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2.1 OBJECTIVES
To obtain a representative image of the subsurface.
Improve the signal to noise ratio: e.g. by measurement of several channels
resolution and clarity and the proper geometrical relationship to each other
by adapting the waveform of the signals.
Isolate the wanted signals (isolate reflections from multiples and surface
waves).
Obtain information about the subsurface (velocities, reflectivity etc.).
Obtain a realistic image by geometrical correction.
Conversion from travel time into depth and correction from dips and
diffractions
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2.2 PREPROCESSING
Preprocessing is the first and important step in the processing sequence and
it commences with the reception of field tapes and observers log .Field tape
contains seismic data and observers contains geographical data (shot/receiver
number, picket number, latitude and longitude etc).
2.3 DEMULTIPLEXING
2.4 REFORMATTING
The formats generally used for data recording are SEG-D (Demultiplexed
data) and SEG-B (Multiplexed data). Hence they are called field formats.
Demultiplexed is done on data recorded in SEG-D format. In this stage the data are
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converted to a convenient format, which is used throughout processing. There are
many standards available for data storage. Format differs with the manufarcturer,
type of recording instrument and also with the version of operating system.
2.6 EDITING
Edit traces, which consist of extremely noisy traces and muting the first-
arrivals on all traces. Traces from poorly planted geophones may show
sluggishness and introduce low frequency and sometimes cause spiky amplitudes
and therefore degrade a CMP stack. These traces are identified during manual
inspection/editing phase of all the shot records and flagged in the header so that
they will not be included (they are “killed”) in processing steps and in display.
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Traces so noisy that they don’t visually correlate with strong arrivals on
adjacent traces should be killed. We have to be conservative in trace killing
because the fold of this data is low and eliminating only a few traces may have
noticeable effect on the stacked traces.
Editing involves leaving out the auxiliary channels & NTBC traces and
detecting and changing dead or exceptionally noisy traces. Bad data may be
replaced with interpolated values. Noisy traces, those with static glitches or mono-
frequency high amplitude signal levels are deleted. Polarity reversals are corrected.
Output after editing usually includes a plot of each file so that one can see what
data need further editing and what type of noise attenuation are required.
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Two important factors which have major effect on a propagating wave field
are spherical divergence and absorption. Spherical divergence causes wave
amplitude to decay as 1/r, where r is the radius of the wave front. Absorption
results in a change of frequency content of the initial source signal in a time-
variant manner, as it propagates. Since earth behaves as a low pass filter so high
frequencies are rapidly absorbed.There are some programmes used for gain-AGC,
PGC, geometric spreading correction
When the seismic observations are made on non flat topography, the
observed arrival times will not depict the subsurface structures. The reflection time
must be corrected for elevation and for the changes in the thickness of the
weathering layer with respect to flat datum. The former correction removes
difference in travel time due to variation of surface elevation of the shot and
receiver location. The weathering corrections remove differences in travel time to
the near surface zones of unconsolidated low velocity layer which may vary
thickness from place to place. These are also called static corrections, as they do
not change with time. The static corrections are computed taking into account the
elevation of the source and receiver locations with respect to seismic reference
datum (such as Mean Sea Level), velocity information in the weathering and sub
weathering layers. Often, special surveys (up hole surveys, shallow refraction
studies) precede the conventional acquisition to obtain the characteristics of the
low velocity layer.
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applied to each trace individually. Now days, surface consistent amplitude
balancing is in use.
Main processing starts. It includes three major steps. They are as follows:
1. DECONVOLUTION
2. STACKING
3. MIGRATION
resolution.
Stacking compresses the data volume in the offset direction and yields the
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2.11 DECONVOLUTION
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There are two type Deconvolution
1) Deterministic Deconvolution
Deconvolution where the particular of the filter whose effects are to be
removed are known ,is called deterministic Deconvolution .The source wave
shape is sometime recorded and used in a deterministic source signature
correction .No random are involved for example where source wavelet is
accurately known ,we can do source signature Deconvolution.
2) Statistical Deconvolution
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Fig 2.1.3 Seismic data in shot-receiver coordinates
Velocity analysis is the most important and sensitive part of the processing.
Without velocity one cannot change seismic section into depth domain, which is
very necessary. For applying NMO correction one need NMO velocity. Thus one
performs the velocity analysis on each CDP gather but it is not feasible to perform
velocity analysis on each CDP gather. Hence one performs velocity analysis on one
CDP gather from a group of CDP points. There are several methods to do velocity
analysis like constant velocity scan; constant velocity stacks (CVS), velocity
spectrum method and horizontal velocity analysis. Out of these methods, now a
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day’s velocity spectrum method is most commonly used because it distinguishes
the signal along hyperbolic paths even with a high level of random noise. This is
because of the power of the cross correlation in measuring coherency. The
accuracy of the velocity is limited.
The velocity spectrum approach is unlike the CVS method. It is base on the
correlation of the traces in a CMP gather, and not on lateral continuity of staked
events. This method, compared with the CVS method, is more suitable for data
with multiple reflection problems. It is less suitable for highly complex structure
problems. Suppose we repeatedly correct the gather using constant velocity values
from 2000-4300 m/sec, then stack the gather and display the stacked traces side by
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side. The result is a display of velocity versus two-way time, called a “velocity
spectrum”.
There are two commonly used ways to display the velocity spectrum: power
plot and contour plot
Fig 2.1.5 Two way of displaying velocity spectrum derived from the CMP gather
(a),(b) power plot (c) contour plot ,( After Őz Yilmaz ,2001)
One method to estimate velocities with enough accuracy for structural and
stratigraphic application to analyze the velocities of a certain horizon of interest
continuously. Such a detailed velocity analysis is called Horizontal Velocity
Analysis. The velocity is estimated at every CMP along the selected key horizon of
interest on the stacked section. The principle of estimating the velocities by this
method is the same as that of the velocity spectrum. The output coherency values
derived by hyperbolic time gates are displayed as a function of velocity and CMP
position.
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One of the applications of horizontal velocity analysis is to improve the
layered velocity variation along marker horizon, especially if these velocities are
used in post-stack depth migration.
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Fig 2.1.6 The simple geometry for NMO correction in single layer
(After Őz Yilmaz ,2001)
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Here we see that the velocity required for NMO correction for a horizontally
stratified medium is equal to the rms velocity
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NMO Stretching
In NMO correction, a frequency distortion occurs, particularly for shallow
events and at large offset. This is called NMO stretching .The waveform with a
dominant period T is stretched so that its period becomes T’. Stretching is
frequency distortion in which events are shifted to lower frequencies. Stretching is
quantifies as
∆f / f = ∆tNMO / t (0) (2.6)
Where f is the dominant frequency. ∆f is change in frequency
Because of the stretched waveform at large offset, stacking the NMO corrected
CMP gather will severely damage the shallow events. This problem can be solved
by muting the stretched zone in the gather.
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2.16 RESIDUAL STATIC CORRECTION
They are statics deviation from a perfect hyperbolic travel time after
applying NMO and elevation statics corrections to this trace within the CMP
gather. These statics cause misalignment of the seismic events across the CMP
gather and generate a poor stack trace. Therefore one need to estimate the time
shifts from the time perfect alignment, then correct them using an automatic
procedure.
A model is needed for the moveout corrected travel time from a source
location to the point on the reflecting horizon, then back to a receiver location. The
key assumption is that the residual statics are surface consistent, meaning that
statics shift are time delays that depend on the sources and receiver on the surface.
Since the near-surface weathered layer has a low velocity value, and refraction in
its base tends to make the travel path vertical, the surface consistent assumption
usually is valid. However, this assumption may not be valid for high-velocity
permafrost layer in which rays tend to bend away from the vertical.
Residual static corrections involve three stages;
1. Picking the values.
2. Decomposition of its components, source and receiver static, structural and
normal moveout terms.
3. Application of derived source and receiver terms to travel times on the pre-
NMO corrected gather after finding the best solution of residual static
correction. These statics are applied to the deconvolved and sorted data, and
the velocity analysis is re-run. A refined velocity analysis can be obtained to
produce the best coherent stack section.
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2.17 DIP MOVE OUT (DMO) CORRECTION
The DMO correction says that-post-stack migration is acceptable when the
stacked data are zero-offset. If there are conflicting dips with varying velocities or
a large lateral velocity gradient, a prestack partial migration is used to attenuate
these conflicting dips. By applying this technique before stack, it will provide a
better stack section that can be migrated after stack. Prestack partial migration only
solves the problem of conflicting dips with different stacking velocities. Its
applications are;
2.18 STACKING
I. Each common mid point gather after normal move out correction is summed
together to yield a stacked trace.
II. Stacking enhances the in-phase components and reduces the random noise.
III. Stacking yields Zero offset section (in the absence of dipping layers in the
subsurface)
Stacking is the combining two or more traces into one trace. This
combination takes place in several ways. In digital data processing, the amplitudes
of the traces are expressed as numbers, so stacking is accomplished by adding
these numbers together.
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Peaks appearing at the same time on each of the two traces combined to
make a peak as high as the two added together. The same is true of two troughs. A
peak and a trough of the same amplitude at the same time cancel each other, and
the stack trace shows no energy arrival at that time. If the two peaks are at the
different times, the combined trace will have two separate peaks of the same sizes
as the original ones. After stacking, the traces are “normalized” to reduce the
amplitude so that the largest peaks can be plotted.
NMO correction and Stacking also act as a high cut filter. Loss of high
frequencies results in loss of resolution. The Deconvolution after stack applied to
restore high frequency attenuated by CMP stacking and NMO correction.
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RANDOM NOISE ATTENUATION
Random noise is particularly common when the shot point is close to gravel,
boulders or buggy limestone, all of which can cause scattering of waves. Most of
random noise is reduced during stacking. The estimation of random noise is done
in frequency-space (F-X) domain. Each seismic trace in T-X domain is Fourier
transformed along the time axis to yield corresponding trace in F-X domain. Signal
energies, being sinusoidal, become predictable and can be removed in this domain
through a predictive deconvolution. Thus deconvolution in F-X domain removes
the signal content of the trace leaving behind the noise content. Total field minus
the estimated noise gives the signal field.
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3 MIGRATION
Migration is the process that moves the reflection energies from the apparent
locations to the true locations. The spatial velocity distribution is used here for the
identification of these true points in the subsurface. Migration improves the spatial
disposition of the reflecting layers and hence achieves ‘Imaging’.
0 A B x
C
True Dip C’
t D
D’
Apparent Dip
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3.2 MIGRATION STRATEGIES
CASE MIGRATION
Fig 3.1.2 Simple structure and simple velocity Post Stack Time Migration
Fig 3.1.3 Simple structure and Complex velocity Post Stack Depth Migration
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Fig 3.1.4 Complex structure and simple velocity Pre Stack Time Migration
Fig 3.1.5 Complex structure and Complex velocity Pre Stack Depth Migration
Fig 3.1.6 A syncline might appear as a bow tie on a stacked section and can be
corrected by proper migration of seismic data.
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There are basically DIFFERENT TYPES of migration based upon the
domain in which the migration operates and the type of data on which it operates
(Stacked or Unstacked):
2D Post-Stack Time
3D Pre-Stack Depth
The two methods differ, in the treatment of the data prior to summation.
Whereas the diffraction summation method sums the seismic event amplitudes as
recorded, Kirchhoff migration corrects the amplitudes and phase for three factors
before summing. In another way one can say that the diffraction summation
technique that incorporates the obliquity, the spherical spreading and wavelet
shaping factors is known as Kirchhoff migration.
First, the method corrects for the angle at which each event arrives at each
receiver. The energy from a point reflector arrives at the receivers at different
angles. The quantity of energy arriving at each receiver is dependent on the angle
of incidence. This phenomenon is called the obliquity factor. Figure 3.1.9 shows
the circular wave of energy generated from a point reflector. At every location
other than the image ray location, the event arrives at an oblique angle to the
receiver. When the energy arrives at the surface, the receivers near the point of
image ray arrival record greater amplitude than those receivers located at some
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distance from this location. Before the summation, we apply an obliquity, or
directivity, correction factor to the amplitudes. This correction factor is equal to the
cosine of the angle formed by the vertical axis and a line drawn from the location
of the point reflector to each receiver. In figure3.1.9, the correction for the receiver
at location R6 would equal cos β.
(3.1)
Where t0 = t - (r / v). Equation (1) clearly contains the obliquity (cos Ø) and the
spherical divergence (1/ r) factors among its terms. The second term in this
equation, (1/r)u (r0,t0) is usually dropped, because it is proportional to 1/r2
Kirchhoff migration is defined by the formula:
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(3.2)
The advantages of the Pre Stack Depth Kirchhoff Migration scheme are its
simplicity and ability to handle steep dips. In fact, a recently developed algorithm
called Kirchhoff turning ray migration can handle interfaces that dip 90 degrees
and "beyond" .(Interfaces that dip beyond 90 degrees include those that overhang,
as in a salt dome, and those that overturn, as in a trusted anticline.)
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3.8 FINITE-DIFFERENCE MIGRATION
Finite Difference migration uses a formula that extends a field of data back
to an earlier stage. So, from the data received at the geophones, an entire new set of
data is calculated-the data as it was just a little time before it arrived at the
geophones. In effect, though not usually plotted, it is another seismic section, the
one that would have been recorded if the geophones were not on the top of the
ground, but buried a little way down. Then another section, in effect a little deeper,
is calculated, and so on, all the way down to the reflecting horizons, and on to the
bottom to the section. As data is retraced, things are put in adjusted directional
relationships i.e. they are migrated.
At each stage the data above has been migrated and the data below is not yet
migrated. The depth step and dip of reflector can effect the migration as follows:
a) Increasing depth step size causes more and more under migration at
c) Kinks occur along reflectors at discrete intervals that correspond to the depth
step size. Kinks are more pronounced at increasingly steeper dips.
The first inference results from the parabolic approximation, the second
from differencing approximations and the third from gradual under migration
towards the base of each depth step.
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plotted at their true locations. The variable velocities and dipping horizons cause
the data to record surface positions different from their subsurface positions. So,
migration is needed to move reflections to their true subsurface locations.
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3.12 PRE-STACK VERSUS POST-STACK MIGRATION
When the subsurface structures are simple, post-stack migration works well.
But post-stack migration is not faithful in areas with complex geology and
complex variations in velocities. Pre-stack migration is a better imaging tool which
works quite well in areas with complex structures and complex velocities.
In post-stack migration, hyperbolic moveout is assumed. Amplitude
distortions results when this assumption is not valid. Indeed, when ray paths from
near and far offsets travel through different layer with different velocities, moveout
is non-hyperbolic and stacking of the event after hyperbolic correction causes a
lack of focusing. To overcome this difficulty, pre-stack migration is required.
Post-stack migration algorithms deal mainly with rays traveling at moderate
angles from vertical. Rays traveling at large angles are required only to image
overturned reflectors. This is not the case with wide offset, pre-stack data. Even for
moderately dipping events, a ray from either source or detector may turn. The
intrinsic anisotropy in layered sedimentary sequences may result in horizontal
velocities 2-15% higher than vertical velocities. To image reflections from dipping
events recorded with today's wide offset acquisitions requires both faithful
handling of vertical velocity gradients and attention of anisotropy. These are taken
care of in pre-stack migration. However, post-stack migration is much faster than
pre-stack migration, because stacking reduces the number of traces that must be
processed. Also, post-stack migration is cheaper than pre-stack migration. But,the
pre-stack migration gives a better imaging quality and hence is the most preferred
migration.
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RMS velocities can be either refined along these horizons or fresh RMS velocity
can be estimated along these horizons. This yields horizon based RMS velocity,
which will have more bearing on the structural aspects of the subsurface. Since, the
energies in a Pre-stack time migration gather are at correct migrated locations, the
estimated RMS velocity are bound to be better than the earlier velocities. Using
this refined RMS velocity section, a second pass of Pre-stack time migration is run
on CMP gathers.
The true earth coordinates are of course in depth, not time. Even so,
interpreters often need data in time coordinates, because the standard interpretation
system, log synthetics, and seismic-attribute techniques work with time and
frequency, not with depth and the wave-length. The most apparent difference
between time and depth migration occurs in the final display of migrated traces.
Time migration produces a time section, which interpreters can compare relatively
easily with unmigrated time sections. Time migrated section/image, following the
tradition of NMO and stack uses an imaging velocity field, i.e. one that best
focuses the migrated image at each output location. This velocity is free to vary
from point to point, so that time migration, in essence, performs a constant-velocity
migration at each image point. We can view pre-stack time migration as the
generalization of NMO that includes all dips, not just flat ones, while also
collapsing diffraction energy. This is true in the sense that a Pre-stack Time
Migration program restricted to imaging only flat dips at source-receiver midpoint
locations will yield an image that is identical to a stacked, unmigrated section
With diffraction summation migration, data values are summed along the
diffraction hyperbola and the result is assigned to its apex. This procedure, when
performed as a time migration, uses a RMS velocity value at each point and
assumes that diffraction curve is hyperbolic:
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t2 = t02 + 2(x-x0)2/ v2RMS (3.3)
Where, t0 = Migrated time, x0 = Horizontal distance of diffraction point
Fig 3.1.11 Ray Path for diffraction using RMS velocity (Time migration)
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Fig 3.1.12 True depth after migration
Pre-stack time migration not only corrects for geometric distortions due to
refractions and diffractions of seismic waves but also provides following benefits:
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as shown in above figure. Pre-stack depth migration replaces NMO & stacking and
corrects the lateral mis-positioning of reflection events. Prestack depth migration is
however very sensitive to the accuracy of the velocity model.
NO
Flat
gathers Pick Residuals
YES
Final Image
Fig 3.1.13 The generalized flowchart for Pre Stack Depth Migration
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Advantages of pre-stack depth migration
Migration velocity analysis is performed in the correct migrated position
benefiting from higher signal to noise ratio due to the focusing of energy. Velocity
analysis after migration is not interfered with the diffraction energy, which gets
collapsed by the migration. In addition, velocities are obtained without assuming
hyperbolic move out. The disadvantage of Prestack depth migration is mainly due
to effort involved in preparation of interval velocity depth model and increase of
computation cost as compared to Prestack time migration.
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8 Crossing reflections may become a sharp syncline (Bow-tie effect)
9 An umbrella shape, diffraction, becomes a point.
10 The crest of diffraction does not move, and is the diffraction point.
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