CRYSTAL STRUCTURES In an assembly of atoms or molecules a solid phase is formed whenever the interatomic (intermolecular) attractive forces significantly

exceed the disruptive thermal forces and thus restrict the mobility of atoms, forcing them into more or less fixed positions. From energy considerations it is evident that in such solids the atoms or molecules will always attempt to assume highly ordered structures which are characterized by symmetry. Depending on the nature of the acting interatomic forces, all solids may be subdivided into: a) b) c) d) Ionic solids (NaCl) Covalent solids (Diamond) Metallic solids (Fe, Ni, etc.) Van der Waals solids (Ice, solid He)

A crystal structure is an arrangement of atoms or molecules. The regular external shape is obtained only when the conditions of crystallization are favourable to development of flat, geometric faces. In most instances, particularly with metals, these conditions are absent, and the crystals have irregular surfaces even though the internal arrangement is perfectly geometric. A space lattice is an arrangement of points in space such that that every point has identical surroundings: the grouping of lattice points about any given point is identical to the grouping of any other point in the lattice. There are 14 space lattices (formed of unit cells), that is, there are no more than 14 ways in which points can be arranged in space so that each point has identical surroundings.

PACKING OF ATOMS

CRYSTAL PLANES

Distance between planes depends on the crystal type:

X-RAYS

The wavelength of these emissions is determined by the Rydberg equation, with becoming , to reflect electron shielding effects: ( )

WAVE DIFFRACTION AND BRAGGS LAW

STRUCTURE FACTORS Radiation peaks occur at angles that cause constructive interference between reflecting X-ray waves. Some lattice types have planes which do not produce diffraction at any angle.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES TO X-RAY DIFFRACTION