm_J__. _gd Cogm_ggm_m _om cToo mqg_Oomoo
_domoom _goo _cmoJm_m. _oTo_
_domo_m c _mo_m cmomJm_m.
1ogm_g_m c1mmoo
Cogmcm cToomo _domo_cm, __Oogmm__oo_o
_mg_ ooo_m ommm_Jm_m. omd _m@oo _mCocm
(tunicata) oo cTmmo_m ommm_Jm_m. Omdgcuood Jm
oooCo mo _Jg_om om_go. _o gmood _cm
m_m_g_Jm_m. o@omu oo om!_g mm!mJoood J00
_mmoo ommemm.
229
1ogmcge g_m mgm
J. omd _qggoggm Ooomg gmm)ggmd _cmc
Com_m.
2. Cogm_g_ogg g_m o!mmoo _ogd Com_m.
3. o!mm _mqoo ComTmmd oggm_g_gd
Com_m.
.2. _ 1ogm_g_m c!oo (Pests)
cmOmmoom m__ ccmoom Cogm_g_m
cToo Omd_oo` mm_gom_Jm_m. _o__d Je, J_
_omgm Je moOmT _omgm mmgm m_m_g_Jm_m. _o__
m!oo Cogm_g_om, Comm Cogm_g_om, m_
Ommoo Cogm_g_om mm_ me oom_ggemm.
m!oo 1ogm_g_mm
_. mgg 1ogm_g_m _Joo
_oJoq (Pink boll worm) mggq_ bgondh~nghuh
nfhbayh(Pectinophora gossypiella) __ Omm_oo, _oo,
mgoo _Jo__ Cogm_g_J__.
mcm. 6.2.8. 1ogm_g_mm
om!qm
mdud
memmd
emmd
m1o
_dc!
230
_. Jmq mgg _J (Red cotton bugs) oblf nfhba
(Dysdercus koenigii) __ _om g_oo m__m _eood om_
c_J qJm__.
_. qoo mggq_ (Spotted boll worm) Vah blyh(Earias
vitella).
m. _moemmm (E. insulana) _o)m_m mgg c_mgg moOmT
_omd mmgJm_m.
V. blyh _de mg Omm _cmoogm V. Rydh m)oemo
mgOmm _cmoogm ommm_Jm_m. mTmd ommoq_oo
_om gm_mg _og_ _mmg Cogm_g_Jm_m. mm
Omm_, _, om, _mggm _mom_g_Jm_m. _gmmd
_om_g_oo om__, ____ m_Jm_m.
o_mm_
mmgomc gm_, omoo CooTom_ _gomc Com_m.
mgg mom odo_ _Jd Oomc Ooqoo oo!ggd
ocm_. J5 _gd 20 _mo_Oom__ CmmCmmC)mCcmCmmd,
mmCcmudmmm _de_ mmegCmm Cmmm_ _J Oomduoog
Ogoggd Com_m.
mcm. 6.2.9. m!oog gmmm
qoo mgg q_
_1Jq_
omq _mggm_ _ommm
ogg1, gm_ m__m om
_ommm
ommcmmo mm_
231
_. O__m!oo Jgmm
_. O__m)g _omm - iunghiurh brLy.(Tryporyza
incertulas). O__m!oom _o_gm_oo __Joo _gJm_m.
_. O_d _J - bynlhnfhrh mlh. (Leptocorisa acuta)
O__mTmg gmm _Jmm. __ gmmmoo, Comom
Cmmm_o__m gmJm__. _om cTo_m _g!_g _Jo_m
O_dgmm mmood coo om_ c_J m_ogmd O__m!
mg)mJ__.
o_mm_
_J _co_cm oq _eoo ccmqmo _o__ mTg_
mcCom_m. _o memg qd _mmoo cm_ omgoqo
mmCo _ggo q_oo _o__o_, __Joom mmmo
_o ogOom. ooem _em om_oo CooTg_
_gm_ _mmmm ogmo ogm_J__. _J Oomduoomm BHC,
mmemgCmm go_ om!mTd m__m mgd mm)mgCmm Ogom_
Cmmm_ Cog __oo m! __m _m moJ__g mem
_oJm_m.
_. ommg _omm
(i). __g omq Om_Jooo - igyh bgyh. (Pyrilla
perpusilla)._o _eoom om_ c_J qJm_m.
(i i ). omq 1m)g_omm - vknyhuh obguyh.
(Emmalocera depressella)
(iii). omm gmcg _omm - nyh ~gfbly
(Chilo infuscatellus)
(iv). omm gmcg _omm - ngh~ngfh btyh.
(Scirpophaga nivella)
_o mo _gommm mmgm m_m_g_Jm_m. _eoom
m _)mmm __Joo _oJm_m. _gmmd _omm!ood
moom_ Jooom, _g!_g m!ood Jogg
gemgm cmcmJm_m. omq om_m g)_m ___
m_J__.
o_mm_
Ogmgd_m __oCom_ Cog __oom _mg_
cmCmJggd _de memom. _J gmge mg!Oomo_m
g)mmm oooo mT_gd, _Joom _coo CooTggd,
mmgomc gm_, _e _guo__ _o__ _gggd _guo
232
Ogmgd _m __oOom ogm_Jm_m. _J Oomduoomm 4%
om!mTm _de_ mmCcm odmmm mmoo cmCmJggd, 0. 05 %
CmmCmmC)mCcmCmmd _de_ 0.J% mmTm Ogoggd, Cmmm_o
Cog __oomJm_m.
+. omo_oo 1ogm_g_mm
(i ). Jmq _om mm_ - u~nlhghgh
~nghnfh(Rhaphidopalpa fovelcollis). __ _om _e, _, Omm_
Cmmm_ooo Cogm_g_J__.
(i i ). _c1omd mmmg__J - ig
nunf.(Pierisbrassicae) __ _eoo Cogm_g_Jm__.
(iii). _cm mm_ (Hadda beet l e)- vnydh nlhofh
okh(Epilachna dodecastigma). __J, oggT, co, gomo
Cmmm_o__m _eoo Cogm_g_Jm__.
(iv). ogg1g gm_ m__m om _ommm - Yndhbl
xbghd (leucinodes orbonlis): __ g _Jmmm, _go
mmgm m_m_gg oq omcmm. oggT _m__ _c Je _mood
gmqm _mmg gmom_J__. gm_ mmgom_ogmd Ooq oJ
m_J__. gm_oog _og_ Cogm_g_m Omm__, _eoo
om__ m_Jm_m. omood _ooom, ogmgd _o__m
ogom ommemm. _o oggT mooud 70% mmgm_ __g
om_ om)mmmJ__.
o_mm_
oTmm C_)ggd Ooqood ommm_m q_oom _o
mmgomc mmomoom _o__gd, _de memoJ__. om!mmTd,
mmCcmodmmm umCcm, cmJCmmm Cmmm_ _JOomdu
m__oo oTmm _cOood cmCmom_g_m Omm__
Ommo mmgq gm!om_J__.
c. Ogmm m) mm_
)CmmJ)d om_ - xbl iundhu(Oryctes rhinoc-
eros). __ OgmJg _Jm, Ogmomm, mummd, Ogm
mJm goo Cmmm_ mgoo __o_m ommm_J__. _g!_g
om_ Ogmmm _omg_oog gmJ__. __ _ooo
m_m_gg _mTg Cmmm_ Ommo OooC__Jm__. gmomc
233
_omg_ oom Omm__ me _oo_cm coog ommemm.
oom _ed gmm Omm__ Ogmmmom_ oJ m_J__.
o_mm_
_g_Oom )gCommo oqomomc OomJoo
_oo_ Ooggg _g!_g om_oo _gg_mcemm. _o__
oo!_eCeC _gmg_ _o comm _cmmm c)go_o
0.0J% _dcTm m_gg Ogooemm.
m. ooJmooggmm _Joo
(i). _1J mm_ - nlh~y xna(Sitophilus oryzae). __
Comomc O_d mmoo Cogm_g_J__. mmoom coCo
Cogm_g_ogmd O_dmm mc _g__ o_Cmme _J__.
o_mm_
__g om_oo 0% _de_ _gmc __g +)mgggd
_mOmom Oo _qogde. mmCo _m ce!_gmm Commgmd
O_dmmoo _oomqm gmguu__ ommm__m_Jm_m.
mgem cCom) om!mm Oc)m Com)_ oeo om
_ed om OooC_mg Cmm!oo_o O_d mmood Oogg_m
Omm__ _g!_g m__m _o_ed coo om_ _gom_J__.
mmgomc O_dmmood mgd qC)mm qo Oogg_m
Omm__ mdem oomm _Joom, _c moggd oc _gg_
mcemm.
(i i ). om)m mm_ - nuhnfhblkh snda(Trogoderma
glanaruim). _ooo om_ Com_m m__m _mg_ Comomc
gmmmoom gmJ__. _om cT_eC mmgm
m_m_g_J__. _g!Jc_g om_oo gm Ooogde. q_oo,
mcm. 6.2.10. ooJmoog gmm mm_oo
_1J mm_
om)m mm_
mq mm_
234
gmmmoom _o _gud gmJm_m. gm)gmgum Cmm_
gmmmoo __o_mmo _gom_ _J ogoo m_Cm
moJm_m.
o_mm_
oggmmm _Joo__ ooJmood gmmmoo Comomc
Com_m. Comm _cmood om_C_mcmmm ge m_m_gg
Com_m. Commg_ _mq ooJmood OmmJm O_um
Com)_ qo_ _Jg gmge gm!o Com_m.
(i i i ). mq mm_oo - nfnyhnrh%r ird
(Callosobruchus chinensis) bd . _o mq ooooggmo
oqo. mq om _ed cooCmmCg gmgd OgmcmJ
Comm _cm o) Ogmc!J__. _oom_oo mq oooog
_o_ _o__ cm_ coCoC oo!Jm_m. mmgomc
mmoo cm mmmcmmcm.
o_mm_
Comq Jcmo_oJd mogd gmggm_m
gmo)moo oo)mmd mm!g_ Oomo_gd _oJm. __g_ J J.1
o__om_ _ggmo)moo _demgggd _em. 1gd C)mm
qo_gd(fumigation) _de mem _om mm_ Cmmggm, __J
Oomdum mqggmmm gm)gg oggd Oomm_ mo
oommmo omo m_gg Com_m.
m. ccmoo 1ogm_g_mm
(i ). o)mm [ Oooo m_mqoo. Oc!m_ooj - Xlnlh
blbk xbg[ (Termites - Odontotermus obesus)
2000m Cm_mc o)mm _mmoo coom. m)gg cm_
_gd coo OogCemd` (Cellulose) m@m Ommo J)mg_ c!
omgJm_m. o)mmoom __g Oodmm_ Oom_m_ood
moOmT _gqoo m_m_g_Jm__. g)cm Ogmc!qc
m)ommmmoo, oqcmoo, Cou _m@m _mg_ m)
Coemm_oom _o _gJm_m. __gmmd cm
Ommo_m, m__ Ommo +_m m!o_m o)mmoomd
m_m_m Cogm moOmT_. 40m Cm_mc o)mm oooo,
Com_m, mm!u, Comom, omq, _eoce, omo_ m!oo,
Ogmm m__m mg m)mo_ mmgm m_m_g_Jm_m.
235
mcm. 6.2.11. ccmoo 1ogm_g_mm
Omoo 1m
o)mmoo
o_mm_
o)mmoo m_m_g_m mmgm og _o__ ccmqmo
o_m_g_gd _oJmmJ__. o)mmoo o_m_gg _J
Oomdu m_gg g)d __gd _oJm. J %Com!Ccm, 0.5%
_dqTm, 0.5% O_cmCom! Oommc oeo mmmd _c co_g_.
5% OmmcmComC)m Jmmd m)Ommoo omo ode_. BHC,
_dqTm oeo mmmd __ oqcmoo mm_omoemm.
(ii). Omoo 1m: bykh rhrdh (Lepisma saccharina)
__ mdem mgoogm ommm_Jm__. +)mgm coo
Oom mgood qggomood _o _m oo!Jm_m. _o
__ooo__o. J3 m.1 _om Oommc _oOooo ___Joo
mg qggomoo Cogm_g_Jm_m. oJ Cmmcmc mggg
_moo, C)mm _m oooo, mmqm Oomc qggomoom
mooo mg Cmmm_ooom _o cmJm_m.
o_mm_
qggomoo +)mgm m_g _cmood ooocm_.
qggomoo _qoq Ooud omoggd Com_m. 5%
mmemgCmm Ogom_ mo _gommo Cogm_ggmc _cmood
memom.
236
o mgJ_
mg - _
o1mm mcg 1g!_Og_.
J. moomm_oo oo) m___
_. o!_g _! _. _gocd
_. _gm__ Oomocd +. gm__ oemJ _!
2. mom g_q mm_ ommm_m _cm
_. o oocm _. oTmm ocd
_. __gmmm goo +. _dgC)um oc_o)
3. __gmmd omgm)mmmo mmq_ oo!md mmm_ggm_m _mm
_. bynlh khUil _. V ofh
_. nda of +. olh ~lh
4. q_oom Oodmm_oomd Jcm c!oTm ogoo
_. _) _. _dumJomd
_. oeq q_ c)m +. OomoCmm
5. Cgm oo!momood oo!om_m omgm)m __gg Cgm
_. V lhbrlh _. ~nshuh
_. V ofh +. Cm_oT _mg_m
. ghf bkhu__ Jcm m_
_. cu! m_ _. _om m_
_. _)mqm_ +. mdOmTm_
7. mqg_m@m _Joo ............. oo om!_go
_. mmcCmmCmod _. em!mCom)d
_. g_mm +. Omd_oo
8. _g_ oo!q` cm Ogmc!qc __omm
_. CIBA _. CMFRI
_. NIO +. MPEDA
0. __md oo!mmd mmm_ggm_m _J _mm
_. nknuhnua d _. bklhnda d
_. nda d +. gDu d
J0. m)mmoo gmgd --------- mm_gom_Jm_m
_. od __mdoo _. _m_oo
_. _)mdoo +. Oo__mmm
JJ. buhbkl mb#oah
_. om _. omod
_. gmo1m +.gme 1m
237
J2. 1mm mg _dudJomd gmTmd mmm_m
_. Cgmd _. ode)d
_. om__m +. mgmq
J3. m_o moggmmd Ommomgm) emmm Om__oo _m_
_. USA _. Om
_. _dgC)um +. Ood _md
J4. 1m oo! _emoo _gm_gud comJ Omm Om__o!oo
_. om!oo _. _mmm!oo
_. Joq __g! +. _mTo!oo
J5. __gm omm cTd _mom coo _cm
_. Ocdu _. gTum
_. Jom! +. _dumm
mg - _
_J mco :-
J. o)Cm)mm_oo mm_md mmm7
2. oeq q_ c)ggm mm m_7
3. _m gmo)moom _mOmoggd _Joo mmmmm cgJm_m.
4. cmomo mmm_m _m_oo _)mqm OmTm m__.
5. mmmq mqggm _ oooo mo7
. oo!ooq _ memoom Om!oo m__o.
7. Com)dem _m)m mm_md mmm7
mg - _
oommm mco :-
J. c!og o_mm_ mm_md mmm7 cgm)mg_cm moo7
2. Ommomgm) _Jg_om om_g __g __mdoo _)mqm
Om!oo _m_o.
3. oo!q _g_oo` mm_md mmm7
4. gCmom Oom_q mmOm` m__ _q o)o.
5. OomoCmm mm_md mmm7 _gm Ommomgm) _Jg_om m__
_q o)o.
8. mmmmm _om mcm o)__ mmomoo _.
mg - +
m1mmm mco :-
J. Ommomgm) _Jg_om om_g _Joo m__ _q o)o.
2. 1moom cm_c mgmm m__ m__o.
3. g 1m oo! Ogmq _mggd m__m m)mmTggd m__ mTomo m__o.
4. m_ ccmoog gmm _Joom__ g o_) o)o.
238
7. c1mg 1gmm_gd
7.J. 1ommm_oo
c1mg 1gm__m
_mm om_m _m mmmecmom cTm oooom c_mcm.
_m gmo)mo_m memo_m mgg __d mdgToomo
omgog ommJC_mm. _mm mdCo_ mm_mc __o gdood
omgog_omm goomqoomoCo mdgTdq _m__oo_.
_ggo moOmT _omemm mm_m_oo om@m
CooooOedemm _ggmmoo mmqg Cgmm_m m@m _mm_
mmggd m_o_ _dCm. om!dd cm!mm mmmm! Oooc __og
1g! Commm_ cTmmoom mTmmmm m__ moomoo )o
__mg Oom_g_oo_. _m@m cToom _oom m__
og_oo mem _m_o) momoomoCooom. c! Cgmm_e
m__ me g_mmm moomoo cm_.
J. J_q mcggd 1ommm_
_Commmqmmq _m_ _mm om@m mdCo_ oomc
cTmmo_m _Cg _mmgm mdg! _dCmm_m gO)mg
Cgm__momcm. _Commmq_ Oo__oo _de_ __md
__ooemm _g) _de. mm@m _mmom _qmcd
me)mgm _og_ m__ Oomoom_oo_. _ogg_ Cmgm
_g) g)_m ood 'mcm_md(creation science) m@m qg
__ Cgmm_oo_.
2. mmmg c! 1gmm_d 1ommm_
_Commmqmmq mmOoom CoO_m Comoggu__
cToo _m o__ qC_oemm mm_ o_m_oo_. _g_Oom
_gud _m o_g gmmg_m Oommc d1mm!oo, omd1mm1ommm
(cosmozoa) mmm_m. _o g_OoemoCo _m _c_gm mm_m
o_m_oo_. m_qc g_eoo omc _oToo
meoooomo mTmmg_ J_mc_gm mm_m o_o!.
_Commmqm m__Oomoo m_mcmood coo_ _o
m_ggmc Com_m.
239
3. gmm 1gmm_d 1ommm_ _de_ c1m_ c! 1gmm_d
1ommm_
c)__ Ommoou__ c! Cgmm_o Com_m mmmCg
_Commmqm _qmc. _oood c! Cgmm_ om)mmoo
momde. __ ! g_Ood _ogJC. mgmomegg JC)o
__!oomJ Cgdd, mmmCcmJod, _Tdcmqd Cmmm_o!oo
_ooo mmmmoo _gTg_oom!.
ocd _C) cTmmoom m_mcm mmm_ 1gdum [J._. 24-
548j og_. c)__ __o Ommoou__ cTmm Cgmm__
mm mmcmJod [ J. _. 540-433j OgTmggm!. _ooc
cTmmoo_g_ C_!ggmm cTmmoo Cgmm_m mm_m!.
c_cmc __o OmmoCo cToo mmm_ _Tdcmqum
[J._. 384-322j o__. _ooo c_cg c)m__d g_m`(vital
force) _de_ og_cg_m o!mgOmm_(guiding intelligence) om)mmm
momo Com_m mm_m!. c)m__d g_m` Ogmc!__ Ooem__
c)mmoo Cmmm_g_J__ mm_m o_mm!.
_ggmu _mqm m)mmJdCom Tq (Francisco Redi)[J2J-J07j,
cTm_ c!Cgmm_d` oggm __mmo m_ggm!. _mmm
cToou_Cg __gg_g_ cToo Cgmm_ _qm mm _gm
__mo Oo__ _gm)mo_cm OgTmggm!. __Jg _m_oo
gmggmC _m _q _mm Jomoogm g__g_g _mm
Jomoogmmo ogg_gm!. m)md g__g_g Jomood q_oo
Cgmm_emm. _Jomood _q_oo Cgmm_ggg Cgomm
+oo co _g__ OooC_g oqomqmm!. me _moomJm
_q_g Jomood q_oo m_mcmde. _Comgmoomd _o)_
og_ ogOm___.
4. 1mO)me mm__m(Big Bang theory)
_Commm_ _mm m_ Comomo_m Cgmm__ Ogmc!mmm_.
_Commmqmmq m)mom __mm gC) Cood _g)qmog
Cgmm__ mmm_J__. ___ogJd _ogg)moo, Comomoo,
_o__m gmm Ommoo _mg_m comJm. coomo m_m_m
__gg _goTqm Oom mm_gdo_m _ogg)moo OmTgmJm.
O_oqmm Oom_e Cgmm_cm _qmc _@Oomm__d
_ogoomd CmO)mu mm__moo m_m_m. _oooCeC Tm
Cgmm_oemm mmm_ og_.
240
5. m. _. gmm1mm 1ommm_(A.I. Oparins theory)
_)J _mqm _Oeommc! _. gmmTm J024d ! _
o_) Ooocm!. _o)_ og_ '_qmc cTem c! Cgmm_d
Commm_ mmm_m. _o)_ oggmmq _m_ ceJd qg c!
gmmmoCo Cgmm_ggomm gmmoo _de. _mmd 200 mdum
_m_o __mc _oo _md c! Cgmm_ggomm _dmmm
gmmoo __gm mm_m!. _oCood _md Je mo Cog
o_OmmoCo_gm. __od Cgmm_ mmmum mm
gmgd, q_ mgm og! _om Cmmm_ gmgdoomd __gg_g_
Omm _eo_oo Cgmm_g _omJm. _ggo _eo_oom
Cgm__ggmd _gd cT Cgmm_o_ mogm__.
. 1_..md. _md1cmm 1ommm_(J.B.S Haldanes hypothesis)
_mdCcm _mJem__ _mqd c! Cogem!. _mm)md
_u_m _demg Cood c! Cgmm_o Com_m mm_
oggm _o! _gud OgTmggm![J020j. _m_ _m o__gm
_u_@m _gu__ Cgmm_m Com@m mc!__oom. Comm mcem
mmmm ogTomoou__ _m mm_omg_ OommqJ__.
_u_m _demg_gmd Comm Cgmm_m_. Comm mcem
_deOm_md q_ mgmog!oo _mm 1_ mogd mgemm.
_u_m _demg g_ed _ggo _ogJmd go` mm__moo
m_m_ _moo _eo_oo c_mggmgd _gm. _omgm Cgmm_
_eo_oo ocud o)_g_gm mm_ _mdCcm OgTmggm!.
_ocd _) _moo Ommoom ` mm_ _mdCcm _gu__
cToo mogd Cgmm_emm mm_m o_mm!.
7. _1)-mde1m 1ommm_(Urey-Miller hypothesis)
J050ood _OmTo _mqm O_)md_ _C)(Harold Urey),
dcmmu mde!(St anl ey mi l l er) _JCm! __o g_ed
cToom ccg q_mmmo _mCmm _memoo c_mggmoemm
mm_ OgTmggm!. _o!oo _q)_m, _mCmmmm, 1gCgm, _)mm
Cmmm_ Ommoom mggd mmOmmo(electric spark) Oogggmmd
_mCmm _memoo C_)qmog Cgmm_m mm Comgmoom _em
__mg_ omqm!. _ggo _o!oo_ Comgmd _dq__oo,
_mCmm _memoo, om!mmJu _memoo C_)qmog Cgmm_m.
_ggo g_em, gm_ggm, Cgmm_gdo_m _ooome
_mgm __go Com_m mm _o!oo moJm!. _o__md
moOmm _omd c!Cog _eo_oo _mm _! _eood
Co)g_omJm. _gg)J m_omeggd ! c! Ood _mq
Cgmm_g_ ogogg_.
241
8. 1ommOo!1m 1gmm_d 1ommm_(Coacervation theory)
qC)mCcmOod mmm_m _mCgmm_d Oodoo
ComOo!Co_oomo _m_g_gm. c! Cog o_Ommoo
J_J_ _ooomog g)mqggCe CommOo!Co` mmm_m.
_oggm gmm1m OgTmggm!. _Td Cgmm_m _gg)Jd
qC)mmoo, o_ o!o)oo, __o _memoo _m mm_m!.
_g@o c! Cog _ogJoomJ O_mgOmmo _om, _moo
ocg_gd Cmmm_o m_mqoemm. ___ogJo_c _mCm !
c!Ood Cgmm_ogm _oom mm_ OgTmomc_.
7.2. qm mgmomemoom _cmm
_mm mo mgmmm o_oom o_ 3. 8 mdum [3800
mdumj _m_oomm. __ 38,000,000 ___mm_o_ omm. _e
Ommgem!, qmem! _JCm)_ mmmggm mq _mm om_m
_mmm_ 4. 7 mdum [ 4, 700 mdumj _m_o _mq
Cgmm_o Com_m.
_ggo momgmmm ome _omd _gd c! 2.5 mdum
[2500 mdumj _m_o_ _m Cgmm__. _gmmd _m Cgmm_
omeggu__ c! Cgmm_ omem o)emm 2200 mdum
_m_oo _cOood _md c!oo _demg g_e
_m_g_g_. _omeggd _m comJ Oommq_g_ mmm!.
cToo__ _omem mCom omem`(Azoic era)(2,200-5000 billion years)
mcm.7.1. dcmme mde1m mm-go c_mgg om
_m1mm _memoo
_)_m, _m1mmmm, 1g1gm
cmdcm mmgm_
o!gd _mq
_)mm
Oomg _!
242
mmm_m. _omeggd _m ! _go Oom_c mTComommo __g_
mmmg_ _gm)moo coom. mqmqmo _mm Cm_m)md Oomm
gm_g_. _gmmd mm_o_m mm_ m)qo_m Cgmm_g_omJm.
Cmgm _! _eo_oo Cgmm_m. qmm)md _!_eoo m_mcm.
_ggo mdCo_ mm__moo c!oo Cgmm_ggomm g_e
m_m_gg Oom_ggm.
_gd cT Cgmm_mm mqmqmo mTmmm mm_gdoo m_mcg
_omJm. cToom _mq, omg__ _Jo__d mm__moo
m_mcm. _mmm__moo __o gum gmmoom _m _o_m
mm__mo_ m_mm _m_g_gm. _oooCeC mdCo_ gmo),
memJmmoo Omog _omJm. _! _eoo ___gmmo mmm_gg
mcm. m_ _em)qoogm cTmmoo omg__mcm.
mCom omegg_ m_ _og_g Ogmmmome _ogoo
__gg mom oommo. _omem _m_ Ommomemoomo
(Eras) mTom_oo_. _o _mm o)em__d _mcggo
omemoo. _o _m_d mgmmm_ mme1m1om omem` _de_
Ogmdg! omem`(Palaezoic era) _m. _omem 00 _gd 2J0
mdum _m_oo o) _qgg_g_. _oood _omem 300
mdum _m_oo _m_g_g_. _Ommomeggd oc_mooo,
_ogg) 1moo, _ggoo, _Joo, _m_oo, _eomg, _!-_e
omgmoo, m!om _mmoo mem Cgmm_g g_mm)mm.
mmuCmCom omegg_ mmmmd momemmJ
11om1om Ommomem(Mesozoic era) _m_g_g_. _Ommomem
5 _gd 2J0 mdum _m_oo __g_. _omem m__ J45
mdum _m_oo m)m_g_ mmemm. _omeggd memood
m!om _mmoo J_q__m. mmCo _omegg m!mm _mmoom
Omm_omem mmm!. Cmgm _omeggd m_oo_m mmgqo_m
Cgmm_m.
5 mdum _m_o _mq _omJ _m_o) coo omem
J1mm1om Ommomem(Cenozoi c era) mmm_m. _omeggd
mmgqoo _Jg_om Om__m. _o meoooomo mTmmggm.
mmCo _Ommomeggm mmgqoom omem mmemm.
mgmome _cmm
mdCo_ mm_oo, mm_ mqoo _Jo__m ogm
g!mmmg_ ! qmmgmome _com` gmTom_oo_.
243
Ommomem ome _o _Jg_mm
mmuCmCom 00 - 2J0 m._m_o _m 'mgmcToom
Ogmqd
1ComCom 2J0 - 5 m._m_o _m 'm!om _mmoom
Omm_omem
JCmmCom 5 - J m._m_o _m 'mmgqoom omem
omem, o_, _ogJoo _Jo__m _qmcd qm
o)em__ omemoo Ommomem(era), omem(period), J_omem(epoch) mm
mTom_oom. _o goOomm_m OmTcm_ gcocmmo
o)_om_oom. _omemood omg_g cTmmoo, _o__d
_og_gmm__moo mm _dummo _om_oom. _omemood
qm _mmgm moomemoogm m_mc mm_gdoo _
Oom_oom.
Ommomem omem J_omem ome_o
[mdum
_m_o
_mqj
om!c!mT modCcmJm 2-J
JCmmCom Oc!T moCmJm 7-2
mCmJm 2-7
_uComJm 38-2
_CmJm 54-38
mmuCmJm 5-54
JTCcd J30-5
1ComCom _)mJ J0-J30
q)mJ 2J0-J0
Om!mm 235-2J0
OmmJdComm 255-235
mJJmm 275-255
mmuCmCom qCommm 3J5-275
ogTm 350-3J5
_!Ccmmm 440-350
CommTm 00-440
_mCommTm 00 Cmd
244
I. mme1m1om Ommomem
_omeggd qm _mmd Omm mm__moo m_mcm. Cmgm
_m_ mdCo_ _mmoo Cgmm_og_ om)mmmo __g me
_mCmmqo_m Cgmm_ m)m_ _omeggdgmm. _om)mggmmd
_Ommomeggm mmc cToom Ogmqd` mmm!.
omemoo _ogJoo
om!c!mT-modCcmJm 2-J m._._ mmgmm mTmmmm
Oc!T - moCmJm 7-2 m._._ mu, _d, _md oooom J_q
Oc!T - mCmJm 2-7 m._._ _om_ qdOoooo Cgmm_m.
g)oom mTmmmm
m@m@m mmgqoom J_q
Oc!T - _uComJm 38-2 m._._ )mJmmoo, mmg )moo
Cgmm_m.
Oc!T - _CmJm 54-38 m._._ g)oo Cgmm_m
Oc!T - mmuCmJm 5-54 m._._ _gd _m gmo)moo
JTCcd J30-5 m._._ mmgqoom cCmmom!oo
m__gm.
_)mJ J0-J30 m._._ m_ooo Cgmm_m. g_omegg
mgmq 1moo Cgmm_m.
q)mJ 2J0-J0 m._._ cCmmom!oo Cgmm_m.
mmgqoo Cgmm_m.
Om!mm 235-2J0 m._._ m!om _mmoo Cgmm_m.
OmmJdComm 255-235 m._._ _e omg _Joo
mJJmm 275-255 m._._ _! _e omgmoo Cgmm_m. _e
omg _Joo, om_oo.
qCommm 3J5-275 m._._ 1moom omem, Om)moo,
oodoo.
ogTm 350-3J5 m._._ gmcc 1moo Cgmm_m.
_!Ccmmm 440-350 m._._ _gd __Oogmmoo,
gmcoo__ 1moo,
m)Cmm_oo.
CommTm 00-440 m._._ gmCemm_oo, o@omuoo,
Omdgcuoo, _Cgmuoo.
_mCommTm 00 m._._ gOod cToo, oc_mooo,
ooggocuoo.
245
J. 1om1m omem(Cambrian period) [00 _gd 440 mdum
_m_o _mj
CommTm omegg_m _mm_g omem __mm,
Ommggggd _m1om1m mmm_m. _omeggd mo g Ood
cToo, oc_mooo, ooggocuoo Cmmm_o
_eOm___gm. _ooo cToo Oomm_ CommTm omem
_omJ_. CommTm omeggd gmo)mood gmCemm_oo
J_q__ momJm. _o me mToomo mTmmggm.[cgm)mm.
ComC)mmJC, C)mCcmmJC _guoj. memJmmood _!omg
o@omuo_m _Cgmuo_m _gd_e oJggm.
_oTmmoom mqomoo Jcg_oom.
2. _!1cmmm omem[440-350 mdum _m_o _mj
_omeggd moom_oo m)mm. Omdgcuo_m
_Cgmuo_m Cgmm_m. gmo) ceJd )o _eggd om_m.
m)Cmm_oo _e Om__m. _omeggd _gd _e
__Oogmmoo Cgmm_m. _omgm Cgmm_ m1_ggm(Agnatha) m@m
gmcoo__, Cmdooom cc 1moo m_ m___ mcm. _gd_e
__Oogmmoo Cgmm__ memoom mTmmmggd ! mo _J
_ogJ. o@omuood q)Cemm_oo _mme Om__m.
3. og1m omem [350-3J5 mdum _m_o _mj
mcm.7.2. _mmqd - _gd gmcoo__ 1m
mcm.7.3. _dq)1omOc!m - _gd _c 1moo,
om1omOc!m - _gd gmc 1moo
1omodcm [ om1omOc!mj
)mdd[_dq)1omOc!m
246
mgmmm _eggmo)moo Cgmm_m. _ggmo)mood ocg_m
gooo __gm. _o _em)m _J)mq Oogm. _Joo
_moemo m_ __Oogmm__o J_mmo omg_gm. moomoo me
oooomm. me moog goo Cgmm_m. gmcooc 1moo
Cgmm_m. 1moo Oogdoom _mg__qoom Om__m.
_mg__qo_m gmco_m Cgmm__ __ _mmoom
mTmmmggd J_q _ogJoomm.
4. q1mmmm omem [3J5-275 mdum _m_o _mj
mmuCmCom Ommomeggd _omem _mcggo_.
_omeggd _e omg gmo)moo _Jg_om Om__m. om_ood
meoo Om)mo_m, ood gmo)mo_m Cgmm_m. _! omg
memood 1moo _Jg_om Om__m. _o me oooomJ me _!
_eood om_m goomqoo Om__m. g_omegg _mg_oo
1moom _mCmmqo_m omg_g_gm. _om)mmoomd _omem
1moom omem` mmm_J__.
5. mJJm omem [275-255 mdum _m_o _mj
me _e mm__moo Cgmm_m. qmm)mm me _cmood _em
CmOe_mm_. _gmmd megOgmc!oo Cgmm_m. OmT _! _eoo
J_ mToomo cc_gm. _ggo mm__mo_ q)Jo) mm__moo`
(revolutions) mm_ Om!. _ggo mm__ggmmd 1mood _)m)doo
Cgmm_m. _gmmd _m1moo qg _! _eoo ommm_ mogm__.
_ooo _coqooomd _!-_e mmgmoo Cgmm_m. _eomg
_Joom mTmmm oo!J, _!-_e omgmoo Cmgm mmgg_.
. OmmJd1mmm omem [255 - 235 mdum _m_o _mj
_e omg cToo _omeggd _Jg_om Om__m. _eggd
moOmT Om)m om_o_m ood ommo_m_gm. qmm)mm
mm__moomd me om_oo mmmd qgmcm. _qgmu__gmm
_m_ _eoTm OmC)mu_m JcJm_m. _om)mggmd
mcm.7.4. _dg1)emmm _)m)d 1m - _1mOo)1cmcd
247
mJJmm, OmmJdComm omemoo _mg_ om!mmmOm)d
(Carboniferous) omem mmm_m_.
7. Om!mm omem [235 - 2J0 mdum _m_o _mj
__Co mmuCmCom Ommomeggm __g omemmm.
_Cmm_ omg_g cTmmood 0% oooo m__gm. Je _!-_e
omgmoo _c _e _coo _cm. _gmmd m!om _mm
mTmmgg_. _mmo _! _e omgmoo, m!om _mmo_JcC
_mq mmemmo J_1m m@m cT Cgmm___.
II. 11om1om Ommomem
cTm o)em__d __ ! _comem. _e omg Cmgm
J_mc_g_. memood m!om m _ec_gm. _omgm
mmmogm _goTggm. _Ommomegg m!mm _mggm
Omm_omem` mmm_m_.
J. q)mJ omem [2J0 - J0 mdum _m_o _mj
_gm __mo _omeggu__ _moo, _geoo,
cCmmom!oom mqomoo Jcg_oom. _e omg, _! omg m!om
_mmoo J_q___ggmo mqomoo OgTmJm_m. m!om
_mggu__ mmgqoo Cgmm_m.
2. _)mJ omem [J0 - J30 mdum _m_o _mj
cCmmom!oo J_mmo m)m_gm. m@m@m, gmo)
cmm@m cCmmom!oo __gm. _gd m_ooo m!om
_mggu__ Cgmm_m. _gud Cgmm_ m_oood gm_
_!JmOc1d (Archeopteryx). mm m_ooo Cgmm__ Oom
mm_omq _dmd ! qg mm__mmm. mgmq 1moo meomo
mTmmggm.
3. J11cd omem [J30 - 5 mdum _m_o _mj
moOmTgm_g Omdgcuoo m__gm. _omegg
cToom mqomoo gmgoggm _TgTd JcJm_m.
1ComCom Ommomeggm cCmmom!oo _omeggd
___gmmo m__gm. _g_ meoomm om)mmoo o_m_oom.
_g_ m_g omemood cCmmom!oom mqomoo Jcomde.
248
mcm.7.5. 11om1om m_moo, m!mm c1oo
)mm1cmom)d
q)m1mmom)d
1)mom)d
_!JmOc1d
249
III. J1mm1om Ommomem [5 mdum - _m_ o)j
_omegg_omm mqomoo me Jcg_oom. _o__d
g_omegg memoo, gmo)moo _mg_m cm_. _Ommomem
Oc!1, mm!c!m1 mm _)m_ omemoo Oommc_. Cmgm
_gd m_ J_omemoo cm_. _omemoom mqomoomd g)oo,
mmoo, gcom, mmgm Cmmm_ gmmc mem oooom
mqmqmm mTmmm oo!J ommemm.
J. mme1mJm J_omem
_omeggd gm-Co _mqggo cc mmgqoo
Cgmm_m.
2. _1mJm J_omem
omq omd mmgqoo(Ungulates) Cgmm_m. _omeggd
g)oom _mCmmqoo omg_gm.
3. _e1omJm J_omem
mgm mmqo_c me memoo m__gm. g_omegg
mmgqoo _m _mmmoo _eOm__m. mmg )moo
Cgmm_m.
4. m1mJm J_omem
meoo q_oo _C)mmmmgm oc _OmTommgm Cgmm_
m)mm. moOmT qdOoooo Cgmm_m. qdOooood Coommo _m
mmgqo_m _o__ m)q mqm mmmo cmm mmgqo_m
Cgmm_m.
mcm.7.6. q)Oo)cmd - Oommqc
c1mmom!
250
5. o1mJm J_omem
qdOoooo Cmgm OmTgmJm. _d, mu oooo _gommm.
mmgqoom mmmo oq_.
. d1cmJm J_omem
me c_mmg Cgmm_gdoo(glaciations) _og_gm. _gm
mmoq omem` mmm!. g)oo, mmgmm mTmmmm __g
_eoo mq_. J500 _m_o _m mmmm_oo cJ_.
_omeggm __g _ogJmm. _mm _Cmm_ _cmg` omeggd
coComm.
7.3. mqmmoo
_mm me mcmood qg_gm mem _de_
gmo)moom mm_omomc ccd _de_ ccd c_qoCo mqomoo
_m. __ com ccd mg, omdg gcm, _eg gcm Cmmm_ mqomoo
cm_.
mqmmmgd:- me __ood mqomoo Cgmm_emm. mqommgd g_Ood
_ogJC. me oo mqomoo cm_.
J. odemgd:- _ooo mqomoo _gom Jcg_ coom. _gd ____
Cmmm cTm ccd odemJ__. ___ogJ mq mm_oo
Cgmm_od m_m_m. Ommmmm ccd c_qoo _g_gmm
oqmmmm cc_ mgood gmmmoom m_oemd od _mqg
Cgmm_m.
2. Ommm c_qoo odemgd:- Je Cooood gooo Cmmm_
Ommmmm c_qo_m gmm m_oemd od mqom _oemm. me
gmo)moo _ooo mqomoomJoom.
3. omd gc mqmmoo:- +) mmmd _c__ Oom_ memoom omd gcm
Je _cmood mqommJoo_. _o__ _ Ooogmd m__g
mem m__ __emm.
4. _o mqmmoo:- mTme ommmud _ooo mqom Cgmm_m. me
___mm__ memoo _o mqomoomJoom. _ooo mqom
memJm q_ _mq m__ __ mo)ggm OgTmm.
5. gmm) Jm Ommo mqmmoo:- m)moom gm_ mgd oJm
mJm Ommod m_mqoo Cmmm_ J_ _Joo JJ Oomooemm.
_o mqommo mm_emm. _mqom _oTm mmqoog Ogoomo
ommmm.
251
. mmoq mqmmoo:- __mmo memoo mm@o mm_omo
mcemm. _gd ccd c_qoo mmgmcmmd _m_gm.
oJTmmd ommo mmoo` _ooo mqommo Jcg_oom.
mqmmoom mgmg g!mmmggd
ogTo _ComCcm` mmmmcmd mqomoom ogmg
g!mmmoemm. _mg_g gmmmo_m _ComCcmqoo cm_.
mm_mc _@ mcOommc _@oCo _ComCcmqoo- cgm)mm, C
J2
,
C
J4
. Je _ComCcmqoo _e__o. _o , _oooo OooC__
_emm Om_ _gm. cgm)mmmo
_C)mm
238
omTm
23
OmmcmJm
40
omdJm
40
+ _!omm
30
om!mm
J4
om!mm
J2
_) mm _@oo _ooo mm__gg_ m_g_ Oomo_m
ome _o _)- o_`(half-life) mmm_m. me _@oom _ComCcm
mJgmoo om_mqg_ omJ_oom _em mm_oom ogg
g!mmmoemm.
mqmmoom m1mmm _Jg_mm
J. mqomoomd mTmmm mm__moom me mq_eoo __
_qJ__.
2. g)oo` Cmmm_ _mc memJmmoom mTmmm
oo!J __mmo __ _qJ__.
3. mgmomegg gm-Oomg gmmoo __ _qJ__.
4. _mogg Ogmc!qoo __gd mogmJ__.
5. Je mqomoomd [mmmqomj m)m@ gmm cm)_qJ__.
Je _J mqmmoo
_gCmdqom(Ichthyostega) - 1m - _!_e omgmoom _c_e cT
J_Tm(Seymouria) - goo - m!om _c_e cT.
_!JmOcTd(Archaeopteryx) - _mCmmq m_o.
cCmmom!oo(Dinosaurs) - m__g m!om.
_)ComggTm(Hyracotherium) - g)m _mCmmq.



252
7.3. memoom m_
mm o_ggoo _demmd gO)m ! cTmm _g__ Cmmgd
'm_`(extinction) mmm_m. m_ _oom_m. _o __m
m_, __m__ m_ _m. __m m_md ! cTmm gm_
mm o_gg _de_ mTmmm mm Cgmm_oo mom _demmd
___gmmo m___ mcemm. [cgm)mmj cCmmom!oo. __m__
m_md mTmmm mm Cgmm_oo cmcmJmc mm ! _mm _gm
[cgm)mm: g)oom _mCmmqooj __m__ m_oo _m
mm_gdoo` mmm_m. g)oom mTmmmggd mo mgmmm
_Cm_md`(Eohippus) m___ Cmmod gm_ mm o_gg m_
Oom__. mmCo gmm g_omegg g)oo Cgmm_oom. _mm_
mmm_ _mmm`, _mm` mm mmmcgggm _ogemm.
m_oo` _mmmoCo g!mmmom_ogde. _o o__q_
g_emmd Cgmm_m mm_gdoomd _o_Jm_m. ommoo
mmm_gg, me om)moom _ Oo_ omomeggm cTm
m_oo m__ )o g!mmmm Oo _gm.
m_oo, o)em__m Ogmc! _ogJoomo me __
_og__oom.
c1m m_g gmmoo
m_md` Je gmmoo cm_. m@mmoomc gmo)
cmm memoo mogd m_m. OmT memoo m)md
m_emm. cTm m_md ! _eggmm coo_ mm omm Coem
(Van Valen), J073d OgTmggm!. _o! _gm moo mm _!gTm
Oomoo` mmm_ggmm!. _Oomoom mq qg
goomqoomd _o__ Om__ cTmmoo ggm. _Cg
Cood _Jgoo me _mmoo om_m gg _gm`.
m_m_omm om)mmoo
m_oo Ogmc!__ _og_gmgm _g_ _mc om)mmoo
cm_.
J. _mmoom g_Ommgg m_, g_e mm__moomd m_m_m.
2. ! _mggm Cmmmm_ m_ _mmoom m_m_
om)mmmoemm.
3. _mc gud ! _mm Omm mgmJ _mCm__m
_gm _gm om)mmmoemm.
253
4. o_mmc__ C_m m)od _gomcmm.
5. mmmo Omo_m cmg g_mm_m
om)mmoomoemm.
. ogTomoomd OmT memoo mogd mmgmcm.
7. mmo_oo _md m___ _gmmd m__g gJmcem
cCmmom!oo m_m_ om)mm mm o_m_oo_.
Omm_omo, __o om)mmoomCeC cTmmoo
_g__oom. Om!mm omeggm __gd, mmuCmCom
Ommomeggm cTm ooood 0% m__g_. _ggo Cm)goo
1ComCom, JCmmCom Ommomemoogm _og__oom.
_mm omeggd memoo, gmo)moom m_m_
mmg!oCo om)mm. _gmg omommo me ceoomm gmmm!o
__ommoo cm_. W W F(World Wide Fund for Nature) ceo __o
mm_omq _gm` m@m _mq __mo, _g__ om cTmm m__
gm_ mgJ_oom _em (Red-data book) OgTmJ__.
gm mgJ_
mg - _
J. c! Cgmm_gg om)mmmm gmmg_m Oommc dCmm!oom
Om!
_j qC)mCcmComom _j omdCmmComom
_j o)ooo +j mmTmoo
2. c_cmc c)__ OmmoCo cToo mm OgTmggo!.
_j mmmcmJod _j Cgdd
_j emmm! +j _Tdcmqd
3. _gmm Ood _mmm mmgTmo Oommc_
_j ComOo!Co_oo _j qC)mmoo
_j Comm +j 1gCgm
4. 1ComCom omeggm Om!
_j mmgqoom omem _j 1moom omem
_j m!om _mggm Omm_omem +j mgm cToom Ogmqd
5. _gd __Oogmmoom Ogmq
_j _! _e omgmoo _j mCmggm(Agnatha)
_j omTCmcm +j m_omm
. JCmmCom Ommomeggm ome _o
_j 2J0 - 5 m. _. _m _j 5 _. _gd - _m_ o)
_j 00 - 400 m. _. _m +j 2J0 m. _. _gd - _m_ o)
254
7. _eoT, OmC)mum Jcm om_oo __g omem
_j qCommm omem _j 1ComCom Ommomem
_j JTCcd omem +j ogTm omem
8. ommo mmoo` mqomoomo Jcgg _cm
_j oJTm _j oom)m
_j _C)mmm +j mCoTm
0. g)oom _)mm ome _mCmmqoo
_j _Cm_md _j +od
_j J_Tm +j cCmmom!oo
J0. _!-_e omgom - m!om _mmoom _c_e cT m_
_j cCmmom!oo _j J_Tm
_j _!JmOcTd +j _)ComggTm
mg - _
J. J.B.S _mdCcmm og_mq _gd _e _mm gmm m_?
2. mgmmm cToom Ogmqd` mm mmuCmCom omegg mm
_m_JC_mm?
3. _!JmOcTd mmm_ m_?
4. mmoq omem` mm_md mmm?
5. mqomoom o_ _!mm mmm_ m_?
. J_Tmmm _Jg_om mmm?
7. mm _ggTm mg mmm_ m_?
8. _m CommTm omem mmm_ m_?
mg - _
J. c)__ _ed c!g Cgmm_d mmm_ m_?
2. _C)-mdeTm Commm_ m__ o_.
3. mqomoom mTmmm _Jg_om m_?
4. mmuCmCom Ommomeggm _J _ogoo m__ o_.
5. JCmmCom Ommomeggm J_omemoo m__ o_.
mg - +
J. 1ComCom Ommomem m__ o_
2. g_ Ommgg _mmg mm_md mmm? _gm om)mmoo mo?
3. mqomoo m__m mqommgd __oo m__m ! o_) m__
255
mm!m _doo
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me _mg gomoo
http://home.pcisys.net/~dlblanc/taxonomy.html
http://www.utm.edu/~riwin/b120lab.htm
http://can-do.com/uci/lessons 98/Invertebrates.html
http://www.student.loretto.org/zoology/chordates.htm
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/cancer biology
http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Medicine/Oncology
http://www.bartleby.com/107/
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/seeleyap/