Indian Dance

An orientation
ver α
For Komal
Sharma
 “Aangikam Bhuvanamyasya
Vaachikam Sarva Vaangmayam
Aahaaaryam Chadrataaraadi Tam
Numaha Saattvikam Shivam”

We bow to shiva whose body is the universe,

whose speech is the universal language & whose ornaments are
moon & stars
Being three
dimensional, dance
is perhaps the only
art, which has the
capacity to
incorporate the
essential elements
of all the other
sister arts and to
become a
complete,
The integration of
indian culture with
dance
can be gauged by
the fact that many
avatars
or depictions of
popular deities like
shiva, vishnu,
Durga(kali) and
 Nataraj
In "the lord of dance" are
revealed both faces of dance -
'lasya' and 'tandava', of which
all subsequent dance forms are
offshoots.

'Lasya', the dance of aesthetic

delight revealed beauty, grace,
love and all tender aspects of
existence. 'Lasya' is the mode
that defined many of Shiva's
iconographic forms - Kalyana-
Sundara, Vrashavahana,
Yogeshvara, Katyavalambita,
Sukhasanamurti,
The term lasya, in the
context of Hindu
mythology, describes
an extremely feminine,
graceful and fluid type
of dance that the
goddess Parvati
performed. It was as a
response to the male
energy of the cosmic
dance of Tandava
performed by Shiva,
and was performed
Tāndava or Tāndava nṛtya, the divine art form, is a dance performed
by the Hindu god Shiva. According to Hindu mythology, Shiva’s
Tandava is a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of
creation, preservation and dissolution. While the Rudra Tandava
depicts his violent nature, first as the creator and later as the
destroyer of the universe, even of death itself; the Ananda Tandava
depicts him as the enjoyer of his creation - the universe. In Indian
tradition, Lord Shiva as Nataraja (lit. "Lord of dance") is the supreme
lord of dance.

The Tandava takes its name from Tandu, the attendant of Shiva, who
instructed Bharata (author of the Natya Shastra) in the use of
Angaharas and Karanas, modes of the Tandava at Shiva's order. Some
scholars consider that Tandu himself must have been the author of an
earlier work on the dramatic arts, which was incorporated into the
Natya Shastra. Indeed, the classical arts of dance, music and song
A cobra uncoils from his lower right forearm,
and the crescent moon and a skull are on his
crest. He dances within an arch of flames.
This dance is called the Dance of Bliss,
ananda tandava.
The upper right hand holds a small drum
shaped like an hourglass that is called a
ḍamaru in Sanskrit.
A specific hand gesture (mudra) called
ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is
used to hold the drum.it symbolizes sound
originating creation.
The upper left hand contains Agni or fire,
which signifies destruction. The opposing
concepts in the upper hands show the
counterpoise of creation and destruction.
The second right hand shows the Abhaya
mudra (meaning fearlessness in Sanskrit),
bestowing protection from both evil and
ignorance to those who follow the
righteousness of dharma.
The second left hand points towards the
raised foot which signifies upliftment and
liberation.
The dwarf on which Nataraja dances is the
demon Apasmara, which symbolises Shiva's
victory over ignorance.
As the Lord of Dance, Nataraja, Shiva
performs the tandava, the dance in which the
universe is created, maintained, and resolved.
Shiva's long, matted tresses, usually piled up
in a knot, loosen during the dance and crash
into the heavenly bodies, knocking them off
course or destroying them utterly.
The surrounding flames represent the
The dance is a pictorial allegory of the five principal

manifestations of eternal energy:

'Shrishti' - creation,
evolution

'Sthiti' - preservation,
support

'Samhara' –
destruction,evolution

'Tirobhava' - illusion
'Anugraha' - release,
emancipation, grace
The dance performed by Goddess
Parvati in response to Shiva's
Tandava is known as Lasya, in which
the movements are gentle, graceful
and sometimes erotic. Some scholars
consider Lasya to be the feminine
version of Tandava. Lasya has 2
kinds, Jarita Lasya and Yauvaka
Lasya.
 Classical
Each form represents the culture and
ethos of a particular region or a
group of people. The criteria for
being considered as classical is the
style's adherence to the guidelines
laid down in Natyashastra by the
sage Bharata Muni, which explains
the Indian art of acting. Acting or
natya is a broad concept which
encompasses both drama and dance.
Indian classical
dance is a
relatively new
umbrella term for
various codified
art forms rooted
in Natya, the
sacred Hindu
musical theatre
styles, whose
theory can be
traced back to
the Natya
 forms
• Dances performed inside the sanctum of the
temple according to the rituals were called
Agama Nartanam. This was a spiritual dance
form.
• Dances performed in royal courts to the
accompaniment of classical music were
called Carnatakam. This was an intellectual
art form.
• Darbari Aattam form of dance appealed
more to the commoners and it educated
them about their religion, culture and social
life. These dances were performed outside
• For lack of any better equivalents in the
European culture, the British colonial
authorities called any performing art forms
found in India as "Indian dance". Even
though the art of Natya includes nritta, or
dance proper, Natya has never been limited
to dancing and includes singing, abhinaya
(mime acting). These features are common
to all the Indian classical styles.
• A very important feature of Indian classical
dances is the use of the mudra or hand
gestures by the artists as a short-hand sign
language to narrate a story and to
demonstrate certain concepts such as
 Classical Classification
• Bharatanatyam - Tamil Classical
Dance
• Odissi - Orissa Classical dance
• Kuchipudi - Telugu Classical dance
• Manipuri - Manipur Classical Dance
• Mohiniaattam - Kerala Classical
Dance
• Sattriya - Asamese Classical Dance
• Kathakali - Malayalam Classical
• Out of the 8 styles, the most ancient ones
and the ones that have their origin in
Agama Nartanam are Bharatanatyam and
Odissi. These two most faithfully adhere to
the Natya Shastra but do not include
Vaachikaabhinaya (dialog acts).
• Kuchipudi and Mohiniaattam are relatively
recent Darbari Aatam forms, just as
Kathakali, and two eastern Indian styles,
Manipuri and Sattriya, that are quite similar.
Kathak was influenced in the Mughal period
by various other dance forms, including
 karanas
• Karanas are the 108 key transitions
in the classical Indian dance
described in Natya Shastra. Karana is
a Sanskrit verbal noun, meaning
"doing". Natya Shastra states that
Karanas are the framework for the
"margi" (pan-Indian classical)
productions which are supposed to
spiritually enlighten the spectators,
as opposed to the "desi" (regional
folk or pop dance) productions which
• Some of the well-known interpretations of karanas are
by Padma Subrahmanyam that were based on 108
brief movement phrases describing specific leg, hip,
body, and arm movements accompanied by hasta
mudras described in the Natya shastra and other
scriptures, and from depictions of the movements in
sculpture in five South Indian temples, notably the
Chidambaram temple which contains depictions of the
full set. Some other Bharatanatyam gurus, such as
Adyar Lakshman (Kalakshetra school) and Sheela
Unnikrishnan (Mangudi school), as well as the
Kuchipudi gurus C.R.Acharya and Vempati Chinna
Satyam have also attempted to reconstruct all the 108
karanas, which were often significantly different from
Padma Subrahmanyam's interpretations.
 vacancy
• While there are still some elderly
devadasis who perform all the 108
karanas, in most contemporary
Bharatanatyam or Odissi schools only
50-60 karanas have been transmitted
by parampara up to date.
• Apart from that, performing of the same
karana differ greatly across different
classical Indian styles. Currently, as
regards the exact technique, there are
no established standards and no
universally agreed upon interpretations
Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam is a
classic dance form
originating in Tamil
Nadu, a state in South
India and is also the
National Dance of
India. This dance form
is a 20th century
reconstruction of
Cathir, the art of
temple dancers. Cathir
in turn, is derived from
ancient dance forms.
Bharatanatyam is
usually accompanied
• It is believed to be India's oldest form of
classical dance. This dance form, which is called
poetry in motion, has its hoary origins in the
natya sastra written about 4000 BC by sage
Bharatha. This art form grossly disallows new
fangled innovations or gimmicks except in
repertoire and forms of presentation. It was
originally called as 'dasi attam,' a temple art
performed by young women named
'Devadasies.'
Bharathanatyam is commonly performed by
women, but sometimes by men also. There are
strict guidelines laid down regarding every
single aspect of the art including the attributes
BHAva (expression)
RAga (musical mode) +
TAla (rhythm)
NATYAM (dance)

= BHARATANATYAM
• Bharatanatyam, in Balasaraswati's words, is an artistic
yoga for revealing the spiritual through the corporeal.
It is the most popular Indian classical dance in South
India, and the most ancient of all the classical dance
forms. The term "Bharatanatyam" was used by
Purandara Dasa (1484-1564). Later, Ghanam
Krishnayyar's songs speak about a devadasi as an
expert at Bharatanatyam. Subramania Bharathi also
mentions Bharatanatyam. Some believe the term
"Bharatanatyam" partly owes its name to sage
Bharata who wrote the fundamental text on the
technique of Natya, classical Indian dance theatre,
traces of which persist in Bharata natyam, Odissi,
Mohiniattam and Kuchipudi, and, so some extent,
Kathak.  In Tamil Nadu, Natya was called Koothu,
Aadal, Nrittam, Layam, Nartanam, Natam and by other
names.
• According to Natya Shastra, Brahma created
the Panchamaveda, the Fifth Veda
(NatyaVeda), a quintessence of the main
four Vedas, and gave it to Indra to have the
gods (devas) to perform natya, but Indra
stated, "They are neither able to receive it
and to maintain it, nor they are fit to
understand it and make use of it... The
sages who know the mystery of the 4 Vedas
and have fulfilled their vows are capable of
maintaining NatyaVeda and putting it into
practice". Obeying the fiat of Lord Brahma,
sage Bharata wrote down Natyashastra.
Bharata together with his 100 disciples and
• In ancient times it was performed as dasiattam by temple Devadasis in various
parts of Tamil Nadu. Many of the ancient sculptures in Hindu temples are based
on Bharata Natyam dance postures karanas. In fact, it is the celestial dancers,
apsaras, who are depicted in many scriptures dancing the heavenly version of
what is known on earth as Bharatanatyam. In the most essential sense, a Hindu
deity is a revered royal guest in his temple/abode, to be offered a standard set
of religious services called Sodasa Upacharas ("sixteen hospitalities") among
which are music and dance, pleasing to the senses. Thus, many Hindu temples
traditionally maintained complements of trained musicians and dancers, as did
Indian rulers. A few believe Bharatanatyam traces its origins to the Natya
Shastra written by Bharata Muni (c. 400 BCE - 200 BCE), a Hindu sage.
• Bharatanatyam as a dance form and carnatic music set to it are deeply
grounded in Bhakti. The word 'Bharat' is made up of three Sanskrit terms:
Bhaav meaning emotion, Raag meaning music, and Taal meaning rhythm. The
word Natyam means drama. The two words together describe this dance form.
Bharatanatyam, it is said, is the embodiment of music in visual form, a
ceremony, and an act of devotion. Dance and music are inseparable forms; only
with Sangeetam (words or syllables set to raga or melody) can dance be
conceptualized..
 essence
• Bharatanatyam is considered to be a
fire-dance — the mystic manifestation
of the metaphysical element of fire in
the human body. It is one of the five
major styles (one for each element)
that include Odissi (element of water),
and Mohiniattam (element of air). The
movements of an authentic
Bharatanatyam dancer resemble the
movements of a dancing flame.
Contemporary Bharatanatyam is rarely
practiced as Natya Yoga, a sacred
meditational tradition, except by a few
 woman
Bharatanatyam is the manifestation of the
ancient idea of the celebration of the
eternal universe through the celebration of
the beauty of the material body. Some
Bharatanatyam techniques can be traced
back to the Kaisiki style. Natya Shastra
(I.44) reads, "... I have seen the Kaisiki style
during the dance of the blue-throated lord
(Shiva). It consists of elaborate gestures
(Mridu Angaharas, movements of limbs),
sentiments (Rasas), emotional states
(Bhavas). Actions (Kriyas) are its soul. The
costume should be charmingly beautiful and
love (Sringara) is its foundation. It cannot be
 முயலக

Apart from the Kaisiki style, Bharatanatyam imbibed some others.

These reflect other yogis spiritual revelations, such as the vision of
two sages, Vyagrapada and Pathanjali in Chidambaram. In Hindu
mythology the whole universe is the dance of the Supreme
Dancer, Nataraja, a name for Lord Shiva, the Hindu ascetic yogi
and divine purveyor of destruction of evil. The symbolism of the
dance of Shiva (in the form of Nataraja) is represented by the
attitude called "Ananda Tandavam". Also known as the cosmic
dancer, he is here the embodiment and manifestation of the
eternal energy in five activities (panca-kriya): creation, pouring
forth, unfolding; maintenance or duration (sthiti); destruction or
taking back (smhara); concealing, veiling, hiding the
transcendental essence behind the garb of apparations
(tirobhava); and favoring, bestowing grace through a
manifestation that accepts the devotee (anugraha). Shiva is
depicted dancing on the dwarfish body of the demon Apasmara
purusa, "forgetfulness, loss of memory" called in Tamil Muyalaka
(முயலக ) -- who represents ignorance, the destruction of
which brings enlightenment, true wisdom, and release from the
bondage of existences.
 the decline of dance
• Local kings often invited temple dancers (devadasi) to
dance in their courts, the occurrence of which created
a new category of dancers -- rajanarthakis -- and
modified the technique and themes of the recitals. A
devadasi had to satisfy her own soul while she danced
unwatched and offered herself (surrendered) to the
Lord, but the rajanarthaki's dance was meant to be an
entertainment.
• Although most of the Tamil contemporary
Bharatanatyam ballets are popularly viewed as a form
of entertainment, the Natya Shastra-based dance
styles were sacred Hindu ceremonies originally
conceived in order to spiritually elevate the
spectators. Bharatanatyam proper is a solo dance,
with two aspects, lasya, the graceful feminine lines
and movements, and tandava(Sanskrit) Ananda
Thandavam (Tamil) (the dance of Shiva), masculine
 tanjore
• the Tanjore Court, during the rule of
Maratha King Saraboji II (1798-
1832), made a rich contribution to
music and Bharatanatyam and also
completed the process of re-editing
the Bharathanatyam programme
into its present shape with its
various items. The descendants of
these four brothers formed the
original stock of Nattuvanars or
dance teachers of Bharatanatyam
in Tanjore. Originally, they formed a
community by themselves and
most of them were Shaivite non-
brahmins. The fall of the Hindu
kingdoms in the South marked the
eventual decline of Natya, as the
Muslum invasion in the North has
completely wiped out Natya there.
The sacred dance, one of the
constituents of the Sodasa
 Rebirth baby I don’t know
E.Krishna Iyer was one of those who raised the social
status of Bharatanatyam and greatly popularized it.
Rukmini Devi Arundale was also instrumental in
modifying mainly the Pandanallur style of
Bharatanatyam and bringing it to the attention of the
West. She introduced group performances and staged
various Bharatanatyam-based ballets. According to
Shri Sankara Menon, Rukmini Devi raised
Bharatanatyam to a puritan art form, divorced from its
recently controversial past by "removing objectionable
elements" (mostly, the Sringara, certain emotional
elements evocative of the erotic, such as hip and
chest movements) from the Pandanallur style, which
was publicly criticized by Balasaraswati and other
representatives of the traditional devadasi culture. Not
all love was portrayed, at least outside parameters
considered "chaste". Balasaraswati said that "the
• While the Pandanallur style, Tanjore
or Thanjavur, Vazhuvoor, Mysore,
Kancheepuram were based on the art
of rajadasis and are exoteric in
nature, some others, like the
Melattur style and Balasaraswati's
style grew out of the devadasis'
distinctly different esoteric art.
It is worth noting
that most of the
contemporary
Bharatanatyam
dancers do not
satisfy the criteria
for a professional
dancers stated in
the scriptures.
 A class case study
Classical Technique
Abhinaya or Natya - dramatic art of
story-telling in Bharatanatyam
Nritta - pure dance movements, as a
medium of visual depiction of
rhythms
Nritya combination of abhinaya and
nritta
 karanas
• Karanas are the 108 key
transitional movements that
punctuate Bharatanatyam
and other classical Indian
dances. Most of these 108
Karanas have a central,
static pose as a base, i.e.
the dancer is usually
supposed to stop and
maintain it for a very brief
 Sophisticated hell yeah
A distinctive feature of Bharata Natyam Dance is the use
of expressive hand gestures as a way of
communication. Hastas refers to the varieties of hand
symbols that a dancer can use. Many of these hand
gestures are well known. For example, Anjali is often
used as a salutation when a person greets another
person. There are two types of Hastas : Asamyukta
and Samyukta (single and combined, respectively).
Abhinayadarpanam describes 28 Asamyukta
Hastas(Pataka, Tripataka, Ardhapataka,
Karktarimukha, Mayuryakyo, Ardhachandrashya, Arala,
Shukatundako, Mhushtishya,
Shikharakhachya,Khapitya, Khatakamukhyo, Suchi,
Chandrakala, Padmakosha, Sarpashiras,etc) and 24
Samyukta Hastas and their usage viniyoga, although
Natya Shastra mentions many more, and the usages
stated in Abhinavabharati differ considerably from
 adavus
• A series of steps, adavus, and their
execution vary greatly from style to
style. Most schools recognize 108
principal adavus, while some styles
include over 150 adavus. Few
professional dancers use more than
60. A combination of adavus is called
jathis, which make up the Nritta
passages in a Bharatanatyam
performance.
 bhedas
• Bharatanatyam technique includes many other
elements, such as elaborate neck and eye
movements. While Natya Shastra contains the largest
number of the movements, and the most detailed
descriptions, Abhinaya Darpanam, for instance, has
defined only 9 head movements, 4 neck movement
and 8 eye movements (compared with 36 of Natya
Shastra) which are used extensively throughout the
dance.
• Head Movements (Shiro bhedas): Sama, Udhvahita,
Adhomukha, Alolita,Dhutam, Kampitam, Paravruttam,
Utkshiptam and Parivahitam.
• Neck Movements (Griva bhedas): Sundari, Tirashchina,
Parivartita, Prakampita
• Eye Movements (Drishti bhedas): Sama, Alolita, Sachi,
Pralokita, Nimilite, Ullokita,Anuvritta, Avalokita
 narthaki
The AbhinayaDarpana has a sloka that describes Patra
Prana Dasha Smrutaha - the ten essentials of the
dancer: Javaha (Agility), Sthirathvam (Steadiness),
Rekha (graceful lines), Bhramari(balance in
pirouettes), Drishti (glance), Shramaha (hard work),
Medha (intelligence), Shraddha(devotion), Vacho
(good speech), and Geetam (singing ability).
A professional danseuse (patra), according to
Abhinayadarpanam (one of the two most authoritative
texts on Bharatanatyam), must possess the following
qualities. She has to be youthful, slender, beautiful,
with large eyes, with well-rounded breasts, self-
confident, witty, pleasing, well aware of when to
dance and when to stop, able to follow the flow of
songs and music, and to dance to the time (thalam),
with splendid costumes, and of a happy disposition
 odissi
Odissi is one of the classical
dance forms of India. It is
one of the eight Indian
classical dance forms, and
originates from the state of
Orissa, in eastern India.
The classic treatise of Indian
dance, Natya Shastra, refers
to it as Odra-Magadhi. First
century BCE bas-reliefs in
the hills of Udaygiri (near
Bhubaneshwar) testify to its
antiquity. It was suppressed
under the British raj but has
been reconstructed since
India gained independence.
It is particularly
distinguished from other
classical Indian dance forms
by the importance it places
upon the tribhangi (literally:
three parts break), the
independent movement of
• The Odissi tradition existed in three schools;
Mahari, Nartaki, and Gotipua. Maharis were
Orissan devadasis or temple girls (their
name deriving from Maha (great) and ‘Nari’
or ‘Mahri’ (chosen)} particularly those at
the temple of Jagganath at Puri. Early
Maharis performed mainly nritta (pure
dance) and abhinaya (interpretation of
poetry) based on mantras & slokas, later
Maharis, especially, performed dance
sequences based on the lyrics of Jayadev's
Gita Govinda. Bhitari gauni Maharis, were
allowed in the inner temple while bahari
gauni Maharis, though in the temples, were
 repertoire
• Mangalacharan: An invocational piece. After paying homage to
Lord Jagganath a sloka (hymn) in praise of some God or Goddess
is sung, the meaning of which is brought out through dance.
Mangalacharan also includes the ‘bhumi pranam’, begging
forgiveness of mother earth for stamping on her, and the
‘trikhandi pranam’ or threefold salutation - above the head to the
Gods, in front of the face to the gurus and in front of the chest to
the audience.
• Battu Nrutya: A dance piece offered to the Lord of dance - Lord
Shiva in his ‘Batuka Bhairava’ form. This piece brings out the
essence of Odissi.
• Pallavi: A pure dance item in which a raga is elaborated through
eye movements, body postures & intricate footwork.
• Abhinaya: A poem telling a story conveyed to the audience
through mudra or hand gestures (the language of Indian classical
dance), facial expression and body movement.
• Dashavataar: A dance piece describing the ten incarnations of the
Lord Vishnu with verses taken from the Gita Govinda.
• Moksha: A pure dance item with only the mardal-pakhawaj
• Padma Vibushan, Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das
and Deba Prasad Das were some of the foremost
proponents of the revived Odissi. Sanjukta Panigrahi, the
great exponent of Odissi, embodied Guru Kelucharan
Mohapatra's endeavour to revive the art form. Guru
Surendranath Jena and his disciples, including Usha Chettur
and Radhika Jha, have propagated a different style of Odissi
in which the poses are moving sequences rather than static
poses. The style is slower and requires great balance and
• Nartaki dance took place in the royal
courts, where it was much cultivated
before the British period. At that time
the misuse of devadasis came under
strong attack, so that Odissi dance
withered in the temples and became
unfashionable at court. Only the the
remnants of the gotipua school
remained, and the reconstruction of
the style required an archaeological
and anthropological effort that has
Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, Deb Prasad Das, Mayadhar Raut,
Sanjukta Panigrahi, Kum Kum Mohanty, Sonal Mansingh, Madhavi Mudgal and
Protima Gauri, all contributed notably to the propagation of Odissi.
The current crop of dancers includes Gangadhar Pradhan, Durga Charan Ranbir,
Madhavi Mudgal, Sonal Mansingh, Ramli Ibrahim, Kiran Segal, Aruna Mohanty,
Sujata Mohapatra.
 kuchipudi
తలగ :
Kuchipudi (
కచపడ) (pronounced as
'Koochipoodi') is a Classical Indian
dance form from Andhra Pradesh,
a state of South India. Kuchipudi is
the name of a small village in the
Divi Taluq of Krishna district that
borders the Bay of Bengal and with
resident Brahmins practising this
traditional dance form, it acquired
the present name.
With the dance form attaining
perfection by the time of Golconda
king Abdul Hassan Tanesha,
Kuchipudi brahmins are said to
have received 600 acres (2.4 km²)
of land as an endowment from
Tanesha for the great presentation
before him.
Siddhendra Yogi is said to be the first
scholar to give it the current form
of dance drama. Bhamakalapam is
one of his celebrated
compositions. He also reserved the
The Dance of
Vishnu
• The performance usually begins with some
stage rites, after which each of the
character comes on to the stage and
introduces him/herself with a daru (a small
composition of both song and dance) to
introduce the identity, set the mood, of the
character in the drama. The drama then
begins. The dance is accompanied by song
which is typically Carnatic music. The singer
is accompanied by mridangam (a classical
South Indian percussion instrument), violin,
flute and the tambura (a drone instrument
with strings which are plucked). Ornaments
worn by the artists are generally made of a
 Kuchipudi style
The movements in Kuchipudi are quicksilver and scintillating,
rounded and fleet-footed. Performed to classical Carnatic
music, it shares many common elements with
Bharatanatyam. In its solo exposition Kuchipudi numbers
include 'jatiswaram' and 'tillana' whereas in nritya it has
several lyrical compositions reflecting the desire of a
devotee to merge with God - symbolically the union of the
soul with the super soul.
Beyond the stylistic differences of Kuchipudi and
Bharatanatyam steps, there are certain types of dances
that are unique to Kuchipudi. Specifically there is the
Tarangam of Kuchipudi which is unique in that the dancer
must dance upon a brass plate, placing the feet upon the
raised edges. The dancer moves the plate with much
balance as the indiviudal is traditionally dancing on the
plate with two diyas (small oil-burning candles) in his or her
hands while balancing a "kundi" (small vessel) containing
water on their head. At the end of the dance, typically, the
dancer extinguishes the candles and washes his or her
• Some of the well
known people in this
tradition are Dr.
Vempati Chinna
Satyam,Guru
Jayarama Rao and
Vanashree Rao
Vedantam
Lakshminarayana, Dr.
Uma Rama Rao,
Tadepalli Perayya,
Chinta Krishna
Murthy, Vedantam
Sathya Narayana
Sarma, Sobha Naidu,
 manipuri
• It is stated that the indigenous
people of the valley were the
Gandharva's mentions in the
Ramayana and Mahabharata. The
dance patterns in Manipur may have
a link with the Gandharva's Culture -
which is mythological believed to
excel over all other dance forms...
 manipuri
Manipuri dance is one of
the major Indian
classical dance forms.
It originates from
Manipur, a state in
north-eastern India on
the border with
Myanmar (also known
as Burma). In Manipur,
surrounded by
mountains and
geographically
isolated at the
meeting point of the
orient and mainland
India, the form
developed its own
• Manipuri is the classical dance from
the north East Indian state of
Manipur.  Its themes are devotional
and are performed on religious
occasions and in temples throughout
the area.  It is even often referred to
as "sankirtan".  The term Manipuri
actually covers a number of dance
forms from the region.  The most
important being the Ras Lila and the
• Ritualistic and Recreational
• The cult of Radha and Krishna, particularly
the raslila, is central to its themes but the
dances, unusually, incorporate the
characteristic cymbals (kartal or manjira)
and double-headed drum (pung or Manipuri
mridang) of sankirtan into the visual
performance.
• Manipuri dancers do not wear ankle bells to
accentuate the beats tapped out by the
feet, in contrast with other Indian dance
forms, and the dancers' feet never strike the
ground hard. Movements of the body and
feet and facial expressions in Manipuri
dance are subtle and aim at devotion and
• The traditional Manipuri dance style embodies
delicate, lyrical and graceful movements. The
aim is to make rounded movements and avoid
any jerks, sharp edges or straight lines. It is this
which gives Manipuri dance its undulating and
soft appearance. The feet move is viewed as
part of a composite movement of the whole
body. The dancer puts his or her feet down,
even during vigorous steps, with the front part
touching the ground first. The ankle and knee
joints are effectively used as shock absorbers.
The dancer’s feet are neither put down nor
lifted up at the precise rhythmic points of the
music but rather slightly earlier or later to
express the same rhythmic points most
 ancient
• A copper plate inscription credits King Khuoyi Tompok
(c. 2nd century CE) with introducing drums and
cymbals into Manipuri dance. However, it is unlikely
that the style resembled the form known today before
the introduction of Krishna bhakti in the 15th century
CCE. Maharaja Bhagyachandra (r. 1759 – 1798 CE)
codified the style, composed three of the five types of
Ras Lilas, the Maha Ras, the Basanta Ras and the
Kunja Ras, performed at the Sri Sri Govindaji temple in
Imphal during his reign and also the Achouba Bhangi
Pareng dance. He designed an elaborate costume
known as Kumil. The Govindasangeet Lila Vilasa, an
important text detailing the fundamentals of the
dance, is also attributed to him.
• Maharaja Gambhir Singh
(r. 1825 – 1834 CE)
composed two parengs of
the tandava type, the
Goshtha Bhangi Pareng
and the Goshtha
Vrindaban Pareng.
Maharaja Chandra Kirti
Singh (r. 1849 – 1886 CE),
a gifted drummer,
composed at least 64
Pung choloms (drum
dances) and two parengs
of the Lasya type, the
Vrindaban Bhangi Pareng
 M for modern manipur and
mtv
• This genre of dance became better
known outside the region through the
efforts of Rabindranath Tagore. In 1919,
he was so impressed after seeing a
dance composition, the Goshtha Lila in
Sylhet (in present day Bangladesh) that
he invited Guru Budhimantra Singh to
Shantiniketan. In 1926, Guru Naba
Kumar joined the faculty to teach the
Ras Lila. Other celebrated Gurus,
Senarik Singh Rajkumar, Nileshwar
Mukherji and Atomba Singh were also
invited to teach there and assisted
In 1954, the Manipur Dance College of
Imphal (renamed Jawaharlal Nehru
Manipur Dance Academy in 1957)
started with three great exponents of
the genre in its faculty; Guru Amubi
Singh, the principal, Guru Amudon
Sharma and Guru Atomba Singh. Later
Guru Bipin Singh became the principal
of the Sri Sri Govindaji Nartanalaya
(later renamed Manipur State Dance
College) in Imphal: Kalavati Devi and
• The musical accompaniment for Manipuri
dance comes from a percussion instrument
called the Pung, a singer, small cymbals, a
stringed instrument called the pena and
wind instrument such as a flute. The
drummers are always male artistes and,
after learning to play the pung, students are
trained to dance with it while drumming.
This dance is known as Pung cholom. The
lyrics used in Manipuri are usually from the
classical poetry of Jayadeva, Vidyapati,
Chandidas, Govindadas or Gyandas and
may be in Sanskrit, Maithili, Brij Bhasha or
others.
Mohiniyattam
Mohiniyattam is a traditional
South Indian dance form
Kerala, India. It is a very
graceful dance meant to be
performed as a solo recital by
women. The term
Mohiniyattam comes from the
words "Mohini" meaning a
woman who enchants
onlookers and "aattam"
meaning graceful and
sensuous body movements.
The word "Mohiniyattam"
literally means "dance of the
enchantress". There are two
stories of the Lord Vishnu
disguised as a Mohini. In one,
he appears as Mohini to lure
the asuras (demons) away
from the amrita (nectar of
immortality) obtained during
• Mohiniyattam is a dance form said to
have originated in Kerala. This classical
solo dance form combines the graceful
elegance of Bharatanatyam with the
vigour and dynamism of Kathakali, to
create a mood that is predominantly
Sringara (erotic). The dance is usually
performed on specially put up stages in
connection with temple festivals. The
hair is gathered and put up at the side
of the head and adorned with jasmine,
The dance follows
the classical text
of Hastha
Lakshanadeepik
a, which has a
very elaborate
description of
Mudras
The basic dance steps of Mohiniattam are the Adavus - Taganam,
Jaganam, Dhaganam and Sammisram. Mohiniattam maintains
a realistic makeup and simple dressing. .
• In the second story Vishnu appears as Mohini to save Lord
Shiva from the demon Bhasmasura. The name
Mohiniyattam may have been coined after Lord Vishnu, and
the main theme of the dance is love and devotion to God,
with usually Vishnu or Krishna being the hero. Devadasis
used to perform this in temples. But it also has elements of
Koothu and Kottiyattom in it. it is a drama in dance and
verse. The dance which has influences and elements from
two South Indian dance forms, the Bharatanatyam and
Kathakali, was formulated in the court of king Swati Tirunal
by Vadivelu, one of the Thanjavur Quartet. The dance
involves the swaying of broad hips and the gentle
movements of erect posture from side to side. This is
reminiscent of the swinging of the palm leaves and the
gently flowing rivers which abound Kerala, the land of
Mohiniyattam. There are approximately 40 different basic
movements, known as 'atavukal', in Mohiniyattam.
• Mohiniyattam (the dance of
the enchantress) is the
gracefully elegant classical
dance from with lasya as the
predominant element. The
dancer is dressed in white
and gold. The hair is
gathered and put up at the
side of the head and adorned
with jasmine, in the
traditional style. The entire
technique in Mohiniyattam is
of a graceful, gliding
movement of the body, a
circular use of the torso and a
revolving in the half-bent
position with the toe and heel
used in a flowing rhythmic
structure.
• Swathithirunal, the king of erstwhile
Travancore helped a lot to encourage
and stabilize this art form. It was
Vallathol, who revived it and gave it a
status in modern times, through
Kerala Kalamandalam.
Kalamandalam Kalyaniyamma was
instrumental in resuscitating this
ancient art form, which is trying to
acquire an identity and classical
It didn't matter that the story had
begun, because Kathakali discovered
long ago that the secret of the Great
Stories is that they have no secrets.
The Great Stories are the ones you
have heard and want to hear again.
The ones you can enter anywhere
and inhabit comfortably. They don't
deceive you with thrills and trick
endings
 kathakali
Kathakali (Malayalam: കഥകളി ,
pronounced [kət̪ʰəkəɭi]) is a
highly stylised classical Indian
dance-drama noted for its
attractive make-up of
characters, their elaborate
costumes, detailed gestures and
well-defined body movements
presented in tune with the
anchor playback music and
complementary percussion. It
originated in the country's
southern state of Kerala during
the 16th century AD,
approximately between 1555
and 1605, and has been
updated over the years with
improved looks, refined
gestures and added themes
besides more ornate singing
• This spectacular classical dance drama of kerala
based on the guidelines laid by sage bharatha's
natya sastra, the ancient treatise on dance and
drama, is over 500 years old. This elaborate art
form is usually performed in the evenings and
continues up to dawn, and is an integral part of
all temple and cultural festivals in Kerala. The
costumes and makeup are ornamental,
elaborate and designed to give a superhuman
effect. The actors do not speak or sing but
enact the story through mudras (hand
gestures), graceful movements and facial
expressions. The themes of this awe-inspiring
art are taken from India's rich and colorful
mythology. Music is an essential feature of
Kathakali originated from a precursor dance-drama form called
Ramanattam and owes it share of techniques also to
Krishnanattam. The word "attam" means enactment. In
short, these two forerunning forms to Kathakali dealt with
presentation of the stories of Hindu Gods Rama and
Krishna.
It was Kottarakara Thampuran (1555-1605) (ruler of the south
Kerala province of Kottarakkara) who composed several
plays on the Ramayana, which led to the evolution of
Kathakali. Today, Ramanattam is extinct, but its storyplays
continue to be a part of Kathakali.
Kathakali also shares a lot of similarities with Krishnanattam,
Koodiyattam (a classical Sanskrit drama existing in Kerala)
and Ashtapadiyattam (an adaptation of 12th-century
musical called Gitagovindam). It also incorporates several
other elements from traditional and ritualistic art forms like
Mudiyettu, Thiyyattu, Theyyam and Padayani besides a
minor share of folk arts like Porattunatakam. All along, the
 Kathakali is the top of fine
art
• Expressions (Natyam, the component
with emphasis on facial expressions)
• Dance (Nritham, the component of
dance with emphasis on rhythm and
movement of hands, legs and body)
• Enactment (Nrithyam, the element of
drama with emphasis on "mudras",
which are hand gestures)
• Song/vocal accompaniment (Geetha)
• Instrument accompaniment (Vadyam)
Arts n aesthetic vs lit
Even though the
lyrics/literature would
qualify as another
independent element
called Sahithyam, it is
considered as a
component of Geetha
or music, as it plays
only a supplementary
role to Nritham,
Nrithyam and
Traditionally there are 101 classical Kathakali
stories, though the commonly staged
among them these days total less than one-
third that number. Almost all of them were
initially composed to last a whole night.
Nowadays, there is increasing popularity for
concise, or oftener select, versions of stories
so as the performance lasts not more than
three to four hours from evening. Thus,
many stories find stage presentation in
parts rather than totality. And the selection
is based on criteria like choreographical
beauty, thematic relevance/popularity or
their melodramatic elements
The most popular stories enacted are
Nalacharitam (a story from the
Mahabharata), Duryodhana Vadham
(focusing on the Mahabharata war after
profiling the build-up to it),
Kalyanasougandhikam, (the story of Bhima
going to get flowers for his wife Panchali),
Keechakavadham (another story of Bhima
and Panchali, but this time during their stint
in disguise), Kiratham (Arjuna and Lord
Shiva's fight, from the Mahabharata),
Karnashapatham (another story from the
Mahabharata), Nizhalkuthu and
 forms
• these are leading Kathakali styles
that differ from each other in
subtleties like choreographic profile,
position of hand gestures and stress
on dance than drama and vice versa.
Some of the major original styles
included:
• Vettathu Sampradayam
• Kalladikkodan Sampradyam
• Kaplingadu Sampradayam
• The golden period
of Kathakali was
from 1665 AD and
1743 AD.
• Contributions
made by Kaartika
Thirunal, the king
of Travancore, to
Malayalam
literature, dance
and art is truly
admirable. He also
took efforts for
popularising
Kathakali among
 The art
Kathakali uses the four types of
abhinayas, being: Sattvika,
expression of thoughts by the efforts
of the mind (Rasa and Bhaava).
Aangika, delivery of ideas by the
movements of body parts which
includes gestures., Vaacika, which
represents spoken words, songs,
shouts, etc., and Aharya, the dress
and the presentation.
Symbols shown by hands , mudras have an important
role in Kathakali. With the help of Mudras, a whole
literary piece is presented as elementary notions.
There are basically sixty-four basic hand poses which
represent five hundred words, while the movements of
the eyes shows various emotions. The simultaneous
use of both of these system can be used to convey
any meanings requiring elaboration of the story being
enacted
According to the mode of the theme, a Kathakali song
expresses different Bhaava and Rasa (aesthetic
delights)
Characterization in Kathakali is achieved by virtue of
difference in makeup and presentation. There are
good and negative characters, demons and gods,
wordly and unwordly role-types according to their
castes, quality and nature.
 Dance dance dance
A complete Kathakali performance in its true
sense has the following elements in it:
1. To'dayam- the basic beginning performance;
2. Purappaadu- Introduction of the main virtuous
character;
3. Tirano'kku- 'curtain look' by negative
characters and demons;
4. Kummi- intro to the female character's
appearance
5. Kathakali- the main play
6. Kalaasham- fast and vigorous dance which
connects two pieces of play
7. The concluding dance
Sattriya
Sattriya, or Sattriya Nritya, is one
among eight principal classical
Indian dance traditions.
Whereas some of the other
traditions have been revived in
the recent past, Sattriya has
remained a living tradition
since its creation by the
Assamese Vaishnav saint
Srimanta Sankardeva, in 15th
century Assam. Sankardeva
created Sattriya Nritya as an
accompaniment to the Ankiya
Naat (a form of Assamese one-
act plays devised by him),
which were usually performed
in the sattras, as Assam's
monasteries are called. As the
tradition developed and grew
within the sattras, the dance
form came to be called
Sattriya dance has maintained a living
tradition of five hundred years from the
date of the great saint Sankaradeva
(1449-1568), the fountainhead of the
Sattriya dance of Assam. He has
introduced this dance style by
assimilating the classical elements,
regional peculiarities and his own
creativity. These dances mainly center
around the Anka Dramas of
Sankaradeva. Later on Sankaradeva
and his successors like Madhavadeva
and many other preachers of Sattra
The core of Sattriya Nritya has usually
been mythological stories. This was an
artistic way of presenting mythological
teachings to the people in an
accessible, immediate, and enjoyable
manner. Traditionally, Sattriya was
performed only by bhokots (male
monks) in monasteries as a part of their
daily rituals or to mark special festivals.
Today, in addition to this practice,
Sattriya is also performed on stage by
men and women who are not members
of the sattras, on themes not merely
Sattriya Nritya
encompasses the
principles required of
a classical dance
form: the treatises of
dance and
dramaturgy, like
Natyashastra,
Abhinaya Darpana,
and Sangit
Ratnakara; a distinct
repertoire (marg) and
the aspects of nrtta
(pure dance), nrtya
Sattriya Nritya is accompanied by musical
compositions called borgeets
(composed by Sankardeva among
others) which are based on classical
ragas. The instruments that accompany
a traditional performance are khols
(drums), taals (cymbals), the flute.
Other instruments like the violin and
the harmonium have been recent
additions. The dresses are usually made
of pat, a type of silk produced in Assam,
woven with intricate local motifs. The
ornaments, too, are based on traditional
The main distinctiveness of
this dance form is – dipping
and bobbing of the body and
the pull of gravitation.
Which is called ‘Ulaha’(
skt-‘Ullasa’) and this Ulaha
has to be maintained in
every movement. The
formation of the body in
basic stance or in
movement creates the ‘arch
shape’ (semi-circle). In most
of the dance movements,
the design of floor is also
made in arch pattern. There
is hardly any strait line in
dancer’s body or in the floor
The another noticeable part of this dance is
the Tandava and Lasya part. The distinct
type of grace(along with costume) are
prescribed for male and female characters.
Although in Sattriya, Lasya part is more
predominant in dance repertoire but there
are some dances like Jhumura, Natuwa, etc
which symbolizes the male grace (tandava).
In this dance style the ‘Tandava’ as is
generally understood to be associated with
Shiva Tandava, is not fully here. As
mentioned earlier, Krishna in the form of
‘Nata-Vara’ has to be dance in male grace.
In literature part also in a ‘nandi sloka’, this
 music
The dance follows a distinct type of music
consisting raga-s and tala-s. The main
instruments are Khol and cymbal although in
earlier days stringed instruments like Sarengdar
was used. There are above 40 raga-s in Sattriya
music and about 80 more raga-s called Bondha
raga-s created afterwards are in use. Likewise
about 42 tala-s are in use in Sattriya music
besides Bhangi Bajana.
The structure and the formation of these are not
akin to the present day Hindustani or Karnataki
music, which suggest a separate school of
music of eastern India. Scholars has opined that
the style of performing Bargita a distinct type of
Devotional songs of Assam is the last
 appreciation
In the second half of the 19th century, Sattriya Nritya emerged from the sanctum of
Assam's sattras. It moved from the monastery to the metropolitan stage. The
sattras had maintained certain rigid disciplines and austerities within their
walls, and until the first half of the 19th century this dance style was performed
in a highly ritualistic manner by male dancers alone. The classical rigidity, the
strict adherence to certain principles, and the non-engagement of academic
research on the dance form all contributed to the delayed recognition and
acceptance of Sattriya Nritya as one of the eight classical dance forms of India.
On 15 November 2000, the Sangeet Natak Akademi finally gave Sattriya Nritya
its due recognition as one of the classical dance forms of India, alongside the
other seven forms.
However, despite its delayed inclusion within the canon of classical Indian dance,
and the accompanying lack of organisational support from the Centre that that
entailed, Sattriya Nritya continued through the centuries to maintain within its
forms the classical exactitude and intricate detail that mark ancient art forms.
One positive outcome of Sattriya Nritya's strict adherence to the principles of
the sattras has been this ability to maintain its pure forms, its distinct style.
Now that it has made its journey from the sanctified interiors of Assam's sattras
to the demotic spaces of the world's stages, it is time for an appraisal of
Sattriya Nritya's artistic and aesthetic qualities.
kathak
• Kathak is one of the eight
forms of Indian classical
dances, originated from
northern India. This dance
form traces its origins to the
the nomadic bards of ancient
northern India, known as
Kathaks, or story tellers.
These bards, performing in
village squares and temple
courtyards, mostly
specialized in recounting
mythological and moral tales
from the scriptures, and
embellished their recitals
with hand gestures and facial
expressions. It was
quintessential theatre, using
instrumental and vocal music
The story of Kathak begins
in ancient times with the
performances of
professional story-tellers
called kathakas who
recited or sang stories
from epics and
mythology with some
elements of dance. The
traditions of the
kathakas were
hereditary, and dances
passed from generation
to generation. There are
literary references from
the third and fourth
centuries BC which refer
to these kathakas. The
two texts are in the
archives of Kameshwar
Library at Mithila.
Its form today is the product of various
influences in the past: mythological
tales portrayed by kathakas or
ancient itinerant bards, temple and
ritual dance, the bhakti movement,
and Persian influence of the Mughal
courts from the 16th century
onwards; and the impact of these
elements continues to readily
discernible.
The name Kathak is derived from the
Sanskrit word katha meaning story, and
katthaka in Sanskrit means s/he who
tells a story, or to do with stories. The
name of the form is properly katthak,
with the geminated dental to show a
derived form, but this has since
simplified to modern-day kathak.
kathaa kahe so kathak is a saying many
teachers pass on to their pupils, which
is generally translated, 's/he who tells a
story, is a kathak', but which can also
be translated, 'that which tells a story,
There are three major schools or
gharanas of Kathak from which
performers today generally draw
their lineage: the gharanas of Jaipur,
Lucknow and Banaras (born in the
courts of the Kachwaha Rajput kings,
the Nawab of Oudh, and Varanasi
respectively); there is also a less
prominent (and later) Raigarh
gharana which amalgamated
technique from all three preceding
 Repertoire
Pure Dance (Nritta)
The structure of a conventional Kathak performance tends to
follow a progression in tempo from slow to fast, ending with
a dramatic climax. A short danced composition is known as
a tukra, a longer one as a toda. There are also compositions
consisting solely of footwork. Often the performer will
engage in rhythmic 'play' with the time-cycle, splitting it
into triplets or quintuplets for example, which will be
marked out on the footwork, so that it is in counterpoint to
the rhythm on the percussion.
All compositions are performed so that the final step and beat
of the composition lands on the 'sam' or first beat of the
time-cycle. Most compositions also have 'bols' (rhythmic
words) which serve both as mnemonics to the composition
and whose recitation also forms an integral part of the
performance. This recitation is known as padhant. Some
compositions are aurally very interesting when presented
this way. The bols can be borrowed from tabla (e.g. dha, ge,
Often tukras are composed to highlight
specific aspects of the dance, for example
gait, or use of corners and diagonals, and so
on. A popular tukra type is the chakkarwala
tukra, showcasing the signature spins of
Kathak. Because they are generally
executed on the heel, these differ from
ballet's pirouettes (which are properly
executed on the toe or ball of the foot). The
spins usually manifest themselves at the
end of the tukra, often in large numbers:
five, nine, fifteen, or more, sequential spins
are common. These tukras are popular with
audiences because they are visually exciting
• Expressive Dance (Nritya)
• Aside from the traditional expressive or abhinaya
pieces performed to a bhajan, ghazal or thumri,
Kathak also possesses a particular performance style
of expressional pieces called bhaav bataanaa (lit. 'to
show bhaav or 'feeling'). It is a mode where abhinaya
dominates, and arose in the Mughal court. It is more
suited to the mehfil or the darbar environment,
because of the proximity of the performer to the
audience, who can more easily see the nuances of the
dancer's facial expression. Consequently, it translates
to the modern proscenium stage with difficulty. A
thumri is sung, and once the mood is set, a line from
the thumri is interpreted with facial abhinaya and
hand movements while seated. This continues for an
indefinite period, limited only by the dancer's
interpretative abilities. Shambhu Maharaj was known
 gharana
Because of the linear nature of the passing of knowledge from guru to shishya, certain stylistic
and technical features began to fossilise and became hallmarks of a particular school, guru
or group of teachers. The different styles are known as gharanas, and these are:
[edit] Lucknow Gharana
The Lucknow Gharana developed in the courts of the Nawab of Oudh in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
It particularly emphasises grace, elegance and naturalness in the dance. Abhinaya or
expressional acting, especially improvised, plays a very strong role in this style, and Birju
Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj and Lachhu Maharaj are or were all famed for the naturalness of
and innovativeness of their abhinaya.
[edit] Jaipur Gharana
The Jaipur Gharana developed in the courts of the Kachchwaha kings of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Importance is placed on the more technical aspects of dance, such as complex and powerful
footwork, multiple spins, and complicated compositions in different talas. There is also a
greater incorporation of compositions from the pakhawaj, such as parans.
[edit] Banaras Gharana
The Benaras Gharana was developed by Janakiprasad. It is characterized by the exclusive use of
the natwari or dance bols, which are different from the tabla and the pakhawaj bols. There
are differences in the thaat and tatkaar, and chakkars are kept at a minimum but are often
taken from both the right- and the left-hand sides with equal confidence. There is also a
greater use of the floor, for example, in the taking of sam. Though the style developed in
Benaras, it flourishes today from Bikaner.
[edit] Raigarh Gharana
This was established by the Maharaja Chakradhar Singh in the princely state of Raigarh in
Chhatisgarh in the early 20th century. The Maharaja invited many luminaries of Kathak (as
the kathak dancer is a story-teller, not a mime. He
describes the strut of a peacock, but he neither
mimics nor becomes the peacock; he
reproduces the essence of the movement of a
character or animal, yet he neither mimics nor
becomes that character or animal. He takes
from each being or situation that which
characterizes or symbolizes it, and puts that
into dance. Throughout, it is the dancer's
intention to suggest rather than to make
explicit Ð and there is always room for the
active participation of the imagination of the
audience. The kathak dance tradition of
Lucknow is undoubtedly one of India's finest
cultural achievements, and with so many
 rasa
The audience is equally important in
the Indian art experience. The person
in
the audience is expected to be a
rasika i.e. a person well versed in
appreciating the arts, and also a
'sahridaya' or a person who has
come with an intention of
appreciating, learning and savouring
the richness of the art..
 reference
Ambrose, Kay (1984). Classical Dances and Costumes of India. Palgrave Macmillan
Bowers, Faubion(1967). The Dance in India. New York: AMS Press, Inc.. pp. 13 & 15.
Nayagam, X.S. Thani (1970). Tamil Culture and Civilization. London: Asia Publishing House. pp. 120–121.
Muni, Bharata. Natya Shastra, Vol.II= 2002. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Krishnadas Academy. pp. 206–207
Anand 1959, Banerji 1982 & 1986; Kothari 1989; Misra 1991; Samson 1987; Singha and Massey 1967
Khokar indian dance
Manipuri by R K Singhajit Singh, Dances of India series, Wisdom Tree
Kothari, Sunil (1989) Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art, New Delhi.
Kippen, James and Bel, Andreine Lucknow Kathak Dance, Bansuri, Volume 13, 1996

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