*$ VS$$l l l VS$?

{VS$
*$yl$, *$yl ^l$r*t {$$l] G$ {VS]l$
MS MS$r$ As$. D {VS ^l]l$ ]l^l
yMS yl$ ]l$ {^$.
1. *MS{l l (Geo Centric Theory): D -
s$ {^yl$. {M> *$yl$, ^l{l$yl$,
$W]l {VS *$ MS{lV> ^l $M *$ ^l$r*t
{$$.
2. * MS{l l (Heleo Centic Theory) MMS D
- {^yl$. {M> {VS *$yl
^l$r*t {$$.
z {MS.. 1608Z VS* sP]l$ MS]l$V lls
VS$$ {VS
-MS E]l E{VS$ VS$_ Z^yl$. Cl
Zl ]l {M> VS$$ {VS
r$ $W]l {VS
*$yl ^l$r*t {$$. M>st * MS{l
l O l- *^yl$.
z 3 & 5 ]l$l M>Z ]l$-l] l>-M- S ^l-l] Br$t
l]l Bst $ Al {VSlZ * MS{l
{^yl$.
Ol
z Z H yl$ MS ]l$l E]l BMS
l$$M]lyMS ]l*rl VS$$MS $]l$
(universal gravitational force) E*W $.
]l*rl VS$$MS $]l$:
D $]l$ {M> Z HOl yl$ MS ]l$l E]l
BMS s {l]l>$ MS A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ,
l* ]l>YMS Z]l*]l$lZ Er$.
F

m1m2
d2

F =G

m1m2
d2

m1, m2$

MS {l]l>$$ (mass of the particles )

d = MS ]l$l l*
G = VS$$MS
>MS
(Universal Gravitational Constant)

A]l$]l$:
1. MS$r$Z *$yl ^l$r*t {$$l] {VS$
{VS ^l$r*t {$$l] E{VSMS$ M>]l
AMS{l ]l$ ]l*rl VS$$MS $
]l$MS*$al$.
2. *$yl$, ^l{l$yl VS$$MS ]l ]l
{lZ Br$r$$ Hyl$l$.
MS {VSVSl$ $]l*$ (Laws of Plani tary Motion):
MS$r$Z {VS
^l]l$ ]l^lyMS MS ]lyl$
{VSVSl$ $]l*$ {^yl$.
1. lls $]l$: *$yl V> ^l $M {VS
*$yl ^l$r*t ]lM> ]l*Y Z (elliptical orbit) {
$$. D $]l$ ]l$_ *$yl ^l$r*t {$$l]
{VS
MSS]l$ l$$M]l^l$a. M>st D $]l* MS>
$]l$(law of orbit) As$.
2. y $]l$: *$yl ^l$r*t {$$l] {VS
]l*]l
M>Z ]l*]l O l > _]ll$. ~ $]l$
(law of areas) A As$.
3. ]ly $]l$: *$yl$, *$yl ^l$r*t {$$l]
{VS
B]l l] M> ]lY (square of the time period of the planet)
*$yl$, {VS MS l* VSMS A]l$Z]l*]l$ lZ
Er$.
T 2 R3

T = B]l l]

M> ]ll M> (Duration of year)

R = l*.
D ]ly $]l$ {M> MS$r$Z l$ {VS
]ll M>$ l$V> E$ l$.
E:
1. *$ylMS lVSY V> E]l $l {VS
(Mercury) ]ll
M>(*$ al) MS]l 88 k$ ]l*{ll$.
2. MS$r$Z _]l E]l NsZ ({ $l {VS
M>l$)
]ll M> *$ al 248 ]ll>$.

$]l G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 Kg2

F d2
G =

m1m2

Newton Meter 2

Kilog ram

*$ VS$$l l:
JMS ]l $l] # Ml Gl$ ]l$_ ^leV> MSMS yl$l$]lyl$
*$ VS$$MS ]l ]l l *$ VS$$l
l As$.
VSr$ $]l g = 9.8 ms2
*$ VS$$l l (g), VS$$l >MS (G) ]l$l

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l
g=

GM
R2

*$ {l]l> (Mass)
R = *$
(Radius)
M=

*$ VS$$l l ]l*$ ^llyMS M>$:

1. *$ BM>> st VS$$l l $]lZ ]l*$
]l $. *$ l]l ^l$r*t ]l$ VSyl ]l {l $ ]ll
$V>, *]l$l Q ]ll El$V> Er$.
g=

GM
R2

Al $MS {M> *$ VS$$l l $]l

{l $ ]ll VSt V>, *]l$l Q ]ll MSt V> Er$. D
M> ]l ]l $l] # {l $ ]ll GMS$P]l, *]l$l Q ]ll
lMS$P]l Er$ (W = MG {M> ).
2. Gl$ r$ *$ VS$$l l $]lZ ]l*$: ]l$]l#]l$
* El ]l$_ Ml Gl$MS $ $MS O ^l
VS$$l l - l V- S $Y- l $. MS $MS
2h
g 1 = g 1
R

$]l lVS (Escape Velocity): (Ve):

HOl JMS ]l $l] #l] $ *$ VS$$MS ]l$_ >lV>
>l>ZMS {*W^lyMS M>]l]l MS lV>
$]l lVS]l$s$.
$]l lVS Ve = 2GM (or)
R

= * El ]l$_ ]l $l] # ]l Gl$.

r = *
.
g = * ElO VS$$ll.
g1 = *$ El ]l$_ Ml Gl$ ]ll E]l VS$$l
l.
3. Zl$ r$, *$ VS$$l l $]lZ ]l*$:
]l $l] #l] $ * El ]l$_ Ml Zl$MS$ $MS- O
^l *$ VS$$l l lVS$Yl $. MS $MS
d
g 1 = g 1
R

d=

*$ Zl$.
JMSl ]l $l] #l] $ * MS{l ]llM S $ $-MS - A ]l Zl$
*$ >MS ]l*]l]l$]l#l $. As d = R
d
g 1 = g 1
R

R
g 1 = g 1
R

Ve = 2 gR

*$ {l]l> M = 6 1024 kg
*$ R = 6400 km
g = 9.8 ms2 G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg2

D $]l]l$ O
$MSZ {S $]l lVS Ve = 11.2 km sec1V>
Er$. $]llVS {S ]l $l] # (projected body >MSr$,
E{VS$) {l]l>$$, {S MO B yl Eyll$.
^l{l$ylO E]l $]l lVS (Ve) MS]l 2.42 kms1 V>
Er$. D $]l ^ lMS$P]lV> Eylr ^l{l$ylO E]l
MS$ l]l$lr ]lV> >l>ZMS l. Al$]l ^l{l$ylO ]l l$. l yll$ MS*y.MS>lVS (Orbital Velocity):
]l $l] # *$ ^l$r*t t MSSZ {$^lyMS M>]l]l
MS lV> MS>lVS As$.
MS>lVS

g1 = g (1 1) = go = o

]l $l] # {l]l> Gl E]lsMS * MS{l ]ll

*]l A]l#l$.
w = mg = mxo = o

A>, R s Mt S *y * VS$$l lZ ]l*$

]l$.

4.

5. MS l $]l$ st *$ VS$$l l $]lZ

]l*$$ ]l- . Gl$MSs *$O $, Z$$,
]l$l {l>$.. Eylr ]l {l> st VS$$l l
$]l ]l*$l$.
*$ VS$$l l VS- ^ly- -M- S ZMS
(simple pendulum) Etronos balance Al MS>
yl$.
]l*]lV> E]l {l>]l$
z *$ VS$$l l $]l$
{ ^l rZ FlMS QZ MS$. D Q]l$
Isograms/Same gravity As$. s BV> JMS
{lZ S O l $]l *VS ]l]l$]l$ MS]l$MP]l^l$a.
z ^l{l$ylO VS$$l l *$ VS$$l lZ MS]l
B ]ll$ ]l${ll$ Er$. Al$]l ^l{l$ylO {
]l $l] # B ]ll$V> Er$.

(Vo ) =

GM
(or ) V o = gR
R

*$ $Z MS>lVS Vo = 7.92 kms1.As $]l*$ 8

1
kms V> Er$.
MS>lVS E{VS {l]l>O B yll$.

z MS>lVS M>-l] lVS MSs GMS$POl l Al$#l
ZMS ll$.

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MS>lVS lMS$P-O l - l Al$#l * ]l ZMSS

{l_ M>l$.

E{VS$
Z l ]l $l] # ^l$r*t {$$l] _]l ]l $l] #]l$
E{VS$ A As$. s yl$ M>$-V> ]lYMS
^l]l^l$a.
f E{VS$ (Natural Satellites):
{$$l]
z Z {VS r$ Hyl s ^l$r*t
_]l ]l $l] #
-f E{- VS
- - $ E: ^l{l$yl$
& VSl$yl. C
z Cs ]lMS$ MS]l$V]l s- Z l E{VS
VS$$ {VS-M- S E.
z

MS{]l$ E{VS$ (Artificial satellites)

- l] *]l]l#yl $ >MSs $ *$ ^l$r*t {lst l] E
{VS]l$ MS{]l$ E{VS$ As$.
e.g.: Brt , P, INSAT etc
* E{VS (Geo stationany satellites):
-z JMS E{VS *$ El ]l$_ 36 l km
Gl$ZMS {*W_]l yl$ A *$ ^l$r*t JMS W
>]lyMS sMt > 24 VSr$ JMS kV> Er$.
Gl$MSs D E{VS
*$ Bl{]l$ lV>MS ]l*
]lV> Er$. * E{VS
(or) communica (or) parking satellite As$.
tion E{VS
z *$ MS{l ]l$_ Gl$ = (s) =R+h (s) = 6.400 km +
3600km = 42,400km

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l lVS GMS$P]lV> Eyl?

2. VPyl Mr { ]l ]ll ^l ]l $ >
]l l] ^ll$l* MrO E]l >k ]l MSP]l 7 $
$.

{ l (Eco (or) Resound)

z

l lV>$ {* $l] ]l*Y Z Gl$$V> E]lAyl$z

l]l$ MS ]l$]l]l$ ^l]l yl$ y ^l s
{l A As$.
{l s ....
1. lls l MS, >]l l] ^l ]l_a]l (reflected
sound) y l MS ]l$l MS M>]l]l
1/100]l MSl
Ey.
t=

v=

V>MS VS oMS>$Z ]lQOl $]l EtVS l (T), {ll

(d),
yl]l (P), l]l$ (Humidity). D oMS >$]l$
B ^l $M lls 16]l Z ]l*rl l
lV>MS $MS {^yl$.
]l*rl {_]l $MS
P
d

M> D $MS Al > l l ]l^yl$.

]l_]l $MS
v=

p
d

NL

CP
=
CV

vt
2

(V>]l*)]l$ ]l# yl$ t~ ]l$l VS A

As$. D $]l l$ ]l#Z l$V> Eylr

]l l lVS MS*y ]lV> Er$.

s :
V>Z l lV> {*V>lMSV> MS]l$V]l > l l
yl.. $ (Bl$M>)

v = 330 ms 1 (V>Z)
d=

Pascal

F
A

yl]l
p = V>
d = V> {ll

2d
t

v V>Z l lVS
d l lV>$ {*^lll*
st l] M>
t
t1 t2
d=

V=

2. l f]lMS l] ]l$_ >]l l] lMS ]l$l MS

l* 16.5 $r$ Ey.
d = 16.5 $r$.
3. { l $MS:
d +d
t

P=

1
sec.
10

v=

l lVS (velocity of sound):

1. V>Z l lVS: (T, P, d, l]l$)

33 0
1

=d
2
10

= 16.5m 17m

E*V>$:
1. ]l#$, Z$$, VS]l$ Zl$]l$ MSP^lyMS
2. yl$ ]l ]l$l l*> () ]l$l
l*> MSP^lyMS
3. ]l{ Zl$]l$ MS]l$V]lyMS E*W^l SONAR
MSO l BV> ^l $.
s:
1. yMSt $ E*W^l t l P l $ >]l l]
*{l BV>
(multiple reffle on of sound) Al
^l $.

1. V>Z l lVS O Et{VSl {]l:

z V>Z l lVS
]l$ E~{VS ]lY l] MS
A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ Er$.
V= T
z

V = 331 ms1

M>st V> Et{VSl W]lrl l lVS MS*y

$VS$l$. V> Et{VSl]l$ 1C ^]l _]lyl$
V>Z l lVS 0.61 ms1 V> $VS$l$.
25C = 330 ms1 26c 330.61m/s

E~{VSl GMS$P]lV> E]l l M>Z V>Z l lVS

GMS$P]lV> Er$.

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2. V>Z l lVSO yl]l {]l:

yl]lO B yl Eyll$. M>st
z V>Z l lVS B V>
yl _ lWY_ l lVSZ Gr$]ls
]l*$ Eyll$.
E:
]l yl]l GMS$P]lV> E]l]l{l {Z,
]l yl]l lMS$P]lV> E]l O, V>
E]l ]l$l {l>Z l lVS JMSl V> Er$.
3. l lVSO {ll {]l:
v

1
d

V>Z l lVS Al {ll ]lY l] MS Z]l*

]l$lZ Er$. Al$]l {ll lWYl] r
l Z l lVS GMS$P]lV> Er$.
E:
]lZ ]l$]lMS$ ^l ]l#Z H2 ]l#
{ll lMS$P]lV> Eylr ]l Z l lVS $]l*$
1200 m/secV> Er$. AlMS ]l# ${]l$Ol $]l
V>Z l lVS 330 ms1 V> ]l#r$.
4. V>Z llVSO l]l$ {]l: (humidity)
]lZ E]l s B> l]l$ B{ l A
As$. D l]l$ >l W]lrl V> {ll lWY,
l lVS $VS$l$.
l]l$ {ll llVS
]l yl l]l ]l$r B {lZ E]l V>Z l]l$
>l VSr ]l]l l lVS GMS$P]lV> Er$.
]l*]l E~{VSl ]ll JMSyl k (dry day l M>Z
JMSk), JMS lyl k (wet day ]l>M>Z JMS k)
Z a]l yl$ l]l$>l GMS$P]lV> E]l lyl kZ
l lVS GMS$P]lV> Er$. Gl$MSs s {ll
MS l V> Er$.
yl k : lyl k
d = 1 d = 0.6

5. $]l >Z l lVS (Velocity of sound in

solids)

$..

Vs =

$]l l] $VS VS$MS =

$]l l] {ll = d
6. {l]l >Z l lVS
V2 =

K
d

* VS$MS B$l

VS$MS = K
{l]l > {ll = d
7. V>Z l lVS
VG =

]l*]l {ll ]ll $]l, {l]l, ]l# MS

VS$M>]l$ a]l yl$, > k > pV> ]l#r$.
M>st l lVS $]l Z VSt V>, {l]l Z
V>, V>Z MSt V> Er$.
$]l >Z V>kZ l lVS $]l*$ 5500m/s1 V>
z
Er$. V>k $VS VS$MS $W]l $]l > MSs
GMS$P]lV> Er$.
1. V>k & 5500m/s (0C)
t & 5000m/s (0C)
2.
3. {l]l >Z a]l yl$ sZ l lVS GMS$P]lV>
Er$.
$ & 1435ms1 ]l#ylV> (0C)
(Ol $]l sZ l lVS)
4. ]l{l # $ & 1485ms1 ]l#r$ (0C)
5. 37C ]l*]l]l MS Z l lVS & 1570ms1 (37C)
6. V>Z & H2 ]l#Z
l lVS & 1200ms1V> ]l#ylV>
V>Z & 330ms1V> Er$.
z

]l* {$
1. yl l {]l*? ({VS*&1, 2008), ({VS*&2, 2008)
G) l$^leMS ) M>
) E~
yl) l
2. l lVS GMS$P]lV> Eyl?
({VS*&1, 2003), (g.G. 2003)
G) 0C ]ll ylV>Z
) 30C ]ll ylV>Z
) 0C ]ll l]l$ V>Z
yl) 30C ]ll l]l$V>Z
3. MS *l$ lMS _?
({VS*&1, 2002)
G) M>$
) >y
) *MS ]l*]l
yl) sfl
4. ^l$ GMS$P]lV> ^l {]l$ VS$^lyMS H lV>
]l$ yl$?
G) {>$
) Al ]l$$
) {>]l lV>$ yl) A Zl MS$
5. M_$l *^lyMS H E*
W$?
G) >]l$l ) i]l$l
) gZ yl) y
6. G yl$ A]l $_]l l]l$ ]l MS~Z

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MS$VS$l$?
G) 30
) 60 ) 90 yl) 120
7. yMSt$ E*W^l tlP ^l$ylZ C$ylE]l l
l?
G) >]l l]
) $ >]l l]
) ]l{MS]l]l
yl) Z
8. _]l$, MS^l$V> EylyMS VS M>?
G) ]l@#l] AMS
) ]l@#l] A
) MS]l $ AMS
yl) O ]l
9. l M>$MS VS M>?
G) ]l ]l$
) {]l$ O l$
) gs ]l*$
yl) O ]l
10.^lr M]l$$, MSsMS l$ FVS$l$]lyl$ l$]lyl l
{]ll G yl$?
G) 0
) 30
) 50
yl) 80
]l*$
1 yl 2 yl 3 4 5 yl
6 yl 7 8 G 9 yl 10 G

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fl>Y$ EMS G MS]l$Vs$?

l lV>$ & M>$

V V0
n1 =
n
V Vs

sub sonic super hyper

1. Sub sonic

lVS: ]l $l] # lVS l lVS MSs lMS$P]lV>

E]lrl sub sonic lVS A As$.
E:
car, bus llO ]l D lV> MSW Es.
2. Sonic lVS :
]l $ lVS l lV>MS ]l*]lV> E]lrl sonic
lVS As$.
E: H ]l $l] # lVSO l $ l lVS ]l*]lO l $]l
]l yl$ A sonic lV> MSW Er$.
3. Super sonic lVS:
]l $ lVS l lV>MS 1 ]l$_ 5 r$ E]lrl
super sonic lVS A As$.
E:
gs ]l*$, >MSr$, S $$ ($O) l MS$
llO ]l D lVSZ {*. E: {Z&1.
Super Sonic lV> MACH QZ l$g$.
]l*MS Q = ]l $l] # lVS/l lVS
D lZ Mach Q 1]l$_ 5 ]lMS$ Er$.
4. hyper sonic lVS :
]l $ lVS l lV>MS 5 r MSs GMS$P]lV> E]lrl
hyper sonic lVS As$.
E: { & II (*MS]l lZ E)
1. gs ]l*$ * MS lVS {* $l] yl$
All MS l] $lO l $]l shock waves lV>]l$ yl$l
^l.
D lZ El A]l l sonic boom A
As$.
2. l MS$ super sonic lVS {* $l] yl$ bow
waves Al MS l] $lO l $]l lV>]l$ yl$l ^l.
y l
1. l f]lMS, l MS$yl$ JMSMMS$ SMSV> MSl$$
l$]lyl$ (relative motion) MS$yl$ l l l
]l@# (apparent frequency) y l A
As$.
2. l , M>, Cl lV>Z MS*y A]l$]l
^l$]l^l$a.
3. y lZ l l ]l@#MS VS $MS

V = l

lVS
V0 = l
MS$yl lVS (observer)
VS = l f]lMS lVS
n = l A$ ]l:#l]
A]l$]l$/E*V>$:
1. ]l{l VSZ ^l$l] fl>Y$ EMS, MS
]l$, Zl$]l$ MS]l$V]lyMS E*W^l Sonar lZ
y yl$.
s:
fl>Y$ MS]l$V]l > l l &- Bushnell (Al$M>)
2. MS*yl ]ll (at cross roads) lV> MSP^lyMS
E*W^l lazer MSl$> O l BV> ^l $.
3. VSVS]llZ GVS$$l$]l ]l*$, >MSs, S $$
($O) llO ]l s EMS MS]l$V]lyMS E*W^l
>y
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

^l$ylZ D yl$, >yZ

V> yl* lV> ]l$ lazer MS]l$
E*W $.
*$ Bl{]l$ ]l$ l$$M]lyMS.
>l>Z E]l E$ ]lS{]l$ (binary stars (or)
double stars) Al$]l ^l$yMS.
{VS
^l$r*t E]l l VS$ ]l*]l$ (coloured
rings) Bl $]l ^l$yMS.
]l*]l]l Z MS >Z VS Z l$$M]l
yMS.
VS $]l#
l$ l]l]l$ ]lyMS. (heart beating
of a fetal)

9. *$ ^l$r*t {$$l] MS{]l$ E{VS MSS]l$,

Gl$]l$ l$$M]lyMS.
10. sMS M_$l l$g bigbang
*^lyMS y yl$.
G$# ]l (Red shift) A As$. D
1929Z Hubble Al > l l *^yl$.
s:
1. l lt y ^l{l$O A]l$]l ^l$.
2. {sMS M>t $ ^l$r*t JMS motor cyclist ]lM>
]l*Y Z $VS$l* l l*W_]l yl$ B M>
t $
l l ]l@#l] Z Gr$]ls ]l*$ Eyll$.

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3. 50 MS.$. VSr lVS {* $l] M>$ 1000 Hz

l l*W_]l yl$ B car driver l ]l@#]lZ
Gr$]ls ]l*$ Eyll$.
4. l f]lM>MS, l MS$MS ]l$l VS *]lMS (V>)
{]l
^l ]l$ st l ]l@#l] Z ]l*$ Er$.

As$.
E: >al Xl (Western music).
>Z lls "' ]l@#l] 256 Hz$ M>V> _]l
"' ]l@#l] 512 Hz$ ( 2 256 Hz$)
Diatonic A As$.

l lVS l>$:
1. l {]ll : Intensity of the sound
MS]l $ W]lrl l {]ll MS*y $VS$
l$.
{]l*$: Deci-Bell
D {]l* {VS
$Z ]l$_ $MS$$. l
{]ll ]l@#]lO B yl Eyll$.
2. l (pitch):
C MS]l ]l@#l] O ]l*{ll$ B yl Er$.
]l@#l] Wl l MS*y $VS$l$. C
MS]l $ O B yl Eyll$.
3. lVS$ (Quality (or) Timber):
JMS AlMS $ ]l$]l ^l ^l]l sMS, l$ ]l$
]l$]l ^l l$V> VS$ $. lVS$ As$. C
l r$]l {Zl {V>lO (sensitivity of
yl Er$.
hearing) B

l ]l{l, #]l$l:
1. t MSO l M>$z ^l #l] $l ^l ]l > l l
#l] $l A]l l {]ll ^ ]lV>
Poulson.
Eylr ]l D l {^l$> ll$.
2. {V>l$l s O l M>$z ^l #l] $l ^l ]l
> l l ]l$ B Gyl l.
3. s M>z Z E*W^l s #O Feoxide {MS
BOMS yl Al A$Pl Nl N $.
4. ]l* Z l M>$z ^l W #l] $l ^l$y
MS E*W^l *{l ""M> l$l l'' (Photo

Important points:

1. ]l$VS MSu , VSj_]l #yl $ l$]lyl l ]l$Z

MS]l $ GMS$P]lV> ]l@#]l lMS$P]lV> Er$.
2. _]l$, $, ]l$ >Z MS]l $ lMS$P]lV>,
]l@#l] GMS$P]lV> Er$. Al$]l D >$
MS^l$V> (Shrillness) Es.
Xl l S$:
XlZ > yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^$.
1. A (discurd):
D >$ ]lyMS C#V> Eyl]l#.
2. A]l$ (Concurd):
D >$ ]lyMS C#V> Es. s W ]l*l $
(melody), A yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^$.
]l*l$: Xl ]l$ JMS l>l
]l$MS l*W_]l yl$ B >$ ]lyMS C#V>
E]lrl s ]l*l $ As$.
E: $ g]l l Xl (Indian Folk
Music)

: Xl ]l$ MS JMS l*W_]l yl$

B >$ ]lyMS C#V> E]lrl s A

Electric Effect)

26 H MSlr (Sony) MS
M Cl MS $ MS]l$V. Z ]l*^
> l M>$z ^l #l] $l ^l$yMS lazer
MS]l$ yl$.

DVD (Digital Versatile Disk): C MS*y CD
^l$.

5. C.D (Compact Disk)]l$

6.

]l* {$
1. l lV>]l$ l$l lV>$V> ]l*a MS?
G) sl
) O {yl
) O l ${Ml
yl) yl*
2. l M>$z ^l$y H]l$s$? ({VS*&2, 2005)
G) yl*{VS
) Byl*{VS
) sZ{VS
yl) yl*{VS
3. l AlMS lVS {*^l ?
(r ]lP l$lf 4&1&9)
G) $
) V>
) EMS$P yl) *]l
4. l lV>$ lZ {*^l]l#? (GylK 1999)
G) sZ
) *]lZ
) ]l*lZ
yl) $]l Z
5. A l ]l$]l$ ]lVSVS i?
G) yl
) MS$MSP
) VS
yl) O ]l
6. yl$VS$ yl ]l$$Z l$$# MS_]l l>l E$]l
]lyl$l$. MS VS M> l lVS M> lVS

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MSs?
G) lMS$P]l
) GMS$P]l
) ]l*]l
yl) VS
7. Z MSZ E]l VS$ l] $ VS$^lyMS E*W^l
lV>$?
G) A l ]l$$
) {>$
) l lV>$ yl) M> MS$
8. M> a]l #yl$ l {l^l l ?
G) >]l l]
) ]lMS
) {l $]l
yl) ]l{MS]l]l
9. ]l$]l lZ {l ^l (Echo Point) GMSPyl
E?
G) B{l {l
) MS
) l$yl$
yl) ]l$>
10.l l MS VSl$ >Z E*W^l ?
G) ^leOl $]l Mt S )
) lM
yl) O ]l
]l*$
1
6 G

2
7 G

3
8

4 5 yl
9 10 yl

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M>... $, l>$
M> (Light)
z
z

M> JMS MS *.
C $ {M>>O ]l ]l $l] #Z f_, $k ]l*Y Z
{*$.
M> MS$ Gl$$V> E]l ]l $l] # ElO l]lO l $
>]l l] ^l]l yl$.. MS 1/16]l MSl M> r$
]l$]l MSsZ s]l$ MS]lrl optec Al yl ]l
lgt ql] MS$VS$l$. M>st M> light Al $
r$ optics A MS*y - - $-- $.
lt gq- VS$_ Al $]l ^l > B l] *i
(Opthamology) A As$. MS yMSt ]l$ B l] *ht
(Opthamologist) A As$.
M> M^l > M>$ > (Photometry)
As$.
Z E]l ]l $l] #]l$ $ {M>M>$ (self luminous
body), A$ {M>M>$ A - yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l
]l^l$a.

A. ${M>M>$

D ]l $l] #$ M> $rMS$ llh]l.

E:
1) *$yl$
2) ]lS{$
3) $$VS$$ #$VS$
4) l$VS$l$]l l$l $
5) Tube light
6) Torch light
B. A${M>M>$
$l] #$ M> M $ {M>M>O ]l ]l $l] #O
z D ]l
Byl--.
E: {VS$, E{VS$, ]l*]l]l , ^lMSP ]l$
llO]l.
M> l]l$ > { ^l- l > BV> ^l $M
Z ]l $l] #]l$ - l] yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a.
1. lMS ]l$]l#$ (Transparent materials)
z s - -> M> MS
- $ ^^l$aM l- .
E: V>kMS, $.
2. A lMS ->$ (Semi Transparent)
z D ]l
$l] #O l]lO l $]l M>Z Ml VS l]l$ >
{ ^l $W]l V>- Bl.
z

E: 1) VS$MS$ El- E]l V>kMS

2) {s VS
3) ]l*l Al] M>Wl
3. AlMS ]l$]l#$:&
z -s - -> M> MS$ ^^l$aM l]l#.
E: {VS$, E{VS$, ]l*]l]l .
M> $
M> l > VS$_ > l l $ Al $]l ^l MS
]l$ {^$.
1. ]l*rl MS l (Newtons Corpuscular theory)
l {M> $ {M>M>O ]l ]l $l] #Z ]l$_
z D
l$]lyl]l M> MS$.. _]l _]l MS *Z
{*. D MSO *$ VS$$MS {]l
# *]lV> Er$. Al$]l s- M>>$P
As$. s lVS {ll*]lMSZ (denser medium
V>k, $) GMS$P]l. A-l *]lMSZ (Rarer medium
V>) lMS$P]lV> Er$. All V> l$ ]l*
$]l M> MS$ l$ VS$]l$ H- - - $-. M>
{*V>lMSV> . . M> lVS *]lMSZ
GMS$P]l, {ll *]lMSZ lMS$P]lV> Er$. Al
l V> l$ lVSO l >$]l M> MS$ l$
VS$]l$ H- - $. D >- l - l - $ l
P^$.
2. OVSl lVS l
z {M> M> MS$ lV> *Z {*
. C {*^lyMS O l $]l Dl Al
*]lMS A]l.
*]lMSZ GMS$P]l, {ll-
z M> lV> lVS
*]lMSZ lMS$P]lV> Er$. All V> - l lVS O l - >$-l] M> MS$ l- $ VS$]l$ H- - $.
3. M>r-l$ l
- - {MS.. 1900Z Max Planck A-l > l l {^$.
z
l {M> M>MS _]l _]l M>r *Z
z D
- S MS MSr
- *Z {* $. JMS M>rl$Z
E]l MS JMS sl As$.
slZ E]l MSM S $MS
E = h
h=

MS >MS

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 = ]l@#l] (Frequency)

M> M> lVS c =

E=

hc

O $MSZ {S_]l
l {l]lM- S $ Max PlanckMS$ $]l$
z D
_. Cly- l - Bl $MS oMS > ]l$$yl
As$. (Father of Modern Physics)
4. l$l A$Pl lVS l (Electro magnetic
z

= 9.4 1015 metres (or) 9.41012 kms

z

Maxwell Al > l l {^yl$.

D l {M> M> MS. . l$l, A$Pl
A> *Z {* $. D lV>$ {*^l
yMS Gs *]lMS A]l l$.

M> l>$
1. M> $k]l]l
$ {M>M>O ]l ]l $l] # ]l$_ l$]lyl]l M>
z
MS$ ]l*Y Z {*^ly M> $k]l l]
As$.
$l] M> MS$ Gl$$V> E]l
z D l V> {*
]l $l] # ElO l]lO l $]l yl$ yOl #l yl-l] $
(b$$) H$. D b$$ yl$ M>-$. lrtO l $]l
`MSs B]l_]l { {^e$ (embra),
^l$r*tl] ]l$MS `MSs E^e$ (penumbra) As$.
*{VS
, ^l{l{VS
$ (Sonar & Lunar eclipse)
z
M> $k]l l] ]l- l Hyl$l$. {^e$-Z
N~ {VS
-$, E^e$-Z SMSl {VS
$ Hyl
. V> A]l* k *{VS
, ~ $
k ^l{l{VS
--$ Hyl.

l*> M]lyMS E*W^ll Al {]l*

Paralastic second parsec.
]ll>$
1 parsec = 3.26 M>
= 3.269.41015 metres

wave theory)
z

M> MS$ ]ll M>Z {*_]l l*l$

M> ]ll.
1 M> ]ll = 365.252460603108 m

Z M>lVS ]l*{ll$ VSOt l $. MS-s lVSV>

H ]l $l] # MS*y {*^l- l $.
E: yl$ ]l $l] #$ M>lV>-MS ]l*]l lVS Gl$
l$$V> {* $ ]lyl$ s S lVS MS*y M>
lVS]lMS$ ]l*]lV> Er$.
V>Z l lVS 330 ms1
M> lVS 3 108 ms1
M>st yl$VS$yl ]l$$Z llr l$$# MS_
l>l E$]l ]l yl$l$.

M> l>$
(Properties of light)
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z

$k]l l] (Rectilinear Propagation)

M> lVS
]l{MS]l]l (Refraction)
>]l l] (Reflection)
N>~l >]l l] (Total Internal Reflection)
M> S / (Dispersion of light)
M> S (Scattering of the light)
]lMS (Interference)
]l l] (Diffraction)
{l $]l (Polarization)

2. M>lVS
- - -V- > {$_]l
z M> lV> MS]l$V]ly-M- S l-l s
> l l VS*. M> *M> E*W_ {*VS
>Z M> lV>- Q_alV> >_]l > l l M>.t
z *]lZ V>Z M>lVS c = 3 108 ms1 *$
]l$_l M> MS$ *$-MS ^ly-MS s- t M> $]l*$
8.2 $$ 500 MS]l$.
z ^l{l$ ]l$_ $$l]l M> MS$ *$ ^ly- -MS st M> $]l*$ JMS MS]l$.
t=
=

S 3,8000 1000
=
C
3 108

384
= 1.3 sec
300

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M> ]l{MS]l]l, >]l]l,

]l{MS]l]l
M> MS$ JMS *]lMS ]l$_ ]l$MS *]lMSZMS {*
^lryl$ B *]lMS ]ll ]lW {*. D
l > ]l{MS]l]l (Refraction) As$.
A]l$]l$:
1. $l] MSsZ MS{]l$ E_]l yl$ ]l{MS]l]l ]l A
W]lr$V> MS$.
2. $l] {lZ JMS E_]l yl$, B A$
]l* MSs l V>, lVSY V> MS$.
3. ]l{MS]l]l ]l $l] {l Ayl$VS$VS O MS _ lMS$P]l
Zl$ E]lr$V> MS$. Al$]l f* Zl$
lMS$P]lV> E]lr$V> MS.
4. AS>$]l O V>k MS]l$ E_ ^l*]l yl$ B
AS>$ ]l#V>, lVSY V> MS.
5. V>Z GVS$$l$]l VSl sZ E]l ^l ]l$ ^l*]l yl$ B
^l l V>, lMS$P]l Zl$Z E]lr$V> MS$.
JMSl sZ E]l ^l V>Z E]l VSl l] $ _]l yl$
B VSl _]lV>, GMS$P]l Gl$Z GVS$$l$]lr$V> MS$.
6. *l$, *> ]l$*Z *$ ]l$_ ]l $l]
M> MS$ *$ ]l Z ]l{MS]l]l
^llyl ]l { lZ yl$ $ ^]l
ll $VS$ $ M> $VS$l$.
M>st JMSk M> ]l]l 23 VSr 56 $, 4 MS]l
]l$_ 24 VSr$V> ]l*.
7. M> ]l{MS]l]l ]l El$l] , A $$l] *
AyMSZ (oval shape) MS$.
8. ]lS{ ]l$_ ]l^la M> MS$ *$ ]l
Z ]l{MS]l]l ^llyl ]l A $$MS$ $$MS$]l$r$
]lr$V> MS .
9. O M> ]l ]lS{$ A$ Gl$ MSs GMS$P]l Gl$Z
E]lr$V> MS$.
]l{MS]l]l VS$MS (Refractive Index)
z M> MS$ JMS *]lMS ]l$_ ]l$MS *]lMSZMS
{*^lryl$ B *]lMS ]ll ^l l]l M
(Angle of incidence) sin $]lMS$, ]l{MS]l]l M sin
$]lMS$ ]l$l ]l{MS]l]l VS$MS (Refractive Index)
A As$.
=

sin i
sin r

Snell Al > l l {^yl$. Al$]l Snell

$]l$ A MS*y As$.
z ]l{MS]l]l VS$M>MS Gr$]ls {]l*$ Eyl]l#. M>
st l$ $]l$ Es.
E:
1. V> air = 1
2. $ water = 4 = 1.33
z

glass = 1.5
4. ]l{f diamond = 2.42

3. V>k

]l{gMS VSOt l $]l ]l{MS]l]l VS$MS $]l Er$.

s:
# ]l*]l ]l{MS]l]l VS$MS $]l$ E]l JMS V>k
MS]l$ sZ l ]l yl$ A AlOl $]lr$V> MS$.
z

>]l]l (Reflection)
1. M> MS$ ]l $l] # ElO l]lO l $ W l]l$MSMS$
]l$y >]l l] As$.
2. D l ]l ]l*]l]l#yl MS lt gql] MS$VS$l$.
3. Al l V> l ^l$ylZ D l C$yl
Er$.
4. ]l$]l$O]l ElO >]l l] A l$]l# ]ll
]l*]lV> Er$. M> VS$MS$ ElO l$
l$]l# ]ll >]l l] l$V> Er$.
N>~l >]l]l: (TIR)
M> MS$ JMS ]l $l] # Z N~ V> >]l l]
^lly N>~l >]l l] A As$. C
fV>s M> MS$ Gyl* {ll *]lMS ]l$_
*]lMSZMS {*^.
E$:
1. ]l{f l$$yMS M> M> N>~l >]l l] .
2. C$MS Gy$$, $ ylO N>~l >]l l] ]l
Gyl]l*]l#$ Hyl $ E]lr$V> {]l$yl.
3. ]l$^l$ {Z N>~l >]l l] ]l Ml
l* ]l$_ ]l$]l O l # ]l $l] ]l $l] # A$ Gl$ MSs
GMS$P]l Gl$ ]l$_ ]l $l] r$V> MS$. *$VS
A As$.
4. {sMS VS ^l$ylZ D l C$yl Er$.
5. V>k ]l$Z () s Z E]l V> $ylVS N>~

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l >]l l] ]l lyl l$$$l] r$V> MS$.

6. O l lVSZ E*W^l GyP, {P
^l$ylZ D l > yl$.
s:
GyP ]lZ f MS]l$ E*W $.
l ll$]l# & Optical Fibre
z V>k $.
z Z V>k 2 O l ${M>]l ]l$_ 3 O l ${M>]l ]lMS$ (2106
$r ]l$_ 3106 $r ]lMS$) Er$. ZMS f
MS]l$ Cl M> MS]l$ _]l yl$
N>~l >]l l] ^l A ^ l* {*
. M>st optical fibre]l$ ]l*^VSZ V>
E*W$.
s:
{ ^lZ All ylO l ]l optical fibre]l$ yll ]l$_
VS N ]lMS$ H>r$ ^l $$. yl]l# $]l*$
20,000 MS.$.$.

Al$]l D VS$]l$ MS l]l~ r (visible

spectrum) A As$. s ]l>~]l$ (lVS O l >]l$)
M]lyMS ]l~ r ]l*M> (Spectrometer) E*W
$.
7. M> Z Hyl]l FVS$ lVS O l v =
4000A, G$# VS$ lVS O l R = 7500A M>st
lVS O l lMS$P]lV> E]l F VS$ GMS$P]lV> ]lW
{* $. lVS O l GMS$P]lV> E]l G$# VS$
lMS$P]lV> ^l]l ^l # $k ]l*Y Z {*
$. M>st {]l*l MS]l$ *_^lyMS E
*W$.
8. M>r l {M>
hc

E =

lVS O l GMS$P]lV> E]l G$# VS$ MS MSt V>

Er$. Al$]l photo graphic ]l$ develop ^l
dark roomZ G$# VS$Z E]l $]l$ E*
W$.
9. ]l{MS]l]l VS$MS lVS O l >MS Z]l*]l$lZ
1

M> /S
(Dispersion of light)

]l$# VS$ l]lO l]lO l $]l M> MS]l$ Z^l$M

E~{VSl]l$ ^l$MS$r$. l>l JMS VSt E~{VSlMS$
^l$MS$]lyl$ ]l$ {VS
_]l M> NV> $rMS$
yl$l ^l $. Al$]l ]l$# VS$ ]l$_ Z,
EY MS*y (good absorber, emitter).
A]l$]l$:
1. ]lr{l B]lOl #]l ]l$#VS$(]l$) Nl N $.
2. Mt S sMS O # O VS O ]l ]l$# VS$ Nl N$
r ]l B O #$ lylMSP B sMSZ E]l ]lMSs
lV> BV> ]l*$.
$W]l VS$ a]l yl$ ]l$# VS$MS$ MS GMS$P]l.
3. MS$r$Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l MS~ ]l $l] # (black body)
*$yl$ (sun). Gl$MSs *$yl$ l]lO l]lO l $]l M>
MS]l$ Z^l$MS$syl$. All V> l]lZ ]l$_ M>
$rMS$ yl$l ^lyl $.
4. l$# VS$O M> MS$ l]lO l $]l yl$ B VS$
s NV> >]l l] ^l$.
5. JMS l M> MS rtMS > {*_]l yl$
VIBGYOR Al 7 VS$$V> yll$. M>
A As$. D l > 16]l Z ]l*rl
MS]l$Vyl$.
6. M> Z Hyl]l 7 VS$Z CylV Al VS$]l$
l $W]l VS$]l$ ]l$]l MS]l$ VS$^lVS$VS$l$.
z

Er$
M>st VIBGYORZ FVS$ $Z ]l{MS]l]l
VS$MS GMS$P]lV>, G$#VS$ $Z lMS$P]lV> E
r$.
10.JMS V>k MSZ lVS O l lMS$P]lV> E]l FVS$
lVS lMS$P]lV>, lVS O l GMS$P]lV> E]l G$#VS$
lVS GMS$P]lV> Er$
(C = ).

M> V> *]lZ A VS$ lV>$ M> lV>MS

]l*]lV> Es.
11. VIBGYORZ F
- VS$ ]l MSsZ sMS$
f$VS$l$. M>st D VS$]l$ ^l*ylMS*yll$. CylV
VS$]l$ ]l$]l MS]l$ VS$^ll$.
12.BMS$^la VS$ lVSO l $]l*$ 5550A Er$. D
lVSO l ]l (MS ]l) MSsZ sMS$ {>
MS$VS$l$.
{l$MS VS$$
z VIBGYORZ , BMS$^la, G$# VS$]l$ {l$MS
VS$ (primary colours) As$. Gl$MSs C
JMSO ]l$MSs B ylMS$y l{lV> Es.

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V ]l>~$ (Secondary Colours)

z HOl yl$ {l$MS VS$$ JMS ]l$MSs MS]l
#yl $ Hyl]l VS$]l$ V VS$ As$.
]l$ Z JMS ]l$
z {l$MS VS$$ ]lyls
MSs MS]l #yl$ l$# VS$ Hyl$l$.
Blue + Green + Red = White

{ {l$MS VS$ ]l$MS {l$MS VS$]l$ Z ^l $MS$

r$.
E:
1. JMS VS$ # (G$# VS$) ^la VS$ V>k MS
> _]l yl$ A ]l$# VS$Z MS$.
2. BMS$^laVS$Z E]l MS ]l$ l _]l ]lMS *l
* *> l] $* _]l yl$ A ]l$#
VS$Z MS.
3. BMS$^laVS$ VS V>k MS > ]l$]l g$ gy]l$
_]l yl$ Hyl VS$ {MS]l$:
]l$#, BMS$^la VS$$.
NMS VS$$
z JMS {l$MS VS$ MS ]lMSV> E]l V VS$
MS]l yl$ l$# VS$ Hyl$l$.
E:
+ $# = l$# ({l$MS VS$)
JMS {l$MS VS$ + {l$MS VS$MS ]lMS V VS$ =
l$# VS$
z yl$ VS$$ JMS ]l$MSs MS l$# VS$]l$
H>r$ ^l s NMS VS$$ (complimentary
colours) As$.

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M> MS Q]l$ H]l$s$?

M> S (Scattering of the light)
1. M> MS$ {* $l] ]l*Y Z Gl$$V> E]l _]l
MS]l$ lM lVSZ ]l*$ MS$y ]l$MS Z
{*. M> S As$.
E$:
1. VSs ]l$$Z *$ ]l$_ ]l^la l M>Z
VS$.. * ]l Z S ^l O MS
ly l ]l BM> VS$Z MS$.
2. JMSl *$O E]l ]l AlOl $]lrl M>
S fVSl$. M>st VS$, >{ ]l$$Z MS*y
BM> ]l$# VS$Z MS^lyll$ M>MS$y ]lS{$ MS*y
MS.
3. ^l{l$O ]l MS]lyl ]l M> S
fVSl$. Al$]l ^l{l$O ]l$_ BM>> . .
A ]l$*Zl] * ]l$# VS$Z MS$. ]lS{]l$
MS*y ^l*y^l$a.
4. *l$, *> l] $*Z G$# VS$ GMS$P]lV>
S ^llyl ]l * G$# VS$Z
MS$.
5. *$ ^l$r*t {$$l] ]l$V>]l MS$ (astronauts &
aeronauts) BM> Gyl* ]l$# VS$Z MS^lyMS
M> M> S MS]lyll$.
6. VS]l$^l$, l$]l, l * MS > M> GMS$P]lV>
S ^ll ]l $l] #]l$ ^l*yl.
7. ]l$^l$ ]lMSP$ glass piecesO M> MS$
l]lO l $ S ^ll.. A lyl l$$$l] r$V>
MS.
8. >]l$l ]l^lyMS ..>]l$l M>
S l > *W^yl$. D *^l
yMS M>r l E*W^yl$.
C{ll]l$ (Rainbow)
1. ]lMS l]l$MS O l # ]l$_ ]l $l] *MS$ Gl$$V> E]l
s l$O l]lO l $]l yl$ M> , N
>~l >]l l] Al l > BV> A VM>Z
E]l (hemispherical) C{l l ]l $ Hyl$l$. Z
CylV VS$]l$ ]l$]l MS]l$ VS$^ll$.
2. N~ V> VM>Z E]l C{l l ]l $]l$ ]l*]l O s
^l*ylVSyl$.

]lMS (Interference)
z yl$ AlMSs GMS$P]l
QZ M> MS$
JMSO JMSs A (overlapping) ^l]lyl$
s l MS]l $, lVS O l >$ ]l*$.
]lMS As$. D l > Thomas Young Al
>ll MS]l$V$.
A]l$]l$
1. sO ]l*l]l$ llfl] yl$ ]lMS ]l l
VS$Z MS$.
2. $ $ylVS () $ $ ]lOl $]l VS$Z
MS^lyMS M> M> ]lMS.
]l]l (Diffraction)
1. M> MS$ {* $l] ]l*Y Z Gl$$V> E]l _]l
Ayl$zl ]ll ]lW {*^l l > ]l l] A
As$. Grimaldi MS]l$V$.
E:
1. N~ *{VS
]l$$Z *$ ]ly
carona MS^lyMS M> ]l l] .
2. ylO M> MS$ l]lO l $]l yl$ ]l l] ]l AlMS
VS$$ MS.
3. l$VS$l$]l $ ^l$r*t lrtO l $]l VS]l$^l$
E]lyl$ M> ]l l] ]l AlMS VS$$ MS.
4. l$$ *MS { ]ll M> MS$ ]l l] ^llyl
]l Ml l*Z E]l ]l $l] # ^l$r*t ]lOl $]l VS$$
E]lr$V> MS.
5. l$VS$l$]l {$l M VS ]l]l
MS]l$ ^l*]l yl$ M> ]l l] ]l s ^l$r*t AlMS
VS$$ MS.
6. ]l $l] # El ]l$_ >]l l] ^l]l M> MS$
MS]l$VS$yl$z ]ll ]lW {*_ MSs ZMS {l.
7. l l]l$MS VSZ *l$ *> l] $$
f$VS$l$]lyl$ M> ]l l] ]l B M> MS$
^ (streaks) MS.
{l$]l (Polarization)
1. M> MSZ l$l, A$P A>]l$ l$^l
$y {l $]l As$. D l > H.Bartholinus
MS]l$Vyl$.

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E:
1. l M>Z l ^l sun glasses {l $]l BV>
^l. C *$ ]l$_ ]l $l] AZ
l
MS]l$, >$ MS]l$ l$^l ]l*]l$ M>
MS]l$ ]l*{ll$ MSsZMS .
2. 3 Dimensional ]l*]l$ ^l*ylsMS E*W^ll
polarograph (polaroid) MS $ MS*y O l BV>
^l.
3. 3D l Z ]l $l] #l] $ sZ $y Holography
As$. Z f MS]l$ yl$$.
^l D l VS (Gabar)
z {l $]l BV>
MS]l$Vyl$. MS B$]lMS$ $]l$ _.

l*> l (focal light) As$. D MSrMSZ M>

MS JMS l$]l# ]ll MS{MSl M>]lyl ]l
l> l lMSV> $MS$s$. M>st D MSrM>
MS{MS MSrMS (converging lense) A MSrMS
(magnifying lense) As$.
#sM> MSrMS (concave lense)
# $V> E]l El$ Es. D
z MS C$Ol
MSrM>MS JMS O l # l]lO l $]l M> MS$ y O l #
MS{MSl (Diverges) ^ll$. M>st
l> $lMSV> $MS$s. Al$]l D
MSrM> MS{MS MSrMS A MSrMS A
As$.

M> {]ll (Intensity of light)

{]l* O l >O l]l]l$]l#l$]l M> MS Q]l$
M> {]ll As$.
{]l* : Candela
s:NM>Z M> {]ll]l$ M]lyMS E*W
_]l {]l*$ Lumen & Lux$ M> { $l C
yl$MSZ ]l#.
{]ll (I ) = 12
d

{l$MSSl$ (Optical Devices)

z
Ot l $]l lt M E*W^ll l ]l$ {l$MS
ls$.
t lt MSt l*:
z JMS ]l
$l] #]l$ t V> ^lyMS MSs ]l$_ ]l $l] #MS$
M>]l MS l*> t lt MSt l* (Least
distance of distinct vision) As$. BVS]ll$Oyl]l
]l*]l]l# $Z $]l 25 .$. Er$.
lt M (Angle of vision):
z JMS ]l
$l] # MSs ]ll ^l M lt M]l$s$.
]l $l] # lVSY V> E]lyl$ lt M GMS$P]lV> Eyl,
]l $l] # ]l* lV > MS$.
MSrM>$: MSrM>]l$ V>k l*$^l $. s yl$
M>$V> ]lYMS^l]l^l$a.
MS$M> MSrMS:
MS C$Ol # El ]l El$ Es. MSrMS
MS{l > l Q]l$ { S (principal axis)
As$. D { S JMSMSs ]l*lV>
l]lO l $]l M> MS$ y O l #l] H JMS l$]l# ]ll
MS{MSl]l$]l#. D l$]l#l] $ { ]l (principal
focus) As$. D { ]l ]l$_ MSrMS MS{MS ]l$l

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yl$ MS ]l$]l#]l$ ^lyll$..

M>
Sextant:

{M$Z sec Al *{l BV> ^l D

MS> E*W_ E]l> Gl$l] $ MS]l$V]l]l^l$a.
Kaleodeo scope:

]lyl$ ]l$l l]l$ JMSMMSs 60

MZ Eylr$ ]l$$ {$gM>Z A]l$$ $.
D l ]l$l Z HOl JMS ]l $l] #l] $ E_]l yl$
AlMS {$ MS.
*MSl]l$$ (Microscopes):
MSsMS lVSY V> E]l _]l ]l $l] #]l$ t V> ^l*ylsMS
s E*W $. *MSl]l$]l$ yl$ M>$V>
]lYMS^l]l^l$a.
*MSl (Simple Microscope):
lMS$P]l l E]l JMS JMS MS$M> MSrM>
E*W_ $. Z _]l ]l $l] # {
l V> MS $. As { B]l l] (magnified)
^ll$l$.
E*V>$:
_]l AS>]l$ ^ll]lyMS
l]l{l]l$ ^lyMS
VSyl*Z _]l V>]l$ t V> ^l*ylsMS watch
mechanic$ E*W $.
MS *MSl
(Compound Micro scope):

lMS$P]l l]l]l yl$ MS$M> MSrM>]l$

E*W_ D *MSl $. Z ]l $l] # O l #
E]l MSrM> ]l $ MSrMS A, MSsMS lVSY V> E]l
BS MSrMS (eye piece) A As$. D yl$ MSrM> ]l$l
l*> MS *MSl yl]l# As$. B]l l]
]l$>MS $MS (magnified)
m=

(Astronomical Telescope):

*$MS B]l E]l QV ]l $l] #]l$ As {VS$,

E{VS$, *$yl$, ]lS{$ llO ]l s ^l
yMS yl$. D l*lZ l$ {
lMSl$$V> Hyl]l sMS QV ]l $l] #]l$ ^l
ylZ Gr$]ls ]l$ Eyll$ Gl$MSs QV ]l $l] #
VM>Z Es.
*V l*l (Teratrial telescope):
*$O () ]l{O l*V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$
^l*ylsMS D l*l E*W $. Z l$
{ s$V> Hyl$l$.
> lt l*l]l$]l$ W yl$ M>$V>
]lYMS^l]l^l$a.
1. ]l{MS]l]l l*l]l$$

LD
fo f e

MS
L=

E*V>$:
1. *MSi]l#$, VS , MSM S $, ]lSMS$, fl$MS$,
#yl $]l#$ llO ]l s ^lyMS MS
*MSl E*W$.
s:
*{l BV> ^l electronic
Electronics Al
MS *MSl MSs
microscope B]l l] ]l$
265 r$ GMS$P]lV> Er$. M>st O l ]l$ ^l
yMS E*W $.
l*l (Telescope):
MSs ]l$_ l*V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$ lVSY V> ^l*ylsMS
l*l]l$]l$ yl$. MS]l$V]l > l l VS
*.
E*W^l ]l lt l*l]l$]l$ yl$ M>$V>
]lYMS^l]l^l$a.
QV l*l

(Refractive Telescopes)

*MSl yl]l#
D=
t lt MSt l*
fo = ]l
$ MSrMS l (focal length of the objective)
fe = BS MSrMS l
MS *MSl B]l l] ]l$ *MSl
MSs 1000 ]l$_ 2000 r$ GMS$P]lV> Er$.

s MSrM>]l$ E*W_ $. D MSO l $]l l*l

VS* MS]l$Vyl$.
2. >]l]l l*l]l$$
(Reflective Telescopes)

s l]l$ E*W_ $. D l*l]l$

]l$ Jame Gregory Al > l l MS]l$Vyl$.
1. yl* lV> ^l { ^lZ A lO l ]l s
P]l$ ]l$> Z N $Z H>r$ ^l>$.

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2. GMS ^l ^l{l GMS (Chandra x-ray) sP]l$

$ >l>ZMS {*W_

NASA > l l
]l$ l$$MS$r$$.
3. HST (Hubble Space Telescope)]l$ 1990Z NASA
> l l $ >l>Z {lst $. C 650 MS.$.
]l$_ 700 MS.$. MSSZ *$ ^l$r*t {$*,
>MS _]l AlMS sZ]l$ *$ O MS
$.
4. MS ^l sP]l$ ]l$]l > l l $
*^$. ]l{l]l$stMS Gl l] {lZ
H>r$ ^l $. D MSO l $]l sP$ E]l l>Z ]l$]l
l y. (lls l Al$M>)
5. {$$ sZ]l$ ^l*ylsMS t * P Al
l E*W$.
6. {]l$ ^ll$l$]l () y$ ^l $l] ]l $l] #]l$
a Z E]lr$V> ^l*ylsMS E*W^l MS &

1. { lt
lVSY lt short sight (or) Myopia:
MSsMS lVSY V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$ ]l*{ll$ ^l*ylVSW, l*V>
E]l ]l $l] #l] $ ^l*yl Z lW]l l VS MS
{MS MSrM> (#sM> MSrMS) E*W_ ^l
]l^l$a.
2. l*lt () lt () Long Sight (or) Hyper
metropia:

3.

Strobo Scope.

7. ]l* projectorZ JMS MSl M>Z 16 $ MS

]l yl$ lO Hyl]l ]l$ i]l _{l MS$.
D projector ]ll$ VSZ MS$M> MSrM> yl$.
s.. : sZ Keno Scope Al l ]l l$l, A$Pl
lV>]l$ 1/25 MS]l$ M>Z M> _{$(picture)V>
]l*$$.
]l*]l]l MSs, MSl$>Z E]l V> ayl:
1. MSl$>Z E]l ]ll MS]l$ ^l $.
2. MSl$>Z E]l MS$M> MSrMS MS]l$VS$yl$z {]l $.
MS]l$VS$yl$z lVSY V>, l*V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$ ^l*ylsMS
l]llr ]l$V> l]l l> ]l*$aMS$r$.
l{]l$VS$l (accommodation of the eye) As$.
3. MSl$>Z s ^l $.
s:
MSl$>Z E]l MS$M> MSrMS l> st
yl Er$.
flash time B
ltZ M>$:
1. Monocular Vision:
As JMS MS]l$ ]l $l] #]l$ ^lyl.
E: M>MS lt
2. Binacular Vision:

As yl$ MS ]l $l] #]l$ ^lyl.

E: ]l*]l]l lt
3. >^l lt (Night Vision):
As >{ ]l$$Z ]l $l] #]l$ ^l*ylr.
E: lt
lt Z$ (Defects in the Vision):

4.

5.

6.

MSsMS l*V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$ ]l*{ll$ ^l*ylVSW lVSY V>

E]l ]l $l] #l] $ ^l*yl lt Z lW]l l VS
MS{MS MSrM> (MS$M> MSrMS) E*W_
^l]l^l$a.
A]l$lt () Astigmation:
MSsZ E]l M>* Al VS l]lyl ]l D lt
Z Hyl$l$. D Z]l]l$ H ]l $l] #l] $
_ A Ayl$zXl$V> () $]l# Xl$V> MS$. D
Z ^lyMS *M> MSrM> (cylindrical
lense)]l$ yl$.
bl () Presbyopia:
]l$$ ]l$l] M MS]l$ l]l l{]l$VS$l]l$ MZ]lyl
]l lVSY V>, l*V> E]l ]l $l] #]l$ ^l*ylr $ M>l$.
D Z ]l^lyMS MSrM> (Bifocal Lense)
E*W$.
`MSs (Night Blindness):
>{ ]l$$Z ]l $l] #]l$ ^l*yl D lt Z
r$l&G ^l$]l^l$a.
]l>~ll (Colour Blindness):
MSsZ E]l MlZ Z ]l D lt Z MS$VS$l$.
D Z E]l$ A VS$]l$ VS$^l$.
D Z ll {yl$ f]l$]l# ]l MS {
$ M>st Cs]lMS$ D Z ]l^lyMS Gr$
]ls _MSl l$.
III. Al MS$
(Invisible Radiation):

1. >$ MS$ (IR):

s MS]l$V]l > l l ''Herschel''.
D MS lVSO l A]l 7500A ]l$_ $]l*$ 4
$$]l A ]lMS$ Er$.
s # A V>k >$ Z^l$MS$s.
Al$]l V>k l*$^l ]l l ]l$ E*W_
s EMS MS]l$V]lyl l yll$.
>$ MS$ l]l$ lr E~ l*$M Cl
]l $l] #O l]lO l $]l yl$ s lylMSP. M>st D
MS]l$ E~ MS$ (Thermo Radiations) A

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As$.
D *{l BV> *_]l bolometer, thermophile
Al l ]l$ E*W_ >$ MS EMS
l$$M]l^l$a.
E*V>$:
s, yl* M>{MS]l* {Z
VylO E]l l _{lQ]l$ W^lylZ
MSyl> , S ]l$ ^l$ylZ

MS]l$ ^lylZ
l*s VS ]lZ
*$ ^l$r*t {$$l] MS{]l$ E{VS]l$ ${
^lylZ, *$O E]l l {l>]l$ E{VS

$ sZ$ $ylZ
{*W_]l >MSr$, S $MS$ ]l*Y MS MS$V>
VS]l$^l$, l$]l l * MS > l*V> E]l ]l $l] #
]l$ t V> sZ $ylZ.

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M> lVS {_?

M>, M> ]l&M> f]lM>$
M>]llO l $]l ]l $l] # ]l$_ M>#g$ El A]l#
. M>MS _]l AlMS lW*]l$ N~ V>
]l^ll$MS$, M>MS MS ]l, lVS ]l yl$
E$, Bl $MS M>r l ]l$.

M> MS$ l$ ]l*Z Eylr ]l l$

VS$$ Hyl$l *MS l$ ]l#.
M> MS l, ]lMS (Interference), ]l l]
(Diffraction) l ]l (Polarisation) ]ls lW*
]l$ ]l^lMS.

]l*rl M> MS l:

M> lVS l:

lrtl lr M> ]l^l {$l IfMS

]l*rl ^l>$. 17]l ]l$l Z ]l*rl ""M> MS
'' {^yl$.
D l {M>...
N~ MS MS MS*yl]l
M> lOMS ]l, A _]l,
{. s MS ]l$ As$.
*$yl$, l$VS$l$]l M l$VS$$l]
D MS$,
l$ ]ls M>]llO l $]l f]lM> ]l$_ EY
A]l#.
Y Z {*.
D MS$ A Z, $k ]l*
MS *]lM>Z l$V>
D MS lVS, l$ S
Er$.
#yl $ l gq
D MS$, MSsZ s MS]l
MSW.
]l*Z Es. ]l M>MS
D MS$ l$
l$ VS$$ Hyl.

yl^l oMS > l l {MS t $l O VSl 1678Z M> f]lMS ]l$_

M> lVS *Z {* $l {^yl$. l
""M> lVS l'' As$. O VSl M> lVS
l {M>..
M> lV>$ ^ll$MS$ *]lMS M>. MS
O VSl, N~ MSl E]l JMS MSMS *]lMS
"Dl' ]l$ _ Elyl$.
Dl *]lMSZ
M>]llO l $]l f]lM>$, M> MS
Afyl ^l *, A O l # g.
D Afyl$$, *{MS A]l$O l lV> *Z Dl
*]lMS > {*.

lV>{VS:

M> MS ]l{MS]l]l:

*]lMSZ JMS {]l Z MS]l ^l * M> f]lMS ]l$_ JMS

l*Z E]l MS ]l$ ]l Hyl JMS FlMS
{$$ l "lV>{VS' As$.
M> f]lMS ]l* l*> s,t lV>{VS ]l*
BM> l$V> Es.
O VSl $]l$ {M> lV>{V>Z { l$]l# JMS
V lVS f]lMS {]l_, V lV>]l$, A O l #
M> lV>MS ]l*]lO l $]l lVS g. V
lV>MS$ $l ^lyl > Ml lV>{V>
l$$M]l^l$a.
O VSl $]l* E*W_ M> >]l l] , M>
]l{MS]l]l$ ]l^l]l^l$a.

]l*rl {l]l {M>, M> MS$ ]l{MS]l]l l

MS]l #yl$ A l ]ll BMS MS$ VS$]l#.

sMS ]l~]l:

M> MS >]l]l:
JMS lll ]l$_ H l V>Ol l >]l l] ^ll$
l$ Al l V> M> >]l l] ^ll$l$l M> MS
l ]l$. >]l l] (r), l]l M(i)MS$
]l*]lV> Eylrr$ M> MS$ >]l l] l ]ll
MSMS$ VS$]l#.

]l*rl M> MS l Ol$:

]l*rl {_]l {ll *]lMSZ M> lVS,

*]lMSZ MSs GMS$P]l Er$lll $ l
$kOl.

V> sMS, V>k MS ]ls lMS

^l ]l ^ll${M>Z E]l s.t s ]l
st , $VS$ $ Ml Gl$Z Eylrr$V>
H>r$ ^l*. sMS O VSZ l$VS$l$]l l$
]l$_ EY ]l$$ M> st Z sO yl H>r$
^l*.

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l$l MSMS _]lMS * fl^l , > st

sZ Afyl$]l$ t ^. D Afyl$$ * l]l ]l$_
$$l, ]lM> lV>$V> st Z Cl {MS$
{*. s lV>Z V>$, MS$M> MSrM>
V>, {$$ #sM> MSrM>V> {]l. st
O VS ]l$_, st Z sVS$y, M>Wl O MS { ^l M>
MS$, V> ]l AOl $, {$ ]l A Ol $
{M>]llO l $]l, {M>
]lO l $]l st ]l$ H$. D
st $ st Z s lV> MSlMS]l$ Es.

lV> A *{l:
lV> A $]l$ {M> yl$ AlMSs
GMS$P]l lV>$ JMS *]lMSZ, JMS M>Z {* $
]l#yl $ H l$]l# ]llO l s l l] {, yl$
lV> yll] {> lMS ]l*]l.

lV> ]lMS:
yl$ MS]l f]lM> ]l$_ JMS ]l@#l] , JMS MS]l
$l$ E]l lV> A fVSyl ]l Hyl
oMS { "]lMS' As$. *]lMSZ Ml
VSZ l lVS MS]l $Z ]l*$ ]l D
oMS { VS]l$^l]l^l$a.

lV> ]l]l:
^l ]l$_ lV>$, ^l]l]l$]lyMS, A]l
A^l$ MS]l lV>$ ]lW {*. D l V>
lV>$ ]lVSyl]l$l, A]ll ]l*, BM>, l]l
lVS lVSO l O ]l B yl Er$. lV>$ D
l V> ]lW {*^ly lV> "]l l] ' As$.

lV>{V>$ HOl _]l A]l]l$ MS, s A^l$

lyl ]lW {*^ly "]l l] ' As$.

{MSt s
1. M> lVS HOl A]l MS A^l$ lyl
]lW {*^ly H]l$s$?
(ylG&2006)
G) ]l l]
) ]l{MS]l]l
) ]lMS
yl) >]l l]
2. M>MS l VS$$ EylsMS M>? (ylG&2004)
G) ]l l]
) ]lMS
) lVSO l > ly yl) ]l{MS]l]l
3. M> MS lVS A *^l l?
G) ]lMS
) l ]l
) ]l l]
yl) O ]l
4. M> lVS {_?
G) ]l*rl
) O VSl
) ]l*MSl
yl) ]l$ $VS
5. MS M> AZ l>l?
G) 2n
) ) (2n+1) yl) (3n+1)
6. M> H lZ l$VS$, `MSs st$ Hyl?
G) ]lMS
) N>~ >]l l]
) ]l{MS]l]l
yl) ]l l]
7. sMSZ s lV> V>$ ls H>r$
^l?
G) `MSs st $
) l$VS$ sMt S $
) VS$ st $ yl) O ]l
8. s lVS Ol> a]l#yl$ M> lVS Ol>$
$]l*$ Gl ]l*Z Es?

]l*rl MS l & M> lVS ^l]l ]l$l MS$

]l*rl MS l
M> lVS l
1. M>, MS {]l$ ^$. 1. M>, lVS ^l]l ^l $l
^$.
2. M> $k]l*Y , MS 2. M> $k ]l*Y , #VS$$l]
lV>{V> A ]l
T$ ^l]l ]l^$.
^$.
3. M> VS$$, MS l$ ]l* 3. M> VS$$, lVSO l > l
Hyl.
]l Hyl.
4. M> >]l l] , ]l{MS]l]l$ MS$, 4. M>, >]l l] , ]l{MS]l, O VSl
V lV> > $]l$ ]l
*]lMS ]l$l VS BMS , MS
^$.
]l^$.
5. M> ]lMS, ]l l] , l ]l 5. M> ]lMS, ]l l] , l ]l
]ls lW*]l$ ]l^lVSW.
]ls lW*]l$ ]l^lMS
.
6. M> lVS, *]lMSZ MSs 6. M> lVS, *]lMSZ MSs
{ll *]lMSZ lMS$P]l El
{ll *]lMSZ GMS$P]lV> E]lr$
$k]l# ^l .
]l$.

G) 5000
) 8000
) 9000
yl) 1000
9. MS l {M> H *]lMSZ M> lVS GMS$P]l?
G) {ll *]lMS
) *]lMS
) O yl*
yl) O yl* M>l$
]l*$
1 G
6 G

2
7

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3
8 G

4
9

{]l*$ Ml$

Ml {lst & z MS
H Cl oMS >$O BylMS$y l{lV> Eyl >$ ""]l>$$''
""{l$MS >$$'' As$.
International System of Units A>j$ {]l* l (S.Il) Z ""{l$MS
>$$'' Hyl$. ""NMS {l$MS >$$'' yl$.
S.I lZ {l$MS >$$& yl]l#, {l]l>, M>, E~{VSl, M> {]ll, l$,
]l*
NMS {l$MS >$$ & ]l$l M, $]lM
{l$MS >$ M^l {]l* ll$$ & F.P.S l, C.G.S l, M.K.S l
"{s l" A l
$ $ & F.P.S l
""l${sM l A l $ $ & C.G.S l
S.I l G#yl$ *^$. & 1960 lMyl]l Al>j$ l$Z S.I l
*^$.
{ $]l]l* M]lyMS ls E*W$ & r$, *r$t, Mgyl,
MP.
All l*>$ (]llyl$, ]lS{ ]l$ll*) M]lyMS l E*W$. &
{$iMS l
A lMS$P]l yl]l#]l$ M]lyMS l E*W$ & l$ M>
A lMS$P]l ]l$l M]lyMS l E*W$ & {*PVSh
M> MS_elV> M]lyMS l E*W$ & ]l*$ VSyl*
JMS MS> E*W_ M]lVS AlMS$P]l Ml H]l$s$& MS# Ml L.C
QV >$ ]l$l VS AlMS l*> M]lyMS yl {]l*$& QV {]l*,
M.
M> ]ll Al lMS {]l* & l*
M> ]ll M>Z *]lZ {*^l l*> "M> ]ll' As$.
JMS M> ]ll = 9.46 1015 $r$ = 6.33 104AU (Astronomical unit)
*$MS, *$MS ]l$lVS l* JMS (Astronomical unit) MS ]l*]l
JMS Astronomical unit (1AU) = & 1.496 1011 $r$
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M = 3.26 M> ]ll>$

]l{f, $Ol]l > {l]l>$$ l$$M]lyMS ""M>s'' Al {]l*
E*W$. 1 M>s = 0.28grn = 280mg
]l{l# Zl$ M]lyMS yl {]l* sMS Ol$
1 sMS O l $ = 1.15 Ol$$ () 1852 $r$
V> lMS {]l* $]l]l*
1 V> (Al$MS) = 3.78 r$
1 V> ({s ) = 4.45 r$
l {]llMS$ {]l* & yl
CsZ yl l$ MSMS {]l* & MSZs & A]l (KWH)
1 KWH >V> yl$MSZ 1 sV> $MS$s$.
l$l MS {]l* MS*$
l$ { MS {]l* B$
l$ s$ MS {]l* Kt
l$ MS {]l* Kl$
t MS {]l* Kl$&$r
""MSs'' MS {]l* y
1*l$ = 12.56 M>yl
700 *l$ = 1 s
1 #s M>yl = 10.76 M
"E~ ' MS {]l* & MSZ () M>
1 MSZ = 4.18 g, 1MSZ M> = 4180 g
E~{VSl MS Al>j$ {]l* & MS
]l$ E~{VS]l*]l A l $$ & MS ]l*]l
]l$*]l E~{VSl Gl & OK
MS Al>j$ {]l* & ]l*r
1 ]l*r = 105 Oyl$
() MSMS Al>j$ {]l* & g
1 g = 107 GY$
]l$>MS Al>j$ {]l* & s
CfV VSZ ]l$>MS AMSV> yl {]l* & HP (A ]l$)
1

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1 Horse - power = 746 watts

1 kilowatt = 1.34 HP

ylMS Al>j$ {]l* & P

]l ylMS E*W^l {]l* & As$ (atm)

1 atm = 76 cm of Hg = 760mm of Hg

"BV {tl$ s' lMS {]l* & A lMS$P]l yl]l# () lVS Ol

&8
&10
1 = 10 .$. = 10 $r
MSrMS ]l$>MS {]l* & Oyl Bt$
MSrMS l Z]l* ""MSrMS ]l$'' As$.
G{M>t Kt (Ev) lMS {]l* & MSMS {]l*
{l]l>MS {]l* MSZ{V>l$$ M> {l$MS MS {l]l> ""]l*$ {l]l>
{]l*'' Z M$$. (Amu)

1 Amu = 1.66 10&27Kg.

MS l$Ol $]l MS & 931.5 Mev

]l*$ MS{lMS l*>]l$ Gl$Z M$$ & .
1 = 10&15 $r$
Z VS$M>MS {]l* l$ M> l ZMS {]l* &l${sM O
]l{l# Zl$]l$ M]lyMS yl {]l* ll$ & (Fathom)
{]l* {l]l>VS > ]l$yl_]l#yl$ l$]lyl MS & MSZM $]l As$.
S.I lZ MSZM $] MS {]l* & MSZM>/MS.{V>
Radio activity MS S.I {]l* MS
Atomic mass unit (amu)

]l>$$ & {]l*$

{l$MS >
yl]l#
{l]l>
M>
E~{VSl
M> {]ll
l$

{]l*
$r
MSZ{V>
MS
MS
M>yl
B$

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>

l*

NMS {l$MS >

{]l*

]l$l M
$]lM

yl$
tyl$

{]l* & VS$g$

VS$f
101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
101

$VS$f
ylM>
M>t
MSZ
l$V>
WV>
s>
s
M>
ylM>

$
10&1
10&2
10&3
10&6
10&9
10&12
10&15
10&18

yl
.s
$
Ol${M

OM
$sZ
AsZt(atto)

oMS >

{]l* M ]lQ{]l*$ & s ]l$l l

MS,
]l$
yl]l
]l@#]l
l$ s$
l$ Bl
MS s
l$ {
B$Pl A
l$ l
M> A

]l*r
go
s
P
tj
Kt
MS$*
y
B$
l
Kl$
*l$

1AVS$

Ayl$VS$
1 Ol$$
1 L]l$
1 yl$
1 H
1 M>t
1 M>t
1 M>t
1 ll$
1

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$$r
12 AVS$
1.6 MSZ$r$
28.35{V>]l$
0.45 MS.{V>]l$
100 ^l.$r$
100 H$
10,000 ^l.$r$
2.47GMS>$
6 Ayl$VS$ = 1.82 $r
25.5

>ll$ & Zl]l$

General Science (Physics) for Gr-I & II

1. {XMS$ llll A]l ""l'' ""G{MSts'' Al llsV> E*W^yl$.

2. $ ]l Bl> ^l]l f$VS$l$l ""W t'' l$^l>yl$. l ]l
l$ As$.
3. l$l>$ yl$ M>$V> Es$ & fl$ {MS l$^lyl$. yl$VS$Z
l$ El l, yl$VS$ r$ ]l$_ ]l]l$ S^lyMS V> ""OrV
MSylMSt'']l$ Cll MS]l$Vyl$.
4. l$l> EMS l$$M]lyMS ""~{l l$l'' E*W$.
MS]l$V]l & ls
5. lrt lls {l$MS $s MS]l$V]l & t
6. ""]l*$l$]l A$Pl S{l l$ {$'' D $]l$O Byl f]lr
() Oyl]ll*$ ^l. MS]l$V]l & Ol$MS yl
7. ]l*$l$]l l$ A$Pl S{l H$$l & Bty l$^lyl$.
8. G{MStMS $]l$ MS]l$V]l & ]l$ AGyl D $Z rVt VS]l$ l$sV>
E*W$.
9. ""E~{VS l ]l "E~ l$' yl$l]l#l$l l$^l & M.
10. ""l$ {]l^l MS E~ l C$l l$ ^l & L.
11. Bl$MS oMS >{ ]l$$yl$ ""]l*MM''
12. ]l*$ MS{lM> MS]l$V]l & *lz
13. G{M>t]l$ llsV> VS$_ & MSP.
14. G{M>t]l$ {*V>lMSV> MS]l$V l>]l$ Al$]l ^l. & g.g. ]l$
15. G{M>t]l$ ]l$MS ^l & h.g.t.
16. G{M>tMS$ l Er$l VS$_ & ""{''
17. G{M>t Bl> MS]l$V]l & "$M>'.
18. G{M>t tl MS]l$V]l & g.g. ]l$
19. {s llrV> VS$_ & Vzt.
20. {s]l$ {*V>lMSV> MS]l$V]l. & *l z
21. ]l*{s]l$ MS]l$V]l & ^ylM
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23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
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39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

"yl*MSl']l$ MS]l$V]l & l$yl MS*

f yl*MSl]l$ MS]l$V]l & MS
""MS{lMS _e'' VS$_ & Ast, {t]l$
MS{lMS A MS{lM>$V> yl$ {{MS$MS$ ""MS{lMS _e'' A ]l$MS
^l . & Ol$r, BsZ{
llsV> ]l*MS$ *MSt (As$M O) ]l$ _.
""MS{lMS ]l'' BV> l*O]l ""O{yg '']l$ MS]l$V]l. & Gylz s.
x & MS]l$ MS]l$V]l & >rj.
BO (]lMSV>) V> yl ""{st'']l$ g.z, W.H.{Os, $ MS
MS]l$V$.
s MS]l$V]l & {VS
Ol tl$ ]l*P MS]l$Vyl$.
sg g.G.$z MS]l$Vyl$.
A$PllO llsV> {*V>$ ^l & Wt
* A$Pl lS{l$]l "" Mt*'' Al {lZ Er$l ""MSt''
MS]l$Vyl$.
* A$Pl El {l$]l ""{Z*M'' Al{lZ Er$l ""g>''
l$^lyl$.
A$Pl l> st > yl*, >, { A$Pl >$V>
h_. & Ol$MS yl, l$yl MS*
A$ A$Pl {_ & DV, l
l$ { ]l$ l$$M]lyMS, l$ { M]lyMS yl
""V>$r'' MS]l$V]l & A{yl & ]l* B$
M> lV> llsV> MS]l$V]l & VS*
M> lV> {*VS>Z MS]l$V]l & M>z, h
Laser (light Amplification by Stimulated Emmission of Radiation MS llrV>
>{$V> *{ {_ & ^. ^. so
{*V>lMSV> lls Laser MS El ^l. l$]l$
""AZl'' MS MS]l$V]l & rt.
"">$ MS'' MS]l$V]l &
He - Ne LASER MS]l$V]l & Ag
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46. l*l MS]l$V]l & VS*

47. l M>Z Hyl$ ]l>~$$ llsV> l$^l. & ]l*r.
48. N>~l >]l]l $]l$O Byl ^l BtMS O (l>ll$]l#)]l$
MS]l$V]l & ]ll MS
49. ^l MS$ (OMS) MS]l$V]l & hl$ {MS
50. ]lMS O AMSV> {*V>$ f.& ]l$ $V
51. ]l]l O AMSV> {*V>$ f. & {X]l*z
52. l]l O AMSV> {*V>$ f. & $l$ MS
53. ..>]l$ "">]l$ GMt'' Z C$yl E]l M> l & S
54. ""y {]l'' {*V>lMSV> $k]l# ^l. & Os, y
55. zV GMtM (]l]l l>{) O AMSV> {*V>$ ^l. & .O
56. V>Z l lV>MS OMS $]l]l$ llrV> ^l & ]l*r
57. V>Z l lV>MS ]l*r ^l]l OMS $]l & 280 $/. M> l>l {*V>Z
C l l.
58. V>Z l lV> {*V>lMSV> MS]l$V]l & yl..$
59. V>Z l lVS "~MS {{MS$''A *_ &
60. l llrV> {V>l$ sO M>z ^l #]l$_. & ]l$ A Gyl
61. l t s O M>z ^l & .
62. l lV>]l$ l$ lV>$V> ]l*a MS ""Ol${M'' MS]l$V]l & ]l$
A Gyl
63. ]l@#]l MS*yl]l El ^l MS "" lyl'' MV Al >{
ll MS]l$Vyl$.
64. VS$$l MS]l$V]l & ]l*r.
65. ]l$lsMS *$ MS{lV> Er$l l$^l ""*MS{lMS l''
{_ & s$. C $]l*$ 1400 ]ll> ]lMS$ Al Bl*l
.
66. ""*MS{lMS l'' {_. MMS
67. {VSVS]l$]l $]l*]l$ l$g. & MS
68. ^lel]l$ M^l ""Mt$r'', {l S {ll]l$ M^l ""O{y$r'' s
MS>$ ""]l]l *{'' O Byl ^l. D ]l]l *{ MS]l$V]l &
BPl$yl
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70.
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72.
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75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.

83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.

]l# yl M^l ""]l*$r'' MS]l$V]l. & yl$

^lM> MS]l$V]l ""Art VS*s'' M> A]l ^l. >t
]l# O {*V>$ ^l ]l ]lMS & >t
]l yl M]lyMS E*W^l ""$'' *MS]l ^l & s
{Z HOl JMS l$]l# ]ll MSY_]l Jyl { A l$]l#MS ]l*]lV>
$l l$^l & P
h, O{yM {M, O{yM {]l$ *MS]l ^l. & O P
O$ ylZ ^l ""MS*l$ {M'']l$ l*$ ^l. & VSM.
$]l#VS ]l$]l#$ lOMS]l ]l$]l# MSs ]ll *$MS ^l$$ ^l ""Ats''
l l # A *_ & VS*
*]l {l> H^lVSVS ""MS*l$ $'' l*$ ^l. & VSM.
]l*$ OMS GVSylZ C$yl E]l *{ l$^l. &
E~*{MS l$M> {*VSNMSV> llrV> MS]l$V]l. & Ms z
E~ MS {]ll]l$ M^l ""ZZ$r'']l$ *_ & V
ZZ$r *MS]l l>l A]l _. & ]l$, MSl$
Z { ]l$]l# ]l$ *]l E~{VSl (OK) ]ll l $W]l A E~{VSl ]ll
MS *Z E~ MZ]lyl {VS^lyl V> f$VS$l$l l$ ^l
& {t
E~MS *{MSMSV> ]l*a ""B $'' MS]l$V]l & gl$s
M>M MS]l$ MS]l$V]l & B.MS.$M>.
lrtlls l>$r E~]l*MS) MS]l$V]l & VS*.
M> l$ { ]l_ & At It.
JMS oMS> N~V> ]l^lyMS Ml B]lMSl]l$ l sV> VS$_ &
MS
]l$]l# MS lO GMS$P]lV> {*V>$ ^l. & ]l$ $V.
{l]l>, yl]l#, M> ]ls oMS >$$ B lV> st ]l*$l$s$
llsV> l$^l & It
oMS >{Z llsV> $]l$ x & MS]l$ MS]l$V]l >sgl

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Al$l]l$ E~ lMS ?
E~
E~ MS *. C G-yl * AMS E~{VSl ]l $l] # ]l$_
A E~{VSl ]l $l] # O l # {]l
$.
{]l*$ : Calorie & Joule.
]l $l] # E~ > VS$_ Al $]l ^l$y MSZl${s (E~
$ > ) As$.
z ]l
$l] # E~ > M]lyMS MSZ$r Al
l yl$$.
z E~ { ]lyl$
l l $Z f$VS$l$.
1. E~]l]l (Conduction):
z
Z A$]l# l ^l]l MS$y E~ {
fVSy E~ l]
]l As$.
E: $]l >$, l
2. E~ ]l]l (Convection):
z
Z A$]l# l ^l]l ]l E{~
fVSy E~ ]l
]l As$.
E: {l]l >$ (l l ), >$
A]l$]l$:
z VS Vst$, _$$, lsr$ E
~ ]l
]l *{l
BV> ^l.
z *,
]l{l ]l$ (Land breezer & Sea breezer)
HylsMS M> E~]l]l.
NM>Z ]l{l ]l$ E*W_ l^
$ $MS$]l$ JMS l ]l$_ ]l$ l>MS
^l $M ^l$. Al$]l ]l{l ]l]l$
]l$ (Trade winds) A MS*y As$.
z E~
]l
]l yl$ M>-$ A..
f, lPl
E~]l$
E~MS (Thermal radiation):
z Gr$]ls *]lMS $l
MS$y E~ {
fVSy E~ MS As$.
E: *$yl ]l$_ lV> *$ ^l$l$]l M>
MS$.
z l$VS$l$]l gMS$ (glowing flame) Ml l*Z
E]lyl$ E~ MS *Z ]l$]l > MS$l$.
s: 1. E~ l]
]l, ]l
]lZ E{~ fV>s lyl
]l $l] #, ^l ]l $l] # ]l$l oMSO l $]l Eylrl$ M>MS$y,
s ]l$l E~{VSlZ ly Ey. M> E~ MSZ D
l$]l$ s^-l] A]l l$.

2. E~ l]
]l, ]l
Z E~ { ^ BV>
f$VS$l$. M> MSZ M> lV>MS ]l*]lO l $]l lVS
f$VS$l$. As..
1

C = 3 108ms .

---- A]l$-]l---$:
1. {lZ lyl {l]lZ
t $ ^l^ s-t l] - #y- l $ B ^l^
lylMSPyMS M> E~ l]
]l.
2. >W WlZ lyl {l ^lMSPO Ml # E_l
E~ l]
]l ]l A ^l- $-l $. lyl Wl]l$ C]l$ O
E_]l yl$ E~ l]
]l, E~ ]l
]l Al yl$ l l $
> ^l$-l$.
3. *$ ]lyl$ l l $Z As ]l
]l, ]l
]l, MS
> lylMS$Pl$.
4. l> PZ lyl {l ]l yl$ A l]l E~ H
l > MS*y $rMS$ MZMS$y M>yl$MS$r$.
M>st Ml s ]lMS$ lylV> Er$. l> P MS]l$V-l] -& Dewar
s: lyl {l]l l]l E~ MS B {l]l MS$ MSlyMS
M>]l]l *{MS MS (Mechanical Energy)V> ]l*$aM
]lyl ]l A ^l- $-l $.
l> P]l$ *]l MS P (vaccume flask) A
MS*y As$.
> M>$: ]l ]l$]lMS$ $l] >]l$
yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a. A.. 1. E~ M>$ 2. E~
lM>$
1. E~M>$ (Thermal Conductors):
s > E~ { f$VS$l$.
E: ]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l E~ MS
& lyl (Ag). B l>-l Cu, Al, Fe, steel (EMS$P)
llO ]l. {l]l >Z l ]l$_ E~ MS
M>st ThermometerZ E*W $.
2. E~ lM>$ (Thermal insulators):
s > E~ { f$VSl$.
E: ]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l E~ l MS
]l{f (Diamond). B l>-l & Mt S ]l $l] #$, $,
^lMSP]l$, M>Wl, rt$, lM llO ]l. V>, $
Al ]l$ E~ M>$ (bad conductors of heat energy). ]l$^l$,
]l*]l]l l$l M>$ M> E~ lt Al ]l$ E~
M>$.

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E~{VSl ]l*]l$ M>$:

JMS ]l $l] # ^ll ]l lyl- As E~ {]ll]l$ E~{VSl A
As$. M]lyMS M>]l]l E~{VS]l*M>
(Thermometer) 16]l Z VS* MS]l$Vyl$.
E~{VSl]l$ M]lyMS E*W^l {]l* $: $
s{VSyl$ yl{X$, l
s$, MSl$, $, >OMS l
_]l yl$ {]l*$ { $l yl$MSZ ]l#. $W]l ]lyl$
{]l* ]l$l l ...
C 0 F 32 K 273
=
=
100
180
100

$$, l
s$ H ylVS ]ll JMS ]l$MSs
HMS?
C = F = x A]l$MS$s..
z

C 0 F 32
=
100
180

x 0 x 32
=
10 0
18 0
5

9x = 5x 160 4x = 160
x=

160
= 40
4

C = F = 40

$$, MSl ]l$l l :

C 0 k 273
=
100
100

k = (C + 273) MSl$.
z

]l$^l$ E~{VSl C. MSlZ ls k = (0C +

273) = 273 MSl$.
s B, ^l{l$yl VSr$ VSs E~{VSl 100C. MSlZ
$-l] ..
k = (100C + 273) = 373 MSl$.
BVS]ll$Oyl ]l ]l*]l]l# VSr$ E~{VSl 37C

2. {l]l l>$r$: {l]l E~{VS]l*M> {l]l$ lyl

^l ]l yl$ s $]l- - - l] *- $VS$l$ Al *{l
BV> D l> $r$ ^l. sZ sMS l$
$V> l E*W^lyMS VS M>$.
M^l, M^$ ]l*]lV> Es. M>
z l
sZ C l$V> Es.
l>$r VylMS$ Ar$Ml$. M> s MS$
z l
Ar$MS$s-.
]l lyl l$$$. M>st ylVS
z l
]l$ t V> $M]l^l$a. ^leOl $]l sMS VS$ EylMS]ly- l ylVS]l$ VS$^lyl $ M>l$.
t ~ (specific heat) lMS$P]lV> Eylr ]l,
z l
A lV> lylMSP, lV> ^l- $-l $. s t ~ A
{l]l > MSs GMS$P]lV> Eylr ]l C BV>
lylMSP, BV> ^l- $-l $. Al$]l s ]l
yl$rZ MS*sV> E-*-W--$.
l>$r MSs BP l>$r ^
z l
{ Ot l $. Gl$MSs D l>$r E*W_ A
lMS$P]l, GMS$P]l E~{VSl]l$ MS_alV> M$]l]l^l$a. ]l$^l$
{$, A l {Z ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$ M]l
yMS BP l>$r]l$ E*W $.
z l {Z E~{VSl]l$ M]lyMS E*W^l E~
{VS ]l*M> {MS*$r As$.

98.4F.
z

D $]l]l$ MSlZ.. k = (37C + 273) = 310 MSl$.

a-MS - - ^l-_-l] E~{VSl 67C Al MS-l - Z
$-l] .. k = (67C + 273) = 340 MSl$.
H ]l#O l &273C ]lMS$ ^la-l] - -yl $ $]l
]l*, yl]l *]l]l$]l#. D $]l MSlZ
k = (273C + 273) = 0 MSl$.
D E~{VSl]l$ ]l$*]l E~{VSl As$.

E~{VS ]l*MS M>$

1.

>]l$ lyl ^l]lyl$ A M_ Al l

BV> D l>$r$ ^l. M> l$ $]l
> M^$ l$V> Eylr ]l s
E*W_ ]l$]l# E~{VSl]l$ MS_alV> M]lyl
$
$]l M>
l$. E~{VS ]l*M>$: Al, Cu, Ag, Au, Fe...... $]l

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l VS$ ]ll$$V> Gl$MS$ W$?

E~{VS ]l*]l$$
$]l {l]l > MSs ]l# M^l GMS$P]lV>
Er$. Al$]l A lMS$P]l E~{VSl]l$ GMS$P]l MS_alV>
M]lyMS l>$r l] $ E*W $. D l>
$r Z H2, N2 r$ H ]l#O l E*W^l]l^l$a.
lMS E~{VS ]l*M>$ (Resistance Thermometers)
Z]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ (Cu, Al, Fe etc) s l
$VS$l$ Al *{l BV> C ^l. M>
l$ Z $ l$V> Eylr ]l s E*
W_ ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$ MS_alV> M]ly-MS l yll$.
A$Pl E~{VS ]l*MS (Magnetic Thermometer)
E*W_ JMS ]l $l] # ]l$*]l E~{VSl (273C
absolute temperature (0k) l$-$-M-]l-^l$a.
]l*MS
D l>$r]l$ E*W_ {MS$MSrM> E~{VSl]l$
0.025C (Temperature of the Insects) ]lMS$ M$]l]l^l$a.

yl$ lyl ]l $l] #MS$, D l>$rM S $ ]l$l oMSO l $]l

Ey]l A]l l$.
> M^l:
$]l > M^l (Expansion of the Solids): $]l
>Z {l]l> {$$V> (3D) f]l ^- l Er$.
As X-AS(yl]l#), Y-AS(lyl$), Z-AS(Gl$)Z
{l]l> Er$. s lyl ^l ]l yl$ AOl # M_
M>st $]l >MS$ ]lyl$ M>O ]l M^$
Es.
z O l M^l (Linear expansion): yl]l#Z M_^lyl.
z ~ M^l (Arial expansion): yl]l#, lyl$Z M
_^lyl.
$]l ]l* M^l (volume (or) cubical expansion):
z
yl]l#, lyl$, Gl$Z M_^lyl. O ]lyl$ M
^ 1 : 2 : 3V> Er$.

Seebeck E~{VS

VSt, MSt E~{VS ]l*MS

D l>$r]l$ E*W_ JMS kZ MS,t VSt E~{VS
l]l$ M$]l]l^l$a.
Beckmann's Thermometer

l$ s B E~{VSl]l$ M]lyMS E*W $.

f]l* (Clinical Thermometer):
O l lVSZ W E~{VSl]l$ M]lyMS E*W^l
f]l* 'clinical thermometer' As$. Z Ml$
35C ]l$_ 42C ]lMS$ 95F ]l$_ 110FV> Es-.
Pyrometer:

s,t M$ (Furnace)Z E~{VSl]l$ $]l*$

]lMS$ M]lyMS E*W $.

3000C

Optical Pyrometer:

E*W_ *$yl$, ]lS{Z E]l AlMS

E~{VSl]l$ M$]l]l^l$a.
s: O $r, BMt S O $r E-~ M- S - - - *-{l
BV> ^l. M>st ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$ M$$l]

$]l >]l$ lyl ^l]lyl$ s st H-yl -$:

$]l >]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s A$]l# ]l$l
z M
l* lVSyY l ]l A M_.
E:
Mt S ]l $l] #$, $, Ng VS (Type metal), P
]l$, V>k 80C ]lMS$ M__ B l>l M
_.
$]l >]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s A$]l# ]l$l
z M
l* $VS$l$. Al$]l D >$ M_.
E: lyl, V>, >W, A*$$, C]l$]l
llO]l.
$]l >]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s A$]l# ]l$l
z M
l l*Z Gr$]ls ]l** Eyll$. Al$]l Cr$
]ls >$ M^l, M^$ ^ll]l#. E:
^lMSP]l$.
$]l> M^MS E$:
z yl$ ]l$ O $
st ]l$l Z lW]ll R ]ll$
yMS M> s M^l, M^ ]l$_ M>ylsMS
]l*{ll$.
z O M> ]l yl$ ]l$ l$l
$ sl
]l$l VS]l$ M^l ]ll$$V> W $.
z Gyl yl C]l$ ^l{M> M$Z lyl^l
]l yl$ A M
__ $VS$l$. D C]l$ ^l{M> M$

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^l{MSO A]l$a s ^l ^l- - a-l] - -yl $ M__ VSsVt >

A$ r$tMS $r$.
l$l $]l$ ^l$sMS Pt]l$ yl$$. Gl$
MSs s ]l, V>k M^l, M^$ ]l*
]lV> Es. Cs O MS >Z M>{MSs r$
C]l$]l]l$ E*W^ly- -M- S Cl M>- .
^ls {l lyl V>k MSO _MS_]l yl$ B V>k
MSZ l $ A]l*]lV> M__ (unequal
Wl$. M>st M$ l$VS$
contractions) A
l$]l l$l $O s l$]l#$ yll A W
l$.
^l V>k MSO lyl {l _MS_]l yl$ B V>k
$ A]l*]lV> M__ (unequal expansions) W
.
C]l$ {ylj ]l$ BM>Z (strips) _ *M>
(cylindrical) VM>Z E]l >O E^lyl
]l A ^leV> M^l, M^$ ^ll$-.
M>{MSs yl$zl] $ $l] yl$ > ]l$l Z lW]ll
R ]l$-yl ]l A M^l, M^$ ^lly- -M- S
$-V> Er$.
Z$ V (holosphere) (VS$ V]l$) lyl ^l ]l yl$
$]l ]l*Z GMS$P]lV> M_$.
C]l$]l, Cly l MS]l$ JMSO ]l$MSs- A]l$al s
Z MS$ (Bimetallic Strip) A As$. C l]l$
E~{VSl]l$ ]l ${^l$MS$r* ^l. Al$
]l s E~ MS ${lMS ${l (Thermostat) A
MS*y As$. s BsZ]l*sMS C st Z, {hr Z
E*W$.
Vyl VSyl*Z ZMS, $r P, ly]l$
M^l,
Invar Steel l*$ ^l $. Gl$MSs
M^$ VS]lZMS $M]ll lMS$P]lV> Eyl
G yl* MS_alO l $]l ylVS]l$ *_.
Z MS ]l$l VSZ Ml E]l {l Z
{l MSs M^l GMS$P]l E]l V
E_]l yl$ A {l > MSMS gl$. M> V
W_ Z MS]l$ lyl^l ]l yl$ B {l
$VS$l$. M>st D lZ V B {l >
$V> MSMS g$l$.
JMS Al {lZ C]l$ {l _ E. s
yl*s lyl ^l*. Gl$MSs C]l$]l M^l
MSs Al M^l GMS$P]lV> Er$.
C]l$ {lZ Al {l _ E]lyl$, s yl
*s ^l>a-. D lZ C]l$ {l MSs Al
{l GMS$P]lV> M_$.

{l]l > M^l$ (Expansion of liquids)

{l]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s $]l ]l* $VS$l$.
z JMS
, ]l*]l $ Eyl Z$ V (holosphere),
$]lV (solid sphere) l*$^l>$. s
E~{VSl$ MS*y ]l*]l.
G) ]l*]l E~ > (MSZ E: 1000 cal) Alg]l
yl$... Z$V GMS$P]lV> M_$, A$]l#
Q GMS$P]lV> E]l $]lV lMS$P]lV> M_$.
) yl$ V]l* ]l*]l E~{VSlMS$ lyl ^l ]l yl$
(E: 25C100C ]lMS$) A ]l*]lV> M_.
s AVSl M^l (Anamolous expansion of water):
z
^leOl $]l s 0C ]l$_ 4C ]lMS$ lyl ^l ]l yl$
A M_^ly MSs l$$V> M_$. s D
A l > s AVSl M^l As$
4C ]ll s ^la- lyl^l
A M_
$. D l > s AVSl M^l A As$.
z 4C ]ll ( 277K ]ll) sMS MSOt l $]l
$]l
m

]l* (V), VSOt l $]l {ll (d) Es. d =

s AVSl M^l M]lylZ Dilatometer Al

MS> yl$-- $. D l > *^lyMS Hope MS
> E*W $.
z
]l*]l $]l ]l*$ VS yl$ {lZ 4C ]ll
yl$V> s $. sZ lls {l]l$ ^l- $- *,
y {l]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s AVSl M^l ]l B
yl$ {lZ E]l $ $rMS$ l$.
z 0C ]l$_ 4C ]lMS$ s lyl ^l
]l yl$ $,
Mt S ]l $l] #$, P rt$, Ng VS, V>k ]l M
_$.
A]l$]l$:
z A lOl $]l {Z s AVSl M^l ]l f^l
>$ i^lVS$VS$l$. D fO Hyl]l ]l$^l$
MSl 0C E~{VSl EylV>, B ^l$]l# Ayl$VS$ VSZ
MS E~{VSl (minimum temperature) 4C$V> Er$.
z ^lM>Z s AVSl M^l ]l ]l yl$r$
W. M>st D l > lWY^lyMS sZ COl
VSM > (ethyl glycol) Al {]l MS$#$.
#$ s
z l{Z *VSZ E]l ]l$_ s O
AVSl M^l ]l W.
M>st D O # O V>]l ]l$# VS$ Nl N $.
>Z E]l E~ ]l$# VS$ {VS
_ s AVSl
M^ lWY$.
z ^lM>Z ]l VSyl ]l$st (Lumps of the Black Soil) r$
yMS M> B ]l$st Z- s AVSl M^ll$.
z {MSZ s AVSl M^l ]l O (llVS)
f$VS$l$.
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z

VS]l>MS$ E*W^l l$l?

Bl> ]l f^l MS * l$ l$-l . l$l VS$_
{MS.N. 600 M>Z {X$ >f Hll rtZ
l$]l#$ lls Zl ]l ^l>$. Zl ]l {M>
A Al >, fl$ ^l >yl ^l_]l yl$
s ElO ]lMS Bl Hyl A BMS^l$
MS$s$ l$$MS$$.
{MS.. 16]l Z Wt Al > l l l$l VS$_
> $Ol $]l Zl ]l ^l>yl$.
Bl>]l$ q *__, MS*$ (c) Al {]l*Z
M$ $.
_]l {]l*$..
$ MS*$ = 103 C
O l ${M MS*$ = 106 C
MS*$ = 109 C
M MS*$ = 1012 C
l {]l*$..
MSZ MS*$ = 103 MS*$$ (C)
l$V> MS*$ = 106 C
WV> MS*$ = 109 C
Bl yl$ M>-$: h$l {MS l Bl>]l$ l ]l, $ A
yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^yl$.
g Bl>$ MS^l$MS$s-. g Bl>$
z sZ
BMS^l$MS$s.
$ $ylVSMS$ g Bl> C_a]l yl$
z V> $ylVS
A MS^l$M l*V> ly l ]l B V>
$ylVS ]l* $VS$l$.
$l] # > (vertices) ]ll MS{MSl]l$
z Bl>$ Gyl* ]l
]l#. D l > BV> ^l $M h$l {MS l
lightening conductors]l$ MS]l$Vyl$.
z ]l$ Gl l] MSrty$,
z V> Z l*O ]l MSyl
]l$ llO ]l sO A]l$a, VS $ *$MS
MS$#$. C yl$VS$ yl ]l$$Z B ]l]l$
^l$l$]l Bl> lightening conductors {VS
_ *$
ZMS ^l--.
z ]l* MS V> lVSY lightening conductors]l$
A]l$$a$.
z Z$V> E]l ]l
$l] #MS$ Ml Bl> C_a]l yl$ A B
]l $l] # ElOMS ^l l$l$.
Al$]l yl$VS$ yl ]l$$Z M>$Z {* $l]
]lMS l]l]l$ ]l$ S^l$Ms B M>$Zl Ey.

MS*$ Z]l$ ]lY $]l$:

z

HOl yl$ Bl> ]l$l Z E]l BMS MS

B Bl> MS A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ, l* ]l>YMS Z
]l*]l$lZ Er$.
F

q1q2
d2

F=K

q1q2
d2

q1, q2 = Bl>$ (charges).

= Bl> ]l$l l*.

k = A]l$l
>MS.
d

E:
Al yl$ C]l$ VO ]l$V> +10C, 6C
Bl>$ E. D yl$ V]l$ JMSMMSs Ml
l*Z E_]l yl$ A BMS^l$MS$s. D
yl$ V]l$ JMS ]l$MSs MS Ml # E_
W $l] ZMS $MSl] #yl$ A MS^l$MS$s.

z A, B

l$lZ M>$ (Types of electricity):

l$l]l$ l$l (Static), { l$l A yl$
M>$V> ]lYMS^l]l^l$a.

l$l: ]l $l] # ElO V> E]l Bl> ]l Hyl- l] l$l]l$ l$l As$.
{ l$l: MSZ Bl> { r$]l$ {
l$l As$.
{ l$l

Bl> Q
st l] M>

i =

i=

q
t

{]l*: Amphere.
l$l]l$ yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a.
HM>l l$l (Alternative Current):
MSZ l$l {]l
$l] yl$ { l
lMS ]l$_ $lM>MS, $lMS ]l$_ l lM>MS
HM>lV> ]l*l HM>l l$l As$.
z D l$l]l$ VS]l
- - >-$, ]l]l$, ]l$
]lyl yMS (O $), {]l$Z E*W $.
HMS]lQ l$l (D.C):
MSZ l$l { JMS Z Es HMS]lQ

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l$l As$.
z r ]l$_ D.C MSs l$]lyl$l$.
z HM>l- l$-l(A.C)- l] $ HMS- l] -Q l$-l (D.C)V> ]l*a
y M>P (Rectification) As$.

--->- M>-$..
z

Bl>]l$ l]l$ > { ^l l > BV> ^l $

MS$ >]l$ ]lyl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a.

1. l$l M>$:
s > l$l { f$VS$l$. E-
- - -MS $..
]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l l$l MS
lyl (Ag). l>-l Cu, Al, Fe llO ]l Z$.
z sZ E MSl l$l MSl V> $
VS$l$.
2. l$l lM>$:
l$-l {-
fV- S -l] - - - ->- - l] $ l$-l l M- >-$
As- $. ]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l l$l
l MS ]l{f. B l>-l Ol - M- O- y- l (PVC) Al Mt S
>$. , ylV> E]l ^lMSP]l$, $lO l $]l - $ C]l-
l$-l -l-M>-.
3. A M>$ (Semi Conductors):
s MSl M> MSs lMS$P]lV>, l M> MSs GMS$P
]lV> Er$. E: Al$l l] $Ol $]l A MS &
Si l>-l Ge.

M>l VS$_...
z

C *$ O Z SiO2 (C$MS) *Z GMS$P]lV>

$.
MS l$l MSV- > ]l*a $s]l$ (Photo
voltaic cells) M>l l*$^l$.
MSNr Z E*W^l integrated chips]l$ Si
$. Al$]l MSNr *VS GMS$P]lV> E]l ]lVS
> Silicon Valley As$.
]l$]l lZ Silicon Valley (MSNr s)V> VS- *- $]l$ $-$--$.

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*V l$l MS A Gl$MSs$?
l$l s$:
z

z
z

V=i R

l$l s $ Al JMS VS JMS ]l $l] # Bl

l$g$.
Bl> Q GMS$P]lV> E]lrl AMS s $ E
A, lMS$P]lV> E]lrl A s $ E A
As$. D yl$ s $Z ly]l$ s $ ly
As$.
{]l* = Volt
*$Z A]llO l $]l QZ (infinite) l ]l, $ Bl>$
Eylr ]l *$MS Ml Bl> Al]lV> ^la
W_ s $Z Gr$]ls ]l** MS$VSl$
M>st *$ ll , s $]l$ "0'V> $MS$s$.
*$ G Bl>Ol C]lVS$VS$l$, $MVS$VS$
l$. M>st *V G[MSMt S MS A MS*y As$.
]l$]l lZ VS A]l > M E*W^l l$l]l$
> ^l $. D s $ ]ll VS
220V ]ll
l$l MS>$ (l$l $, r*O s, s,
IlMS,
r llO ]l) ^l. M> ss
]l$> st A {VS
^l l$l l$ B$Z
Er$.
]l$]l lZ l$l > 220V MSs lMS$P]lV>
E]lrl low voltage A, GMS$P]lV> E]lrl high
voltage A As$. M>st l$l s $ ]l$
G yl$ MS*y 220V ]ll MS^lyMS t O f]l$
yl$.
]l$]l lZ > ^l $l] HM>l l$l (A.C)
]l@#l] 50 Hz$.
l l>$ G yl$ MS*y AMS s $ ]l$_ A
s $ O l # {]l
. D l l> { ]l$
l$ l { V> $MS$s$.
$lO l $]l G[M>tl] $ G yl$ MS*y A s $
]l$_ AMS s $ O l # {]l
.

Kl$ $]l$ (Ohms Law):

z

O l $]l E~{VSl ]ll JMS VSZ {]l

$l] l$l
Z s $ lyMS$ A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ Er$.
iV
V = Potential difference
1
i=
V
R

R]l$

(Resistance) A

As$.

l (R):
JMS VS > l$l {]l
$l] yl$ B l$l {
]lMS^l VS l A As$. Kl$ Al
{]l*Z M$ $ ().

]l:
1. { ]l (Series Combination):
z JMS l y _]l]l$, B l>l l lls
_]lMS$ MS l { ]l As$.
z D
]lZ l l
RS = R1 + R2 + .......... $VS$l$. M>st l$l
{ lVS$Yl$.
2. ]l*l ]l (Parallel Combination):
z lls _]l]l$ JMS l$]l#MS $, $W]l y
_]l]l$ ]l$MS l$]l#MS$ MS l ]l*l
]l As $. D ]lZ l l
1
1
1
=
+
+ ......... lVS$Yl$.
RP

R1

R2

M>st l$l { $VS$l$.

{l ^l A>$:
JMS VS l MS *O B yl Er$.
1. ]l:
z l$
>Z ^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl] Q
l$V> Er$ M>st l MS*y JMS ]l$_
]l$MS >MS ]l*$l$.
E:
ZZ (Ag, Au, Cu....) ^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl]
Q GMS$P]lV> Eylr ]l, l lMS$P]lV> Er$.
z l$l l M>Z (]l{f,
Mt S ]l $l] #$ llO ]l)
^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl] $ #V> Eyl]l#. M>st
sZ l GMS$P]lV> Er$.
2. MS $l$ O (Ml O ):
z

Dimensions of the conductor.

z

VS l yl]l#]lMS$ A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ]l*,
Ayl$zMl O l >MS Z]l*]l$lZ Er$.

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t l A As$.
{]l* = m

l
a

JMS ]l$lO l $]l VS]l$ ]l VSV> VS]l yl$

yl]l# W, Ayl$zMl O l > lVS$Yl $. Al$]l VS
l $VS$l$.
]l VS]l$ ]l$lO l $]l VSV> ]l$_]l yl$ yl]l#
lWY Ayl$zMl O l > $VS$l$. M>st l lVS$Y
l$.

3. E~{VS

{]l:

M>]l$ lyl ^l (Ag, Au, Cu etc) s E~{VSl]l$

_]l #yl$ l $VS$l$.
z l M>]l$ (insulators) lyl ^l
, ^la s
l Z Gr$]ls ]l*$ Eyll$.
z A M>O ]l Si,Ger$ graphite, India rubber Al
>]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s l lWY l$l
{ $VS$l$.
M>l]l$ 0CMS$ ^l_]l
z 25C ]ll E]l >W,
yl$ >W l lWY Z l$l {
$VS$l$. M> A M>O ]l Si l W l$l
{ lVS$Yl$.
]l$ *]l E~{VSl ]llM S $ (absolute
z Si, Ge ]l$
temperature - 273C (......0 kelvin$) ^l_]lyl$
s l A]llO l $, A NO~ l $]l l M>$V>
{]l. 'C' *lO l $]l {V>Os ]l$_ l$l
MS. Al$]l Z l >]l$ {l^l AZ
A As$.
$ ]l$ lWY^lyMS {V>Os]l$ MS
z ${Z
O l V> (lubricant) E*W$.
>Z MS]l ]l*]l >]l$ st l ]l*$
z
l$.
E:
^leOl $]l s l GMS$P]lV> Er$.
M> Z E]l$ MS]l yl$ l lWY l$l
{V> ]l*$l$.
z ylV> E]l MS{ l GMS$P]lV> Er$. M> MS{]l$
sZ ]l_ ]l yl$ l lVS$Yl $.
s: BVS]ll$Oyl ]l ]l*]l]l# l$l l yl
^l 25,000 ]l$_ 30,000 $V> Er$. M> lyl
^l MS]l 10,000 $V> ]l*{ll$ Er$.

l
a

Rs

s=

l
a

Ra m 2
=
=m
l
m

MSl (Conductivity):
z l Z]l* MSl As$.
MSl (C ) = 1
R

{]l*$:

1
= ohm 1 (or )mho
ohm

{ $l E*W$l] {]l*

l$l^eMS (electro motive force emf):

JMS l$l ]l$Z Bl>]l$ JMS l$]l# ]l$_ ]l$MS
l$]l#]lMS$ MS^lyMS sO E*W^l MS l$l
^eMS A As$.
z {]l*$: Volt
l$l^eMS A^l u>$ (Seats of emf)
l$:
$r (Cell or battery)
z
z O MS yO l ]ll*
z l$l f]lr (G[MSMt S f]lr)
A MSl (Super conductivity) :
yl$ H JMS E~{VSl ]ll s l
z Z ^la]l
*]lOl $, A]llO l $]l l$l {]l
$. D l >
A MSl A As$.
z l (Hg) A MSl E~{VSl 4.2 Kelvin$.
z A MS MS]l$V]l > l l Kammerlingh ohnes
(M>]l$VS Kl)
z

i=

V V
= =
R O

t l (Specific Resistance):
z

Siemen.

{]l* yl]l#, {]l* Ayl$zMl O l > E]l VS

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$rZ E*W^l $]l ?

l$l l$

1.
z
z

2.
z

106A

(Electric Devices)
l (Gold leaf electro scope):

~{l l$l
MS]l$V]l > l l & Bennet
D l E*W_ JMS ]l $l] # ElO Bl
]l As l l $l> l$$M]l^l$a.
G-[Mt-P-:
E*W_ JMS VSZ l$l EMS VS$^l]l^l$a.

3. Post office box:.

z

4.

^ H MSlr VS l$$M]lyMS t
>Q $ E*W^l- $. { $l C yl$MSZ
l$.
l st (Resistance box):
i=

5.

V = iR

V
R

13. s--*

l$l ]l$Z E]l JMS

^lyMS E*W $.
AMS l st

, 2, 3.....Z

(High resistance box):

D l E*W_ JMS 1000 (MSZ

ohm) ^l]l^l$a.
s: $, AMS st Z l*$
^l$yMS Maganine Constantan Al Z ${]l*]l$
(alloys) E*W $. Gl$MSs s ElO A
l$]l# ]ll $ ]l*]lV> Es.
6. Kl$ $r (Ohm meter):
z JMS VSZ l
> M]lyMS E*
W$.
7. *ts:
z JMS l$l ]l$Z -l] $
]l*Z
]l*a G yl* l$l]l$ JMS $]l ]ll MS $.
z

8. Meter bridge: R, s
z

9.

D MS> E*W_ JMS VS l , t -l] $

MSP^l]l^l$a.
MCG MS VS^l$rt V>$r (Moving coil
galvanometer):

E*W_ JMS VSZ {]l

$l] l$l {
9
]l$ Q l$l ]l* 10 Amphere ]lMS$ MS_a
lV> M]l]l^l$a.

10. Tangent Galvano meter: 106A.

z

]lMS$ M$]l]l^l$a.
11. A$-r-: 103A.
z D
MS> E*W_ MSZ E]l l$l {
$ B$ ]l$_ M B$ ]lMS*
M$]l]l^l$a. (103A)
z Bl A$r l (R) = 'O' (*]l)
12. Kt $r-: R =
z E*W_ l$l ]l$Z HOl yl$ l$
]l# ]l$l s $ ly]l$ $ $tZ, $tZ MS*y
M$]l]l^l$a.
z BlOl $]l t $r l (R) = A]llV>
Er$.

C {M$Z Tan Al *{l BV>

^l $. E*W_ VS- Z- l$l {

$r- emf, r
z E*W_ JMS
$r ]l$_ l$]lyl l$l^eMS
, AlY l (internal resistance) MSP
^l]l^l$a.
14. MS--r--(-MSyl-]l--):
z lMS$P]l gt ]ll, GMS$P]l Bl- >-$, l$l MS

^l$yMS MSr]l$ yl$$.
z MSr MSs yl (Farad) Al {]l*Z M$
$. D {]l* O l $MS yl $ ]l$_ {VS
^$.
15. $r (Battery/Cell): .
z
$s MS]l$V]l > l l Volta (Kt).
z sZ $]l MS l$l MSV > ]l*$l$.
$rZ E*-W^l $]l [H2SO4]
z l$l
^l Z E]l $]lMS, l$l
MSV > *l ^ll$l$. D l$l $]l*
]l$ {_]l > l l O l $MS yl.
z Cs ]lMS$ MS]l$V]l
$sZ ]lQOl $]l.. Kt, M>`,
yl$, j , O {Ml$s $r llO ]l.
z l ilZ
j $s Vyl VSyl*>$, saO r$,
MSl$>, {st $, _]l $ Byl$Ml Br]l$Z
E*W$.
$s$ Chargeable battery$ M>]l#.
z O ]l P]l
z Chargeable battery MS]l$V]l > l l Glante Plante.
z D rZ l$l MS $]l MSV >, $]lMS W
l$l^leMSV> ]l*$l$.
z V> D rZ Pb, PbO2 (yl, yl >MS yl)
]l$ G[Mtyl $V> yl$$.

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Bl $MS M>Z Chargeable rZ Ni Li]l$ MS*y

E*W$$.
- -- l] $, M- >- -z - $, ylM- >z Chargeable battery]l$
l$-Z E*W$$.
s: { ^l V> Z A]l$a]l storage (char
geable) batteryZ (H2SO4) E*W$$. M>st ]l*]l]l#
MS GMS$P]lV> E *VS yl$l$]l D B]l* king of
chemicals (
>f) A As$.
z

]lMS(Transformer):
z lMS$P]l gt ]l$_ GMS$P]l gt MS, GMS$P]l gt ]l$_
lMS$P]l gt MS l$l]l$ > ^l$ylZ {sl
]l$ E*W $. C { A]l
{ (Mutual induction) Al *{l BV> ^l
$. D l BP_]l > l l O l $MS yl.
z {sl]l$ yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS^l]l^l$a.
1. Step-up transformer: VL VH

lMS$P]l it ]l$_ GMS$P]l it MS l$l]l$ >

^l$ylZ yl$$.
2. Stepdown transformer: VH VL

GMS$P]l it ]l$_ lMS$P]l it MS l$l]l$ >

^l$yMS E*W $. t O fZ D yl$ M>
{sl* yl$$.
V> yl $, {]l$$, s, MSNr Z
MS*y s E*W $.
{sl > HM>l l$l]l$ ]l*{ll$ {
^l $. Gl$MSs --> {- ]lt- $ lMS$P-l] V- >
Es-.
]l$]l lZ E]l ]l{Wyl Q { $l &3.
l$Z s Q 5MS$ VS]l^l$a.
lS ]l{Wyl (ll ]l{Wyl) ^lO l Z E. {
^lZ AlO l ]l ]l {Wyl]l$ ^O l l Three godjes Al
{l ]ll _.
l$l $]l$ ]l$ B Gyl l Al > l l
MS]l$Vyl$. Z rVS t l (W) l*O ]l l$s]l$
A]l$a, 'Ar' Al fyl ]l#l] $ $ ^l $.
l$sZ l$l {]l
$l] yl$ A lyl ^llyl
]l ]l$_ M> yl$l]l#l $. M>st l$l
$Z l$l MS & E~ MS (heat energy), M> MS( light
energy)V> ]l*$l$.
b $ (Arc lamps), {MSr]l --$ & ]l*{
$Z llMS$ C$Ol # E*W^l -Z *l
(Ne) Al fyl ]l#l] $ E*W $. Gl$MSs D

$Z ]l$_ f VS$Z E]l M> yl$l]l#l $.

z r*O sZ l ]l G {Mtyl , $ G{Mtyl Al 2 G[Mtyl $$
Es. sZ l$l {]l
$l] yl$ A M> MSV >
]l*$l$.
$# VS$ M> M)
z B Z Navapour (
Hg vapour]l$ (l$# VS$ M> M) E*W $.
rZ {Ml$ (Nichrome) VS]l$ yl$$.
z l$l
Gl$MSs D VS l , {l]l]l l] (M.P) GMS$P]lV>
Es.
Ng VS]l$ , sl ${]l$ l*$^l $. D
z
Z ${]l* Type metal A As$. l
GMS$P]lV>, {l]l]l l] lMS$P]lV> Er$. D
lylMSP]l yl$ M__ lWl$. Al$]l AMS
l$l { ]l$_ l$l VS]l$ M>ylsMS Fuse
VS]l$ l$l ]l*-MS {Z MS$#$.
z AMS ]l$ {Z MS$#$. Al D $Z
HOl JMS $]l$ W_ JMS $Z E]l
l$s M> $W]l $$ lVS]l#.
z CsZ l$l MSlMS l JMS VS ]l$_ ]l$-MS VSMS {Z]l*,
JMS VSZ E]l l$l MS>$ ]l*lV> MS-
Es.
s: l$l $Z rVS t l ]l$ E*W^lyMS M>
l lMS$P]lV>, {l]l]l l] GMS$P]lV> Eylyll$.

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l$l $
MS l: (Thermo electricity)
yl$ l$ Z# VS]l$, yl$ l $$V> (junctions)
A]l$a]lrl Hyl]l E~ VS (Thermo couple)
As$. E~ VSZ JMS ]l$^l$ ]lMSPZ E_
(^l cold junction), y lyl ^l ]lrl (hot
junction) E
~ VSZ l$l f$. E~ l$l
MS l (Seebeck effect) A As$.
z Seebeck effect Z f_]l E~ l$l yl$ A>O
B yl Er$.
1. E~ l$l]l$ l*$^l$yMS E*W_]l VS
]lO B yl Er$. M>st Bsl
~ V> l*$^l VS-- t E~
(Sb), l(Bi) E
l$l f$.
2. ^l
, lyl MS ]l$l E]l E~{VSlZ lyO
B yl Er$. D ly Wl E~ l$l MS*y
$VS$l$.

A]l$]l$
MS l BV> ^l
Thermophile]l$ Bsl, -l l*$^l $. D
MS> E*W_ >$ MS (I.R, E~ MS
) EMS MS]l$MP]l^- l $a.
2. E~ l$l E~{VS ]l*MS: Seebeck effect BV>
^l D l>$r]l$ E*W_ ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$
M$]l]l^l$a.
E*V>$:
z JMS ]l
$l] # E~{VSl]l$ 0.025C ]lMS$ MS_alV> M$]l
]l^l$a. M>st {MS$, MSrM> E~{VSl]l$ M]lylZ D
l>$r]l$ E-*-W--$.
z A {$V> ]l*$ ^ll$l$]l ]l
$l] # E~{VSl]l$
MS_alV> M$]l^l$a.
E: ($]l ^l$)
1. Thermophile:

Pelteir Effect:

E~ VS > {]l
^l l$l JMS ]ll >Z
E]l E~ {VS
_ ^l- a, B {VS
_]l E~ ]l$MS
]ll $rMS$ yl$l ^l lylMS$Pl$. Pelteir Effect
As$.

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{SMS A l As$?
*{MS > (Mechanics)
{^l]l (impulse):
]l $l] #O AlMS -, A M>Z {*W -
{^l]l As$.
{^l]l I (or) J =F t
J = {*W_]l
st l] M>
{]l*$ :& 1) dyne - sec
2) Newton - sec
J
=F
+t

O $MS {M> JMS ]l $l] #O {*W-_]l ,

st l] M> JMSMMSs Z]l*]l$lZ Es.
z Al$]l ]l
$l] #O GMS$P]l M>Z {*W
{^l]l {]l lVS$Yl $.
E:
z fVS sZ l*MS
]ll V l, Z
]lr$t, # r$t, C$MS, h llO ]l s
E^lyl ]l M>$ W, {^l]l {]l lVS$Y
l$. M>st l*MS ]lMSM S Gs V>*$ M>]l#.
z {MSMSs
r$tMl ]l$$Z ]ll$MS$ ^_]l ^ll$
]l$ {MS]l$V> l]l$MSMS$ $M]lyl ]l M>$ W,
{^l]l {]l lVS$Yl $. Al$ ]l ^ll$MS$ Gs
V>*$ M>]l#.
z Ml Gl$ ]l$_ {l$lO l $]l l O MS l*MS]l ]lMS, l]l
$]l#l] $ A M>Z lO {*W^lyl ]l
{^l]l {]l GMS$P]lV> Er$. {]l V>*$
A]l#. M> Al ]lMS lW]ll Zl$Z $]l Z
l*MS]lrl {^l]l {]l lVS$Yl $. A-yl $
V>*$ M>]l#.
z sZ shock obsorbers]l$ ({VS]l$) A]l$
ayl ]l B ]l GVS$yl$, VS$yl$$V> E]l yl$zO
{* _]l yl$ {^l]l {]l lVS$Yl $.
z V>k,
V>, ]l$st ]l $l] #]l$ JMS {l ]l$_ ]l$MS
{l>-MS ^lr
- yl$ s ^l$r*t l*, VSyl,z
h, lM llO ]l s A]l$ayl ]l {^l]l
{]l lW,Y A WMS$y Es.
z VS]l$]lZ E]l JMS ]l, Al {l]l> MSW, _
E]l ]l$MS - lM]lyl$ {^l]l {]l ]l- l
_ E]l MS GMS$P]l ]l t MS$VS$l$.
z

JMS l$MS$O AlMS - {*W_ ]l yl$ {^l]l

{]l ]l- A VylZMS VS$l$.

{SMS (Projectile):
HOl JMS ]l $l] #l] $ *$ Sf ]l*l l-M- S Ml
M ^l * (900 l ) {S ^l ]l yl$ (l ]l
yl$) A >]l$ ]l*Y Z (Parabolic path) {*
_ ]l$MS l$]l# ]ll *$ MS$l$.
"{S MS' A As$.
z {S
MS G yl$ MS*y >]l$ ]l*Y Z {*
$. Sf ]l*l lZ {S MS {*_]l
l*> (Range) As$.
E:
z l$MS l sMS$]l$ {*W_]l
yl$ s
]l$_ l$]lyl]l $s rMS >- $ (Shells)
>]l$ ]l*Y Z {*_ > bl.
$$ >]l$ ]l*Y Z
z {*W_]l >MSs$, S
{*.
$l] #l] $ $rMS$
z VS]l$]lZ E]l JMS ]l ]l$_l ]l
gyl_]l yl$ A >]l$ ]l*Y Z {*_
MSl yl$l$.
E:
z GVS$$l$]l gs ]l*]l ]l$_l JMS $]l$ gyl_
]l yl$ A >]l$ ]l*Y Z {*_ > MS$
l$. M> ]l*]l O sMS$ B $ rt $]l#V> MSMS
yl$l$]lr$ A$.
z JMS ]l
$l] #l] $ *$ Sf ]l*l lMS 45 M
]l yl$ A VSx l$l$.
z JMS > l$MS VS$st MS_alV> bl^s B
S Gl$ MSs l$MS Gl$ GMS$P]lV> Ey.
E:
z M ^lr$tO E]l JMS M l$MS VS$st {sVSY MSP
]l$$Z.. M MSMS gyl {_. A]l sM- S l$MS $s M MS$l$.
--t-Z ]l$]l# l:
z t l] $ MS]l$V-l] > l l & Ks

z -t Z JMS ]lMS A$
z

w1 = mg
m=

]l$]l# {l]l>
g = VS$$l l

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t MS ]l$ st Z E]l ]lMS A$

MSs W]lr$V> lWYl] r$V> A ^ly- - l
As$.
l (W) = m (g a)
1. t O MS l$l$]lyl$ +a ]l$
2. t MSMS ]l $l] - -yl $ - a]l$ $M.
Z E]lyl$ () ]l$lVS O MS
Case-1: t >]l$
MSMS MSl$$l$-l] yl$ l (a) = *]l
(a = 0) M>s,t
z

a =0

w = m (g a)
w = m (g 0)
w = mg C

fOl $]l >-M- S ]l*]l.

-yl $ -Z- ]lMS
Case-2: t l 'a' O MS l$l$]l-
l w = m (g a) (W]lr$V> A$)
$l] - -yl $ Z ]lMS
Case-3: t l 'a' MSMS ]l
l w = m (g a) lWY]lr$V> A$.
Case-4: t O MS MSMS MSl$$l$]lyl$ VS$
lW]lrl A ^leV> MSMS yl$l$. D lZ
l *$ VS$$l lMS ]l*]lV>
Er$. As a = g.
w = m (g a)
w = m (g g)
w=0

(W]lr$V> A $) As B ]lMS
l
l$yl$.
E:
60 MSZ {l]l> E]l JMS ]lMS Ml VSi- lO r$t
M VylO ]l$_ MSMS l*MS$l$]l- -yl $ ]l*Y l] $l Z B
]lMS *]lV> E]lr $.
Case-5: ^leV> MSMS
yl$l$]l t l, *$ VS$$l
l MSs GMS$P]lV> E]lyl$ Z E]l ]lMS t
Ayl$ VS$ V> ]l O MS ]l$ l Msyl$.

{]l$ ^l]lZ E]l { ]l $l] #MS $ AMS{l, AMS{l

$ Es.
AMS{l (centripetal force): $l] # {]l$ ^l]lZ E]l- -yl $ B ]l $l] #O
z HOl JMS ]l
]llM S {l O l # ^l - AMS{l As$.
yl$ MS*y
z AMS{l fOl $]l . G
]llMS{l ]l$MS*-$-$.
z

F=

mv 2
r

AMS{l
m = ]l$]l# {l]l>
v = T$ lVS (Linear velocity)
F = mrw2
r = ]ll
w = omega = M$ lVS (Angular velocity)
E$:
z MS$r$Z
*$ ^l$r*t {$$l] {VS$
{VS ^l$r*t {$$l] E{VSMS$ M>]l A
MS{l - ]l*rl VS$$MS $ (Newton
Universal gravitational forces) ]l$MS*$.
z JMS >MS > MSst ]lM> ]l*
Y Z {$^l- $]l yl$ MS M>-l] AMS{l -- $f,
> A.
z
]l*$ MS{lMS ^l$r*t {$$l] G{M>tl MS$ M>]l AMS{l MS*$ BMS $ ]l$MS*$
.
z ]l# ]l*
Y ]ll -M- S M>--]l AMS{l-- B
]l ^l{M>$, yl$z ElMS ]l$l E- - l] $
$ ]l$MS*$.

g = 9.8 ms2 = 10 ms2

a = 12 ms2
w = m (g a)
w = m (10 12) w = 2m

O $MSZ ve sign t Z E]l ]lMS t MS$

]lMS Z As O Z MSl$$yl l$^l $.

{]l$ ^l]l
O l $]l AS ^l$r*t HOl JMS ]l $l] # ]lM> ]l*Y Z
{$, {]l$ ^l]l M$ ^l]l
As$.
E:
l MSP$, ]l ^l{M>$ {]l$ ^l MSW Es.

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Vyl VSyl* ZM>MS Eyl ^l]l?

*{MS >
AMS{l (Centrifugal force)

Ol$]l AS ^l$r*t ]lM> ]l*YZ {$]l ]l$
]l#]l$ ]llMS{l ]l$_ A]ll Ol# $MSyMS {$
^l -l AMS{l As$.
AMS{l
F = mrw2

(F) =

mv 2
r
(or)

(v = r w )

O $MSZ ve sign ]lMS ]l$ l$#-l$.

AMS{l FlMSOl$]l (Pseudo lithical force)

A]l$]l$
AMS{l ${l (centrifuge)
AMS{l *{l BV> ^l D MS> E
*W_ l, A E]l MS]l$ l$^l^l$a.
E*V>$:
1. ^lMSP sM> ]l$_ l]l$ l$ ^l$ylZ
2. lll$st ]l$_ ll]l$ l$^l$ylZ
3. $]l>Z $MS A]lSM>]l$ l$ ^l$y--MS
4. ]l$hjVS ]l$_ l]l]l$ l$ ^lylZ A-MS{l $-{-
yl$--$.
]l# ]l*>Y-MS VSr$t MSrt-yl
]l# ]l*Y ]ll yl$z Z A^l$MSs A]ll A^l$]l$
M^l GMS$P]l Gl$Z ^ly ]l# ]l*>Y-MS VSr$t
MSr$tr As$. yl$z A]ll A^l$ (outer edge) Z
A^l$ (inner edge) ^l M- VSr$t M As$.

VSr$t M $MS
Tan =

v2
rg

v = ]l#

]l*Y ]ll ]llVS

r = ]l# ]l*Y
g = *$ VS$$l l (axillaration due to gravity)
]l# ]l*Y ]ll $SlV> {*^ly-MS MS
g{VSl$ $M...
1. ]l lVS lW]ll Ey. ]l lVS M>]l]l lVS
MSs GMS$P]lV> E]lyl$ yl$zMS$ A]l-lOl#, lMS$P]lV>
E]lyl$ yl$z-MS$ Z Ol# yll$.
2. ]l# ]l*Y ]l ^l{M> ]l$l l*
O]ll GMS$P]lV> Ey.
3. VS]l$ ]l O]ll ]lMS$ yl$zMS$ $

Z Ey.
E: Sports cars, bikes ^l{M>]l$ _]lV> A]l$a s
VS]l$ ]l O]ll MSMS Eyl- $. Al$]l
B $ ylMS$y $SlV> {* .
*{MSMS (Mechanical energy):
M.E = P.E + K. E

]l$]l# f, VSf MS$ l *{MS MS As$.

fMS (P.E.): ]l$]l#MS$ ]l ]l H-yl-]l MS
f MS As$.

P.E = mgh
m = ]l$]l#

{l]l>
g = *$ VS$$l l
h = *$ El ]l$_ ]l$]l# ]l Gl$.
Gl$ Wl fMS MS*y $VS$l$.
E$:
1. f>$$, K]l yl sMS$Z MSylV> E]l sMS f - M- S Er$.
2. ^l$r- E]l {VS$, VS]l $ stZ Eyl- -f
MS.
VSfMS (K.E.): ]l$]l#MS$ VS]l$]l ]l H--yl-]l MS VSf MS
As$.
1
K.E = mv 2
2

m = ]l$]l#

{l]l>
v = lVS (lVS Wl VSfMS MS*y $VS$l$)
E$:

VS]l$]lZ E]l { ]l$]l#MS* VSfMS Er$.
*{MS MSMS E$:
1. GVS$$l$]l ]l*$, >MSs$, S$$, *l$,
S$$, l$*$ llO]l s-MS *{MS MS Er$.

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2. VS]l$]lZ E]l {*MS$ylMS *{MS MS Er$.

3. MS$r$Z *$yl ^l$r*t {$]l {VS$
{VS ^l$r*t {$]l E{VSMS$ MS*y *
{-MS MS Er$.
4. ]l*$ MS{lMS ^l$r*t {$]l G{M>tlMS$ *{
MS MS Er$.
MS *l>$:
1. f>$Z MSylV> E]l $ ^leV> MSMS yl$l$]l
yl$ fMS VSfMSV> ]l*$l$.
2. OMS Oyl]ll*Z *{MS MS l$^leMSV> ]l*$l$.
3. VSyl* {VSZ f MS Z ]l$ VSyMS
M>]l]l VSfMSV> ]l*$l$.
4. ^lr$t M]l$O ]l S GVSyl {_]lyl$ f
MS *{MSMSV> ]l*$l$.
5. $VSl$l$]l ]lMS MSylMS VSfMSV> ]l*$aMS$syl$.
6. ^lr$tOMS GMSP]l ]lMS MSylMS fMSV> ]l*$aMS$s$.
Note: $VS$l$]l VS l MSPMS$ f, {]l$ VSf
MS Es.

Z $, VSZ M>MS$yl$, Z$Z ]l$-]l#--MS$
f MS Er$.

5. MS$r$t$lZ *, F$ ^l ^l$
6. Blade ]l$ JMS O l # _, y O l # $s]l #yl$ A ^l
MS--$.
7. yl]l ^l_]l {VS ^l ^l]l
8. 'U' BM> E]l V>kVrtO Ml ]l$rt ]lMS$ {l]l
, _]lyl$ B {l]l ^l ^l]l
9. #sM> yl$zO ]l ^l{M>$ ^l ^l]l.
10.*$ N~Ol$]l V F_ El {l$]l
]l$_ lS {l$--MS {l ^l ZMS ]l$]l#]l$
gyl_]lyl$ A yl$ {l$- ]l$lZ >lMS
^l]l ^l$. D lZ B ]l$]l#MS$ st B]l]l
M> $]l*$ 84.6 $$.

>lMS ^l]l
]l$]l# ^l]l l$]l#]lMS$ C$Ol# ]l*]l M>Z
#]l>]llOl$l B ^l >lMS ^l]l As$.
E$:
1. Vyl VSyl*Z ZMS ^l ^l]l.
2. MS]l MS$
3. , ]l*l, WsZ VS$ ^l ^l]l
4. A$]l sO ^lMSP ]l$ ^l ^l]l.

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]l*]l GVSylZ $]l$..

*{MS > (Mechanics)

T$ ^l]l

HOl ]l $l] # $k]l*Y Z {* $l] rl.. B

^l T$ ^l]l As$.
z JMS ]l
$l] # , VSl$]l$ VS$_ Al $]l ^l > l $
*{MS > (The study of behaviour of bodies)
z *{MS >
]l$$yl$V> Ats ]l$ Ps$.
Ats {M> HOl JMS ]l $l] #O Ml
{*W_]l yl$ A ]l lV>MS, {*W_]l MS
Gs l Eyll$. M> 16]l Z ]l*rl
]l $l] # ^l VS$_ Al $]l ^l ]l $l] #O {*W_]l
MS A ]l lV>MS ]l$l A]l l
Er$l Pyl$. ]l^lyMS yl$
M>$V> ]lYMS^yl$.
z

1. AlYl (Internal force):

]l $l] # ]l]l Z E]l ]l$ AlY l $
As$. D ]l ]l $l] Z Gs ]l**
Eyll$. E: $ Z MS*$a]l {*MS$$
Gl$s rO {*W. . B $ Z Gs
]l** Eyll$.
l^Z fan]l$ W_ AlMSl yl]l V>
B l ^ lVSZ Gs ]l*$ Eyll$.

f yl*
Note: A$$(Atom bomb) r]l Z,
MSlZ , , MS$ l$]lylyMS M> AlY l
.
2. (External force):
JMS ]l $l] # ]l$ ]l $l] #O {*W^l
As$. D ]l ]l $l] # Z ]l*$ >]l^l$a
]l*$ >]lyMS {$^l]l^l$a.

- lls $]l$ ]l$_l{ ]l $l] #MS $ fyll Al l

Er$ll $ l$$.
fyll (Inertia):
z ]l
$l] # ]llr Al l ]l*$aM AMS l ]l$
l > fyll As$.
z fyll Al l ]l
$l] # {l]l>O ]l*{ll$ B yl
Eylr ]l {V>l$$ MSZ {V>l$Z M$ $.
1. >]l$ fyll (Interia of rest):
z >]l$
Z E]l ]l $l] # l]llr ]l$V> >]l$
]l*$aM AMS l ]l$ >]l$fyll As$.
E: BW E]l JMS ]ll$MS$ MSl]l yl$ Al$
Z {*MS$$ >]l$ fyll ]l l]lMSO l # l*$$.
2. VS]l$]l fyll(Interia of motion):
z VS]l$]l
Z E]l ]l $l] # l]llr l VS]l$]l ]l*$a
M AMS l ]l$ VS]l$]l fyll As$.
E: VS]l$]lZ E]l $]l$ AMSl$V> B]l yl$
VS]l$]l fyll ]ll Z {*MS$$ ]ll$Ol # l*$
$.
3. > fyll (Inertia of Direction):
z JMS ]l
$l] # l]llr l ]l$ ]l*$aM AMS l ]l$ >
fyll As$.
E: ]l# ]l*Y lVSY $ ]l$$# $VS$l$]lyl$
> fyll ]ll Al$Z {*MS$$ B]lOl # l*$
$.
]l*rl y VS]l$]l $]l$:
z ]l
$l] #O {*W_]l {l]l>, l
MS ]l*]l. D $]l$ ]l$_ JMS ]l $l] #O {*W
_]l MS $MS F = ma E^l]l^l$a.
m = ]l
$l] # {l]l> mass of the body
a = l accellaration
z

Units: Dyne, Newton

1 ]l*rl = 105 Oyll$.

]l*rl VS]l$]l $]l*$:

]l $l] # ^l]l$ ]l^lyMS ]l*rl ]lyl$ VS]l$]l
$]l*]l$ {^yl$.
]l*r lls VS]l$]l $]l$:
z D $]l$ {M> JMS ]l
$l] #O {l$$
]ll]lMS$ >]l$ Z E]l ]l $l] # Al Z]l*
VS]l$]lZ E]l ]l $l] # ]l$lVS $k]l*Y Z MSl$$
l$.

]l*rl ]ly VS]l$]l $]l$:

z { ^lMS$
]l*]lO l $]l ]lMS {^l Er$. ^l =
& {^l
z ^l, {^l$ Gyl* frV>,
]l*Z ]l*
]lV>, Z ]lMSV> Es. s ll *MS
]l*]l. ^l + {^l = 0
E:
z lO ]lyl]lyl, sZ Dlyl, V>Z
S GVSyl llO
]l ]l*rl ]ly VS]l$]l *{l BV> Es.
z l$MS, gs ]l*$, >MSr$
^l$ylZ D $]l$

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C$yl Er$.
]l*rl VS]l$]l $]l*Z y $]l*MS AMS {
]l E. Gl$MSs lls, ]ly $]l*MS$ yl
$]l$ f]lMS ]l*V> ^l $.

M {l$MS ]l]l$:
1. l* (D istance) (s):
z VS]l$]lZ E]l ]l
$l] # {*_]l ]l*Y
ll$(Path) l*.
{]l*: mm, cm, meter etc...
z l* A >.MS
]l* ]l*{ll$ Er$. M>
{lMS Eyll$.
2. ]l{ (Displacement):
z ]l
$l] # , l$ ]l$ MS Q]l$ l] {
As$.
{]l*: cm, meter etc...
z l] {
> (Vector quantity). MS {lMS ,
]l*$ Es.
z ]l
$l] # {*_]l l*, A ]l l] {>
]l$l l
z ]l
$l] # O l $]l AS ^l$r*t ]lM> ]l*Y Z (circular
N ^l ]l yl$
path) JMS {]l$]l$
G) ]l $l] # {*_]l l* s = 2r
]ll MS ]l*]l (equals to circumference of circle)
) ]l $l] # ]l l] {
Gl$MSs D lZ
]l $l] # , l$ $ JMS ]l$MSs HMS$
.
) JMS l ]l $l] # A l] l Z ]l*{ll$ (Semi Circle)
{*_]lyl$..
i) A {*_]l l*
ii) ]l ]l{
(]ll MS (diameter)]l*]l)
JMSl ]l $l] # Q ]l*Y Z {* A ]l
l] {, {*_]l l*>$ JMS MMSs ]l*]lV>
Es. As
3. ]lyl (Speed):
VS]l$]lZ E]l ]l $l] #MS$ C_a]l M>Z {*_]l
l*> ]lyl As$.
]lyl (v) = {*_]l l* (s)
st l] M> (t)
{]l*$: cm/sec (or) m/sec C A>.
4. lVS (Velocity) :C_a]l M>Z ]l $l] # ]l l] {

> lVS As$.

lVS = ]l{
st l] M> (t)
{]l*$: cm/sec1 (or) m.sec2
C >
5. l : VS]l$]lZ E]l ]l $l] # lVSZ ]l*$ r$
l As$.
l = lVSZ ]l*$
=
M>Z ]l*$
{]l*$: cm/sec2 (or) m/sec2 C >
l yl$ M>$
1. l]ll (Positive accelaration):
z ]l
$l] # lVSZ ]l*$ r$ Wl l ]ll
As$.
E: t l s l$l] O $ lVS VSyl ]l MS
l ]ll
Er$.
2. $l :
z ]l
$l] # lVSZ ]l*$r$ lWYl MS $l
Al Er$.
E: t l]l$ $l] O $ lVS lVSyY l ]l MS
$l Er$. MS$ BMSr MS>
A]l$a s lV>]l$ ]l*$a$.
z ]l
$l] # >]l$ Z E ]l$lVS MSl$$l$
l *]l]l$]l#l$.
l
(]l$lVS)
E: 1000 MSZ {l]l> E]l JMS M>$ 50
]l$lVS {*l] yl$ l
(*]l). D lZ M>$O E]l F = ma
v2 = v1= v

km/hr

F = 1000kg 0 = 0

6. {l]llVS (M omentum):
$l] # {l]l>,
VS]l$]lZ E]l ]l
(m) lVS {l]llVS As$.
{]l*$: gm cm/sec, kg m/sec.
l$MS, gs ]l*$, >MSs$ llO ]l ^l$ylZ
{l]llVS ll (The law of conservation of momentum)
$]l* s.

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