Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents Unit 1 An Introduction to Research Unit 2 The Importance of Measurement in Research Unit 3 Selection and Formulation of a Research Problem Unit 4 Hypothesis Unit 5 Research Design Unit 6 Case Study Method Unit 7 Sampling Unit 8 Sources of Data
Edition: Spring 2010 BKID B1206 10 June 2010
th
13
23
32
46
61
66
82
Unit 9 Observation Unit 10 Schedule and Questionnaire Unit 11 Interviewing Unit 12 Processing Data Unit 13 Research Report Writing Unit 14 Ethics in Research Acknowledgements, References & Suggested Readings 209 198 187 129 108 101 92
Dean Directorate of Distance Education Sikkim Manipal University Board of Studies Chairman HOD Management & Commerce SMU DDE Additional Registrar SMU DDE Controller of Examination SMU DDE Dr. T. V. Narasimha Rao Adjunct Faculty & Advisor SMU DDE Prof. K. V. Varambally Director, Manipal Institute of Management, Manipal Content Preparation Team Content Writing Prof. Xavier V. K. Christ College, Bangalore Format Editing Ms. Shulagna Sarkar Former Lecturer, Dept. of Management & Commerce SMU DDE, Manipal Edition Printed : Spring 2010 : June 2010 Content Modification & Review Vimala Parthasarathy Assistant Professor SMU DDE Language Editing Mr. Radhakrishna Rao Lecturer in English UPMC, Udupi
Mr. Pankaj Khanna Director HR, Fidelity Mutual Fund Mr. Shankar Jagannathan Former Group Treasurer Wipro Technologies Limited Mr. Abraham Mathew Chief Financial Officer Infosys BPO, Bangalore Ms. Sadhna Dash Ex-Senior Manager, HR Microsoft India Corporation (Pvt.) Ltd.
This book is a distance education module comprising of written and compiled learning material for our students. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by any means without permission in writing from Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok, Sikkim. Printed and Published on behalf of Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok, Sikkim by Mr. Rajkumar Mascreen, GM, Manipal Universal Learning Pvt. Ltd., Manipal 576 104. Printed at Manipal Press Limited, Manipal.
SUBJECT INTRODUCTION
Research simply means a search for facts answer to questions and solutions to problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the misconceived facts. Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific method. The scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning. Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. It does not belong to any particular body of knowledge; it is universal. It does not refer to a field of specific subject of matter, but rather to a procedure or mode of investigation. Unit 1 : An Introduction to Research Meaning of research Purpose of research Types of research Significance of research in Social and Business Sciences Unit 2 : The importance of Measurement in Research Definition and Purpose of Measurement Levels of Measurement Characteristics of Good Measurement Unit 3 : Selection and Formulation of a Research Problem Choosing the problem Review of literature Formulating the problem Criteria of a good research problem Unit 4 : Hypothesis Hypothesis Meaning and Examples of hypothesis Types of hypothesis Testing of hypothesis Unit 5 : Research Design Needs of research design Components of research design Different research designs Research design for studies in commerce and management.
Unit 6 : Case Study Method Assumptions of case study method Advantages and disadvantages of case study method Making case study effective Case study as a method of business research Unit 7 : Sampling Sampling procedure Characteristics of good sample Methods of sampling Unit 8 : Sources of Data Primary sources of data Methods of collecting primary data Secondary sources of data Unit 9 : Observation General characteristics of observation method Process of observation Use of observation in business research Unit 10 : Schedules and Questionnaire Process of data collection Importance of questionnaire Distinction between schedules and questionnaire Unit 11 : Interview Types of interviews Approach to the interview Qualities of interview Interview techniques in business research Unit 12 : Processing Data Checking Editing Coding Transcriptions and Tabulation Data analysis
Unit 13 : Report Writing Types of reports Contents, styles of reporting Steps in drafting reports Editing the final draft Evaluating the final drafts Unit 14 : Ethics in Research Meaning of Research Ethics Ethical issues in the overall research process Ethical issues in Gaining Access to Participants Ethical issues in Data Collection Ethical issues related to data analysis and reporting Ethically questionable research situations Responsibility for ethics in research
_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ ______ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ ______
Research Methodology
Unit 1
Unit 1
An Introduction to Research
Structure: 1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research Objectives 1.1.1 Research and Scientific Method 1.1.2 Characteristics of Research 1.2 Purpose of Research 1.3 Types of Research 1.3.1 Pure Research 1.3.2 Applied Research 1.3.3 Exploratory Research 1.3.4 Descriptive Research 1.3.5 Diagnostic Study 1.3.6 Evaluation Studies 1.3.7 Action Research 1.4 Research Approaches 1.5 Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences Self Assessment Questions I 1.6 Summary 1.7 Terminal Questions 1.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 1
Scientific Method: this is a systematic rational approach to seeking facts. It eliminates the drawbacks of the arbitrary method. It is objective, precise and arrives at conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences. Therefore, search of facts should be made by scientific method rather than by arbitrary method. Then only we may get verifiable and accurate facts. Hence research is a systematic and logical study of an issue or problem or phenomenon through scientific method.
Young defines Research as a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques, aims to: (a) Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts, (b) Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations, (c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour. (d) Kerlinger defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. Objectives: After studying this lesson the students should be able to understand: Research and scientific method Characteristics of Research Purpose of research Different types of Research Research Approaches Significance of research in Social and Business Sciences 1.1.1 Research and Scientific Method Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific method. The scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning. Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. It does not belong to any particular body of knowledge; it is universal. It does not refer to a field of specific subject of matter, but rather to a procedure or mode of investigation.
Page No. 2
Research Methodology
Unit 1
The scientific method is based on certain articles of faith. These are: Reliance on Empirical Evidence: Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusion is admitted, only when it is based on evidence. The answer to a question is not decided by intuition or imagination. Relevant data are collected through observation or experimentation. The validity and the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data are analyzed thoroughly, using appropriate methods of analysis. Use of Relevant Concepts: We experience a vast number of facts through our sense. Facts are things which actually exist. In order to deal with them, we use concepts with specific meanings. They are symbols representing the meaning that we hold. We use them in our thinking and communication. Otherwise, clarity and correct understanding cannot be achieved. Commitment of Objectivity: Objectivity is the hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming judgement upon facts unbiased by personal impressions. The conclusion should not vary from person to person. It should be the same for all persons. Ethical Neutrality: Science does not pass normal judgment on facts. It does not say that they are good or bad. According to Schrdinger Science never imposes anything, science states. Science aims at nothing but making true and adequate statements about its object. Generalization: In formulating a generalization, we should avoid the danger of committing the particularistic fallacy, which arises through an inclination to generalize on insufficient or incomplete and unrelated data. This can be avoided by the accumulation of a large body of data and by the employment of comparisons and control groups. Verifiability: The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be verifiable. He must make known to others how he arrives at his conclusions. He should thus expose his own methods and conclusions to critical scrutiny. When his conclusion is tested by others under the same conditions, then it is accepted as correct. Logical reasoning process: The scientific method involves the logical process of reasoning. This reasoning process is used for drawing inference from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion.
Page No. 3
Research Methodology
Unit 1
1.1.2 Characteristics of Research It is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon. It is a purposive investigation aiming at describing, interpreting and explaining a phenomenon. It adopts scientific method. It is objective and logical, applying possible test to validate the measuring tools and the conclusions reached. It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems. It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories. The purpose of research is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of criticism.
Page No. 4
Research Methodology
Unit 1
Applied research aims at finding solutions to problems socioeconomic problems, health problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on. Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena. Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development.
Page No. 5
Research Methodology
Unit 1
1.3.3 Exploratory Research It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the researchers familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables. 1.3.4 Descriptive Study It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program. 1.3.5 Diagnostic Study It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.
Page No. 6
Research Methodology
Unit 1
1.3.6 Evaluation Studies It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time. 1.3.7 Action Research It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post experimental evaluation. According to the methods of study, research may be classified as: 1. Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. 2. Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. 3. Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct observation. 4. Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information, explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for making predications
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 7
Research Methodology
Unit 1
Research Methodology
Unit 1
involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments
Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems. Self Assessment Questions State whether the following are true or false: 1. Research is a repetitive search. 2. Applied research gives a solution to problem.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 9
Research Methodology
Unit 1
3. Scientific method is systematic. 4. Objectivity is not required for all types of research. 5. Pure research is not fundamental research.
1.6 Summary
Research simply means a search for facts. The search for facts may be made through either arbitrary (or unscientific) method or scientific method. Young defines Research as a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques, aims to: Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour. Kerlinger defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. The scientific method is based on certain articles of faith. These are: 1. Reliance on empirical evidence: 2. Use of relevant concepts 3. Commitment of objectivity 4. Ethical neutrality 5. Generalization 6. Verifiability 7. Logical reasoning process Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems. It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories. The purpose of research is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of criticism. The purpose of research is to extend knowledge of human beings Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge. Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and these help improving our knowledge and ability to handle situations and events. General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen. Research aims to analyze interrelationships between variables and to derive causal explanations: and thus enables us to have a better understanding of the world in which we live.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 10
Research Methodology
Unit 1
Applied research aims at finding solutions to problems socio-economic problems, health problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on. Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena. Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development. Pure Research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Applied Research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. Exploratory Research is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. Descriptive Study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. Diagnostic Study is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. Evaluation Studies is a type of applied research. Action Research is a type of evaluation study. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems.
2. What is the meaning of research? 3. What are the articles of faith in scientific method? 4. What are the features of research? 5 6 What are the purposes of research? What are the types of research?
Page No. 11
Research Methodology
Unit 1
TQs 1) i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Section 1.1.1 Section 1.3.3 Section 1.3.2 Section 1.3.3 Section 1.3.4 Section 1.3.5 Section 1.3.7
2) Section 1.1 3) Section 1.1.1 4) Section 1.2.2 5) Section 1.2 6) Section 1.3 7) Section 1.5
Page No. 12
Research Methodology
Unit 2
Unit 2
Structure: 2.1 Introduction Objectives 2.2 Definition and Purpose of Measurement 2.3 Levels of Measurement 2.4 Characteristics of Good Measurement 2.4.1 Validity 2.4.2 Reliability 2.5 Summary 2.6 Terminal Questions 2.7 Answers to SAQs and TQs
2.1 Introduction
Research basically deals with the measurement of various variables. While the measurement of variables is an important stage in the research process, it is also a difficult task. This section helps to understand the concept of measurement, the need for measurement, its nature, functions and procedure. The different levels of measurement and the validity and reliability of measuring instruments will also be explained in detail. Objectives: After studying this unit, you will be able to: Explain what is meant by measurement in research Describe the different levels of measurement Recognize what makes for good measurement Distinguish between the various concepts used to describe good measurement
Research Methodology
Unit 2
A simple example of assignment of numerals according to a rule is described below Suppose a survey is conducted to study the applicants of an MBA program and one of the objectives of the study is to find out the sex-wise break-up of applicants. In this case, we may assign the number 0 to male applicants and the number 1 to female applicants. Thus numbers may be used to label individuals, events or things. 2. Campbell defines measurement as the assignment of numbers to represent properties. 3. In the words of Torgerson, measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects to represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects. In research, it is necessary to distinguish between objects and properties or characteristics of these objects. For example, a person is an object and his/her physical characteristics include height, weight, color, etc. while his or her psychological characteristics include intelligence and attitudes. The important point to remember is that the researcher is concerned with measuring properties and not the objects themselves. While physical properties may be directly observed, psychological properties such as intelligence are inferred. For example, a childs score in an IQ test indicates his or her level of intelligence. Measurement also has several purposes The researcher constructs theories to explain social and psychological phenomena (e.g. labor unrest, employee satisfaction), which in turn are used to derive hypotheses or assumptions. These hypotheses can be verified statistically only by measuring the variables in the hypotheses. Measurement makes the empirical description of social and psychological phenomena easier. Example When conducting a study of a tribal community, measuring devices help the researcher in classifying cultural patterns and behaviors. Measurement also makes it possible to quantify variables and use statistical techniques to analyze the data gathered. Measurement enables the researcher to classify individuals or objects and to compare them in terms of specific properties or characteristics by measuring the concerned variables.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 14
Research Methodology
Unit 2
Examples Comparison of male and female students performance in college exams or of length of stay on the job of older and younger employees.
Page No. 15
Research Methodology
Unit 2
3. Interval measurement This level of measurement is more powerful than the nominal and ordinal levels of measurement, since it has one additional characteristic equality of distance. However, it does not have an origin or a true zero. This implies that it is not possible to multiply or divide the numbers on an interval scale. Example The Centigrade or Fahrenheit temperature gauge is an example of the interval level of measurement. A temperature of 50 degrees is exactly 10 degrees hotter than 40 degrees and 10 degrees cooler than 60 degrees. Since interval scales are more powerful than nominal or ordinal scales, they also lend themselves to more powerful statistical techniques, such as standard deviation, product moment correlation and t tests and F tests of significance. 4. Ratio measurement This is the highest level of measurement and is appropriate when measuring characteristics which have an absolute zero point. This level of measurement has all the three characteristics order, distance and origin. Examples Height, weight, distance and area. Since there is a natural zero, it is possible to multiply and divide the numbers on a ratio scale. Apart from being able to use all the statistical techniques that are used with the nominal, ordinal and interval scales, techniques like the geometric mean and coefficient of variation may also be used. The main limitation of ratio measurement is that it cannot be used for characteristics such as leadership quality, happiness, satisfaction and other properties which do not have natural zero points. The different levels of measurement and their characteristics may be summed up.
Page No. 16
Research Methodology
Unit 2
Research Methodology
Unit 2
characteristics such as length, weight and height. This is because the measurement is direct and can be done through standard measuring devices. On the other hand, the measurement of abstract characteristics such as motivation and attitudes is more indirect and therefore poses the problem of validity. In such cases, there must be some evidence to prove that the measurement scale actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Such evidence is generally gathered through the application of statistical techniques. Validity may be classified into different types, as described below. The degree of validity of each type is determined by applying logic, statistical procedures or both. 1. Content validity: This type of validity may be of two types a) Face validity and b) Sampling validity. Face validity is determined through a subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. For example, a researcher may develop a scale to measure consumer attitudes towards a brand and pre-test the scale among a few experts. If the experts are satisfied with the scale, the researcher may conclude that the scale has face validity. However, the limitation of this type of validity is that it is determined by opinions, rather than through a statistical method. Sampling validity refers to how representative the content of the measuring instrument is. In other words, the measuring instruments content must be representative of the content universe of the characteristic being measured. For example, if attitude is the characteristic being measured, its content universe may comprise statements and questions indicating which aspects of attitude need to be measured. In this case, sampling validity will be determined by comparing the items in the measuring instrument with the items in the content universe. Sampling validity, like face validity, is also based on the judgment and subjective evaluation of both the researcher and outside experts. The determination of the content universe and the selection of the relevant items that are to be included in the measuring scale are both done based on the knowledge and skill of the investigator and other judges.
Page No. 18
Research Methodology
Unit 2
2. Predictive validity: This type of validity refers to the extent to which one behavior can be predicted based on another, based on the association between the results yielded by the measuring instrument and the eventual outcome. Example In the case of an admission test designed for prospective MBA students, the predictive validity of the test would be determined by the association between the scores on the test and the grade point average secured by students during the first semester of study. A statistical measure of this association the correlation coefficient could be computed to determine the predictive validity of the admission test. Predictive validity would be strong if the coefficient is greater than .50. One limitation of determining predictive validity using this statistical association is that the eventual outcome, in this case, the grade point average of students during the first semester, may be influenced by other extraneous variables or factors. In other words, the grade point average may have been influenced by other factors (e.g. extra training or coaching) and may not necessarily be linked to the score on the admission test. Therefore, predicting behavior from one situation to another is not always accurate. 3. Construct validity: A construct is a conceptual equation that is developed by the researcher based on theoretical reasoning. Various kinds of relationships may be perceived by the researcher between a variable under study and other variables. These relationships must be tested in order to determine the construct validity of a measuring instrument. The instrument may be considered to have construct validity only if the expected relationships are found to be true. When determining the validity of a particular measurement instrument, all the three types of validity discussed above should be determined. 2.4.2 Reliability This refers to the ability of a measuring scale to provide consistent and accurate results. To give a simple example, a weighing machine may be said to be reliable if the same reading is given every time the same object is weighed.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 19
Research Methodology
Unit 2
There are two dimensions of reliability stability and equivalence or nonvariability. Stability refers to consistency of results with repeated measurements of the same object, as in the weighing machine example. Non variability refers to consistency at a given point of time among different investigators and samples of items. The problem of reliability is more likely to arise with measurements in the social sciences than with measurements in the physical sciences, due to factors such as poor memory or recall of respondents, lack of clear instructions given to respondents and irrelevant contents of the measuring instrument. Reliability can be improved in three ways 1) By reducing the external sources of variation. This in turn can be achieved by standardizing the conditions under which measurement is carried out, by employing trained investigators and by providing standard instructions. 2) By making the measuring instrument more consistent internally, through an analysis of the different items 3) By adding more number of items to the measuring instrument, in order to increase the probability of more accurate measurement. The desired level of reliability depends on the research objectives, as well as the homogeneity of the population under study. If precise estimates are required, the higher will be the desired level of accuracy. In the case of a homogeneous population, a lower level of reliability may be sufficient, since there is not much variation in the data. Reliability and validity are closely interlinked. A measuring instrument that is valid is always reliable, but the reverse is not true. That is, an instrument that is reliable is not always valid. However, an instrument that is not valid may or may not be reliable and an instrument that is not reliable is never valid. Self Assessment Questions Are the following statements true or false? 1. Research is concerned with the measurement of objects. 2. A persons emotions may be directly observed. 3. The most powerful level of measurement is ratio measurement.
Page No. 20
Research Methodology
Unit 2
4. Linearity means that the measuring scale should not measure more than one characteristic at a time. 5. The problem of extraneous variables arises in the case of construct validity. 6. Validity is determined mainly by predictive validity. 7. Validity and reliability do not always go together. 8. Different research situations require different levels of reliability.
2.4 Summary
Measurement is an important concept in research and is a difficult task. It refers to the assignment of numerals to objects in order to measure the characteristics or properties of objects. Measurement facilitates the verification of hypotheses, helps to quantify variables, makes data suitable for statistical analysis and enables comparison between objects in terms of specific characteristics. Measurement may be classified into four different levels, based on three characteristics order, distance and origin. The lowest level of measurement is nominal measurement and involves assigning numerals or labels to different categories of a variable. The next level is ordinal measurement in which objects are rank ordered with respect to a specific characteristic. The interval level of measurement has the characteristics of order, distance and equality of interval but no origin. The highest level of measurement is ratio measurement which is suitable for measuring properties which have an absolute zero point. It permits the use of advanced statistical techniques to analyze the data. The characteristics of good measurement are uni-dimensionality, linearity, validity, reliability, accuracy, precision, simplicity and practicability. Validity refers to how effective an instrument is in measuring a property which it intends to measure. There are three types of validity content validity, predictive validity and construct validity. Content validity may be of two types face validity and sampling validity. Face validity is determined by a subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. Sampling validity refers to the extent to which the measuring instruments content is representative of the content universe of the characteristic being
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 21
Research Methodology
Unit 2
measured. The main limitation of content validity is that it is determined in a subjective manner, rather than through a statistical method. Predictive validity of a measuring instrument refers to the extent to which it may be used to predict a particular behavior, based on another behavior. Construct validity of a measuring instrument is determined by testing the relationships between the variables in the study and other variables. Reliability of a measuring instrument refers to its ability to provide consistent and accurate results with repeated measurements. Reliability and validity are closely associated. An instrument that is valid is also reliable, but not vice versa.
Research Methodology
Unit 3
Unit 3
Structure: 3.1 Meaning of Research Problem Objectives 3.2 Choosing the Problem 3.3 Review of Literature 3.4 Formulating the Problem 3.4.1 Internal Criteria 3.4.2 External Criteria 3.5 Objective of Formulating the Problem 3.6 Techniques involved in Formulating the Problem 3.7 Criteria of Good Research Problem Self Assessment Questions I 3.8 Summary 3.9 Terminal Questions 3.10 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 3
2) Research-consumers Objectives: The research-consumer must have available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires. 3) Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives: The research-consumer must have available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires. 4) Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: The existence of alternative courses of action in not enough; in order to experience a problem, the research consumer must have some doubt as to which alternative to select. 5) There must be One or More Environments to which the Difficulty or Problem Pertains: A change in environment may produce or remove a problem. A research-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient means in one environment but would have no such doubt in another. Objectives: After studying this unit you should be able to understand: The meaning of Research Problem Choosing the problem Review of Literature Criteria for formulating the problem Objective of Formulating the Problem Techniques involved in Formulating the Problem Criteria of Good Research Problem
Research Methodology
Unit 3
Academic experience Daily experience Exposure to field situations Consultations Brain storming Research Intuition
Research Methodology
Unit 3
the researchers educational background, experience, outlook and sensitivity. 2) Researchers competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The researcher must be competent to plan and carry out a study of the problem. He must have the ability to grasp and deal with int. he must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-matter, relevant methodology and statistical procedures. 3) Researchers own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher on his won, consideration of his own financial resource is pertinent. If it is beyond his means, he will not be able to complete the work, unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is more important than finance. Research is a time-consuming process; hence it should be properly utilized. 3.4.2 External Criteria 1) Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendable for finding answers to the questions involved in it through scientific method. To be researchable a question must be one for which observation or other data collection in the real world can provide the answer. 2) Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but available research efforts are very much limited. Therefore, in selecting problems for research, their relative importance and significance should be considered. An important and urgent problem should be given priority over an unimportant one. 3) Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wasting ones time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others. This does not mean that replication is always needless. In social sciences in some cases, it is appropriate to replicate (repeat) a study in order to verify the validity of its findings to a different situation. 4) Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is not feasible, it cannot be selected. Hence feasibility is a very important consideration.
Page No. 26
Research Methodology
Unit 3
5) Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such as well-equipped library facility, suitable and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of the facilities relevant to the problem must be considered. 6) Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should make significant contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of some significant practical problem. It should be socially relevant. This consideration is particularly important in the case of higher level academic research and sponsored research. 7) Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research organizations require the services of investigators and research officers. But in India and other developing countries, research has not yet become a prospective profession. Hence talent persons are not attracted to research projects. Each identified problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and the most appropriate one may be selected by a research scholar.
Research Methodology
Unit 3
Research Methodology
Unit 3
explanation or analysis of causal relationship between variables, and indicate the expected results or outcome of the study. The objectives may be specified in the form of either the statements or the questions.
Page No. 29
Research Methodology
Unit 3
Self Assessment Question I 1. is the first step in research. 2. Journals are of research problems. 3. Internal criteria of research problem consist of and .
3.8 Summary
Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., a problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first step in a scientific enquiry. The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into internal criteria and external criteria. A problem well put is half-solved. The primary task of research is collection of relevant data and the analysis of data for finding answers to the research questions. The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The process of defining a problem includes: Developing title Building a conceptual model Define the Objective of the Study
Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research: Verifiable evidence Accuracy Precision Systematization Objectivity Recording Controlling conditions
Research Methodology
Unit 3
4. What is the classification of research problems? 5. What are the criteria of good research problem?
Page No. 31
Research Methodology
Unit 4
Unit 4
Hypothesis
Structure: 4.1 Introduction Objectives 4.2 Meaning and Examples of Hypothesis 4.2.1 Criteria for constructing of hypothesis 4.2.2 Nature of Hypothesis 4.2.3 The need for having Hypothesis 4.2.4 Characteristics of good hypothesis 4.3 Types of hypothesis 4.3.1 Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis 4.4 Concepts of Hypothesis 4.4.1 The level of Significance 4.4.2 Decision rule of testing hypothesis 4.4.3 Type I and Type II Errors 4.4.4 Two Tailed and One Tailed Test 4.5 Procedures for testing hypothesis 4.5.1 Making formal statement 4.5.2 Selecting a significant level 4.5.3 Deciding the distribution to use 4.5.4 Selecting a Random Sample and computing am approximate value 4.5.5 Calculation of Probability 4.5.6 Comparing the Probability 4.6 Testing of Hypothesis 4.6.1 Important Parametric Tests Self Assessment Questions 4.7 Summary 4.8 Terminal Questions 4.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs
4.1 Introduction
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Before starting the research, the researcher has a rather general,
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 32
Research Methodology
Unit 4
diffused, even confused notion of the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he had been seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem is very important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that asks: what relationship exists between two or more variables? It then further asks questions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to B under conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between A and B is called a hypothesis. Objectives: After studying this lesson you should be able to understand: Meaning and Examples of Hypothesis Criteria for constructing of hypothesis Nature of Hypothesis the need for having Hypothesis Characteristics of good hypothesis Types of hypothesis Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis Concepts of Hypothesis The level of Significance Decision rule of testing hypothesis Type I and Type II Errors Two Tailed and One Tailed Test Procedures for Testing hypothesis Testing of Hypothesis
Research Methodology
Unit 4
how they are related. A statement that lacks variables or that does not explain how the variables are related to each other is no hypothesis in scientific sense. 4.2.1 Criteria for Hypothesis Construction Hypothesis is never formulated in the form of a question. The standards to be met in formulating a hypothesis: It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong. It should be specific and precise. The statements in the hypothesis should not be contradictory. It should specify variables between which the relationship is to be established. It should describe one issue only. 4.2.2 Nature of Hypothesis A scientifically justified hypothesis must meet the following criteria: It must accurately reflect the relevant sociological fact. It must not be in contradiction with approved relevant statements of other scientific disciplines. It must consider the experience of other researchers. 4.2.3 The Need for having Working Hypothesis A hypothesis gives a definite point to the investigation, and it guides the direction on the study. A hypothesis specifies the sources of data, which shall be studied, and in what context they shall be studied. It determines the data needs. A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of analysis. A hypothesis contributes to the development of theory 4.2.4 Characteristics of Good Hypothesis 1. Conceptual Clarity 2. Specificity 3. Testability 4. Availability of Techniques 5. Theoretical relevance
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 34
Research Methodology
Unit 4
Page No. 35
Research Methodology
Unit 4
To be read as follows (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less 100) (The alternative hypothesis is that population mean is greater than 100) (The alternative hypothesis is population mean is less than 100) that the the
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data he collects and testing the hypothesis from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the following considerations are usually kept in view: Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which wishes to prove and the null hypothesis are ones that wish to disprove. Thus a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, the alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities. If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is (the level of significance) which is chosen very small. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or approximately a certain value. Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis, keeping the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on assumption that null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.
Research Methodology
Unit 4
4.4.1 The Level of Significance This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case we take the significance level at 5%, then this implies that H0 will be rejected when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if H0 is true. In other words, the 5% level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as 5% risk rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the Decision Rule of Test of Hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis H0 we make rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept a). For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it) against Ha that the lot is not good (there are many defective items in it), that we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as decision rule. Type I & Type II Errors In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is not true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words, Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is donated by (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is donated by (beta). Decision Accept H0 H0 (true) Ho (false) Correct decision Type II error ( error) Reject H0 Type I error ( error) Correct decision
Page No. 37
Research Methodology
Unit 4
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01. But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced simultaneously. There is a trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I error in ones testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error. 4.4.2 Two Tailed Test & One Tailed Test In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population. Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: = H0 and Ha: H0 which may > H0 or < H0. If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from , in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.
Page No. 38
Research Methodology
Unit 4
Research Methodology
Unit 4
1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are: The magnitude of the difference between sample ; The size of the sample; The variability of measurements within samples; Whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry. 4.5.3 Deciding the Distribution to Use After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation. 4.5.4 Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data. 4.5.5 Calculation of the Probability One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true. 4.5.6 Comparing the Probability Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for , the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller than value in case of one tailed test (and /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject H0 we run a risk of (at most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept H0, then we run some risk of committing error type II.
Page No. 40
Research Methodology
Unit 4
Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge as widely as it has form expectations, if H0 were true
Is this probability equal to or smaller than value in case of one-tailed test and /2 in case of two-tailed test
Reject H0
Accept H0
Run
Page No. 41
Research Methodology
Unit 4
tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as: Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis ; Non Parametric test or distribution free test of the hypothesis. Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or original data, where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I & Type II error. 4.6.1 Important Parametric Tests The important parametric tests are: z-test t-test x2-test f-test All these tests are based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source of data is considered to be normally distributed. In some cases the population may not be normally distributed, yet the test will be applicable on account of the fact that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling distributions closely approach normal distributions. Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean. The relevant test statistic is worked out and compared with its probable value (to be read from the table showing area under normal curve) at a specified level of significance for judging the significance of the measure concerned. This is a most frequently used test in research studies. This test is used even when binomial distribution or t-distribution is applicable on the presumption that
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 42
Research Methodology
Unit 4
such a distribution tends to approximate normal distribution as n becomes larger. Z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample to some hypothesis mean for the population in case of large sample, or when population variance is known as z-test is also used for judging the significance of difference between means to of two independent samples in case of large samples or when population variance is known z-test is generally used for comparing the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging the difference in proportions of two independent samples when happens to be large. Besides, this test may be used for judging the significance of median, mode, co-efficient of correlation and several other measures T-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of sample mean or for judging significance of difference between the two means of the two samples in case of samples when population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate the population variance). In case two samples are related, we use paired t-test (difference test) for judging the significance of their mean of difference between the two related samples. It can also be used for judging the significance of co-efficient of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test statistic, t, is calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on t-distribution at a specified level of significance for concerning degrees of freedom for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis it may be noted that t-test applies only in case of small sample when population variance is unknown. X2-test is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance is unknown. F-test is based on f-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples. This test is also used in the context of variance (ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one and the same time. It is also used for judging the significance of multiple correlation coefficients. Test statistic, f, is calculated and compared with its probable value for accepting or rejecting the H0.
Page No. 43
Research Methodology
Unit 4
Self Assessment Questions Fill in the Blanks 1. - is a negative statement. 2. Type II error is . 3. is tentative statement.
4.7 Summary
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Before starting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused notion of the problem. A hypothesis gives a definite point to the investigation, and it guides the direction on the study. A hypothesis specifies the sources of data, which shall be studied, and in what context they shall be studied. In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population. The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population of a population parameter. Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean. The relevant test statistic is worked out and compared with its probable value (to be read from the table showing area under normal curve) at a specified level of significance for judging the significance of the measure concerned. This is a most frequently used test in research studies. T-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of sample mean or for judging significance of difference between the two means of the two samples in case of samples when population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate of the population variance). X2-test is based on
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 44
Research Methodology
Unit 4
chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance is unknown. F-test is based on f-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the twoindependent samples.
Page No. 45
Research Methodology
Unit 5
Unit 5
Research Design
Structure: 5.1 Meaning Objectives 5.2 Needs of Research Design 5.2.1 Characteristics of a Good Research Design 5.3 Components of Research Design 5.3.1 Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research 5.4 Different Research Designs 5.5 Research Design for Studies in Commerce and Management 5.5.1 Research Design in Case of Exploratory Research Studies 5.5.2 Research Design in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies 5.5.3 Research Design in case of Hypothesis testing Research Studies 5.5.4 Principles of Experimental Designs 5.5.5 Important Experimental Designs 5.5.6 Formal Experimental Designs Self Assessment Questions 5.6 Summary 5.7 Terminal Questions 5.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 5
plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz, Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe, A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Objectives: After studying this lesson you should be able to understand: Needs of Research Design Characteristics of a Good Research Design Components of Research Design Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research Different Research Designs Research Design for Studies in Commerce and Management Research Design in Case of Exploratory Research Studies Research Design in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies Research Design in case of Hypothesis testing Research Studies Principles of Experimental Designs Important Experimental Designs Formal Experimental Designs
Research Methodology
Unit 5
time taken to design a research which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected. c. The idealized design is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedure that could be followed were there no practical restrictions. 5.2.1 Characteristics of a Good Research Design 1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. 2. It reduces wastage of time and cost. 3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization. 4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens. 5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants. 6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits
Research Methodology
Unit 5
And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. 2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables. 3. Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions. 4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive
Page No. 49
Research Methodology
Unit 5
statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an experimental group. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as experimental groups. A research design may include only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together. Treatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments. Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment. Experiment unit: Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
Page No. 50
Research Methodology
Unit 5
5.3.1 Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis Testing Research When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as a hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. A research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as experimental hypothesis-testing research, where as a research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as non-experimental hypothesistesting research. E.g., assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the social attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable family income is not manipulated. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay their school fees regularly and them classifies them into tow sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. And that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated
Research Methodology
Unit 5
7. Exploratory, descriptive and casual (Green and Tull) 8. Experimental, quasi-experimental designs (Nachmias and Nachmias) 9. True experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental designs (Smith). 10. Experimental, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental designs and Survey Research (Kidder and Judd). These different categorizations exist, because research design is a complex concept. In fact, there are different perspectives from which any given study can be viewed. They are: 1. The degree of formulation of the problem (the study may be exploratory or formalized) 2. The topical scope-breadth and depth-of the study(a case or a statistical study) 3. The research environment: field setting or laboratory (survey, laboratory experiment) 4. The time dimension(one-time or longitudinal) 5. The mode of data collection (observational or survey) 6. The manipulation of the variables under study (experimental or expost facto) 7. The nature of the relationship among variables (descriptive or causal)
Research Methodology
Unit 5
1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in ones area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the researcher. 2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the
Page No. 53
Research Methodology
Unit 5
research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research. 3. Analyses of insight-stimulating examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if nay, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of insight-stimulating cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher. 5.5.2 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual,
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 54
Research Methodology
Unit 5
group of situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability. With due concern for the economical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Formulating the objective of the study Designing the methods of data collection Selecting the sample Collecting the data Processing and analyzing the data Reporting the findings.
In a descriptive / diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Which ever method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour. More often than not, sample has to be designed. Usually, one or more forms of probability sampling or what is often described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data, free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staffs performs their duty honestly and without prejudice.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 55
Research Methodology
Unit 5
The data collected must be processed and analyzed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc., tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations. Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. 5.5.3 Research Design in case of Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually, experiments meet these requirements. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments. 5.5.4 Principles of Experimental Designs Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: 1. The principle of replication: The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 56
Research Methodology
Unit 5
2. The principle of randomization: It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of chance. For instance if we grow one variety of rice say in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors. As such, through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error. 3. Principle of local control: It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error. 5.5.5 Important Experimental Designs Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 57
Research Methodology
Unit 5
experimental designs into two broad categories, viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, where as formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis. Informal experimental designs: Before and after without control design: In such a design, single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment. After only with control design: In this design, two groups or areas (test and control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area. Before and after with control design: In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area. 5.5.6 Formal Experimental Designs 1. Completely randomized design (CR design): It involves only two principle viz., the principle of replication and randomization. It is generally used when experimental areas happen to be homogenous. Technically, when all the variations due to uncontrolled extraneous factors are included under the heading of chance variation, we refer to the design of experiment as C R Design.
Page No. 58
Research Methodology
Unit 5
2. Randomized block design (RB design): It is an improvement over the C Research design. In the RB design the principle of local control can be applied along with the other two principles. 3. Latin square design (LS design): It is used in agricultural research. The treatments in a LS design are so allocated among the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any row or column. 4. Factorial design: It is used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor are to be determined. They are especially important in several economic and social phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem. Self Assessment Questions I State whether the following statements are true or false. 1. A research design is a logical and systematic plan 2. Exploratory research studies are also called formulative research studies 3. Descriptive research is concerned with describing the features of a particular individual or group.
5.6 Summary
A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. In many research projects, the time consumed in trying to ascertain what the data mean after they have been collected is much greater than the time taken to design a research which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected. Research design is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens. Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else.
Page No. 59
Research Methodology
Unit 5
Page No. 60
Research Methodology
Unit 6
Unit 6
Structure: 6.1 Meaning of Case Study Objectives 6.2 Assumptions of Case Study Method 6.3 Advantages of Case Study Method 6.4 Disadvantages of Case Study Method 6.5 Making Case Study Effective 6.6 Case Study as a Method of Business Research Self Assessment Questions 6.7 Summary 6.8 Terminal Questions 6.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 6
Objectives: After studying this lesson you should be able to understand: Assumptions of Case Study Method Advantages of Case Study Method Disadvantages of Case Study Method Making Case Study Effective Case Study as a Method of Business Research
Research Methodology
Unit 6
Research Methodology
Unit 6
life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations. vii) The life history material itself must be organised according to some conceptual framework, this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.
6.7 Summary
Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit or entity, be it a person, a family, an institution or a community. Case study would depend upon wit, commonsense and imagination of the person doing the case study. The investigator makes up his procedure as he goes along. Efforts should be made to ascertain the reliability of life history data through examining the internal consistency of the material. A judicious combination of techniques of data collection is a prerequisite for securing data that are culturally meaningful and scientifically significant. Case study of particular value when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 64
Research Methodology
Unit 6
The case documents hardly fulfil the criteria of reliability, adequacy and representativeness, but to exclude them form any scientific study of human life will be blunder in as much as these documents are necessary and significant both for theory building and practice. In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities.
Page No. 65
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Unit 7
Sampling
Structure: 7.1 Meaning of Sampling Objectives 7.2 Advantages of Sampling 7.3 Sampling Procedure 7.4 Characteristics of Good Sample 7.5 Methods of Sampling 7.5.1 Probability or Random Sampling 7.5.2 Simple Random Sampling 7.5.3 Stratified Random Sampling 7.5.4 Systematic Random Sampling 7.5.5 Cluster Sampling 7.5.6 Area sampling 7.5.7 Multi-stage and sub-sampling 7.5.8 Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size 7.5.9 Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling 7.5.10 Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling 7.5.11 Non-probability or Non Random Sampling 7.5.12 Convenience or Accidental Sampling 7.5.13 Purposive (or judgment) Sampling 7.5.14 Quota sampling 7.5.15 Snow-ball Sampling Self assessment Questions 7.6 Summary 7.7 Terminal Questions 7.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Page No. 66
Research Methodology
Unit 7
principally encompass, that is, the items which potentially hold promise of affording information relevant to the purpose of a given research. Sampling helps in time and cost saving. It also helps in checking their accuracy. But on the other hand it demands exercise of great care caution; otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading. Objectives: After studying this lesson you should be able to understand: Advantages of sampling Sampling procedure Characteristics of good sample Methods of Sampling Probability or Random Sampling Non-probability or Non Random Sampling
Page No. 67
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Research Methodology
Unit 7
representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate. 6. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the area covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the size of the population are small, single stage probability sampling methods could be used. 7. Financial resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study and the desired level of precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative than to give up the proposed survey. Where the finance is not a constraint, a researcher can choose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research objective and the nature of population. 8. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project should be completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it may become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple random sampling instead of stratified sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size; multi-stage cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent. 9. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method. It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A sample is economical if the precision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is low. The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and blend them to obtain to obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques.
Page No. 69
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Page No. 70
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Advantages: The advantage of this is that it is one of the easiest methods, all the elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected, simple to understand, does not require prior knowledge of the true composition of the population. Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non-availability of population list or of difficulty in enumerating the population, does not ensure proportionate representation and it may be expensive in time and money. The amount of sampling error associated with any sample drawn can easily be computed. But it is greater than that in other probability samples of the same size, because it is less precise than other methods. ii) Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or probability sampling. In this method, the population is sub-divided into homogenous groups or strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. E.g., university students may be divided on the basis of discipline, and each discipline group may again be divided into juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a samples statistical efficiency, providing adequate data for analyzing the various sub-populations and applying different methods to different strata. The stratified random sampling is appropriate for a large heterogeneous population. Stratification process involves three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number of strata and strata sample sizes. Stratified random sampling may be classified into: a) Proportionate stratified sampling: This sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in proportion to the latters share in the total population. It gives proper representation to each stratum and its statistical efficiency is generally higher. This method is therefore very popular. E.g., if the Management Faculty of a University consists of the following specialization groups:
Page No. 71
Research Methodology
Unit 7
The research wants to draw an overall sample of 30. Then the strata sample sizes would be:
Strata Production Finance Marketing Rural development Sample size 30 x 0.4 30 x 0.2 30 x 0.3 30 x 0.1 12 6 9 3 30
Advantages: Stratified random sampling enhances the representativeness to each sample, gives higher statistical efficiency, easy to carry out, and gives a self-weighing sample. Disadvantages: A prior knowledge of the composition of the population and the distribution of the population, it is very expensive in time and money and identification of the strata may lead to classification of errors. b) Disproportionate stratified random sampling: This method does not give proportionate representation to strata. It necessarily involves giving over-representation to some strata and underrepresentation to others. The desirability of disproportionate sampling is usually determined by three factors, viz, (a) the sizes of strata, (b) internal variances among strata, and (c) sampling costs.
Page No. 72
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Suitability: This method is used when the population contains some small but important subgroups, when certain groups are quite heterogeneous, while others are homogeneous and when it is expected that there will be appreciable differences in the response rates of the subgroups in the population. Advantages: The advantages of this type is it is less time consuming and facilitates giving appropriate weighing to particular groups which are small but more important. Disadvantages: The disadvantage is that it does not give each stratum proportionate representation, requires prior knowledge of composition of the population, is subject to classification errors and its practical feasibility is doubtful. iii) Systematic Random Sampling: This method of sampling is an alternative to random selection. It consists of taking k th item in the population after a random start with an item form 1 to k. It is also known as fixed interval method. E.g., 1st, 11th, 21st Strictly speaking, this method of sampling is not a probability sampling. It possesses characteristics of randomness and some non-probability traits. Suitability: Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in a class, houses in a street, telephone directory etc. Advantages: The advantages are it is simpler than random sampling, easy to use, easy to instruct, requires less time, its cheaper, easier to check, sample is spread evenly over the population, and it is statistically more efficient. Disadvantages: The disadvantages are it ignores all elements between two kth elements selected, each element does not have equal chance of being selected, and this method sometimes gives a biased sample. 7.5.5 Cluster Sampling It means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random selection. Where the population elements are scattered over a wide area and a list of population
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 73
Research Methodology
Unit 7
elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method would be too expensive and time-consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted. The cluster sampling process involves: identify clusters, examine the nature of clusters, and determine the number of stages. Suitability: The application of cluster sampling is extensive in farm management surveys, socio-economic surveys, rural credit surveys, demographic studies, ecological studies, public opinion polls, and large scale surveys of political and social behaviour, attitude surveys and so on. Advantages: The advantages of this method is it is easier and more convenient, cost of this is much less, promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact places, it does not require more time, units of study can be readily substituted for other units and it is more flexible. Disadvantages: The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting sample. The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater and the adjacent units of study tend to have more similar characteristics than do units distantly apart. 7.5.6 Area sampling This is an important form of cluster sampling. In larger field surveys cluster consisting of specific geographical areas like districts, talluks, villages or blocks in a city are randomly drawn. As the geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases, their sampling is called area sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling. 7.5.7 Multi-stage and sub-sampling In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 74
Research Methodology
Unit 7
survey has to be made within a limited time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated. Sub-sampling is a part of multi-stage sampling process. In a multi-stage sampling, the sampling in second and subsequent stage frames is called sub-sampling. Sub-sampling balances the two conflicting effects of clustering i.e., cost and sampling errors. 7.5.8 Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size The procedure of selecting clusters with probability Proportional to size (PPS) is widely used. If one primary cluster has twice as large a population as another, it is give twice the chance of being selected. If the same number of persons is then selected from each of the selected clusters, the overall probability of any person will be the same. Thus PPS is a better method for securing a representative sample of population elements in multi-stage cluster sampling. Advantages: The advantages are clusters of various sizes get proportionate representation, PPS leads to greater precision than would a simple random sample of clusters and a constant sampling fraction at the second stage, equal-sized samples from each selected primary cluster are convenient for field work. Disadvantages: PPS cannot be used if the sizes of the primary sampling clusters are not known. 7.5.9 Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a preselected larger sample that provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended to more than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling. This is also known as sequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Double sampling or multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma posed by undesirable extremes. The statistics based on the sample of n can be improved by using ancillary information from a wide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the entire population of N elements. Instead, information is obtained from a larger preliminary sample nL which includes the final sample n.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 75
Research Methodology
Unit 7
7.5.10 Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or multi-stage or single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable nonsampling errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed. 7.5.11 Non-probability or Non Random Sampling Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population element. Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost. Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selection probability sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from sampling bias which will distort results. The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due to non-availability of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the costs required for probability sampling may be too large, when probability sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for completing the study do not permit it. It may be classified into: 7.5.12 Convenience or Accidental Sampling It means selecting sample units in a just hit and miss fashion E.g., interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally are included in the sample.
Page No. 76
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purposes such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest. Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of population and it does not require any statistical expertise. Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researchers subjectivity, it is the least reliable sampling method and the findings cannot be generalized. 7.5.13 Purposive (or judgment) sampling This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgement of the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgement of the researcher. Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance of the sampling units to the study and not their overall representativeness to the population. Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in the sample. Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the representativeness, requires more prior extensive information and does not lend itself for using inferential statistics. 7.5.14 Quota sampling This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is nonrandom. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness. Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and readership surveys which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 77
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of population, and field work can easily be organized. Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if field work is difficult, and subject to a higher degree of classification. 7.5.15 Snow-ball sampling This is the colourful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants. This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies. Suitability: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal organization, and diffusion of information among professional of various kinds. Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available. Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of probability statistical methods. It is difficult to apply when the population is large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements in the list. Self Assessment Questions 1. A sample must be representative of the population. 2. Probability sampling technique yield representative sample. 3. accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population. 4. Precision is measured by standard error. 5. A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.
7.6 Summary
A statistical sample ideally purports to be a miniature model or replica of the collectivity or the population. Sampling helps in time and cost saving. If the population to be studied is quite large, sampling is warranted. However, the size is a relative matter. The decision regarding census or sampling depends upon the budget of the study. Sampling is opted when the amount of money budgeted is smaller than the anticipated cost of census survey.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 78
Research Methodology
Unit 7
The extent of facilities available staff, access to computer facility and accessibility to population elements is another factor to be considered in deciding to sample or not. In the case of a homogenous population, even a simple random sampling will give a representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate. Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random sampling. It provides a known non-zero chance of selection for each population element. Simple random sampling technique gives each element an equal and independent chance of being selected. An equal chance means equal probability of selection. Stratified random sampling is an improved type of random or probability sampling. In this method, the population is sub-divided into homogenous groups or strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. Proportionate stratified sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in proportion to the latters share in the total population. Disproportionate stratified random sampling does not give proportionate representation to strata. Systematic random sampling method is an alternative to random selection. It consists of taking kth item in the population after a random start with an item form 1 to k. It is also known as fixed interval method. Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. In Area sampling larger field surveys cluster consisting of specific geographical areas like districts, taluks, villages or blocks in a city are randomly drawn. Multi-stage sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. Double sampling and multiphase sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger sample that provided information for improving the final selection.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 79
Research Methodology
Unit 7
Replicated or interpenetrating sampling involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. Non-probability or non random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population element. Purposive (or judgment) sampling method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling. Quota sampling is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non-random. Snow-ball sampling is the colourful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants.
Page No. 80
Research Methodology
Unit 7
TQs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Section 7.1 Section 7.1 Section 7.3 Section 7.5.3 Section 7.5.1 to Section 7.5.10 Section 7.5.7 Section 7.5.8 Section 7.5.9 Section 7.5.10 Section 7.5.11 Section 7.5.13 Section 7.5.14 Section 7.15
Page No. 81
Research Methodology
Unit 8
Unit 8
Sources of Data
Structure: 8.1 Meaning and Importance of Data Objectives 8.2 Primary Sources of Data 8.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data 8.2.2 Disadvantages of Primary Data 8.2.3 Methods of Collecting Primary Data 8.3 Secondary Sources of Data 8.3.1 Features of Secondary Data 8.3.2 Use of Secondary Data 8.4 Advantages of Secondary Data 8.5 Disadvantages of Secondary Data 8.6 Evaluation and of Secondary Data Self Assessment Questions 8.7 Summary 8.8 Terminal questions 8.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 8
Advantages of secondary data Disadvantages of secondary data Evaluation and of secondary data
Personal data or data related to human beings consist of: 1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the household life style etc. 2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc. 3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. 4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation. The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies. The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.
Page No. 83
Research Methodology
Unit 8
Research Methodology
Unit 8
There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and (f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters.
Research Methodology
Unit 8
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered. 8.3.2 Use of Secondary Data The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Research Methodology
Unit 8
4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study. 5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.
Page No. 87
Research Methodology
Unit 8
What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this coverage fit the needs of our research?
On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2. Data Quality If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is the authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified investigators? The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary ands other comments that were made in the original source. 3. Data Completeness The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the organizations own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important clues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researchers study.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 88
Research Methodology
Unit 8
Self Assessment Questions State whether following statements are true or false. 1. The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources. 2. Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc. 3. The secondary sources consist of readily compendia and already complied statistical statements and reports. 4. The important methods are observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and projective technique.
8.7 Summary
Data are facts and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and analyses. The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organization and (c) Data pertaining to territorial areas. Personal data or data related to human beings consists of: Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, martial status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the household life style etc. Behavioural variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. Territorial data are related to geophysical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, taluks, districts, state and the nation. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables. The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources. Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc. The secondary sources consist of readily compendia and already complied statistical statements and reports. Finally secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 89
Research Methodology
Unit 8
where they were gathered. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made. The use of a secondary data has its own limitations. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and projective technique.
Page No. 90
Research Methodology
Unit 8
TQs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Section 8.0 Section 8.1 Section 8.4 Section 8.4.2 Section 8.5 Section 8.6 Section 8.6
Page No. 91
Research Methodology
Unit 9
Unit 9
Structure: 9.1 Meaning of Observation Objectives 9.2 General Characteristics of Observation Method 9.3 Process of Observation 9.4 Types of Observation 9.4.1 Participant Observation 9.4.2 Non-participant Observation 9.4.3 Direct Observation 9.4.4 Indirect Observation 9.4.5 Controlled Observation 9.4.6 Uncontrolled Observation 9.5 Prerequisites of Observation 9.6 Advantages of Observation 9.7 Limitations of Observation 9.8 Use of Observation in Business Research Self Assessment Questions 9.9 Summary 9.10 Terminal Questions 9.11 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Observation
Research Methodology
Unit 9
Direct observation Indirect observation Controlled observation Uncontrolled observation Prerequisites of observation Advantages of observation Limitations of observation Use of observation in business research
Page No. 93
Research Methodology
Unit 9
Page No. 94
Research Methodology
Unit 9
justified on the ground that it makes it possible to study certain aspects of the groups culture which are not revealed to outsiders. Advantages: The advantages of participant observation are: The observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observed group, and get a deeper insight of their experiences. The observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observed behaviour and heard statements. Disadvantages: Participant observation suffers from some demerits. 1. The participant observer narrows his range of observation. For example, if there is a hierarchy of power in the group/community under study, he comes to occupy one position within in, and thus other avenues of information are closed to him. 2. To the extent that the participant observer participates emotionally, the objectivity is lost. 3. Another limitation of this method is the dual demand made on the observer. Recording can interfere with participation, and participation can interfere with observation. Recording on the spot is not possible and it has to be postponed until the observer is alone. Such time lag results in some inaccuracy in recording 9.4.2 Non-participant observations In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. 9.4.3 Direct observation This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation. A limitation of this method is that the observers perception circuit may not be able to cover all relevant events when the latter move quickly, resulting in the incompleteness of the observation. 9.4.4 Indirect observation This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices, e.g.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 95
Research Methodology
Unit 9
recording customer and employee movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a department of a large store. This method is less flexible than direct observations, but it is less biasing and less erratic in recording accuracy. It is also provides a permanent record for an analysis of different aspects of the event. 9.4.5 Controlled observation This involves standardization of observational techniques and exercises of maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting experimental design and systematically recording observations. Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how and when to observe. 9.4.6 Uncontrolled observation This does not involve control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primary used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one
Page No. 96
Research Methodology
Unit 9
Research Methodology
Unit 9
2. Observation is not suitable for studying and attitudes. However, an observation of related behaviour affords a good clue to the attitudes. E.g. and observations of the seating pattern of high caste and class persons in a general meeting in a village may be useful for forming an index of attitude. 3. Observation poses difficulties in obtaining a representative sample. For interviewing and mailing methods, the selection of a random sampling can be rapidly ensured. But observing people of all types does not make the sample a random one. 4. Observation cannot be used as and when the researcher finds a convenient to use it. He has to wait for the eve n to occur. For example, an observation of folk dance of a tribal community is possible, only when it is performed. 5. A major limitation of this method is that the observer normally must be at the scene of the event when it takes place. Yet it may not be possible to predict where and when the even will occur, e.g., road accident, communal clash. 6. Observation is slow and expensive process, requiring human observers and/or costly surveillance equipments.
Research Methodology
Unit 9
3. With reference to the rigor of the system adopted. Observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation. 4. Observation involves standardization of observational techniques and exercises of maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables.
9.9 Summary
Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study. Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. Observations may be classified in different ways. With reference to investigators role, it may be classified into (a) participant observation and (b) non-participant observation. In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation. With reference to the rigor of the system adopted. Observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation. This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices, e.g. recording customer and employee movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a department of a large store. This involves standardization of observational techniques and exercises of maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting experimental design and systematically recording observations. This does not involve control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primary used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one. Observation has certain advantages: Observation cannot be used indiscriminately for all purposes. It has its own limitations. Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. (a) The behaviour of human beings in purchasing goods and services: life style, customs, and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behaviour, leadership styles, managerial style, other behaviours and actions.
Page No. 99
Research Methodology
Unit 9
TQs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Section 9.1 Section 9.2 Section 9.4 Section 9.4.2 Section 9.4.3 and 9.4.3 Section 9.4.5 Section 9.4.6 Section 9.5 Section 9.6 Section 9.7
Research Methodology
Unit 10
Unit 10
Structure: 10.1 Meaning of Schedules and Questionnaire Objectives 10.2 Types of Questionnaire 10.2.1 Structured or Standard Questionnaire 10.2.2 Unstructured Questionnaire 10.3 Processes of Data Collection 10.3.1 Alternate Method of Sending Questionnaires 10.3.2 Personal Delivery 10.3.3 Attaching Questionnaire to Products 10.3.4 Advertising Questionnaire 10.3.5 News Stat Insert 10.3.6 Improving the response in a Mail Survey 10.4 Importance of Questionnaire 10.4.1 Advantages of Questionnaire 10.4.2 Disadvantages of Questionnaire 10.5 Distinction between Schedule and Questionnaire Self Assessment Questions 10.6 Summary 10.7 Terminal Questions 10.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 10
recorded by them, and not by the investigator as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out only in writing and this required more cooperation from the respondents than in verbal communication Objectives: After studying this lesson you should be able to understand: Types of questionnaire Structured or standard questionnaire Unstructured questionnaire Processes of data collection Alternate method of sending questionnaires Importance of questionnaire Advantages of questionnaire Disadvantages of Questionnaire Distinction between schedule and questionnaire
Research Methodology
Unit 10
A covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. Exhibit 7.1 is a copy of a covering letter used by the author in a research study on corporate planning. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of his cooperation to the success of the project. Anonymity may be assured. 10.3.1 Alternative Modes of Sending Questionnaires There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a product (3) advertising questionnaire in a newspaper of magazine, and (4) news stand insets. 10.3.2 Personal Delivery The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the potential respondents with a request to complete them at their convenience. After a day or two he can collect the completed questionnaires from them. Often referred to as the self-administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the completed questionnaires may be returned by mail by the respondents. 10.3.3 Attaching Questionnaire to a Product A firm test marketing a product may attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or a discount coupon. 10.3.4 Advertising the Questionnaires The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of magazine or in section of newspapers. The potential respondent completes it tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For example, the committee of Banks customer services used this method. Management studies for collecting information from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale on topics of common interest. 10.3.5 News-Stand Inserts This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of news-stand copies of a newspaper or magazine.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 103
Research Methodology
Unit 10
10.3.6 Improving the Response Rate in a Mail survey The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low more so in developing countries like India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are: 1. Quality Printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed in quality light coloured paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent. 2. Covering Letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style so as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer them briefly. It is a desirable to address the respondent by name. 3. Advance Information: Advance information can be provided to potential respondents by a telephone call or advance notice in the newsletter of the concerned organization or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential respondents is more successful than follow up efforts. 4. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to induce respondents to complete and return mail questionnaire. 5. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization, they may be approached through some one in that organization known as the researcher. 6. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to the required size.
Research Methodology
Unit 10
10.4.1 Advantages of Questionnaires The advantages of mail surveys are: They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out the country, irrespective of distance. They can cover extensive geographical areas. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are difficult to reach in any other way. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewers bias, as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator. Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire. 10.4.2 Disadvantages of Questionnaires The disadvantages of mail surveys are: 1. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low. 2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a representative one.
Research Methodology
Unit 10
3. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more than personal interviews. 4. Mail surveys are totally free from as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator
10.6 Summary
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return them by post. The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them, and not by the investigator as in the case of personal interview method. There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a product (3) advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine, and (4) news stand insets. The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low, more so in developing countries like India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out the country, irrespective of distances. They can cover extensive geographical areas. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are difficult to reach in any other way. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their conveniences Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewers bias, as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator. Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a representative one. The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data from large, diverse, and widely scattered groups of people. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent whereas schedules are carried by the investigator himself. A questionnaire
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 106
Research Methodology
Unit 10
is filled by the respondent himself whereas the schedule is filled by the investigator.
TQs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Section 10.1 Section 10.3.3 Section 10.3.6 Section 10.4.1 Section 10.4.2 Section 10.4 Section 10.5
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Unit 11
Interviewing
Structure: 11.1 Meaning of interview Objectives 11.2 Types of interviews 11.2.1 Structured Directive interview 11.2.2 Unstructured non-directive interview 11.2.3 Focused interview 11.2.4 Clinical interview 11.2.5 Depth interview 11.3 Approaches to the interview 11.4 Qualities of interview 11.5 Merits of interview method 11.6 Demerits of interview method 11.7 Interview techniques in business research 11.7.1 Preparation 11.7.2 Introduction 11.7.3 Developing Report 11.7.4 Carrying the interview forward 11.7.5 Additional sittings 11.7.6 Recording the interview 11.7.7 Closing the interview 11.7.8 Editing 11.8 Interview Problems 11.8.1 Inadequate response 11.8.2 Interviewers bias 11.8.3 Non-response 11.8.4 Non-availability 11.8.5 Refusal 11.8.6 Inaccessibility 11.8.7 Methods and Aims of controlling non-response 11.9 Telephone Interviewing 11.10 Group Interviews Self assessment Questions 11.11 Summary 11.12 Terminal questions 11.13 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Qualities of interview Merits of interview method Demerits of interview method Interview techniques in business research Interview Problems Methods and Aims of controlling non-response Telephone Interviewing Group Interviews
Research Methodology
Unit 11
broad interview guide is used. The interviewer avoids channelling the interview directions. Instead he develops a very permissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way. This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is particularly useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations are not clearly defined. It is also useful for gathering information on sensitive topics such as divorce, social discrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity to explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner. Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can closely approximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less prone to interviewers bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in an unrestricted manner. Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, it is not free from limitations. One of its major limitations is that the data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data from the next. Hence, it is not suitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in unproductive conversations. By not focusing on one or another facet of a problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally. As there is no particular order or sequence in this interview, the classification of responses and coding may required more time. This type of informal interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey interview. 11.2.3 Focused Interview This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular experience, e.g, seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV., involved in a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analysed prior to the interview. An interview guide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and emotional responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions and the like.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yet gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the extent of probing, 11.2.4 Clinical Interview This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individuals life experiences. The personal history interview used in social case work, prison administration, psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the individuals life history to be covered by the interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent is encouraged to talk freely about them. 11.2.5 Depth Interview This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondents opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more training on inter-personal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions. This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectively charged information. It requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he should use encouraging expressions like uh-huh or I see to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewer has to face the problem of affections, i.e. the respondent may hide expressing affective feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
The Relationship between the Participants is a Transitory one: It has a fixed beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary experience for them. Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange: Interview is a conversation with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a study. Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally: The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be on a face-to-face basis, because interview can be conducted over the telephone also. Although interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not be limited to a single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of persons, such as family members, or a group of children or a group of customers, depending on the requirements of the study. Interview is an inter-actionable process: The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other. The respondent reacts to the interviewers appearance, behaviour, gestures, facial expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the questions and his own personal needs. As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to the social-economic level of the respondents. Moreover, he should realize that his respondents are under no obligations to extend response. One should, therefore, be tactful and be alert to such reactions of the respondents as lame-excuse, suspicion, reluctance or indifference, and deal with them suitably. One should not also argue or dispute. One should rather maintain an impartial and objective attitude. Information furnished by the respondent in the interview is recorded by the investigator. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere with the tempo of conversation. Interviewing is not a standardized process: Like that of a chemical technician; it is rather a flexible psychological process. The implication of this feature is that the interviewer cannot apply unvarying standardized technique, because he is dealing with respondents with varying motives and
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 113
Research Methodology
Unit 11
diverse perceptions. The extent of his success as an interviewer is very largely dependent upon his insight and skill in dealing with varying sociophysiological situations.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Last, interview calls for highly interviewers. The availability of such persons is limited and the training of interviewers is often a long and costly process.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
approached first and his cooperation secured before contacting the sample inmates/employees. When studying a community or a cultural group, it is essential to approach the leader first and to enlist cooperation. For a survey or urban households, the research organizations letter of introduction and the interviewers identity card can be shown. In these days of fear of opening the door for a stranger, residents cooperation can be easily secured, if the interviewer attempts to get him introduced through a person known to them, say a popular person in the area e.g., a social worker. For interviewing rural respondents, the interviewer should never attempt to approach them along with someone from the revenue department, for they would immediately hide themselves, presuming that they are being contacted for collection of land revenue or subscription to some government bond. He should not also approach them through a local political leader, because persons who do not belong to his party will not cooperate with the interviewer. It is rather desirable to approach the rural respondents through the local teacher or social worker. After getting himself introduced to the respondent in the most appropriate manner, the interviewer can follow a sequence of procedures as under, in order to motivate the respondent to permit the interview: 1. With a smile, greet the respondent in accordance with his cultural pattern. 2. Identify the respondent by name. 3. Describe the method by which the respondent was selected. 4. Mention the name of the organization conducting the research. 5. Assure the anonymity or confidential nature of the interview. 6. Explain their usefulness of the study. 7. Emphasize the value of respondents cooperation, making such statements as You are among the few in a position to supply the information. Your response is invaluable. I have come to learn from your experience and knowledge. 11.7.3 Developing Rapport Before starting the research interview, the interviewer should establish a friendly relationship with the respondent. This is described as rapport. It means establishing a relationship of confidence and understanding between the interviewer and the respondent. It is a skill which depends primarily on
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 117
Research Methodology
Unit 11
commonsense,
experience,
sensitivity,
and
keen
Start the conversation with a general topic of interest such as weather, current news, sports event, or the like perceiving the probable of the respondent from his context. Such initial conversation may create a friendly atmosphere and a warm interpersonal relationship and mutual understanding. However, the interviewer should guard against the over rapport as cautioned by Herbert Hyman. Too much identification and too much courtesy result in tailoring replied to the image of a nice interviewer. The interviewer should use his discretion in striking a happy medium. 11.7.4 Carrying the Interview Forward After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the interview schedule starts. This task requires care, self-restraint, alertness and ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity. In carrying on this task of gathering information from the respondent by putting questions to him, the following guidelines may be followed: 1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style. 2. Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedule without any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable questions listed in the schedule. Do not take answers for granted.
3. If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to each respondent, covering of course, the areas to be investigated. 4. Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answers adequately satisfy the question objectives. 5. If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and appropriate explanation, when necessary. 6. Talk all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When the respondent does not meet the interruptions, denial, contradiction and other harassment, he may feel free and may not try to withhold information. He will be motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is permissive and the listeners attitude is non judgmental and is genuinely absorbed in the revelations.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
7. Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, but also personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, non specific and inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. If necessary, jot down unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verification for later and timelier probing. The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask for further clarification in such a polite manner as I am not sure, I understood fully, is this.what you meant? 8. Neither argue nor dispute. 9. Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent; at the same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude. 10. Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked of your views, laugh off the request, saying Well, your opinions are more important than mine. 11. At times the interview runs dry and needs re-stimulation. Then use such expressions as Uh-huh or That interesting or I see can you tell me more about that? and the like. 12. When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences, represent the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid in revealing the past. Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenon occur? or How did you feel about it and the like. 13. At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steer the conversation back to the track by some such remark as, you know, I was very much interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it? 14. When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when it deals with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then drop the subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a while so that a less direct approach to the subject can be made later. 15. When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Take it as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If the silence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying You mentioned that What happened then?
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 119
Research Methodology
Unit 11
11.7.5 Additional Sittings In the case of qualitative interviews involving longer duration, one single sitting will not do, as it would cause interview weariness. Hence, it is desirable to have two or more sittings with the consent of the respondent. 11.7.6 Recording the Interview It is essential to record responses as they take place. If the note taking is done after the interview, a good deal of relevant information may be lost. Nothing should be made in the schedule under respective question. It should be complete and verbatim. The responses should not be summarized or paraphrased. How can complete recording be made without interrupting the free flow of conversation? Electronic transcription through devices like tape recorder can achieve this. It has obvious advantages over note-taking during the interview. But it also has certain disadvantages. Some respondents may object to or fear going on record. Consequently the risk of lower response rate will rise especially for sensitive topics. If the interviewer knows short-hand, he can use it with advantage. Otherwise, he can write rapidly by abbreviating word and using only key words and the like. However, even the fast writer may fail to record all that is said at conversational speed. At such times, it is useful to interrupt by some such comment as that seems to be a very important point, would you mind repeating it, so that I can get your words exactly. The respondent is usually flattered by this attention and the rapport is not disturbed. The interviewer should also record all his probes and other comments on the schedule, in brackets to set them off from responses. With the precoded structured questions, the interviewers task is easy. He has to simply ring the appropriate code or tick the appropriate box, as the case may be. He should not make mistakes by carelessly ringing or ticketing a wrong item. 11.7.7 Closing the Interview After the interview is over, take leave off the respondent thanking him with a friendly smile. In the case of a qualitative interview of longer duration, select the occasion for departure more carefully. Assembling the papers for putting them in the folder at the time of asking the final question sets the stage for a final handshake, a thank-you and a good-bye. If the respondent desires to
Research Methodology
Unit 11
know the result of the survey, note down his name and address so that a summary of the result could be posted to him when ready. 11.7.8 Editing At the close of the interview, the interviewer must edit the schedule to check that he has asked all the questions and recorded all the answers and that there is no inconsistency between answers. Abbreviations in recording must be replaced by full words. He must ensure that everything is legible. It is desirable to record a brief sketch of his impressions of the interview and observational notes on the respondents living environment, his attitude to the survey, difficulties, if any, faced in securing his cooperation and the interviewers assessment of the validity of the respondents answers.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
(education, apparent social status, etc) may also bias his answers. Another source of response bias arises from interviewers perception of the situation, if he regards the assignment as impossible or sees the results of the survey as possible threats to personal interests or beliefs he is likely to introduce bias. As interviewers are human beings, such biasing factors can never be overcome completely, but their effects can be reduced by careful selection and training of interviewers, proper motivation and supervision, standardization or interview procedures (use of standard wording in survey questions, standard instructions on probing procedure and so on) and standardization of interviewer behaviour. There is need for more research on ways to minimize bias in the interview. 11.8.3 Non-response Non-response refers to failure to obtain responses from some sample respondents. There are many sources of non-response; non-availability, refusal, incapacity and inaccessibility. 11.8.4 Non-availability Some respondents may not be available at home at the time of call. This depends upon the nature of the respondent and the time of calls. For example, employed persons may not be available during working hours. Farmers may not be available at home during cultivation season. Selection of appropriate timing for calls could solve this problem. Evenings and weekends may be favourable interviewing hours for such respondents. If someone is available, then, line respondents hours of availability can be ascertained and the next visit can be planned accordingly. 11.8.5 Refusal Some persons may refuse to furnish information because they are illdisposed, or approached at the wrong hour and so on. Although, a hardcore of refusals remains, another try or perhaps another approach may find some of them cooperative. Incapacity or inability may refer to illness which prevents a response during the entire survey period. This may also arise on account of language barrier.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
11.8.6 Inaccessibility Some respondents may be inaccessible. Some may not be found due to migration and other reasons. Non-responses reduce the effective sample size and its representativeness. 11.8.7 Methods and Aims of control of non-response Kish suggests the following methods to reduce either the percentage of nonresponse or its effects: 1. Improved procedures for collecting data are the most obvious remedy for non-response. Improvements advocated are (a) guarantees of anonymity, (b) motivation of the respondent to co-operate (c) arousing the respondents interest with clever opening remarks and questions, (d) advance notice to the respondents. 2. Call-backs are most effective way of reducing not-at-homes in personal interviews, as are repeated mailings to no-returns in mail surveys. 3. Substitution for the non-response is often suggested as a remedy. Usually this is a mistake because the substitutes resemble the responses rather than the non-responses. Nevertheless, beneficial substitution methods can sometimes be designed with reference to important characteristics of the population. For example, in a farm management study, the farm size is an important variable and if the sampling is based on farm size, substitution for a respondent with a particular size holding by another with the holding of the same size is possible. Attempts to reduce the percentage or effects on non-responses aim at reducing the bias caused by differences on non-respondents from respondents. The non-response bias should not be confused with the reduction of sampled size due to non-response. The latter effect can be easily overcome, either by anticipating the size of non-response in designing the sample size or by compensating for it with a supplement. These adjustments increase the size of the response and the sampling precision, but they do not reduce the non-response percentage or bias.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
It will be useful in the following situations: 1. When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in telephone directories, e.g. business houses, business executives, doctors, other professionals. 2. When the study required responses to five or six simple questions. E.g. Radio or Television program survey. 3. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided the units of study are listed in telephone directory. 4. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a survey relating to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a survey relating to a profession conducted by the concerned professional association. 5. When the respondents are widely scattered. Advantages: The advantages of telephone interview are: 1. The survey can be completed at very low cost, because telephone survey does not involve travel time and cost and all calls can be made from a single location. 2. Information can be collected in a short period of time. 5 to 10 interviews can be conducted per hours. 3. Quality of response is good, because interviewer bias is reduced as there is no face-to-face contact between the interviewer and the respondent. 4. This method of interviewing is less demanding upon the interviewer. 5. It does not involve field work. 6. Individuals who could not be reached or who might not care to be interviewed personally can be contacted easily. Disadvantages: Telephone interview has several limitations: 1. It is limited to persons with listed telephones. The sample will be distorted. If the universe includes persons not on phone in several counties like India only a few persons have phone facility and that too in urban areas only. Telephone facility is very rare in rural areas. Hence, the method is not useful for studying the general population. 2. There is a limit to the length of interview. Usually, a call cannot last over five minutes. Only five or six simple questions can be asked. Hence, telephone cannot be used for a longer questionnaire.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 124
Research Methodology
Unit 11
3. The type of information to be collected is limited to what can be given in simple, short answers of a few words. Hence, telephone is not suitable for complex surveys, and there is no possibility of obtaining detailed information. 4. If the questions cover personal matters, most respondents will not cooperate with the interviewer. 5. The respondents characteristics and environment cannot be observed. 6. It is not possible to use visual aids like charts, maps, illustrations or complex scales. 7. It is rather difficult to establish rapport between the respondent and the interviewer. 8. There is no possibility to ensure the identity of the interviewer and to overcome suspicions.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
and in a short period of time, the group interview technique is more useful. It can be used to generate primary data in the exploratory phase of a project. Advantages: The advantages of this technique are: 1. The respondents comment freely and in detail. 2. The method is highly flexible. The flexibility helps the research work with new concepts or topics which have not been previously investigated. 3. Visual aids can be used. 4. A group can be interviewed in the time required for one personal interview. 5. The client can watch the interview unobserved. 6. Respondents are more articulated in a group than in the individual interviews. 7. The technique eliminates the physical limitations inherent in individual interviews. Disadvantages: This method is not free from draw backs. 1. It is difficult to get a representative sample. 2. There is the possibility of the group being dominated by one individual. 3. The respondents may answer to please the interviewer or the other members in the group. 4. Nevertheless, the advantage of this technique outweighs the disadvantages and the technique is found to be useful for surveys on topics of common interest. Self Assessment Questions State whether the following statements are true or false: 1. This is an interview made with a details standardized schedule. 2. A semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. 3. The focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience; clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individuals life experiences.
11.11 Summary
Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. The interview may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview,
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 126
Research Methodology
Unit 11
(b) unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused interview, and (d) clinical interview and (e) depth interview. Structured interview is made with a details standardized schedule. The same questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Non-directive method is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely about a given topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance. In focused type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Clinical interview is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individuals life experiences. This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondents opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. Detailed interview requires much more training on interpersonal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions. Interviewing as a method of data collection has certain features. They are: 1. The requirements or conditions necessary for a successful interview are: 2. There are several real advantages to personal interviewing. 3. Interviewing is not free limitations. In personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with two major problems, inadequate response, non-response and interviewers bias. Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a major method or supplementary method. It will be useful in the following situations. A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal interview the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The interviewer acts as the discussion. The quality of data collected depends ultimately upon the capabilities of interviewers. Hence, careful selection and proper training of interviewers is essential.
Research Methodology
Unit 11
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Unit 12
Processing Data
Structure: 12.1 Meaning of Data Processing Objective 12.2 Checking for Analysis 12.3 Editing 12.3.1 Data Editing at the Time of Recording the Data 12.3.2 Data Editing at the Time of Analysis of Data 12.4 Coding 12.5 Classification 12.6 Transcription of Data 12.6.1 Methods of Transcription 12.6.2 Manual Transcription 12.6.3 Long Work Sheets 12.7 Tabulation 12.7.1 Manual Tabulation 12.8 Construction of Frequency Table 12.9 Components of a Table 12.10 Principles of Table Construction 12.11 Frequency Distribution and Class intervals 12.12 Graphs, Charts and Diagrams 12.12.1 Types of Graphs and General Rules 12.12.2 Line Graphs 12.13 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis 12.13.1 Measures of Central Tendency 12.13.2 Dispersion 12.13.3 Correlation Analysis 12.13.4 Coefficient of Determination Self Assessment Questions 12.14 Summary 12.15 Terminal Questions 12.16 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Tabulation Construction of Frequency Table Components of a table Principles of table construction Frequency distribution and class intervals Graphs, charts and diagrams Types of graphs and general rules Quantitative and qualitative analysis Measures of central tendency Dispersion Correlation analysis Coefficient of determination
Research Methodology
Unit 12
12.3 Editing
The next step in the processing of data is editing of the data instruments. Editing is a process of checking to detect and correct errors and omissions. Data editing happens at two stages, one at the time of recording of the data and second at the time of analysis of data. 12.3.1 Data Editing at the Time of Recording of Data Document editing and testing of the data at the time of data recording is done considering the following questions in mind. Do the filters agree or are the data inconsistent? Have missing values been set to values, which are the same for all research questions? Have variable descriptions been specified? Have labels for variable names and value labels been defined and written? All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that, the redefinition of variables or later analytical modification requirements could be easily incorporated into the data sets. 12.3.2 Data Editing at the Time of Analysis of Data Data editing is also a requisite before the analysis of data is carried out. This ensures that the data is complete in all respect for subjecting them to further analysis. Some of the usual check list questions that can be had by a researcher for editing data sets before analysis would be: 1. Is the coding frame complete? 2. Is the documentary material sufficient for the methodological description of the study? 3. Is the storage medium readable and reliable. 4. Has the correct data set been framed? 5. Is the number of cases correct? 6. Are there differences between questionnaire, coding frame and data? 7. Are there undefined and so-called wild codes? 8. Comparison of the first counting of the data with the original documents of the researcher. The editing step checks for the completeness, accuracy and uniformity of the data as created by the researcher.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 132
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Completeness: The first step of editing is to check whether there is an answer to all the questions/variables set out in the data set. If there were any omission, the researcher sometimes would be able to deduce the correct answer from other related data on the same instrument. If this is possible, the data set has to rewritten on the basis of the new information. For example, the approximate family income can be inferred from other answers to probes such as occupation of family members, sources of income, approximate spending and saving and borrowing habits of family members etc. If the information is vital and has been found to be incomplete, then the researcher can take the step of contacting the respondent personally again and solicit the requisite data again. If none of these steps could be resorted to the marking of the data as missing must be resorted to. Accuracy: Apart from checking for omissions, the accuracy of each recorded answer should be checked. A random check process can be applied to trace the errors at this step. Consistency in response can also be checked at this step. The cross verification to a few related responses would help in checking for consistency in responses. The reliability of the data set would heavily depend on this step of error correction. While clear inconsistencies should be rectified in the data sets, fact responses should be dropped from the data sets. Uniformity: In editing data sets, another keen lookout should be for any lack of uniformity, in interpretation of questions and instructions by the data recorders. For instance, the responses towards a specific feeling could have been queried from a positive as well as a negative angle. While interpreting the answers, care should be taken as a record the answer as a positive question response or as negative question response in all uniformity checks for consistency in coding throughout the questionnaire/interview schedule response/data set. The final point in the editing of data set is to maintain a log of all corrections that have been carried out at this stage. The documentation of these corrections helps the researcher to retain the original data set.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
12.4 Coding
The edited data are then subject to codification and classification. Coding process assigns numerals or other symbols to the several responses of the data set. It is therefore a pre-requisite to prepare a coding scheme for the data set. The recording of the data is done on the basis of this coding scheme. The responses collected in a data sheet varies, sometimes the responses could be the choice among a multiple response, sometimes the response could be in terms of values and sometimes the response could be alphanumeric. At the recording stage itself, if some codification were done to the responses collected, it would be useful in the data analysis. When codification is done, it is imperative to keep a log of the codes allotted to the observations. This code sheet will help in the identification of variables/observations and the basis for such codification. The first coding done to primary data sets are the individual observation themselves. This responses sheet coding gives a benefit to the research, in that, the verification and editing of recordings and further contact with respondents can be achieved without any difficulty. The codification can be made at the time of distribution of the primary data sheets itself. The codes can be alphanumeric to keep track of where and to whom it had been sent. For instance, if the data consists of several public at different localities, the sheets that are distributed in a specific locality may carry a unique part code which is alphabetic. To this alphabetic code, a numeric code can be attached to distinguish the person to whom the primary instrument was distributed. This also helps the researcher to keep track of who the respondents are and who are the probable respondents from whom primary data sheets are yet to be collected. Even at a latter stage, any specific queries on a specific responses sheet can be clarified. The variables or observations in the primary instrument would also need codification, especially when they are categorized. The categorization could be on a scale i.e., most preferable to not preferable, or it could be very specific such as Gender classified as Male and Female. Certain classifications can lead to open ended classification such as education classification, Illiterate, Graduate, Professional, Others. Please specify. In such instances, the codification needs to be carefully done to include all
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 134
Research Methodology
Unit 12
possible responses under Others, please specify. If the preparation of the exhaustive list is not feasible, then it will be better to create a separate variable for the Others please specify category and records all responses as such. Numeric Coding: Coding need not necessarily be numeric. It can also be alphabetic. Coding has to be compulsorily numeric, when the variable is subject to further parametric analysis. Alphabetic Coding: A mere tabulation or frequency count or graphical representation of the variable may be given in an alphabetic coding. Zero Coding: A coding of zero has to be assigned carefully to a variable. In many instances, when manual analysis is done, a code of 0 would imply a no response from the respondents. Hence, if a value of 0 is to be given to specific responses in the data sheet, it should not lead to the same interpretation of non response. For instance, there will be a tendency to give a code of 0 to a no, then a different coding than 0 should be given in the data sheet. An illustration of the coding process of some of the demographic variables is given in the following table. Question Number 1.1 Variable observation Organisation Response categories Private Public Government Yes No Excellent Good Adequate Bad Worst Up to 20 years 21-40 years 40-60 years Salaried Professional Code Pt Pb Go 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 S P
Page No. 135
3.4 4.2
5.1
Age
5.2
Occupation
Research Methodology
Unit 12
T B R H =
= Could be treated as a separate variable/observation and the actual response could be recorded. The new variable could be termed as other occupation The coding sheet needs to be prepared carefully, if the data recording is not done by the researcher, but is outsourced to a data entry firm or individual. In order to enter the data in the same perspective, as the researcher would like to view it, the data coding sheet is to be prepared first and a copy of the data coding sheet should be given to the outsourcer to help in the data entry procedure. Sometimes, the researcher might not be able to code the data from the primary instrument itself. He may need to classify the responses and then code them. For this purpose, classification of data is also necessary at the data entry stage.
12.5 Classification
When open ended responses have been received, classification is necessary to code the responses. For instance, the income of the respondent could be an open-ended question. From all responses, a suitable classification can be arrived at. A classification method should meet certain requirements or should be guided by certain rules. First, classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the particular study. The objectives of the study will determine the dimensions chosen for coding. The categorization should meet the information required to test the hypothesis or investigate the questions. Second, the scheme of classification should be exhaustive. That is, there must be a category for every response. For example, the classification of martial status into three category viz., married Single and divorced is not exhaustive, because responses like widower or separated cannot be fitted into the scheme. Here, an open ended question will be the best mode of getting the responses. From the responses collected, the researcher can
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 136
Research Methodology
Unit 12
fit a meaningful and theoretically supportive classification. The inclusion of the classification Others tends to fill the cluttered, but few responses from the data sheets. But others categorization has to carefully used by the researcher. However, the other categorization tends to defeat the very purpose of classification, which is designed to distinguish between observations in terms of the properties under study. The classification others will be very useful when a minority of respondents in the data set give varying answers. For instance, the reading habits of newspaper may be surveyed. The 95 respondents out of 100 could be easily classified into 5 large reading groups while 5 respondents could have given a unique answer. These given answer rather than being separately considered could be clubbed under the others heading for meaningful interpretation of respondents and reading habits. Third, the categories must also be mutually exhaustive, so that each case is classified only once. This requirement is violated when some of the categories overlap or different dimensions are mixed up. The number of categorization for a specific question/observation at the coding stage should be maximum permissible since, reducing the categorization at the analysis level would be easier than splitting an already classified group of responses. However the number of categories is limited by the number of cases and the anticipated statistical analysis that are to be used on the observation.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
help the researcher to arrive at preliminary conclusions as to the nature of the sample collected etc. Transcription is hence, an intermediary process between data coding and data tabulation. 12.6.1 Methods of Transcription The researcher may adopt a manual or computerized transcription. Long work sheets, sorting cards or sorting strips could be used by the researcher to manually transcript the responses. The computerized transcription could be done using a data base package such as spreadsheets, text files or other databases. The main requisite for a transcription process is the preparation of the data sheets where observations are the row of the database and the responses/variables are the columns of the data sheet. Each variable should be given a label so that long questions can be covered under the label names. The label names are thus the links to specific questions in the research instrument. For instance, opinion on consumer satisfaction could be identified through a number of statements (say 10); the data sheet does not contain the details of the statement, but gives a link to the question in the research instrument though variable labels. In this instance the variable names could be given as CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4, CS5, CS6, CS7, CS8, CS9 and CS10. The label CS indicating Consumer satisfaction and the number 1 to 10 indicate the statement measuring consumer satisfaction. Once the labelling process has been done for all the responses in the research instrument, the transcription of the response is done. 12.6.2 Manual Transcription When the sample size is manageable, the researcher need not use any computerization process to analyze the data. The researcher could prefer a manual transcription and analysis of responses. The choice of manual transcription would be when the number of responses in a research instrument is very less, say 10 responses, and the numbers of observations collected are within 100. A transcription sheet with 100x50 (assuming each response has 5 options) row/column can be easily managed by a researcher manually. If, on the other hand the variables in the research instrument are more than 40 and each variable has 5 options, it leads to a worksheet of 100x200 sizes which might not be easily managed by the researcher manually. In the second instance, if the number of responses is
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 138
Research Methodology
Unit 12
less than 30, then the manual worksheet could be attempted manually. In all other instances, it is advisable to use a computerized transcription process. 12.6.3 Long Worksheets Long worksheets require quality paper; preferably chart sheets, thick enough to last several usages. These worksheets normally are ruled both horizontally and vertically, allowing responses to be written in the boxes. If one sheet is not sufficient, the researcher may use multiple rules sheets to accommodate all the observations. Heading of responses which are variable names and their coding (options) are filled in the first two rows. The first column contains the code of observations. For each variable, now the responses from the research instrument are then transferred to the worksheet by ticking the specific option that the observer has chosen. If the variable cannot be coded into categories, requisite length for recording the actual response of the observer should be provided for in the work sheet. The worksheet can then be used for preparing the summary tables or can be subjected to further analysis of data. The original research instrument can be now kept aside as safe documents. Copies of the data sheets can also be kept for future references. As has been discussed under the editing section, the transcript data has to be subjected to a testing to ensure error free transcription of data. A sample worksheet is given below for reference. Sl vehicle Occupation Vehicle No Owner performance Age Age Y N S P T B R R Other occ 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 x x x 2 x x x x 3 x x x x 4 x x x 5 x x x x 6 x x x 7 x Student x x 8 x Artist x x
4 x
x x
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Transcription can be made as and when the edited instrument is ready for processing. Once all schedules/questionnaires have been transcribed, the frequency tables can be constructed straight from worksheet. Other methods of manual transcription include adoption of sorting strips or cards. In olden days, data entry and processing were made through mechanical and semi auto-metric devices such as key punch using punch cards. The arrival of computers has changed the data processing methodology altogether.
12.7 Tabulation
The transcription of data can be used to summarize and arrange the data in compact form for further analysis. The process is called tabulation. Thus, tabulation is a process of summarizing raw data displaying them on compact statistical tables for further analysis. It involves counting the number of cases falling into each of the categories identified by the researcher. Tabulation can be done manually or through the computer. The choice depends upon the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availability of software packages. Manual tabulation is suitable for small and simple studies. 12.7.1 Manual Tabulation When data are transcribed in a classified form as per the planned scheme of classification, category-wise totals can be extracted from the respective columns of the work sheets. A simple frequency table counting the number of Yes and No responses can be made easily by counting the Y response column and N response column in the manual worksheet table prepared earlier. This is a one-way frequency table and they are readily inferred from the totals of each column in the work sheet. Sometimes the researcher has to cross tabulate two variables, for instance, the age group of vehicle owners. This requires a two-way classification and cannot be inferred straight from any technical knowledge or skill. If one wants to prepare a table showing the distribution of respondents by age, a tally sheet showing the age groups horizontally is prepared. Tally marks are then made for the respective group i.e., vehicle owners, from each line of response in the worksheet. After every four tally, the fifth tally is cut across the previous four tallies. This represents a group of five items. This arrangement
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 140
Research Methodology
Unit 12
facilitates easy counting of each one of the class groups. Illustration of this tally sheet is present below. Age groups Below 20 39 40 59 Above 59 Total II IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII III Tally marks No. of Responses 2 23 15 10 50
Although manual tabulation is simple and easy to construct, it can be tedious, slow and error-prone as responses increase. Computerized tabulation is easy with the help of software packages. The input requirement will be the column and row variables. The software package then computes the number of records in each cell of three row column categories. The most popular package is the Statistical package for Social Science (SPSS). It is an integrated set of programs suitable for analysis of social science data. This package contains programs for a wide range of operations and analysis such as handling missing data, recording variable information, simple descriptive analysis, cross tabulation, multivariate analysis and non-parametric analysis.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population, vital statistics, agriculture, industries etc., are of general purpose type. They represent extensive repositories and statistical information. Special purpose tables are found in monographs, research reports and articles and reused as instruments of analysis. In research, we are primarily concerned with special purpose.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath the table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used. 6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table. 7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions. 8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference. 9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and plus or minus signs should be in perfect alignment. 10. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought closed together. 11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of columns at the bottom. 12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type, spacing and identifications can be used. 13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical categories are usually arranged in descending order of magnitude. 14. Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last row of the table. 15. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that a tables length is more than its width. 16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be used in a table. 17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible. Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such expressions as the table above or the following table. Tables should not exceed the page size by photo stating. Tables those are too wide for the page may be turned sidewise, with the top facing the left margin or binding of the script. Where tables should be placed in research report or thesis? Some writers place both special purpose and general purpose tables in an appendix and refer to them in the text by numbers. This practice has the
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 143
Research Methodology
Unit 12
disadvantages of inconveniencing the reader who wants to study the tabulated data as the text is read. A more appropriate procedure is to place special purpose tables in the text and primary tables, if needed at all, in an appendix.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
group of a population, the use of intervals of 1-20, 20-50, and 50 and above would be confusing. This may be presented as 1-20, 21-50, and above 50. Every class interval has a mid point. For example, the midpoint of an interval 1-20 is 10.5 and the midpoint of class interval 1-25 would be 13. Once class intervals are determined, it is routine work to count the number of cases that fall in each interval. One-Way Tables: One-way frequency tables present the distribution of cases on only a single dimension or variable. For example, the distribution of respondents of gender, by religion, socio economic status and the like are shown in one way tables (Table 10.1) lustrates one-way tables. One way tables are rarely used since the result of frequency distributions can be described in simple sentences. For instance, the gender distribution of a sample study may be described as The sample data represents 58% by males and 42% of the sample are females. Tow-Way Table: Distributions in terms of two or more variables and the relationship between the two variables are show in two-way table. The categories of one variable are presented one below another, on the left margin of the table those of another variable at the upper part of the table, one by the side of another. The cells represent particular combination of both variables. To compare the distributions of cases, raw numbers are converted into percentages based on the number of cases in each category. (Table 10.2) illustrate two-way tables. TABLE 10.2
Extent of participation Category Members Low No. of Respondents 65 4 % Medium No. of Respondents 83 33 % High No. of Respondents 2 2 % Total
Ordinary Committee
41.9 10.3
56.8 84.6
1.3 5.1
115 39
Another method of constructing a two-way table is to state the percent of representation as a within brackets term rather than as a separate column. Here, special care has been taken as to how the percentages are calculated, either on a horizontal representation of data or as vertical
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 145
Research Methodology
Unit 12
representation of data. Sometimes, the table heading itself provides a meaning as to the method of representation in the two-way table.
Economic Status Low Medium High Very High Total Democratic Participation Low 6(35.3) 13(38.2) 6(62.5) 2(33.3) 27 Medium 11(64.7) 18(53.0) 10(62.5) 3(50.0) 42 High 0(0.0) 3(8.8) 0(0.0) 1(16.7) 4 Total 17 34 16 6 73
Research Methodology
Unit 12
(c) What is the educational level of the audience? (d) How much time is available for the preparation of the diagram? (e) What kind of chart will portray the data most clearly and accurately? 12.12.1 Types of Graphs and General Rules The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories: a) Line Graphs or Charts b) Bar Charts c) Segmental presentations. d) Scatter plots e) Bubble charts f) Stock plots g) Pictographs h) Chesnokov Faces The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are: 1. The chart should have a title placed directly above the chart. 2. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature of the data presented. 3. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an accompanying table. 4. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical line the measured variable. 5. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from bottom to top on the vertical. 6. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labelled. 7. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly differentiated from one another by distinct patterns or colours. 8. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should be equal. 9. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than illuminating the presentation. 10. Graphic forms should follow and not precede the related textual discussion.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
12.12.2 Line Graphs The line graph is useful for showing changes in data relationship over a period of time. In this graph, figures are plotted in relation to two intersecting lines or axes. The horizontal line is called the abscissa or X-axis and the vertical, the ordinal or Y-axis. The point at which the two axes intersect is zero for both X and Y axis. The O is the origin of coordinates. The two lines divide the region of the plane into four sections known as quadrants that are numbered anti-clockwise. Measurements to the right and above O are positive (plus) and measurements to the left and below O are negative (minus). is an illustration of the features of a rectangular coordinate type of graph. Any point of plane of the two axes is plotted in terms of the two axes reading from the origin O. Scale intervals in both the axes should be equal. If a part of the scale is omitted, a set of parallel jagged lines should be used to indicate the break in the scale. The time dimension or independent variable is represented by the X-axis and the other variable by Y-axis.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Statistical Averages Mathematical averages Arithmetic mean Geometric mean Harmonic mean Positional averages Median Mode
Arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean are mathematical averages. Median and mode are positional averages. These statistical measures try to understand how individual values in a distribution concentrate to a central value like average. If the values of distribution approximately come near to the average value, we conclude that the distribution has central tendency. Arithmetic Mean Arithmetic mean is the most commonly used statistical average. It is the value obtained by dividing the sum of the item by the number of items in a series. Symbolically we say Arithmetic mean = X/n Where X N = the sum of the item = the number of items in the series.
If x1 x2 x3 xn are the values of a series, then arithmetic mean of the series obtained by (x1 + x2 + x3 +xn) / n. If put (x1 + x2 + x3 +xn) = X, then arithmetic mean = X/n When frequencies are also given with the values, to calculate arithmetic mean, the values are first multiplied with the corresponding frequency. Then their sum is divided by the number of frequency. Thus in a discrete series, arithmetic mean is calculated by the following formula. Arithmetic mean = fx/ f Where, fx = sum the values multiplied by the corresponding frequency. f = sum of the frequency If x1 x2 x3 xn are the values of a series, and f1 f2 f3 fn are their corresponding frequencies,
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 149
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Arithmetic mean is calculated by (f1 x1 + f2 x2 + f3x3 + fn xn) / (f1 + f2 + f3 + fn) or Arithmetic mean = fx / f
Individual series 1. Find arithmetic mean of the following data. 58 67 60 84 93 98 100 Arithmetic mean = X/n Where X = the sum of the item n = the number of items in the series. X = 58 + 67+ 60 + 84 + 93 + 98 + 100 = 560 n = 7 X = 560/7 = 80 2. Find arithmetic mean for the following distribution 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.0 1.8 2.3 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.3 Arithmetic mean = X/n Where X = the sum of the item n = the number of items in the series. X = 2.0 + 1.8 + 2.0 + 2.0+ 1.9 + 2.0 + 1.8 + 2.3 + 2.5 + 2.3 + 1.9 + 2.2 + 2.0 + 2.3 = 29 n = 14 X = 29/14 = 2.07 Discrete series 3. Calculate arithmetic mean of the following 50 workers according to their daily wages. Daily wage : Numbers of workers : 15 2 18 3 20 5 25 10 30 12 35 10 40 5 42 2 2.5 2.3
Research Methodology
Unit 12
= = = =
Continuous Series 4. Find arithmetic mean for the following distribution. Marks : 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 No. of students : 6 12 18 20 20 14 8 2 Arithmetic mean using direct method
Marks 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 Frequency (f) 6 12 18 20 20 14 8 2 f =100 Mid Value (x) 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 fx 90 300 630 900 1100 910 600 170 fx = 4700
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Geometric Mean Geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of N items of a series. If there are two items in the data, we take the square root; if there are three items we take the cube root, and so on. Symbolically,
1 2 n GM = Where x1, x2. ..xn are the items of the given series. To simplify calculations, logarithms are used.
n x .x ...x
Accordingly, GM = Anti log of (log x /n) In discrete series GM = Anti log of f . log x / f Illustration 1. Find Geometric mean for the following data. 25 279 112 3675 84 9
Values (x) 25 279 112 3675 84 9 18 54 73 648 Log x
18
54
73
648
1.3979 2.4456 2.0492 3.5652 1.9242 0.9542 1.2552 1.7323 1.8633 2.8116 19.9986
GM
= = = =
Anti log of (log x /n) Anti log of (19.9986 / 10) Anti log of 1.9986 99.967
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Geometric mean for discrete series Calculate geometric mean of the following data given below:Class Landlords Cultivators Landless labourers Money lenders Scholl teachers Shop keepers Carpenters Weavers
Income 1000 80 40 750 100 150 120 60
No. of families 1 50 25 2 3 4 3 5
Frequency 1 50 25 2 3 4 3 5 93 Log x 3.0000 1.9031 1.6021 2.8751 2.0000 2.1761 2.0792 1.7782
GM
Anti log of f. log x / f Anti log of 173.7907 / 93 Anti log 1. 86871 73.91
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Illustration For individual series 1. Find harmonic mean of the following data 5 10 3 7 125 58 47 Values x 5 10 3 7 125 58 47 80 45 26 HM HM Factorial 1/x .2 .1 .33 .14 .008 .017 .021 .014 .022 .038 ( 1/x) =.89
80
45
26
= N / (1/x) = 10 / .89 = 11.235 Harmonic mean for discrete series Compute harmonic mean for the following data Marks : 10 20 25 30 Frequency : 20 10 15 25 Marks 10 20 25 30 40 50 Frequency 20 10 15 25 10 20 f = 100 N / f (1/x) 100/4.58 21.834 1/x .1 .05 .04 .033 .025 .02
40 10
50 20
HM HM
= = =
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Harmonic mean for continuous series 1. Calculate harmonic mean for the given data. Class : 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 Frequency : 5 7 3 15
Class 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 50-60 Frequency 5 7 3 15 12 8 f =50 Mid x 15 25 35 45 55 65 1/x .0661 .04 .0285 .0222 .0181 .0153
50-60 12
60-70 8
F . 1/x .33 .28 .085 .333 .218 .123 f ( 1/x) =1.369
HM HM
= =
N / (1/x) 50 / 1.369
37.8689
Median Median is the middlemost item of a given series. In individual series, we arrange the given data according to ascending or descending order and take the middlemost item as the median. When two values occur in the middle, we take the average of these two values as median. Since median is the central value of an ordered distribution, there occur equal number of values to the left and right of the median. Individual series Median = (N+ 1 / 2) th item
Illustration 1. Find the median of the following scores. 97 50 95 51 90 60 85 64 81 65 80 70 75 First we arrange the series according to ascending order. 50 51 60 64 65 70 75 80 81 85 90 95 97 Median = (N+ 1) / 2 th item = (13+ 1) / 2 th item = (14 / 2) th item = (7) th item = 75
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 155
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Median for distribution with even number of items 2. Find the median of the following data. 95 51 91 60 90 64 85 69 70 78 75 First we arrange the series according to ascending order. 51 60 64 69 70 75 78 80 90 91 95 Median = (N+ 1) / 2 th item = (12+ 1) / 2 th item = (13 / 2) th item = (6.5) th item = (6th item + 7th item) / 2 = (75 + 78) / 2 = 153/2 = 76.5
80
85
Median for Discrete Series To find the median of a grouped series, we first of all, cumulate the frequencies. Locate median at the size of (N+ 1) / 2 th cumulative frequency. N is the cumulative frequency taken. Steps 1. Arrange the values of the data in ascending order of magnitude. 2. Find out cumulative frequencies 3. Apply the formula (N+ 1) / 2 th item 4. Look at the cumulative frequency column and find the value of the variable corresponding to the above. Find median for the following data. Income : 100 150 80 200 250 180 Number of persons : 24 26 16 20 6 30 First of all arrange the data according to ascending order.
Income 80 100 150 180 200 250 Frequency 16 24 26 30 20 6 Cum. Frequency 16 40 (N+ 1) / 2 66 96 116 122 Page No. 156
Research Methodology
Unit 12
= (N+ 1) / 2 th item = (122+ 1) / 2 th item = (123) / 2 th item = (61.5) th item = Value at the 61.5 cumulative frequency is taken as median Therefore Median = 150 Median Median for Continuous Series To find the median of a grouped series, with class interval, we first of all, cumulate the frequencies. Locate median at the size of (N) / 2 th cumulative frequency. Apply the interpolation formula to obtain the median Median = L1 + (N/2 m) / f X C L1 = Lower limit of the median Class N/2 = Cumulative frequency/ 2 m = Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class f = frequency of the median class C = Class interval Find median of the following data. Class : 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 Frequency : 1 3 8 2 6
Class 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 Frequency 1 3 8 2 6 CF 1 4 12 (N/2 = 10) 14 20
Median L1 N/2 m f C
= = = = = = = = = = =
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Merits of Median 1. Median is easy to calculate and simple to understand. 2. When the data is very large median is the most convenient measure of central tendency. 3. Median is useful finding average for data with open-ended classes. 4. The median distributes the values of the data equally to either side of the median. 5. Median is not influenced by the extreme values present in the data. 6. Value of the median can be graphically determined. Demerits of Median To calculate median, data should be arranged according to ascending order. This is tedious when the number of items in a series is numerous. Since the value of median is determined by observation, it is not a true representative of all the values. Median is not amenable to further algebraic treatment. The value of median is affected by sampling fluctuation. Mode Mode is the most repeating value of a distribution. When one item repeats more number of times than other or when two items repeat equal number of times, mode is ill defined. Under such case, mode is calculated by the formula (3 median 2 mean). Mode is a widely used measure of central tendency in business. We speak of model wage which is the wage earned by most of the workers. Model shoe size is the mostly demanded shoe. Merits of Mode Mode is the most typical and frequented value of the distribution. It is not affected by extreme values. Mode can be determined even for series with open-ended classes. Mode can be graphically determined. Demerits of Mode 1. It is difficult to calculate mode when one item repeats more number of times than others. 2. Mode is not capable of further algebraic treatment. 3. Mode is not based on all the items of the series.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 158
Research Methodology
Unit 12
4. Mode is not rigidly defined. There are several formulae for calculating mode. Mode for Individual Series 1. Calculation of mode for the following data. 7 10 8 5 8 6 8 9 Since item 8 repeats more number of times. Therefore mode = 8 Calculation of mode when mode is ill defined. 2. Calculation of mode for the following data. 15 25 14 18 21 16 19 20 Since no item repeats more number of times mode is ill defined. Mode = (3 median 2 mean) Mean = 18.5 Median = (18 +19)/2 = 18.5 Mode = (3 X 18.5) (2 X 18.5) = 55.5 36.5 = 19 Mode for Discrete data Series In discrete series the item with highest frequency is taken as mode. 3. Find mode for the following data.
Size of shirt 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 No. of persons 10 20 40 65 50 15 5
Since 65 is the highest frequency its size is taken as mode Mode = 31 Calculation of Mode Using Grouping Table and Analysis Table To make Grouping Table 1. Group the frequency in two 2. Frequencies are grouped in two leaving the first frequency. 3. Group the frequency in three 4. Frequencies are grouped in three leaving the first frequency.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 159
Research Methodology
Unit 12
5. Frequencies are grouped in three leaving the first and second frequency. To make Analysis Table 1. Analysis table is made based on grouping table. 2. Circle the highest value of each column. 3. Assign marks to classes, which constitute the highest value of the column. 4. Count the number of marks. 5. The class with the highest marks is selected as the model class. 6. Apply the interpolation formula and find the mode. Mode = L1 + (f1 f0 / 2f1-f0-f2) X C L1 = Lower limit of the model class f1 = frequency of the model class f0 frequency of the class preceding the model class = f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the model class C = class interval Illustration Find mode for the following data using grouping table and analysis table.
Expenditure No. of families 0-20 14 20-40 15 40-60 27 60-80 13 80-100 12 100-120 17 120-140 2
Grouping Table Class 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 Frequency 14 15 27 13 12 17 2 29 29 40 25 42 31 29 42 56 55 52 I II III IV V
Steps 1. In column I, the frequencies are grouped in two 2. In column II, frequencies are grouped in two, leaving the first frequency.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 160
Research Methodology
Unit 12
3. In column III, frequencies are grouped in three 4. In column IV frequencies are grouped in three, leaving the first frequency. 5. In column V frequencies are grouped in three, leaving the first and second frequency. Analysis Table Class 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 Frequency 14 15 27 13 12 17 2 I I I I I II III I I I I I I I I I IV V Total 1 3 5 4 1 0 0
Since highest mark is 5 and is obtained by the class 40-60. Therefore model class = 40-60 Mode is calculated by the formula Mode L1 f1 f0 f2 C Mode = = =
=
L1 + (f1 f0) / (2f1-f0-f2) X C Lower limit of the model class frequency of the model class frequency of the class preceding the model class class interval 40 + (27 15) / (2 X 27 15-13) X 20 40 + (12/ 54-28) 20 40 + (12/ 26) 20 40 + (.4615) 20 40 + 9.23 49.23 = = = = 40 27 15 13 20
= = = = = = = =
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Dispersion Dispersion is the tendency of the individual values in a distribution to spread away from the average. Many economic variables like income, wage etc., are widely varied from the mean. Dispersion is a statistical measure, which understands the degree of variation of items from the average. Objectives of Measuring Dispersion Study of dispersion is needed to: 1. To test the reliability of the average 2. To control variability of the data 3. To enable comparison with two or more distribution with regard to their variability 4. To facilitate the use of other statistical measures. Measures of dispersion points out as to how far the average value is representative of the individual items. If the dispersion value is small, the average tends to closely represent the individual values and it is reliable. When dispersion is large, the average is not a typical representative value. Measures of dispersion are useful to control the cause of variation. In industrial production, efficient operation requires control of quality variation. Measures of variation enable comparison of two or more series with regard to their variability. A high degree of variation would mean little consistency and low degree of variation would mean high consistency. Properties of a Good Measure of Dispersion A good measure of dispersion should be simple to understand. 1. It should be easy to calculate 2. It should be rigidly defined 3. It should be based on all the values of a distribution 4. It should be amenable to further statistical and algebraic treatment. 5. It should have sampling stability 6. It should not be unduly affected by extreme values. Measures of Dispersion 1. Range 2. Quartile deviation 3. Mean deviation 4. Standard deviation 5. Lorenz curve
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 162
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Range, Quartile deviation, Mean deviation and Standard deviation are mathematical measures of dispersion. Lorenz curve is a graphical measure of dispersion. Measures of dispersion can be absolute or relative. An absolute measure of dispersion is expressed in the same unit of the original data. When two sets of data are expressed in different units, relative measures of dispersion are used for comparison. A relative measure of dispersion is the ratio of absolute measure to an appropriate average. The following are the important relative measures of dispersion. 1. Coefficient of range 2. Coefficient of Quartile deviation 3. Coefficient of Mean deviation 4. Coefficient of Standard deviation Range Range is the difference between the lowest and the highest value. Symbolically, range = highest value lowest value Range = HL H = highest value L = lowest value Relative measure of dispersion is co-efficient of range. It is obtained by the following formula. Coefficient of range = (H L) / (H + L) 1. Calculate of range of the following distribution, giving income of 10 workers. Also calculate the co-efficient of range. 25 37 40 23 58 75 89 20 81 95 Range = HL H = highest value = 95 L = lowest value = 20 Range = 95 20 = 75 Coefficient of range = (H L) / (H + L) = (95 20) / (95 +20) = 75/ 115 = .6521
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Range is simple to understand and easy to calculate. But it is not based on all items of the distribution. It is subject to fluctuations from sample to sample. Range cannot be calculated for open-ended series. Quartile Deviation Quartile deviation is defined as inter quartile range. It is based on the first and the third quartile of a distribution. When a distribution is divided into four equal parts, we obtain four quartiles, Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. First quartile Q1 is point of the distribution where 25% of the items of the distribution lie below Q1, and 75% of the items of the distribution lie above the Q1. Q2 is the median of the distribution, where 50% of the items of the distribution lie below Q2, and 50% of the items of the distribution lie above the Q2. Third quartile Q3 is point of the distribution where 75% of the items of the distribution lie below Q3, and 25% of the items of the distribution lie above the Q3. Quartile deviation is based on the difference between the third and first quartiles. So quartile deviation is defined as the inter-quartile range. Symbolically, inter-quartile range Quartile Deviation Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = = = Q3- Q1 (Q3- Q1) / 2 (Q3- Q1) / (Q3 + Q1)
Merits of Quartile Deviation 1. Quartile Deviation is superior to range as a rough measure of dispersion. 2. It has a special merit in measuring dispersion in open-ended series. 3. Quartile Deviation is not affected by extreme values. Demerits of Quartile Deviation 1. Quartile Deviation ignores the first 25% of the distribution below Q 1 and 25% of the distribution above the Q3. 2. Quartile Deviation is not amenable to further mathematical treatment. 3. Quartile Deviation is very much affected by sampling fluctuations. Problems Individual Series 1. Find the Quartile Deviation and its co-efficient. 20 58 40 12 30 15 50
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 164
Research Methodology
Unit 12
First of all arrange the data according to ascending order. 12 15 20 28 30 40 50 th Q1 = Size of (N+1) / 4 item = Size of (7+1) / 4 th item = Size of (8 / 4) th item = 2nd item = 15 Q3 = = = = = = Size of 3(N+1) / 4 th item Size of 3 X (7+1) / 4 th item Size of 3 X 8 / 4 th item (3 X 2) nd item 6th item 40 = = = = (Q3- Q1) / (Q3 + Q1) (40- 15) / (40+ 15) 25/55 .4545
Discrete Series 2. Find quartile Deviation and its co-efficient for the following data. Income : 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 Frequency: 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Income 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 Frequency 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 CF 50 95 (N+1) / 4 th item = 69 = 120 135 170 200 225 3(N+1) / 4 th item = 207 =160 245 260 270 275
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Q1
Q3
Quartile Deviation
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Size of (N+1) / 4 th item Size of (275+1) / 4 th item Size of (276 / 4) th item size of 69th cumulative frequency 120 Size of 3(N+1) / 4 th item Size of 3 X (275 +1) / 4 th item Size of 3 X69 th item Size of 207th cumulative frequency 160 (160 120) /2 40/2 20 (Q3- Q1) / (Q3 + Q1) (160- 120 / (160+ 120) 20/280 .0714
Continuous Series Find quartile deviation for the following series Marks : 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 Frequency : 10 30 36 30 Income 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 Q1 Frequency CF 10 30 36 30 14 10 40 (N) / 4 th class = 20- 40 76 106 3(N) / 4 th class = 60-80 120
80-100 14
= lies in (N) / 4 th class = lies in (120) / 4 th class = lies in (30) th cumulative frequency class = lies in 20- 40 Q1 can be obtained by applying the interpolation formula = L1 + (N/4) m / f X C = 20 + (30 10) / 30 X 20
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 166
Research Methodology
Unit 12
= 20 + 20/ 30 X 20 = 20 + 400/30 = 20 + 13.33 = 33.33 Q3 = lies in 3(30)th cumulative frequency class = lies in 60-80 class Q3 can be obtained by applying the interpolation formula = L1 + 3 (N/4) m / f X C = 60 + (90 76) / 30 X 20 = 60 + (14/ 30) X 20 = 60 + 280/30 = 60 + 9.33 = 69.33 Quartile Deviation = (Q3- Q1) /2 = (69.33 33.33) 2 = 36/2 = 18 Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = (Q3- Q1) / (Q3 + Q1) = (69.33 33.33) / (69.33 + 33.33) = 36/ 102.66 = .3505 Mean Deviation Range and quartile deviation do not show any scatter ness from the average. However, mean deviation and standard deviation help us to achieve the dispersion. Mean deviation is the average of the deviations of the items in a distribution from an appropriate average. Thus, we calculate mean deviation from mean, median or mode. Theoretically, mean deviation from median has an advantage because sum of deviations of items from median is the minimum when signs are ignored. However, in practice, mean deviation from mean is frequently used. That is why it is commonly called as mean deviation. Formula for calculating mean deviation = D/N Where D = sum of the deviation of the items from mean, median or mode N = number of items D is mode less meaning values or deviation is taken without signs.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 167
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Steps 1. Calculate mean, median or mode of the series 2. Find the deviation of items from the mean, median or mode 3. Sum the deviations and obtain D 4. Take the average of the deviations D/N, which is the mean deviation. The co- efficient of mean deviation is the relative measure of mean deviation. It is obtained by dividing the mean deviation by a particular measure of average used for measuring mean deviation. If mean deviation is obtained from median, the co-efficient of mean deviation is obtained by dividing mean deviation by median. The co-efficient of mean deviation = mean deviation / median If mean deviation is obtained from mean, the co-efficient of mean deviation is obtained by dividing mean deviation by mean. The co-efficient of mean deviation = mean deviation / mean If mean deviation is obtained from mode, the co-efficient of mean deviation is obtained by dividing mean deviation by mode. The co-efficient of mean deviation = mean deviation / mode
Problems Calculate mean deviation for the following data from mean Daily wages : 15 18 20 25 30 35 40 42 Frequency : 2 3 5 10 12 10 5 2 Daily wages 15 18 20 25 30 35 40 42 45 Frequency 2 3 5 10 12 10 5 2 1 50 f. x 30 54 100 250 360 350 200 84 45 1473 D =x-20 5 2 0 5 10 15 20 22 25
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Mean
= 1473/50 = 20 Mean deviation = fD/N = 505/50 = 10.1 The co-efficient of mean deviation
= = =
Continuous series The procedure remains the same. The only difference is that we have to obtain the midpoints of the various classes and take deviations of these midpoints. The deviations are multiplied by their corresponding frequencies. The value so obtained is added and its average is the mean deviation. Calculate mean deviation for the following data. Class Frequency Class 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 : 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 : 6 5 15 10 5 4 3 2 Frequency 6 5 15 10 5 4 3 2 50 Arithmetic mean = = = = = = = Mid x 7.5 12.5 17.5 (22.5) 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 d 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 fd 90 50 75 0 25 40 45 40 -65 A + fx / F 22.5 + 65/50 22.5 +1.3 28.8 fD/N 516.6/50 10.332
Page No. 169
Research Methodology
Unit 12
The co-efficient of mean deviation = = = Mean deviation from median To find median Class 5-10 10-15 15-20 Frequency 6 5 15 6 11 CF
26 (N/2) = 25
10 5 4 3 2 50
36 41 45 48 50
Median
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
L1 + (n/2 m/f) C 15 + 25 11/ 15 X 5 15 + 6/15 X 5 15 + 30/15 15 + 2 17 fD/N 369/50 7.38 mean deviation / median 7.38/17 .434 model class 15-20 L1 + (f1-f0 / 2 f1-f0-f2) C 15 + (15-5 / 2X15-5-10) X 5 15 + (10 / 30-5-10) X 5
Page No. 170
Research Methodology
Unit 12
= = = Class 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 Frequency 6 5 15 10 5 4 3 2 50 Mean deviation from mode
15 + (10 / 15) X 5 15 + 3.33 18.33 D = X 18.33 10.83 5.83 .83 4.17 9.17 14.17 19.17 24.17 fD 64.98 29.15 12.45 41.7 45.85 56.68 57.57 48.34 356.72
= fD/N = 356.72/50 = 7.13 The co-efficient of mean deviation = mean deviation / mode = 7.16/18.3 = .3912 Merits of Mean Deviation 1. Mean deviation is simple to understand and easy to calculate 2. It is based on each and every item of the distribution 3. It is less affected by the values of extreme items compared to standard deviation. 4. Since deviations are taken from a central value, comparison about formation of different distribution can be easily made. Demerits of Mean Deviation 1. Algebraic signs are ignored while taking the deviations of the items. 2. Mean deviation gives the best result when it is calculated from median. But median is not a satisfactory measure when variability is very high. 3. Various methods give different results. 4. It is not capable of further mathematical treatment. 5. It is rarely used for sociological studies.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Standard deviation Standard deviation is the most important measure of dispersion. It satisfies most of the properties of a good measure of dispersion. It was introduced by Karl Pearson in 1893. Standard deviation is defined as the mean of the squared deviations from the arithmetic mean. Standard deviation is denoted by the Greek letter Mean deviation and standard deviation are calculated from deviation of each and every item. Standard deviation is different from mean deviation in two respects. First of all, algebraic signs are ignored in calculating mean deviation. Secondly, signs are taken into account in calculating standard deviation whereas, mean deviation can be found from mean, median or mode. Whereas, standard deviation is found only from mean. Standard deviation can be computed in two methods 1. Taking deviation from actual mean 2. Taking deviation from assumed mean. Formula for finding standard deviation is (x-x)2 / N Steps 1. Calculate the actual mean of the series x / N 2. Take deviation of the items from the mean ( x-x) 3. Find the square of the deviation from actual mean -x)2 / N 4. Sum the squares of the deviations ( x-x)2 5. Find the average of the squares of the deviations ( x-x)2 / N 6. Take the square root of the average of the sum of the deviation Problems 1. Calculate the standard deviation of the following data 49 50 65 58 42 60 51 48 Standard deviation from actual mean Arithmetic mean = x/N = 550 /10 = 55
68
59
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Values 49 50 65 58 42 60 51 48 68 59 550
(x-55) -6 -5 10 3 -13 5 -4 -7 13 4
= (x-x) 2 / N = 614 /10 = 61.4 = 7.836 Standard deviation from assumed mean Assumed mean = 50 S.D Values 49 50 65 58 42 60 51 48 68 59 550 (x-50) -1 0 15 8 -8 10 1 -2 18 9 ( x-x) = 50 (x-55)2 1 0 225 64 64 100 1 4 324 81 2 (x-x) =864
Research Methodology
Unit 12
S.D
= = = = = =
Discrete Series Standard deviation can be obtained by three methods. 1. Direct method 2. Short cut method 3. Step deviation Direct method Under this method formula is S.D = (fx) 2 / N - {(fx) / N}2 Calculate standard deviation for the following frequency distribution. Marks : 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency : 8 12 20 10 6 4 Marks 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency 8 12 20 10 6 4 60 S.D = = = = = = (FX) 2 / N {(FX) / N} 2 112200/60 {2460 / 60}2 2 1870 1870 1681 189 13.747 X2 400 900 1600 2500 3600 4900 fx 160 360 800 500 360 280 2460 Fx2 3200 10800 32000 25000 21600 19600 112200
Research Methodology
Unit 12
12.13.3 Correlation Analysis Economic and business variables are related. For instance, demand and supply of a commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls. Demand for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand and price are inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when its price rises. Supply of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply and price are directly related or positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables in which changes in the value of one variable is accompanies with a change in the value of other variable. According to L.R. Connor, if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that movements in the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the other(s) they are said to be correlated. W.I. King defined Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there exists some casual connection. The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in the value of one variable result in a corresponding change in the value of other variable. Heights and weights of a group of people, age of husbands and wives etc., are examples of bi-variant data that change together. Correlation and Causation Although, the term correlation is used in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause and effect relation. Even a high degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause and effect relationship between them. Correlation between two variables can be due to following reasons:(a) Cause and effect relationship: Heat and temperature are cause and effect variable. Heat is the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the temperature. (b) Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance, price of rice and price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any cause and effect relation between price of rice and price of sugar.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 175
Research Methodology
Unit 12
(c) Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is either a cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases when price rise due to increased demand. (d) The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show correlation between wages and productivity. That is, higher wage leading to lower productivity. In real life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to chance. (e) There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between two variables. For instance, relationship between number of divorces and television exports may be correlated. There cannot be any relationship between divorce and exports of television. The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship and it does not necessarily signify a cause and effect relationship between the variables. Types of Correlation Analysis Correlation can be: Positive or negative Linear or non-linear Simple, multiple or partial Positive and Negative Correlation When values of two variables move in the same direction, correlation is said to be positive. When prices rise, supply increases and when prices fall supply decreases. In this case, an increase in the value of one variable on an average, results in an increase in the value of other variable or decrease in the value on one variable on an average results in the decrease in the value of other variable. If on the other hand, values of two variables move in the opposite direction, correlation is said to be negative. When prices rise, demand decreases and when prices fall demand increases. In this case, an increase in the value of one variable on an average results in a decrease in the value of other variable. Linear and Non-Linear Correlation When the change in one variable leads to a constant ratio of change in the other variable, correlation is said to be linear. In case on linear correlation,
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 176
Research Methodology
Unit 12
points of correlation plotted on a graph will give a straight line. Correlation is said to be non-linear when the change in one variable is not accompanied by a constant ratio of change in the other variable. In case of non-linear correlation, points of correlation plotted on a graph do not give a straight line. It is called curvilinear correlation because graph of such correlation results in a curve. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlations Simple correlation studies relationship between two variables only. For instance, correlation between price and demand is simple as only two variables are studied in this case. Multiple correlation studies relationship of one variable with many variables. For instance, correlation of agricultural production with rainfall, fertilizer use and seed quality is a multiple correlation. Partial correlation studies the relationship of a variable with one of the many variables with which it is related. For instance, seed quality, temperature and rainfall are three variables, which determine yield of a crop. In this case, yield and rainfall is a partial correlation. Utility of Correlation Study of correlation is of immense practical use in business and economics. Correlation analysis enables us to measure the magnitude of relationship existing between variables under study. Once we establish correlation, we can estimate the value of one variable on the basis of the other. This is done with the help of regression equations. The correlation study is useful for formulation of economic policies. In economics, we are interested in finding the important dependant variables on the basis of independent variable. Correlation study helps us to make relatively more dependable forecasts Methods of Studying Correlation Following methods are used in the study of correlation: Scatter diagram Karl Pearson method of Correlation Spearmans Rank correlation method Concurrent Deviation method
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Scatter Diagram This is a graphical method of studying correlation between two variables. In scatter diagram, one variable is measured on the x-axis and the other is measured on the y-axis of the graph. Each pair of values is plotted on the graph by means of dot marks. If plotted points do not show any trend, two variables are not correlated. If the trend shows upward rising movement, correlation is positive. If the trend is downward sloping, correlation is negative. Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is a mathematical method for measuring correlation. Karl Pearson developed the correlation from the covariance between two sets of variables. Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is denoted by symbol r. The formula for obtaining Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is: Direct method
r Covariance betw een x and y SD , x SDy
Covariance between x and y = xy / N (x/N X y/N) SDx = standard deviation of x series = (x2 / N) (x/N) 2 SDy = standard deviation of y series = (y2 / N) (y/N) 2 Shortcut Method using Assumed Mean If short cut method is used using assumed mean, the formula for obtaining Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is: Covariance between x and y = dxdy / N (dx/N X dy/N) SDx = (dx2 / N) (dx /N) 2 SDy = (dy2 / N) (dy /N) 2
r dxdy / N (dx / N x dy / N (dx 2 / N) - (dx / N) 2 (dy 2 / N) - (dy / N) 2
Steps in calculating Karl Pearsons Correlation Coefficient using Shortcut Method Assume means of x and y series Take deviations of x and y series from assumed mean and get dx and dy
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 178
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Square the dx and dy and find the sum of squares and get dx2 and dy2. Multiply the corresponding deviations of x and y series and total the products to get dxdy. If the deviations are taken from the arithmetic mean dx = 0 and dy =0 and the formula becomes dxdy r dx 2 dy 2 Shortcut Method using Arithmetic Mean If short cut method is used using actual mean, the formula for obtaining Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is: dx dy r dx 2 dy 2 Interpreting Co-Efficient of Correlation The Co-Efficient of Correlation measures the correlation between two variables. The value of Co-Efficient of Correlation always lies between +1 and 1. It can be interpreted in the following ways. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 1 it is interpreted as perfect positive correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 1, it is interpreted as perfect negative correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0 < r < 0.5, it is interpreted as poor positive correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0.5 < r < 1, it is interpreted as good positive correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0 > r > -0.5, it is interpreted as poor negative correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0.5 > r > -1, it is interpreted as good negative correlation. If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0, it is interpreted as zero correlation.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Probable Error Probable Error of Correlation coefficient is estimated to find out the extent to which the value of r is dependable. If Probable Error is added to or subtracted from the correlation coefficient, it would give such limits within which we can reasonably expect the value of correlation to vary. If the coefficient of correlation is less than Probable Error it will not be significant. If the coefficient of correlation r is more than six times the Probable Error, correlation is definitely significant. If Probable Error is 0.5 or more, it is generally considered as significant. Probable Error is estimated by the following formula PE = 0.6745 (1- r2/ N) 12.13.4 Coefficient of Determination Besides probable error, another important method of interpreting coefficient of correlation is the Coefficient of Determination. Coefficient of Determination is the square of correlation or r2. For instance, suppose the coefficient of correlation between price and supply is 0.8. We calculate the coefficient of determination as r2, which is .82 or .64. It means that 64% of the variation in supply is on account of changes in price. Spearmans Rank Correlation Method Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist devised a method for measuring correlation between two variables based on ranks given to the observations. This method is adopted when the variables are not capable of quantitative measurements like intelligence, beauty etc. in such cases, it is impossible to assign numerical values for change taking place in such variables. It is in such cases rank correlation is useful. Spearmans rank correlation coefficient is given by rk = 1- 6 D2 / n (n2-1) Where D is the difference between ranks and n, number of pairs correlated. Concurrent Deviation Method In this method, correlation is calculated between direction of deviations and not their magnitudes. As such only the direction of deviations is taken into account in the calculation of this coefficient and their magnitude is ignored.
Research Methodology
Unit 12
The formula for the calculation of coefficient of concurrent deviations is given below: rc = +- 2C-n / n Steps in the Calculation of Concurrent Deviation Find out the direction of change of x-variable. When a successive figure in the series increase direction is marked as + and when a successive figure in the series decrease direction of change is marked as -. It is denoted as dx. Find out the change in direction of y-variable. It is denoted as dy. Multiply dx and dy and determine the value of C. C is the number of positive products of dxdy (- X - or + X +). Use the formula rc = +- 2C-n / nto obtain the value of coefficient of rc. Problems 1. Calculate Karl Pearsons co-efficient of correlation for the following data. X : 43 44 46 40 44 42 45 42 38 40 42 57 Y : 29 31 19 18 19 27 27 29 41 30 26 10 X 43 44 46 A(40) 44 42 45 42 38 40 42 57 Y 29 31 19 18 19 27 27 29 41 A(30) 26 10 dx 3 4 6 0 4 2 5 2 -2 0 2 17 43 dy -1 1 -11 -12 -11 -3 -3 -1 11 0 -4 -20 54 dx2 9 16 36 0 16 4 25 4 4 0 4 289 407 Dy2 1 1 121 144 121 9 9 1 121 0 16 400 944 -22 0 -8 -340 494 dxdy 3 4 -66 0 -44 -6 -15
Research Methodology
Unit 12
Direct method Covariance betw een x and y r SD x SD y Covariance between x and y = xy / N - (x/N X y/N) Dx = standard deviation of x series = (x2 / N) - (x/N) 2 Dy = standard deviation of y series = (y2 / N) - (y/N) 2 Shortcut Method using Assumed Mean If short cut method is used using assumed mean, the formula for obtaining Karl Pearsons Co-Efficient of Correlation is:
r Covariance betw een x and y D x D y
= = =
= = = = = =
Research Methodology
Unit 12
25.05 7.64
25.05 35.08
= 0.714 Interpretation: There is good positive correlation between x and y variable. Self Assessment Questions State whether the following statements are true or false: 1. Coding need not necessarily be numeric 2. A mere tabulation or frequency count or graphical representation of the variable may be given an alphabetic coding. 3. A coding of zero has to be assigned carefully to a variable.
12.14 Summary
Data processing is an intermediary stage of work between data collections and data interpretation. The various steps in processing of data may be stated as: o Identifying the data structures o Editing the data o Coding and classifying the data o Transcription of data o Tabulation of data. The identification of the nodal points and the relationships among the nodes could sometimes be a complex task than estimated. When the task is complex, which involves several types of instruments being collected for the same research question, the procedures for drawing the data structure would involve a series of steps. Data editing happens at two stages, one at the time of recording the data and second at the time of analysis of data. All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that the redefinition of variables or later analytical modification requirements could be easily incorporated into the data sets. The editing step checks for the completeness, accuracy and uniformity of the data set created by the researcher. The edited data are then subject to codification and
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 183
Research Methodology
Unit 12
classification. Coding process assigns numerals or other symbols to the several responses of the data set. It is therefore a pre-requisite to prepare a coding scheme for the data set. The recording of the data is done on the basis of this coding scheme. Numeric Coding: Coding need not necessarily be numeric. It can also be alphabetic. Coding has to be compulsorily numeric, when the variable is subject to further parametric analysis. Alphabetic Coding: A mere tabulation or frequency count or graphical representation of the variable may be given an alphabetic coding. Zero Coding: variable. A coding of zero has to be assigned carefully to a
The transcription of data can be used to summarize and arrange the data in compact form for further analysis. Computerized tabulation is easy with the help of software packages. Frequency tables provide a shorthand summary of data. The importance of presenting statistical data in tabular form needs no emphasis. The major components of a table are: o A Heading: o Table Number o Title of the Table o Designation of units o B Body o Stub-head, Heading of all rows or blocks of sub items o Body-head: Headings of all columns or main captions and their subcaptions. o Field/body: The cells in rows and columns. o C Notations: o Footnotes, wherever applicable. o Source, wherever applicable. Variables that are classified according to magnitude or size are often arranged in the form of a frequency table. In constructing this table, it is necessary to determine the number of class intervals to be used and the size of the class intervals. The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories: o Line Graphs or Charts o Bar Charts
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 184
Research Methodology
Unit 12
o o o o o o
Segmental presentations. Scatter plots Bubble charts Stock plots Pictographs Chesnokov Faces
Research Methodology
Unit 12
3. Section 12.4 4. section 12.5 5. Section 12.6 6. Section 12.6.1 to Section 12.6.2 7. Section 12.11 8. Section 12.9 9. Section 12.10 10. Section 12.11 11. Section 12.12 12. Section 12.12.1 13. Section 12.12.2
Research Methodology
Unit 13
Unit 13
Structure: 13.1 Meaning of Research Reports Objectives 13.1.1 Purpose of Research Report 13.1.2 Characteristics of Research Report 13.1.3 Functions of Research Report 13.2 Types of Research Report 13.2.1 Technical Report 13.2.2 Popular Report 13.2.3 Interim Report 13.2.4 Summary Reports 13.2.5 Research Abstract 13.2.6 Research Articles 13.3 Contents of Reports 13.4 Styles of Reporting 13.4.1 Communicate To Specific Audience 13.4.2 Structure the Presentation 13.4.3 Create Audience Interest 13.4.4 Be Specific and Visual 13.4.5 Address Validity and Reliability Issues 13.5 Steps in Drafting Reports 13.6 Editing the Final Draft 13.7 Evaluating the Final Drafts Self Assessment Questions 13.8 Summary 13.9 Terminal Questions 13.10 Answers To SAQs And TQs
Research Methodology
Unit 13
Objectives: After learning this lesson you should be able to understand: Purpose of Research Report Characteristics of Research Report Functions of Research Report Types of Research Report Contents of Reports Styles of Reporting Steps in Drafting Reports Editing the Final Draft Evaluating the Final Drafts 13.1.1 Purpose of Research Report The purpose of the research report is to communicate to interested persons the methodology and the results of the study in such a manner as to enable them to understand the research process and to determine its validity. The aim is not to convince but to convey what was done, why and what was its outcome. 13.1.2 Characteristics of Research Report Research report is a narrative and authoritative document on the outcome of a research effort. It represents highly specific information for a clearly designated audience. It is simple, readable and accurate form of communication. 13.1.3 Functions of Research Report It serves as a means for presenting the problem studied, methods and techniques used for collecting and analyzing data, findings and conclusions and recommendations. It serves as a basic reference material for future use. It is a means for judging the quality of research project. It is a means for evaluating researchers competency. It provides a systematic knowledge on problems and issues analyzed.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
These differ in terms of the degree of formality, physical form, scope, style and size. 13.2.1 Technical Reports In a technical report a comprehensive full report of the research process and its outcome are included. It covers all the aspects of the research process. A description of the problem studied, the objectives of the study, method and techniques used, a detailed account of sampling filed and other research procedures, sources of data, tools for data collection, methods of data processing and analysis, detailed findings and conclusions and suggestion. 13.2.2 Popular Reports In popular report the reader is less interested in the methodological details, but more interested in the findings of the study. Complicated statistics are avoided and pictorial devices are used. After a brief introduction to the problem and the objectives of the study, an abstract of the findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations are presented. More headline, underlining pictures and graphs may be used. Sentences and paragraphs should be short. 13.2.3 Interim Report When there is a time lag between data collection and presentation of the result, the study may lose significance and usefulness. An interim report in such case can narrate what has been done so far and what was its outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that part of analysis which has been completed. 13.2.4 Summary Reports Summary report is meant for lay audience i.e., the general pubic. It is written in non-technical, simple language with pictorial charts that just contains objectives, findings and its implications. It is a short report of two to three pages. 13.2.5 Research Abstract Research abstract is a short summary of technical report. It is prepared by a doctoral student on the eve of submitting his thesis. It contains a brief
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 189
Research Methodology
Unit 13
presentation of the statement of the problem, the objectives of the study, methods and techniques used and an overview of the report. A brief summary of the results of the study may also be used. 13.2.6 Research Article Research article is designed for publication in a professional journal. A research article must be clearly written in concise unambiguous language. It must be logically organized. Progression from a statement of a problem and purpose of the study, through analysis of evidence to the conclusions and implications are given in the report.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
Sources of data Sampling plan Data collection instruments Field work Data processing and analysis plan Overview of the report Limitation of the study Results: findings and discussions Summary, conclusions and recommendations
III. Reference Material Bibliography Appendix Copies of data collection instruments Technical details on sampling plan Complex tables Glossary of new terms used.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
section can convey the nature of the contents, which certain audiences may bypass. In an oral presentation, the presence of multiple audiences should be recognized. 13.4.2 Structure the Presentation Each piece of presentation should fit into the whole, just as individual pieces fit into a jigsaw puzzle. The audience should not be muttering. The solution to this is to provide a well-defined structure. The structure should include an introduction, a body, and a summary. Further, each of the major sections should be structured similarly. The precept is to tell the audience what you are going to say, say it and then tell them what you said. Sometimes you want to withhold the conclusion to create interest. Introduction should play several roles. First, it should provide audience interest. A second function is to identify the presentations central idea or objective. Third, it should provide a road map to the rest of the presentation so that the audience can picture its organisation and flow. It is better to divide the body of the presentation into two to five parts. The audience will be able to absorb only so much information. If that information can be aggregated into chunks, it will be easier to assimilate. Sometimes the points to be made cannot be combined easily or naturally. In that case, it is necessary to use a longer list. One way to structure the presentation is by the research questions. Another method that is often useful when presenting the research proposal is to base it on the research process. The most useful presentations will include a statement of implications and recommendations relevant to the research purpose. However, when researcher lacks information about the total situation because the research study addresses only a limited aspect of it, the ability to generate recommendations may be limited. The purpose of the presentation summary is to identify and underline the important points of the presentations and to provide some repetition of their content. The summary should support the presentation communication objectives by helping the audience to retain the key parts of the content. The audience should feel that there is a natural flow from one section to another.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
13.4.3 Create Audience Interest The audience should be motivated to read or listen to the presentations major parts and to the individual elements of each section the audience should know why the presentation is relevant to them and why each section was included. A section that cannot hold interest should be excluded or relegated to appendix. The research purpose and objectives are good vehicles to provide motivation. The research purpose should specify decisions to be made and should relate to the research questions. A presentation that focuses on those research questions and their associated hypothesis will naturally be tied to relevant decisions and hold audience interest. In contrast, a presentation that attempts to report on all the questions that were included in the survey and in the cross-tabulations often will be long, uninteresting and of little value. As the analysis proceeds and presentation is being prepared, the researcher should be on the lookout for results that are exceptionally persuasive, relevant, interesting, and unusual. Sometimes, the deviant respondent with strange answers can provide the most insight in his or her responses that are pursued and not discarded. 13.4.4 Be Specific and Visual Avoid taking or writing in the abstract. If different members of the audience have different or vague understandings of important concepts, there is a potential problem. Terms that are ambiguous or not well known should be defined and illustrated or else omitted. The most interesting presentations usually use specific stories, anecdotes, studies, or incidents to make points. 13.4.5 Address Validity and Reliability Issues The presentation should help the audience avoid misinterpreting the results. The wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked, and the sampling design are among the design dimensions that can lead to biased results and misinterpretations. The presentation should not include an exhaustive description of all the design considerations. Nobody is interested in a textbook discussion of the advantages of telephone over mail surveys, or how you locate homes in an area sampling design.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
The presentation should include some indication of the reliability of the results. At the minimum, it always should be clear what sample size was involved. The key results should be supported by more precise information in the form of interval estimates or a hypothesis test. The hypothesis test basically indicates, given the sample size, what probability exists that the results were merely an accident of sampling. If the probability of the latter is not low, then the results probably would not be repeated. Do not imply more precision than is warranted.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
Centred section heading is provided in the centre of the page and is usually in solid font size. It is separated from other textual material by two or three line space. Marginal heading is used for a subdivision in each section. It starts from the left side margin without leaving any space. Paragraph heading is used to head an important aspect of the subject matter discussed in a subdivision. There is some space between the margin and this heading. Presentation should be free form spelling and grammar errors. If the writer is not strong in grammar, get the manuscript corrected by a language expert. Use the rules of punctuations. Use present tense for presenting the findings of the study and for stating generalizations. Do not use masculine nouns and pronouns when the content refers to both the genders. Do not abbreviate words in the text; spell out them in full. Footnote citation is indicated by placing an index number, i.e., a superscript or numeral, at the point of reference. Reference style should have a clear format and used consistently.
Research Methodology
Unit 13
Use informative headings. Use double-sided presentation if possible. For example, tables or graphs could be presented on the left side of an open report and their descriptions on the right side.
Self Assessment Questions I State whether the following statements are true or false: 1. Research report is a means for communicating research experience to others. 2. The purpose of the research report is to communicate to interested persons the methodology and the results of the study. 3. Research report is a narrative and authoritative document.
13.8 Summary
Research report is a means for communicating research experience to others. The purpose of the research report is to communicate to interested persons the methodology and the results of the study in such a manner as to enable them to understand the research process and to determine its validity. Research report is a narrative and authoritative document on the outcome of a research effort. It represents highly specific information for a clearly designated audience. It serves as a means for presenting the problem studied, methods and techniques used for collecting and analyzing data, findings and conclusions and recommendations. It serves as a basic reference material for future use. It is a means for judging the quality of research project. It is a means for evaluating researchers competency. It provides a systematic knowledge on problems and issues analyzed. In a technical report a comprehensive full report of the research process and its outcome. It covers all the aspects of the research process. In popular report the reader is less interested in the methodological details, but more interested in the findings of the study. An interim report in such case can narrate what has been done so far and what was its outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that part of analysis which has been completed. Summary report is meant for lay audience i.e., the general pubic. It is written in non-technical, simple language with pictorial charts it just contains objectives, findings and its implications. It is a short report of two to three pages. Research abstract is a short summary of technical report. It is
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 196
Research Methodology
Unit 13
prepared by a doctoral student on the eve of submitting his thesis. Research article is designed for publication in a professional journal. A research article must be clearly written in concise and unambiguous language.
Research Methodology
Unit 14
Unit 14
Ethics in Research
Structure: 14.1 Introduction Objectives 14.2 Meaning of Research Ethics 14.3 Ethical Issues in the Overall Research Process 14.4 Ethical Issues in Gaining Access to Participants 14.5 Ethical Issues in Data Collection 14.6 Ethical Issues related to Data Analysis & Reporting 14.7 Ethically Questionable Research Situations 14.8 Responsibility for Ethics in Research Responsibilities of Clients Responsibilities of Suppliers of Research Self Assessment Questions 14.9 Summary 14.10 Terminal Questions 14.11 Answers to SAQs and TQs
14.1 Introduction
Apart from being well designed and accurate, one of the most important characteristics of good research is that it should be conducted in an appropriate manner that does not encroach upon the rights of the various parties involved in the process. In other words, research should not have an adverse impact either on clients, respondents or on those conducting the actual research. This final unit will begin by defining ethics in research and will go on to emphasize that ethical research is the responsibility of both clients and suppliers of research. The various types of ethical issues that could arise during the different stages of the research process will also be examined in detail. Objectives: After studying this unit, you should be able to : Explain what is meant by ethical research Describe the main ethical issues that could arise in the research process Prepare a code of ethics for the conduct of research Recognize how ethical research contributes to better quality research
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 198
Research Methodology
Unit 14
14.2
According to Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill (2003), ethics in a research context refers to the appropriateness of your behavior in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of your work, or are affected by it. Wells (1994) defines ethics as a code of behavior appropriate to academics and the conduct of research. In simple words, ethics in research refers to whether a particular practice or behavior is right or wrong. The appropriateness of behavior means that your behavior as a researcher should be acceptable to those who are involved in the research process. This in turn will depend on broad social norms, or the type of behavior that is expected in a particular situation. A code of ethics is essentially a set of guidelines and procedures to be followed when conducting research. Every industry and profession has its own code of ethics.
14.3
Ethical issues in research may be broadly classified into 1) general issues that may arise during any stage of the research process and 2) issues that arise during a specific stage of the research process. The most important ethical concern that may crop up across the various stages of research is the invasion of privacy of participants or respondents of a research study. Invasion of privacy is essentially a violation of any of the following rights of respondents The right of respondents not to participate in a research study The right to refuse to participate beyond a certain limit Example A respondent may refuse to participate in an interview beyond an agreed duration or time limit. The right to refuse to be contacted during unreasonable times of the day Example Respondents would not like to be contacted at their workplace during working hours or late at night. The right to refuse to answer any questions that are perceived to be sensitive or of a confidential nature Examples A respondent may not want to reveal his/her monthly income or expenditure.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 199
Research Methodology
Unit 14
Some respondents may find questions related to religion or political ideology to be too sensitive. The right to retain their anonymity and the confidentiality of information provided, especially when reporting the findings of the study .
Research Methodology
Unit 14
14.5
A number of ethical issues may also arise during the data collection stage, irrespective of the method used to gather data. A key issue during this stage is to maintain objectivity. Objectivity means that you have to record information without being selective or influencing the responses with your own opinions and judgments. Lack of objectivity will lead to interviewer bias and affect the accuracy of data. Each method of data collection also gives rise to different ethical concerns. For example, during face to face interviews, you should not force participants to provide answers. The questions asked should also be tactfully worded and should not come across as sensitive. The time should be fixed depending on the convenience of the participant. In the case of telephone interviews, the respondents should not be contacted at unreasonable times of the day, as mentioned earlier. When using observation as a method of data collection, care should be taken not to invade the privacy of those being observed. For example, you should not observe any behavior related to the private life of the participants. Similarly, when using qualitative research methods such as in-depth interviews and projective techniques, researchers should take care not to probe into the private lives of respondents or try to get information on personal matters such as religion or political ideology. Another ethical concern of a general nature includes the use of the Internet to collect both primary and secondary data. A separate code of ethical use of the Internet, popularly known as netiquette needs to be developed and strictly followed for this purpose. While the internet may make it easier to contact respondents more easily and repeatedly, it may also lead to greater invasion of privacy. One example of observing netiquette is to administer online surveys or questionnaires via a website, rather than via email. The questionnaire may be advertised on email and the respondents invited to fill in an online questionnaire by accessing a website. This method ensures that respondents retain their anonymity.
Research Methodology
Unit 14
14.6 Ethical Issues during the Data Analysis & Reporting stages
Being objective is a major ethical issue during the data analysis and reporting stages as well and is a reflection of the honesty and integrity of the researcher. This means that the statistical accuracy of the data gathered should not be misrepresented. The researcher should also not be selective in reporting only some of the data at the cost of other data. Such subjectivity will distort the conclusions and recommendations made after the research has been completed. The issue of confidentiality and anonymity that was discussed earlier is also equally important during this stage. Sometimes you may have to seek permission from an organization before revealing their name while reporting your findings. This may involve explaining to them the context in which their name would be used. The same caution needs to be exercised when naming particular individuals is true of individuals
Research Methodology
Unit 14
Seeking the co-operation of respondents by promising to give feedback on the research results and then not keeping up the promise. Specifying certain techniques to be used in a study and then failing to apply these techniques. Using hidden tape recorders and other devices when conducting depth interviews and other qualitative techniques to probe into respondents motivations. Conducting research under a false or fictitious name, in order to obtain information that would be difficult to get otherwise. Accepting to undertake a research study, fully knowing that it cannot be completed on time. Including questions developed for one clients questionnaire for another client, without getting the permission of the first client.
Research Methodology
Unit 14
Example A study may reveal that 97% of respondents did not express their preference for any particular brand, 2% preferred brand A and the remaining 1% preferred brand B. Based on these results, a marketer of a particular brand of detergent A should not claim that a majority of respondents favored brand A as compared to another brand B. 14.8.2 Responsibilities of Suppliers of Research The bulk of the responsibility for ethical research lies with the researcher. The researcher may be an individual or an organization, such as an independent research firm that supplies research studies to client companies. This is because it is the researcher who deals directly with participants of a study as well as with clients. The researcher has responsibilities towards all the parties involved in the research process, including clients, respondents, competitors and society at large. The primary responsibilities of the researcher towards clients are honesty, integrity and confidentiality. For example, if the research can be done with less money than what the client has available, it would be dishonest to inflate the cost just to match the clients budget. The same is true of time constraints. Confidentiality means not revealing the findings of the research to the clients competitors. The researchers responsibility towards respondents includes respecting their time and their privacy. Researchers doing telephone surveys in particular call respondents at odd hours of the day to obtain various kinds of information. Some researchers even conduct fake surveys that deceive respondents by delivering a sales pitch. This is tantamount to abuse of respondents. As emphasized earlier in this chapter, respondents have various rights, including the right to choose not to participate in a study, the right to safety, including the desire to remain anonymous and free from physical or psychological harm and the right to be informed about the sponsor of the study, its purpose and its impact on them as participants. Regarding the researchers responsibilities towards competitors, the researcher has to work within ethical limits. For example, espionage or
Research Methodology
Unit 14
stealing product information from competitors is clearly unethical. Other examples of situations that are unethical include Developing a strategy to distort the results of a competitors test marketing experiment. Hiring a competitors employee in order to gain access to competitor information Finally, researchers have an ethical responsibility to society at large. This implies that it is up to researchers to build a positive image of research as a profession in the eyes of the general public. This can best be achieved by being honest and objective, both while conducting the research and when disseminating the results to society at large. Failure to observe these ethical principles will only lead to a negative attitude towards research by the public. Self Assessment Questions Are the following statements true or false? 1. One of the rights of respondents is to refuse to be contacted over the telephone. 2. Participants of a study should be informed about the sampling procedure before getting their consent. 3. Filling in incomplete answers in a questionnaire is an example of lack of objectivity. 4. Observation is not an ethical method of data collection. 5. Confidentiality implies that you may have to change the name of the organization that was researched when reporting the findings. 6. Using cameras to observe respondents reactions to advertisements is unethical. 7. The bulk of responsibility for ethical research lies with clients or managers. 8. It is ethical for top management to modify the findings of a study to highlight the strengths of the organization.
14.9 Summary
Ethics in the context of research refers to whether a researchers behavior is appropriate and acceptable to all the parties that are involved in the
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 205
Research Methodology
Unit 14
research process. These include clients, participants of a study, competitors and society at large. Ethical issues in research may crop up during the overall research process or at a specific stage of the research. Some of the ethical concerns that arise during the overall process are with regard to the rights of respondents. It is unethical to violate the rights of respondents such as the right to privacy, the right to confidentiality and anonymity and the right to refuse to participate in a study. While trying to gain initial access to participants of a study, it is important to get their informed consent. This means getting their consent to participate based on complete information on various aspects of the research, including the purpose of the study, the type of information that will be gathered, how it will be gathered, how it will be reported and used, etc. Regarding the data collection stage, each method of data collection gives rise to different ethical concerns. While administering questions face to face, care must be taken to avoid sensitive questions and to word questions tactfully. Telephone interviewers must refrain from calling participants at odd times of the day. While using observation and qualitative research techniques, researchers should avoid probing into the private lives of participants. Similarly, when using the internet to collect primary data, researchers should not invade the privacy of respondents. During the data analysis and reporting stages, the primary ethical concerns are objectivity, confidentiality and anonymity. Objectivity means reporting the statistical accuracy of the data and the findings of the study without distorting them. Confidentiality and anonymity imply that the permission of organizations or individuals would have to be sought before revealing their names and identities. Research situations and practices that are manipulated, have ulterior motives, or try to deceive respondents are clearly unethical. The responsibility for ethical research lies with respondents, clients and researchers. However, respondents have minimal responsibilities for ethical research, while researchers have the maximum number of responsibilities. The responsibilities of respondents and clients include honesty respondents are expected to be honest while providing information, while
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 206
Research Methodology
Unit 14
clients need to be honest regarding the purpose of the research. The researcher has ethical responsibilities towards clients, including honesty regarding the cost and time involved in conducting the study and objectivity in collecting, analyzing and reporting the data, Responsibilities toward respondents include being honest and respecting their various rights. Responsibilities towards competitors include avoiding practices such as stealing confidential information. Finally, researchers also have responsibilities towards society at large in terms of building a positive image of the research profession.
Research Methodology
Unit 14
TQs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Refer 14.3 Refer 14.4 Refer 14.5 Refer 14.7 Refer 14.8.1
Research Methodology
Unit 14
References: 1. Krishnaswamy O.R., Methodology of Research in Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing House, 1993 2. Saunders M., Lewis P. and Thornhill A., Research Methods for Business Students, Pearson Education (Singapore), 2003. 3. R. Pannershelvam, Research Methodology, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2004. 4. P. L. Bhandarkar and T. S. Wilkinson, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi. 5. Ackoff R. L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago, 1953.