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J-5rL
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O 7
WILEY
TOPPAN
PRINCIPLES
ROY
J.
OF
REFRIGERATION
DOSS AT, Associate Professor of Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
W
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. NEW YORK and LONDON
LTD.
Wiley
&
Sons, Inc.,
Copyright
1961
by John Wiley
Sons, Inc.
No
part of this
book may
be reproduced in any form without the written permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
which
it
Number:
61-15396
Toppan
Preface
This textbook has been written especially for use in programs where a full curriculum in refrigeration is offered. However, the material covered and the method of presentation are such that the text is also suitable for adult evening
classes
and
is
and
self-instruction.
is
material
and to any desired method or sequence of presentation. Despite a rigorous treatment of the thermodynamics of the cycle, application
is not required nor is an extensive background in physics and thermodynamics presupposed. The first four chapters deal with the fundamental principles of physics and thermodynamics upon which the refrigeration cycle is based. For those who are already familiar with these fundamentals,
of the calculus
tion
motors and control circuits as they apply to refrigeraThis material is presented from the viewpoint of practical application, the more mathematical approach being left to companion
Chapter 21
treats electric
and
electrical courses.
Throughout
to the whole.
this
textbook emphasis
is
is
refrigeration system,
carefully
examined
in relation
Too, care
through the use of manufacturer's catalog data and many sample problems.
this end, certain pertinent catalog data are included.
To
Roy
July, 1961
J.
Dossat
Acknowledgments
is
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers and of the following equipment manufacturers
publications of the
Acme Industries, Inc. Alco Valve Company Anaconda Metal Hose Division, The American Brass Company Bell & Gossett Company
Carrier Corporation Controls Company of America Dean Products, Inc. Detroit Controls Division, American Radiator & Standard Sanitary Corporation Detroit Ice Machine Company Dole Refrigerating Company
Kramer Trenton Company McQuay, Inc. The Marley Company Marsh Instrument Company Mueller Brass Company
Penn Controls, Inc. Recold Corporation Sporlan Valve Company Tecumseh Products Company Tranter Manufacturing, Inc. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, Inc.
Dunham-Bush,
Inc.
form of photographs and other art work, and for granting permission to reproduce proprietary data, without which this textbook would not have been possible.
vi
Contents
1.
Pressure,
2.
10
3.
Thermodynamic Processes
24
4.
43
5.
57
71
6.
7.
89
8.
9.
121
10.
11.
12.
203
225
13.
14.
244
15.
16.
Refrigerants
284 298
vii
17.
viii
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
334
18.
19.
20.
Installations
21. Electric
407
Index 535
where P
F the total force in any units of force A = the total area in any units of area
1-3.
Measurement of Pressure. As
indi-
cated by equation 1-1, pressure is measured in units of force per unit of area. Pressures are
Pressure,
Work,
Power, Energy
most frequently given in pounds per square inch, abbreviated psi. However, pressure, like force, as a matter of convenience and depending on the magnitude of the pressure, may be stated in terms of other units of force and area, such as pounds per square foot, tons per square foot, grams per square centimeter, etc.
force is defined as a push or a anything that has a tendency to set a body in motion, to bring a moving body to rest, or to change the direction of motion.
l-l.
Force.
It is
Example l-l. rectangular tank, measuring 2 ft by 3 ft at the base, is filled with water. If the total weight of the water is 432 lb, determine the pressure exerted by the water on the bottom of the tank in (a) pounds per square foot (b) pounds per square inch
Solution
(a)
pull.
2x3
= 6sqft = 432 lb
force
may
body. That
the body
may be
twisted, bent,
Applying Equation
1-1,
P
=
^
72psf
24 x 36
432
by the action of a force. The most familiar force is weight. The weight of a body is a measure of the force exerted on the body by the gravitational pull
of the earth (Fig.
1-1).
(b)
There are many forces other than the force of gravity, but all forces are measured in weight units. Although the most commonly used unit of force measure is the pound, any unit of weight measure may be used, and the particular unit- used at any time will usually depend on the magnitude of the force to be measured. 1-2. Pressure. Pressure is the force exerted
It may be described as a measure of the intensity of a force at any given
Applymg Equation
1-1,
P
in
432
864
= 0.5 psi
The problem described
illustrated in Fig. 1-2.
Example
1-1
is
Notice that the pressure on the bottom of the tank in pounds per square
foot
is
equivalent
to
the
having a cross section of one square foot, whereas the pressure in pounds per square inch
equivalent to the
point
is
downward
force exerted
by a
the
sq
ft,
the same and can be calculated by dividing the total force exerted by the total area over which the
force
applied.
is
'-h
(1-1)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
cross section will be less
altitude of
when taken
level
at
an
than when
taken at sea level. Therefore, it follows that atmospheric pressure decreases as the altitude
increases.
1-5.
Barometers.
-Spring scale
Pointer -
used to measure the pressure of the atmosphere and are of several types. A simple barometer which measures atmospheric pressure in terms of the height of a column of mercury can be constructed by filling with mercury a hollow glass tube 36 in. or more long and closed at one end. The mercury is held in the tube by placing the index finger over the open end of the tube while the tube is inverted in an open dish of mercury. When the finger is removed from the tube, the level of the mercury in the tube will fall, leaving an almost perfect vacuum at the
closed end.
The pressure exerted downward by on the open dish of mercury will cause the mercury to stand up in the evacuated tube to a height depending upon the amount of pressure exerted. The height of the mercury
the atmosphere
column
in the tube
is
is read in inches of mercury column (abbreviated in. Hg). The normal pressure of the atmosphere at sea level (14.696 psi) pressing down on the dish of mercury
will
lb.
atmosphere is 14.696 lb. Therefore, the pressure on the surface of the earth at sea level resulting from the weight of the atmosphere is 14.696 psi (14.7). This is understood to be the normal or
standard atmospheric pressure at sea level and
is
atmosphere.
the
pressure
of the
atmosphere does not remain constant, but will usually vary somewhat from hour to hour depending upon the temperature, water vapor
content,
Fig. 1-2.
Of the
in
total
in
ft
the
area
and
the pressure
Because of the difference in the height of the column, the weight of a column of air of given
is
pressure
in
PRESSURE,
height of 29.921 in. (Fig. 1-3).
column of
mercury 29.921
29.921 in.
in.
high
is,
then, a measure of a
brated in inches to read the deviation of the mercury columns from the zero condition in
either direction (Fig. l-4a).
By
dividing
a pressure of 1 psi is equivalent to a pressure of 2.036 in. Hg. Therefore, 1 in. Hg equals
1/2.036, or 0.491 psi,
When in use, one side of the U-tube is connected to the vessel whose pressure is to be measured. The pressure in the vessel, acting on
one leg of the tube,
tube.
is
Hg =
in.
0.491
and
psi
1-2.
Hg x
is
0.491
(1-3)
Example
in.
What
if
atmosphere in psi
than that of the atmosphere, the level of the mercury on the vessel side of the U-tube is depressed while the level of the mercury on the open side of the tube is raised an equal amount
(Fig. l-4b). If the pressure in the vessel is less
Hg?
Applying Equation
1-3,
Solution.
P=
Example
1-3.
than that of the atmosphere, the level of the mercury in the open leg of the tube is depressed
while the level of the mercury in the leg con-
In Fig.
how
when
1-2,
Applying Equation
0.491
the total pressure of the fluid in the vessel and the pressure of the atmosphere.
=
1-6.
29.53 in.
Hg
is
in.
Pressure Gages.
a closed
(1)
vessel.
Pressure gages
commonly used
two types:
tube.
in the refriger-
manometer
and
1-7.
(2)
bourdon
Manometers.
utilizes
when water
is
is
a water
manometer or water
instrument.
simple mercury manometer, illustrated in and l-4c, consists of a U-shaped glass tube open at both ends and partially filled
Figs. 1-4a, 1-46
with mercury.
When
are open to the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure is exerted on the mercury in both sides of the tube and the height of the two mercury
Fig. 1-3.
columns is the same. The height of the two mercury columns at this position is marked as the zero point of the scale and the scale is cali-
atmosphere on the open dish of mercury causes the mercury to stand up into the tube. The magnitude
of the pressure determines the height of the mercury
column.
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Atmospheric /pressure \
as the measuring
not visibly
will
of a
mercury column
produce easily
column. Atmospheric pressure, which will support a column of mercury only 29.921 in. high, will lift a column of water to a distance of approximately 34 ft. pressure of 1 psi will raise a column of water 2.31 ft or 27.7 in. and a
Atmospheric
manometer. Since both legs of the manometer are open to the atmosphere and are at the same pressure, the level of the mercury is the same in both sides.
Fig. l-4o. Simple U-tube
pressure
30
in.
Hg
-
Vessel pressure
26
in.
Hg
Atmospheric
pressure
30
in.
Hg
Fig.
l-4c
is
Manometer
4
in.
in.
indicates
less
that the
vessel
pressure
Hg
pressure of 30
Hg.
Fig.
-4b. Simple
manometer
indicates
that
the
by 4
in.
Hg.
below the zero point in the side of the U-tube connected to the vessel and 2 in. above the zero point in the open side of the tube. This indicates that the pressure in the vessel exceeds the
in.
Hg
(1.96
In Fig. l-4c, the level of the mercury is depressed 2 in. in the side of the tube open to
the atmosphere and raised 2
in the vessel
in.
in.
Hg
(1.96 psi)
below
(less
"vacuum"
pressures
and may
Fig. 1-5. Bourdon tube gage mechanism. (Courtesy Marsh Instrument Company.)
PRESSURE,
pressure of only 0.036 psi
is sufficient
a column of water
of water column
is
in.
high.
many
cases,
known
as
"compound"
gages, are
Table
1-8.
1-1 gives
Because of the
manometer type are not practical for measuring pressures above IS psi and are more or less
designed to measure pressures both above and below atmospheric (Fig. l-6c). Such gages are calibrated to read in psi above atmospheric and in inches of mercury below atmospheric. 1-9. Absolute and Gage Pressures. Absolute pressure is understood to be the "total" or "true" pressure of a fluid, whereas gage pressure
<)
(b)
(c)
(a)
Vacuum
gage,
(c)
Compound
gage. (Courtesy
limited to the
measurement of
relatively small
is
Gages of the bourdon tube type are widely used to measure the higher pressures encountered in refrigeration work. The actuating mechanism of the bourdon tube gage is illustrated in Fig. 1-5.
the pressure as indicated by a gage. It is important to understand that gages are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure and
that neither the manometer nor the bourdon tube gage measures the "total" or "true"
tends to straighten as the fluid pressure in the tube increases and to curl tighter as the pressure
decreases.
pheric pressure.
greater
When
Any change
tube
is
than the atmospheric pressure, the absolute pressure of the fluid in the vessel is determined by adding the atmospheric pressure
the gage pressure,
is less
The direction and magnitude of the pointer movement depend on the direction and magnitude of the change in the curvature of the tube.
to the pointer.
to
and,
when the
fluid
pressure
will
atmospheric
pressure.
pressure of the fluid is found by subtracting the gage pressure from the atmospheric pressure. The relationship between absolute pressure and gage pressure is shown graphically is Fig. 1-7.
Example
1-4.
pressure
gage
on
a
is
measure pressures above atmospheric are known as "pressure" gages (Fig. l-6a) and are generally calibrated in psi, whereas those designed to read pressures below atmospheric are called
What
condenser?
Solution.
usually calibrated in
given,
it
is
PRINCIPLES
Gage
pressure
OF REFRIGERATION
Absolute pressure
45-
59.7
Example 1-6. During compression the pressure of a vapor is increased from 10 in. Hg gage to 125 psi gage. Calculate the total increase in pressure in psi.
Solution. Since the pressure increases from 10 in. Hg below atmospheric to 125 psi above atmospheric, the total increase in pressure is the sum of the two pressures.
Initial pressure
40
35-
54.7
49.7
-44.7
30
25Pressures above atmospheric in psi
= =
10
1
in.
Hg
0.491
39.7
Initial
atmospheric
34.7
4.91 psi
psi
2015-
atmospheric
29.7
=125
105-
24.7
19.7
= 129.91 psi Total increase in pressure Absolute pressure in psi is abbreviated psia, whereas gage pressure in psi is abbreviated psig.
in.
Atmospheric pressure
5-
29.92
Hg
(14.7 psi)
10
15-
-Pressures below-
- atmospheric in
in.
(14.7 psi)
20 25
Hg
is done when a force on a body moves the body through a distance. The amount of work done is the product of the force and the distance through which the force acts. This relationship is shown by the following equation:
1-10.
Work. Work
acting
29.92
in.
Hg~~
between absolute and gage
W=Fx
where
(1-4)
F=
1
pressures.
pressure is normal at sea level, 14.696 psi, and, since the pressure of the refrigerant is above atmospheric, the absolute pressure of the refrigerant is equal to the gage pressure plus
the atmospheric pressure.
any
linear unit
and
is
linear
measure
Gage
=120
= =
14.696
Absolute pressure of
refrigerant
134.696 psi
the suction side of a vapor compressor reads 5 in. Hg, whereas a barometer nearby reads 29.6 in. Hg. Determine the absolute pressure of the vapor entering the compressor.
1-5.
Example
compound gage on
The work done same unit terms used to express the magnitude of the force and the distance. For instance, if the force is expressed in pounds and the distance in feet, the work done is expressed in The foot-pound is the most foot-pounds. frequently used unit of work measure.
always expressed in the
ventilating fan weighing U7. hoisted to the roof of a building 200 ft above the level of the ground. How much
Example
is
315 lb
Solution. Since the pressure of the vapor entering the compressor is less than atmospheric, the absolute pressure of the vapor is computed by subtracting the gage pressure from atmos-
work
is
done?
Solution.
By
Equation
1-4, the
applying weight of
pheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure in
in.
=
which
315 lb
= =
Hg
pressure in
in.
Gage
in.
Hg
= =
29.6
5.0
Work done
I
Absolute pressure in
Hg
=
=
Absolute pressure
-I I.
Power.
Power
is
the
rate
of doing
work. That is, it is the work done divided by the time required to do the work. The unit of power
PRESSURE,
is
the horsepower.
where JT
33,000 ft-lb per minute or (33,000/60) 550 ft-lb per second. The power required in horsepower
V = the velocity in feet per second (fps) g = gravitational constant (32. 1 74 ft/sec2)
Example
3500 lb
is
may be found by
tions:
An
automobile
weighing
moving
at the rate of 30
mph. What
^-TSMTT,
where
t
(1 " 5)
is its
kinetic energy?
Solution. Velocity
5280 ft/mi x 30 mi
3600sec/hr
in fps
= 44 fps
tion 1-7, the kinetic
or
Hp =
where
t
W
550 x
(1-6)
t
energy AT
1-14.
105,302 ft-lb
Potential energy is
its
Potential Energy.
In Example 1-7, if the time required to hoist the fan to the roof of the building is 5 minutes, how much horsepower is required?
Example
=63,000
ft-lb
= =
min
63,000
when
J Horsepower required
.
raised to
piling.
some
33,000 x 5 0.382 hp
A compressed steel
when it has Hence, energy is described as the ability to do work. The amount of energy required to do a given amount of work is always equal to the amount of work done and the amount of energy a body possesses is equal to the amount of work a body can do
body
is
band possesses Both the steel spring and the rubber band have the ability to do work because of their tendency to return to their normal condition. The potential energy of a body may be evaluated by the following equation:
spring or a stretched rubber
potential energy of configuration.
P
where P
=M xZ
distance above
(1-8)
in passing
another.
= the
some
datum or
reference
Example 1-10. Ten thousand gallons of water are stored in a tank located 250 ft above the ground. Determine the potential energy of the water in relation to the ground.
Solution.
and the moving parts of machinery all have kinetic energy by virtue of their motion. The amount of kinetic energy a body possesses is a function of its mass and its velocity and may be determined by the following equation:
target,
The
10,000 gal x 8.33 lb/gal 83,300 lb
Mx
energy
ft
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
energy, chemical energy, heat energy, etc.,
is
1-15. Energy as Stored Work. Before a body can possess energy, work must be done on the body. The work which is done on a body to give the body its motion, position, or configuration is stored in the body as energy. Hence, energy is stored work. For instance, work must be done to stretch therubber band, to
readily converted
energy
is
converted
into
mechanical energy in
electric
motors, solenoids,
and other
devices.
compress the steel spring, or to raise the driving head of a pile-driver to a position above the piling. In any case, the potential energy stored
is
The amount of energy a body possesses can be by determining the amount of work done on the body to give the body its motion,
ascertained
position, or configuration.
electrically operated mechanical Mechanical energy, chemical energy, and heat energy are converted into electrical energy in the generator, battery, and thermocouple, respectively. Chemical energy is converted into heat energy in chemical reactions
200 lb is raised to a position 6 ft above the top of a piling. The work done in raising the driving head is 1200 ft-lb (200 lb x 6 ft). Therefore, 1200 ft-lb of energy are stored in the drivinghead in its raised position and, when released,
neglecting friction, the driving-head will
There are many fundamental relationships which exist between the various forms of energy and their transformation, some of which are of particular importance in the study of refrigeration and are discussed in detail later.
do
PROBLEMS
1. The cooling tower on the roof of a building weighs 1360 lb when filled with water. If the basin of the tower measures 4 ft by 5 ft, what is the pressure exerted on the roof (a) in pounds per square foot? Ans. 68 psf. () in pounds per square inch? Ans. 0.472 psi.
1200
1-16.
ft-lb
of work on the
piling.
Total
external energy of a
kinetic
and
potential energies.
l-l I.
Example
energy of an airplane weighing 10,000 lb and flying 6000 ft above the ground at a speed of 300 mph.
2. If the
level
atmospheric pressure is normal at sea and a gage on an R-12 condenser reads 130 psi, what is the absolute pressure of the Freon in the condenser in pounds per square
Ans. 144.7 psia.
K
=
Applying Equation 1-8, the potential energy P
Adding, the
total external
inch?
3.
the total force exerted on the top- of a piston if the area of the cylinder bore is 5 sq in. and the pressure of the gas in the cylinder islSQpsi? Ans. 7501b.
What is
barometer reads 10 in. Hg. What is the atmospheric pressure in psi? Ans. 4.91 psi.
4.
A A
energy
1-17.
90,086,436 ft-lb
Law of Conservation
Law
of Energy.
The
First
that the
can be either created or destroyed. Energy is expended only in the sense that it is converted from one form to another. 1-18. Forms of Energy* All energy can be
classified as
barometer on the wall reads 29.6 in. Hg while a gage on the tank of an air compressor indicates 105 psi. What is the absolute pressure of the air in the tank in pounds per square foot? Ans. 119.53 psia.
5.
gage on the suction inlet of a compressor reads 10 in. Hg. Determine the absolute pressure of the suction vapor in psi. Ans. 9.79 psia.
6.
A A
However, energy appear in any one of a number of different forms, such as mechanical energy, electrical
may
gage on the suction side of a refrigeration compressor reads 5 in. Hg. If a gage on the discharge side of the compressor reads 122 psi, what is the increase in pressure during the compression? Ans. 124.46 psi.
7.
PRESSURE,
An electric motor weighing 236 lb is hoisted to the roof of a building in 2 min. If the roof is 125 ft above the ground,
8.
a mean ground?
distance
(a)
(b)
12. Water in a river 800 ft above sea level is flowing at the rate of 5 mph. Calculate the sum of the kinetic and potential energies per pound of water in reference to sea level. Ans. 800.84 ft-lb
9.
water pump delivers 60 gal per minute 13. of water to a water tank located 100 ft above the level of the pump. If water weighs 8.33 lb per gallon and if the friction of the pipe and
other losses are neglected,
(a)
What is the total external energy of the automobile in Problem 9 if the automobile is traveling along a highway 6000 ft above
10.
sea level?
11.
(6)
What
The molecule is the smallest, stable particle of matter into which a particular substance can be subdivided and still retain the identity of the original substance. For example, a grain of table salt (NaCl) may be broken down into individual molecules and each molecule will
be a molecule of salt, the original substance. However, all molecules are made up of atoms,
so that
it
2
Matter, Internal Energy, Heat,
is
molecule of salt into its component atoms. But, a molecule of salt is made up of one atom of
chlorine.
atoms
will
not be atoms of
the original
Temperature
2-1.
is
Heat.
Heat
is
a form of energy.
This
forms of energy can be converted into heat. However, there is some confusion as to exactly what energy shall be termed heat energy. Popular usage has made the concept of heat as internal or molecular energy almost universally
accepted.
internal energy
two entirely different substances, one of sodium and one of chlorine. There are some substances whose molecules are made up of only one kind of atoms. The molecule of oxygen (0 2), for instance, is composed of two atoms of oxygen. If a molecule of oxygen is divided into its two component atoms, each atom will be an atom of oxygen, the original substance, but the atoms of oxygen will not be stable in this condition. They will not remain as free and separate atoms of oxygen, but, if permitted, will either join with atoms or molecules of another substance to form a new compound or rejoin each other to form again a
molecule of oxygen.
It is assumed that the molecules that make up a substance are held together by forces of mutual attraction known as cohesion. These forces of attraction that the molecules have for
Because of is almost unavoidable at times. On the other hand, from a strictly thermodynamic point of view, heat is denned as energy in transition from one body to another as a result of a difference in temperature between the
this, referring
to heat as
two
bodies.
Under
this
concept,
all
other
each other may be likened to the attraction that exists between unlike electrical charges or However, between unlike magnetic poles. despite the mutual attraction that exists between
the molecules and the resulting influence that each molecule has upon the others, the molecules are not tightly packed together. There
certain
is
energy transfers occur as work. Both these concepts of heat will evolve in this and the following chapters. The term heat will be used
hereafter in this
2-2.
in
amount of space between them and they are relatively free to move about. The molecules are further
the universe that has weight or occupies space, Moleall matter, is composed of molecules. cules, in turn, are made up of smaller particles called atoms and atoms are composed of still
smaller particles
assumed to be in a
state of
rapid and constant vibration or motion, the rate and extent of the vibration or movement being determined by the amount of energy
neutrons, etc.
Energy.
It
is
has
been
pre-
beyond the scope of this book and the discussion will be limited for the most part to the study of molecules and their
atomic particles
behavior.
10
required to do
work
or to cause motion of any kind. Molecules, like everything else, can move about only if they possess energy. Hence, a body has internal
States of Matter.
of
its
velocity,
position, or configuration in
or a vapor or gas.
is
For example,
relation to
some
reference condition,
it
also has
water
is
is
liquid,
internal energy as
exist as ice,
and configuration of the molecules of the materials which make up the body. The molecules of any material may possess energy in both kinds, kinetic and potential.
position,
2-6.
The
Effect of
Aggregation.
The total internal energy of a material is the sum of its internal kinetic and potential energies. This relationship is shown by the equation
proper conditions of pressure and temperature, can exist in any and all of the three physical
states
of matter.
that the
U =K +P
where
(2-1)
U = the total internal energy K = the internal kinetic energy P = the internal potential energy
perature of the material but also which of the three physical states the material will assume at
any particular time. In other words, the addition or removal of heat can bring about a change
in the physical state of the material as well as a change in its temperature. That heat can bring about a change in the physical state of a material is evident from the fact that many materials, such as metals will become molten when sufficient heat is applied. Furthermore, the phenomenon of melting ice and boiling water is familiar to everyone. Each of these changes in the physical state is brought about by the addition of heat. 2-7. Internal Potential Energy. Internal potential energy is the energy of molecular
2-4.
energy
velocity.
When
is
The increase
in molecular velocity is
in a sense,
a measure of the
average velocity of the molecules which make up the material. The more kinetic energy the
is
their
movement
and the faster they move. The more rapid the motion of the molecules, the hotter is the material and the more internal kinetic energy
the material has.
It follows, then, that if
is
separation or configuration. It is the energy the molecules have as a result of their position in
relation to
the
di-
the inter-
minished by the removal of heat, the motion of the molecules will be slowed down or retarded
When
its
will
be
According to the kinetic theory if the removal of heat continues until the internal kinetic energy of the material is reduced to zero, the temperature of the material will drop to Absolute Zero (approximately 460 10 and the motion of the molecules will cease entirely.*
rearrangement of the molecules takes place which increases the distance between them. Inasmuch as the molecules are attracted to one another by forces which tend to pull them together, internal
in order to
the
amount of
internal
now known that the energy is not zero at Absolute Zero. It is the disorganization (entropy) which diminishes to zero. Heat is sometimes defined as "disorganized energy." Both the energy
* It is
12
PRINCIPLES
effect
OF REFRIGERATION
velocity (internal
has no
on molecular
kinetic energy);
Temperature is a propa measure of the level of heat intensity or the thermal pressure of a body.
2-11.
Temperature.
It is
erty of matter.
2-8.
The Solid
is
said to be hot.
indicates
potential energy.
The molecules of the material bound together by each other's and by the force of gravity.
pressure
2-12.
a low level of heat intensity or thermal and the body is said to be cold. Thermometers. The most frequently
Hence, a material in the solid state has a rather rigid molecular structure in which the position of each molecule is more or less fixed and the motion of the molecules is limited to a vibratory type of movement which, depending upon the amount of internal kinetic energy the molecules possess, may be either slow or rapid. Because of its rigid molecular structure, a solid tends to retain both its size and its shape.
used instrument for measuring temperature is the thermometer. The operation of most thermometers depends upon the property of a liquid
to expand or contract as
its
temperature
is
Because
mercury are the liquids most frequently used in thermometers. The mercury thermometer is the
A
its
solid
is
more accurate of the two because its coefficient of expansion is more constant through a greater
temperature range than
is
that
of alcohol.
M.
The molecules of a material in the liquid state have more energy than those of a material in the solid state and they are not so closely bound together. Their greater energy allows them to overcome each other's attractive forces to some extent and to have more freedom to move about. They are free to move over and about one another in such a way that the material is said to "flow." Although a liquid is noncompressible and will
State.
retain
The Liquid
However, mercury thermometers have the disadvantage of being more expensive and more difficult to read. Alcohol is cheaper and can be
colored for easy
visibility.
Two
today.
common
use
The Fahrenheit
scale
is
used in English
the
speaking countries,
whereas
Centigrade
European countries as
Centigrade Scale.
The point
at
which
because of its fluid molecular structure, it will not retain its shape, but will assume the shape of any containing
its size,
water freezes under atmospheric pressure is taken as the arbitrary zero point on the Centigrade
is
vessel.
2-10.
State.
The
and the point at which water boils The distance on the scale between these two points is divided into one
scale,
designated as 100.
molecules of a material in the gaseous state have an even greater amount of energy than those
of a material in the liquid state. They have sufficient energy to overcome all restraining forces. They are no longer bound by each
other's attractive forces, neither are they
hundred equal units called degrees, so that the distance between the freezing and boiling points of water on the Centigrade scale is 100. Water freezes at 0 Centigrade and boils at 100 Centigrade.
2-14.
bound
Fahrenheit Scale.
Although there
is
by the force of
fly
gravity.
Consequently, they
about at high
some disagreement as to the actual method used by Fahrenheit in designing the first temperature scale, it was arrived at by means similar to those
described
freezes
neither
its size
pressible
For this reason, a gas will retain nor its shape. It is readily comand will completely fill any container
Further,
if
it
in
the previous
as 32,
section.
On
the
marked
regardless of size.
the gas
is
not
will escape
from
ing
air.
Thus, there are 180 units between the freezing and boiling points of water. The zero or reference point on the Fahrenheit scale is placed 32 units or degrees
13
100*
ammonium
Conversion. Tempercan be converted to reading on the other scale by using the approature readings
Temperature
on one
scale
32* 0*
0*
-17.8*
Scales coincide
-40"
-40*
F = C=
9/5
C + 32 5/9( F - 32)
(2-2)
(2-3)
It
on the
Fahrenheit scale
scale
is
degrees
degrees.
that 1
5/9
shown
graphically
is
-460*
Fig. 2-1.
Absolute zero
-273'
in Fig. 2-1.
Since 0
on
32 F below the freezing point of water, it is necessary to add 32 F to the Fahrenheit equivalent after converting from Centigrade. Likewise,
it is necessary to subtract 32 F from a Fahrenheit reading before converting to Centi-
temperature
grade.
been shown,
Example
2-1.
ing of 50 C temperature.
Solution.
it is
desired to
know
to
equivalent
Fahrenheit
Applying
Equation
2-2,
=
Example
2-2.
9/5(50 122 F
Q + 32
room
temperature of a substance in relation to some known reference point, such readings are
entirely adequate.
Applying Formula
with certain fundamental laws, it is necessary to use temperature readings whose reference point is the true or absolute zero of temperature. Experiment has indicated that such a
point, known as Absolute Zero, exists at approxi-
room temperature
in
C
2-3.
5/9(86-32) 30
mately -460
or -273
C (Fig.
2-1).
Example
thermometer
indicates
that the temperature of a certain quantity of water is increased 45 F by the addition of heat. Compute the temperature rise in Centi-
Temperature readings in reference to Absolute Zero are designated as absolute temperatures and may be in either Fahrenheit or
Centigrade degrees.
the
A temperature reading on
can be converted to
grade degrees.
Solution.
Fahrenheit
scale
Temperature
rise in
rise in
F = 45F
Temperature
C 5/9(45 F) = 25C
in degrees
Rankine
R).
2-16.
converted to absolute temperatures by adding 273 to the Centigrade reading. The resulting temperature is stated in degrees Kelvin ( K).
14
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
ture of the
In converting to and from absolute temperatures, the following equations will apply:
two bodies
is
is
no
transfer of heat.
(2-4)
T=
t
t+460
= r-460 T / + 273
/
(2-5)
(2-6) (2-7)
Heat always flows down the temperature from a high temperature to a low temperature, from a hot body to a cold body, and
scale
Since heat
if
is
heat
is
to
- T - 273
temperature
in
where
T=
t
absolute
degrees
leave one body of material, it must flow into and be absorbed by another body of material whose temperature is below that of the body
Rankine or Kelvin
temperature
being cooled.
rate of heat transfer between two bodies always directly proportional to the difference in temperature between the two bodies.
is
in degrees Fahrenheit
The
or Centigrade Equations 2-4 and 2-5 apply to the Rankine and Fahrenheit scales, whereas Equations 2-6 and
2-7 apply to the Kelvin
2-18.
The trans-
Hereafter in this
fer of heat
in three ways:
and
(3) radiation.
Example
2-4.
2-19.
of an air compressor indicates that the temperature of the air in the tank is 95 F. Determine the absolute temperature in degrees Rankine.
Solution.
duction occurs
direct contact
Applying
Equation
2-4,
T=
2-5.
95 F 555
body or between the molecules of two or more bodies in good thermal contact with each other. In either case, the heated molecules communicate their energy to the other molecules im-
460
R
the
Example
The temperature of
mediately adjacent to them. The transfer of energy from molecule to molecule by conduction
is
vapor entering the suction of a refrigeration compressor is -20 F. Compute the temperature of the vapor in degrees Rankine.
Solution.
similar to that
balls
on a
billiard table,
or some
is
trans-
mitted at the
Applying
moment
Equation
2-4,
T = -20 F + = 440R
If the temperature
is its
460
Example 24.
is
100 C, what
heated over a the heated end of the rod will flow by conduction from molecule to molecule through the rod to the
is
rod
flame,
Kelvin?
Solution.
Applying
Equation
2-6,
T= =
2-7.
100 373
C+
273
As the molecules at the heated end of the rod absorb energy from the flame, their energy increases and they move faster and through a greater distance. The increased
cooler end.
Example
energy of the heated molecules causes them to strike against the molecules immediately adjacent to them.
leaving a boiler is 610 R. What is the temperature of the steam on the Fahrenheit scale?
Solution.
Applying
/
Equation
2-5,
= =
610 150
R - 460
F
At the time of impact and because of it, the faster moving molecules transmit some of their energy to their slower moving neighbors so that they too begin to move more rapidly. In this manner, energy passes from molecule to molecule from the heated end of the
Direction and Rate of Heat Flow. Heat will flow from one body to another when, and only when, a difference in temperature exists between the two bodies. If the tempera2-17.
rod to the cooler end. However, in no case would it be possible for the molecules furthest from the heat source to have more energy than
those at the heated end.
IS
the air
also heated
Cooler portions of water descend to replace the lighter portions that rise
gas^fgje^*- ^^
by conduction. The rapidly vibrating particles of the heated rod strike against the molecules of the air which are in contact with the rod.
The energy
causes them to
communicate
molecules.
their energy to other nearby air Thus, some of the heat supplied to the metal rod is conducted to and carried away by the surrounding air. If the heat supply to the rod is interrupted,
heat will continue to be carried away from the rod by the air surrounding until the temperature of the rod drops to that of the air. When this occurs, there will be no temperature differential,
Flame
and
between the high and all materials However, low temperature parts. rate. Some same the heat at conduct not do materials, such as metals, conduct heat very readily, whereas others, such as glass, wood, and
difference in temperature
When any
pands and
increases.
portion of a fluid
its
is
heated,
it
ex-
cork, offer considerable resistance to the conduction of heat. Therefore, for any given tem-
perature difference, the rate of heat flow by conduction through different materials of the
cross section will vary with the particular ability of the various materials to conduct heat. The relative capacity of a material
water
For example, assume that a tank of heated on the bottom at the center (Fig. 2-2). The heat from the flame is conducted through the metal bottom of the tank to the
is
to conduct heat
is
known
as
its
conductivity.
Materials which are good conductors of heat have a high conductivity, whereas materials
water inside. As the water adjacent to the heat source absorbs heat, its temperature increases and it expands. The heated portion of the water, being lighter than the water surrounding,
rises to the
which are poor conductors have a low conductivity and are used as heat insulators. In general, solids are better conductors of
heat than liquids, and liquids are better conductors than gases. This is accounted for by the difference in the molecular structure. Since the molecules of a gas are widely separated, the
transfer of heat
top and
is
replaced by cooler,
more
dense water pushing in from the sides. As this new portion of water becomes heated, it too rises to the top and is replaced by cooler water
from the
heat
is
sides.
As
this
distributed throughout the entire mass of the water by means of the convection currents
by conduction, that
is difficult.
is,
from
molecule to molecule,
2-20.
by convection occurs when heat moves from one place to another by means of currents which are set up within some fluid medium. These currents are known as convection currents and result from the change in density which is brought
Convection.
Heat
transfer
2-21. Radiation.
Heat
transfer
by radiation
occurs in the form of a wave motion similar to light waves wherein the energy is transmitted from one body to another without the need for
16
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the energy exchange is in equilibrium and body neither gains nor loses energy. Heat transfer through a vacuum is impossible by either conduction or convection, since these processes by their very nature require that
exists,
the
matter be the transmitting media. Radiant energy, on the other hand, is not dependent upon matter as a medium of transfer and therefore can be transmitted through a vacuum. Furthermore, when radiant energy is transferred
Steam
Fig. 2-3.
coils'
Room
from a hot body to a cold body through some intervening media such as air the temperature of the intervening media is unaffected by the passage of the radiant energy. For example, heat is radiated from a "warm" wall to a "cold"
wall through the intervening air without having any appreciable effect upon the temperature of
Heat energy transmitted by wave motion is called radiant energy. It is assumed that the molecules of a body are in rapid vibration and that this vibration sets up a wave motion in the ether surrounding the
intervening matter.
the
air.
few and widely separated, the waves of radiant energy can easily pass between them so
tively
is
the
body.* Thus, the internal molecular energy of body is converted into radiant energy waves.
When
that
that only a very small part of the radiant energy intercepted and absorbed by the molecules of
these energy waves are intercepted by another body of matter, they are absorbed by
its
internal
the air. By far the greater portion of the radiant energy impinges upon and is absorbed by the solid wall whose molecular structure is much
molecular energy.
earth receives heat from the sun by radiation. The energy of the sun's molecular
vibration is imparted in the form of radiant energy waves to the ether of interstellar space sur-
substantial.
The
Heat waves are very similar to light waves, differing from them only in length and frequency. Light waves are radiant energy waves of such
length as to be visible to the human eye. Thus, light waves are visible heat waves. Whether
rounding the sun. The energy waves travel across billions of miles of space and impress their energy upon the earth and upon any other
material bodies which intercept their path. The radiant energy is absorbed and transformed
into internal molecular energy, so that the vibratory motion of the hot body (the sun) is
heat waves are visible or invisible depends upon the temperature of the radiating body. For
example, when metal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, it will "glow," that is, emit
visible heat
waves
(light).
reproduced in the cooler body (the earth). All materials give off and absorb heat in the form of radiant energy. Any time the temperature of a body is greater than that of its surroundings,
it
radiant energy waves, either visible or invisible, strike a material body, they may be
reflected, refracted, or
When
absorbed by
it,
or they
may
pass through
it
to
beyond.
by radiation
than
its
it
absorbs.
Therefore,
its
it
loses energy to
The amount of radiant energy which will pass through a material depends upon the degree of
transparency.
surroundings and
body is below that of its surroundings, it absorbs more radiant energy than it loses and its internal energy increases. When no temperature difference
given to that which fills all space unoccupied by matter, such as interstellar space and the space between the molecules of every
is
such as clear glass or air, will allow most of the radiant energy to pass through to the materials beyond, whereas opaque materials, such as
* Ether
the
name
wood, metal, cork, etc., cannot be penetrated by radiant energy waves and none will pass
through.
is either
material.
17
is, its
upon the nature of the material's surface, that texture and its color. Materials having a
a
mirror, reflect a
pound of
specific
the
heat of
aluminum
brass
is
maximum
of radiant energy,
whereas materials having rough, dull, dark surfaces will absorb the maximum amount of
radiant energy.
Btu
Btu
1
is
is 0.226 Btu/lb/F, whereas that of 0.089 Btu/lb/F. This means that 0.226 required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of aluminum
is
Thermal Unit. It has already been established that a thermometer measures only the intensity of heat and not the quantity. However, in working with heat it is often necessary to determine heat quantities. Obviously, some unit of heat measure is required. Heat is a form of energy, and as such is intangible and cannot be measured directly. Heat can be measured only by measuring the effects it has on a material, such as the change in
2-22. British
pound of brass 1 F. Note that by the definiBtu the specific heat of water is 1 Btu per pound per degree Fahrenheit. The specific heat of any material, like that of water, varies somewhat throughout the temperature scale. Here again, the variation is so
tion of the
slight that
it
is sufficiently
be
size, etc.
not true, however, as the material passes through a change in physical state. The specific heat of a material
is
is approximately one-half that of the same -material in the liquid state. For
Btu is denned as the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 F. This quantity of heat, if added to 1 lb of water,
will raise the
Likewise, if
lb of water,
whereas that of water is one. The specific heat values of materials in the gaseous state are discussed in another chapter. 2-24. Calculating Heat Quantity. The
quantity of heat which must be added to or removed from any given mass of material in order to bring about a specified change in its temperature can be computed by using the
1F.
The
is not a conwith the temperature range at which the change occurs. For
temperature of
lb of water 1
stant amount.
It varies slightly
following equation:
a Btu is more accurately defined as being l/180th of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from the
this reason,
Q,
where Q,
- MC(tt -
t0
(2-8)
freezing
as the
"mean Btu"
M = the
and is the exact amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 62 to
63 F.
If the
pounds
any other point on the temperature scale, the amount of heat involved is either more or less than the mean Btu, depending upon the particular point on the temperature scale that the
change takes place. However, the variation from the mean Btu is so slight that it may be
neglected and, regardless of the temperature
range, for
all practical
C = the specific heat of the material ?! = the initial temperature tt = the final temperature
2-8. Twenty pounds of water at temperature of 76 F are heated until the temperature is increased to 180 F. How much heat must be supplied?
Example
initial
an
purposes
1
Solution.
it is
sufficiently
1
lb
Applying Equation
Q,
2-8,
76)
by the addition or
specific heat
Heat.
The
of a
material
is
If water weighs 8.33 lb per heat is rejected by 30 gal of water in cooling from 80 F to 35 F?
gallon,
18
PRINCIPLES
Solution.
OF REFRIGERATION
accompanies a change in the temperature of the
material, the heat transferred
is
Weight of
water in
identified as
is
pounds Applying
Equation
2-8,
Q,
= = = =
30 gal x 8.33 lb/gal 250 lb 250 lb x 1 x (35 - 80) 250 lb x 1 x (-45) 11,250 Btu
sensible heat.
this particular
The term
sensible
applied to
perature
it causes can be detected with the sense of touch and can, of course, be measured with a
heat of a material is given in terms of Btu/lb/ F, the weight of the material must be determined before Equation
thermometer.
2-27.
specific
to or rejected
Latent Heat. by a
is
When
heat, either
added
known
as latent heat.
The
is
than t l7 the answer obtained by applying Equation 2-8 will be negative, indicating that heat is rejected by rather than absorbed by the material. In this type of problem, where the direction of heat flow is obvious, the negative sign can be ignored and the answer assumed to be positive.
tt is
Where
less
name
latent,
heat by Dr. Joseph Black because it apparently disappeared into a material without having any
effect
on the temperature of
the material.
Many
materials progressing
pounds of cast iron are cooled from 500 F to 250 F by being immersed in 3 gallons (25 lb) of water whose initial temperature is 78 F. Assuming that the
Fifteen
Example 2-10.
liquid phase
the liquid
is
of the cast iron is 0.101 Btu/lb/ F and that all of the heat given up by the cast iron is absorbed by the water, what is the final temperature of the water?
specific heat
beyond which it cannot exist as a liquid, the liquid will change into the vapor state. When the change occurs in either direction between the solid and liquid phases, the heat involved is
Solution.
By
known
When
the
applying Equation 2-8 to compute the total quantity of heat given up by the cast
iron,
Q,
= =
15 lb
x 0.101 x 250
change occurs between the liquid and vapor phases, the heat involved is the latent heat of
vaporization.
2-28. Sensible
378.75 Btu
Heat of a
Solid.
To
obtain a
By rearranging and applying Equation 2-8 to determine the final temperature of the water after absorbing the heat given up by the cast iron,
2-25.
MC +
378.75
'i
25 x
+ 78F
(Absolute Zero).
Heat Divided
It
Two
Kinds or
no
Categories.
has been previously stated (Section 2-6) that heat has the ability to bring
rest.
state of a material
its
When heat energy flows into the solid, the molecules Of the solid begin to move slowly and
the temperature of the solid begins to climb.
depending upon which of these two has on a material which either absorbs
it.
solid becomes.
city
The
The division of heat into several classifications is made only to facilitate and
or rejects
simplify certain necessary calculations and does not stem from any difference in the nature of heat itself. 2-26. Sensible Heat. When heat either absorbed or rejected by a material causes or
and in the temperature of the solid continues as more heat is absorbed, until the solid reaches
its
The
total
temperature of the solid from the original condition of Absolute Zero to the melting or fusion temperature
is
known as
19
the change of phase occurs in either direction at the fusion temperature, that
at
is
the temperature
which the
the
phase
Upon
the
which the liquid will freeze into the solid phase. Further, the quantity of heat that must be rejected by a certain
that at
same as
molecules of the solid are moving as rapidly as is possible within the rigid molecular structure
exactly
not possible to increase further the motion of the molecules or the temof the solid
state. It is
overcoming partially the forces of mutual which exists between the molecules. Hence, the material cannot exist in the solid state at any temperature above its melting or
first
or rejected during
attraction
on molecular
fusion temperature.
On
temperature, any additional heat absorbed by the material will cause some part of the solid
to revert to the liquid phase.
the
same
perature.*
that
is
absorbed by a
The
For
instance, at
normal
atmospheric pressure, the fusion temperature of lead is approximately 600 F, whereas copper melts at approximately 2000 F and ice at only
In general, the melting temperature decreases as the pressure increases except for noncrystalline solids, whose melting temperatures increase as the pressure increases.
2-30.
is
the quantity of heat that is rejected by a given weight of liquid at the fusion temperature in freezing or solidifying, can be determined by
32 F.
QL =
where
Mxh
it
(2-9)
Latent Heat of Fusion. When heat absorbed by a solid at the fusion temperature,
Ql = M= h it =
pound
overcome
another.
Example 2-11. Calculate the quantity of heat required to melt 12 lb of ice at 32 F into water at 32 F. The latent heat of fusion of water under atmospheric pressure is 144 Btu per pound.
Solution.
Apply-
and becomes
fluid.
It
can no longer
support itself independently and will assume the shape of any containing vessel. The attraction which exists between the molecules of a solid
is
of
ice
considerable
is
and a
relatively
required to overcome
Note. Since 12 lb of ice absorb 1728 Btu in melting into water, it follows that 12 lb of water at 32 F will reject 1728 Btu in returning to the
solid state.
* This applies with absolute accuracy only to
crystalline solids.
glass,
is,
The quantity of heat required melt one pound of a material from the solid
phase into the liquid phase is called the latent heat of fusion. The latent heat of fusion, along with other values such as specific heat, fusion temperature, etc., for the different materials has been determined by experiment and may be found in various tables.
have
indefinite fusion
assumed to remain
20
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
2-33.
Example 2-12. If SO lb of ice at 32 F absorb 6000 Btu, what part of the ice will be melted?
Solution.
Any
heat taken in by a liquid after the liquid reaches the saturation temperature is utilized to increase
the degree of molecular separation (increases the
By
rearranging
2-9,
= _G _ ~ h if 6000 Btu
144 Btu/lb 41.66 lb
and the substance changes from the liquid to the vapor phase.* There is no increase in molecular velocity and,
internal potential energy)
therefore,
no change
in
2-31.
Sensible
Heat of the
from the
is
Liquid.
When a
material passes
energy during the change in phase. Hence, the temperature remains constant during the
is
at
The temperature of
the liquid
then be increased by the addition of heat. heat absorbed by a liquid after the change of
state is set
may Any
As
up
in the liquid as
an increase in the
energy to overcome
all
restraining
internal
energy.
in the case of the solid, the temperature of the liquid eventually reaches a
The amount of energy required to do the internal work necessary to overcome these restraining forces is very great. For this reason, the capacity
forces,
it
cannot be further
in-
temperature above
vaporizing temperature
of a material to absorb heat while undergoing a change from the liquid to the vapor phase is enormous, many times greater even than its capacity to absorb heat in changing from the
solid to the liquid phase.
vaporizing temperature,
will
if
The
lb of
a liquid
is
The total
as
to
its
known
The
temperature
called
the
each material. It both the latent heat value and the saturation temperature of any particular liquid vary with the pressure over the
temperature,
is
will
be shown
later that
liquid.
When
and the
latent heat
any
value decreases.
2-32.
Saturation Temperature.
The tem-
to vaporize
any
vapor phase is called the saturation temperature, sometimes referred to as the "boiling point" or "boiling temperature." A liquid whose temperature has been raised to the saturation temperature is called a saturated liquid.
QL
where
=M xh
fa
(2-10)
The
is,
the tern'
Ql = the quantity of heat in Btu M = the mass or weight -in pounds hfg = the latent heat of vaporization
Btu/lb
2-13.
is
in
which vaporization occurs, is different for each liquid. Iron, for example, vaporizes at 4450 F, copper at 4250 F, and
perature
lead 3000 F. Water, of course, boils at 212 F, and alcohol at 170 F. Some liquids boil at
Example
*
zation of water
few of these are ammonia, oxygen, and helium, which boil at temperatures of -28 F, -295 F, and 452 F, respectively.
on
the
When
constant, the
external
work
done
is
External
work
is
21
is
the
sum
to bring
Solution. Total
to that condition
from an
initial
weight of water
2-10,
3 gal
8.33 lb/gal
= =
Applying Equation
Example
content of
1
QL
total
heat
Example 2-14. One gallon of 200 F in an open container absorbs How much water is vaporized?
Solution.
Solution. The total heat of 1 lb of saturated steam is the sum of the following heat quantities (a) To raise the temperature of 1 lb of ice from
-460
2-8,
F to
32 F,
applying Equation
Since the saturation temperature of water at atmospheric pressure is 212 F, the entire mass of the water must be raised to this temperature before any water will vaporize
= = =
0.5
Weight of
gal of water
2-8,
(6)
To
melt
lb of ice at 32
into water at
1 x 144 144 Btu
8.33 lb
32 F,
Applying Equation
QL = = =
= =
200
to
x x
12
(c)
32
=
the
100 Btu
applying Equation
2-8,
x
x
x
32)
(212
1
some portion of
water
x 180
180 Btu
1 x 970 970 Btu
To
1100
970
1.135 lb or 0.136 gal
(e)
QL = = = = = =
=
Summation:
Sensible heat of the solid
Example
from
2-15.
If
8 lb of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure, how much of the steam will condense
into water?
Solution. By rearranging and applying Equation
Latent heat of fusion Sensible heat of the liquid Latent heat of vaporization Total heat of 1 lb of steam
Through the use of a temperature-heat diagram, the solution to Example 2-15 is shown
graphically in Fig. 2-4.
2-36. Mechanical Energy Equivalent. Normally the external energy of a body is ex-
2-10,
5.15 lb
2-34.
the
Sensible
Heat of a
liquid has
been vaporized,
pressed in mechanical
the temperature of the resulting vapor can be further increased by the addition of heat. The
heat added to a vapor after vaporization is the sensible heat of the vapor, more commonly
When the temperature of a vapor has been so increased above the saturation temperature, the vapor is said to be superheated and is called a superheated vapor. Superheated vapors are discussed at length in another chapter. 2-35. Total Heat. The total heat of a
called superheat.
energy units (work), whereas the internal energy of a body is expressed in heat energy units. The fact that internal energy is usually expressed in heat energy units gives rise to the definition of heat as molecular or internal energy. As previously stated, from a thermodynamic
*
as
"enthalpy,"
The total heat of a material is commonly known and is computed from some
than from
22
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
.8
J'S E
Ss" m = 8.
M
.3- 3iZ c>
#I~
300
3~
C/5
r
212 200
Constant temperature
100
Constant temperature
32
A
-400 -460
F
J
100
1
L
700
J
900
L
1000 1100
_L
1200
J_
1600 1700
200
300
400
500
600
800
relationship
of heat content to
the temperature
and state of a
is
when
hammer
in transition
blow
that
converted to the internal kinetic energy of the nail head. As the molecules of the metal
is
two bodies. Once the energy flows into a body it becomes "stored" thermal energy.
the
Hence, thermodynamically speaking, internal energy is not heat but thermal energy in storage. Not all the heat energy flowing into a body is
instances,
body as internal energy. In many some or all of the energy flowing into the body passes through or leaves the body as work (mechanical energy). This is made clear
stored in the
the nail head are jarred and agiby the blow of the hammer, their motion or velocity is increased and the temperature of the nail head increases. If a wire is bent rapidly back and forth, the bent portion of the wire becomes hot because of the agitation of the
tated
make up
molecules.
Also, everyone
is
in another section.
Furthermore, up to this point it has been assumed that the internal energy of a body is increased only by the addition of heat energy directly, as from a flame or some other heat source. However, this is not the case. The internal or molecular energy of a body may also be increased when work is done on the body. That is, the mechanical energy of the work done on a body may be converted to the internal energy of the body. For example, the head of a nail struck by a hammer will become warm as a
is brought about of two surfaces rubbing together. Often the external energy of a body is converted to internal energy and vice versa. For example, a bullet speeding toward a target has
by the
friction
its
mass and
velocity.
At
is
its velocity and a part of its kinetic energy imparted to the molecules of both the bullet and the target so that the internal energy of
loses
each
is
increased.
is often converted into mechanical energy (work) and vice versa, and since it is often desirable to express both the
23
in
1.
is
PROBLEMS
terms of the same energy unit, a factor which can be used to convert from one energy unit
to the other
It
is
What
useful.
has been determined by experiment that one Btu of heat energy is equivalent to 778 ft-lb of mechanical energy, that is, one Btu is the amount of heat energy required to do 778 ft-lb
nical energy equivalent
C
F
is
2.
heit. 3.
known as the mechaand is usually represented in equations by the symbol J. To convert energy in Btu into energy in foot-pounds, the energy in Btu is multiplied by
of work. This quantity
is
suction vapor entering a refrigeration compressor is 20 F. What is the temperature of the vapor in degrees
4.
Rankine?
5. Thirty gallons
Ans. 440
778 and, to convert energy in foot-pounds to energy in Btu, the energy in foot-pounds is divided by 778. Expressed as equations, these
relationships
to
180 F.
required?
of water are heated from 75 F Determine the quantity of heat Ans. 26,240 Btu
become
Q
and
where
W - -7
(2-11)
W = Q xJ
Q =
J
pounds
6. In a certain industrial process, 5000 gal of water are cooled from 90 F to 55 F each hour. Determine the quantity of heat which must be removed each hour to produce the required
(2-12)
cooling.
7. Calculate the quantity
of heat which must be removed from 60 gal of water in order to cool the water from 42 F and freeze it into
ice at 32 F.
8. If
of heat
Example 2-17. Convert 36,000 ft-lb mechanical energy into heat energy units.
Solution.
of
12,120 Btu are added to 3 gal of water at 200 F, what fraction of the water in pounds Ans. 9.4 lb or 1.13 gal will be vaporized?
Applying Equa-
tion2-ll,
Example 2-18. Express 12 Btu of heat energy as work in mechanical energy units.
Solution. Applying Equation 2-12,
pounds of ice are placed in 10 gal of water and allowed to melt. Assuming that there is no loss of heat to the surroundings, if the initial temperature of the water is 80 F, to what temperature will the water be cooled Ans. 35.7 by the melting of the ice ?
9. Twenty-five
W= 12
x 778
gas expanding in a cylinder does 25,000 of work on the piston. Determine the quantity of heat required to do the work.
10.
ft-lb
= 9336 ft-lb
that,
of water are
they are in the liquid state, they are grouped together to form crystals. It is the relatively
large spaces between the crystals of the solid,
mean
distance
3
Thermodynamic
Processes
between the molecules, which accounts for the unusual increase in volume during solidification. This is true also for crystalline solids other than
ice.
3-2.
solid or a liquid
is
ture
increased,
it
will
As
stated
many
upon this principle. The amount of expansion which a material experiences with each degree of temperature rise is known as its
are based
coefficient
of expansion.
is
The
coefficient
of
3-1.
The
Effects of
expansion
and
of molecular separation is increased by the addition of heat, the mean distance between the molecules is increased and the material expands so that a unit weight of the material occupies a greater volume. This effect is in strict accord-
moreover it will vary for any particular material depending upon the temperature range in which the change occurs. Since solids and liquids are not readily compressible, if
a solid or a liquid
its
is
restrained or
ance with the theory of increased or decreased molecular activity as described earlier. Hence,
added to or removed from an unconfined material in any of the three physical states, it will expand or contract, respectively. That is, its volume will increase or decrease with the addition or removal of heat. One of the few exceptions to this rule is water. If water is cooled, its volume will decrease
is
when heat
restraining bodies,
which
is
likely to
of either the material, the restraining bodies, or both. To provide for the normal expansion and contraction occurring with temperature changes, expansion joints are built into highways,
bridges, pipelines, etc.
normally until the temperature of the water drops to 39.2 F. At this point, water attains its maximum density and, if further cooled, its volume will again increase. Furthermore, after being cooled to 32 F, it will solidify and the
Space must be allowed for the normal expansion. Otherwise the tremendous expansive forces generated by a temperature increase will cause the containing
vessel
to
rupture,
sometimes
specific
with
accompanied by still further expansion. In fact, 1 cu ft of water will freeze into approximately 1.085 cu ft of ice. This accounts for the tremendous expansive force created during solidification which is
solidification
will
sufficient to burst steel pipes
vessels.
be
explosive force.
3-3. Specific
Volume.
is
The
volume
1
of a material
lb
mass of the
material.
or other restraining
different specific volume and, because of the change in volume which accompanies a change in temperature, the specific volume of every
The peculiar behavior of water as it solidifies appears to contradict the general laws governing molecular activity as described previously.
However,
this is
The unusual
24
somewhat with the temperature For instance, at 40 F, 1 lb of water has a specific volume of 0.01602 cu ft, whereas the volume occupied by 1 lb of water at 80 F is
material varies
range.
behavior of water
0.01608 cu
ft.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
3-4.
25
Density.
The
density of a material
is
the
3-5.
Pressure-Temperature-Volume Rela-
weight in pounds of 1 cu ft of the material. Density is die reciprocal of specific volume, that
is,
the specific
Because of its loose molecular structure, the change in the volume of a gas as the gas is heated or cooled is much
tionships of Gases.
For example,
at 40 F, the density
62.434 lb per cubic foot (1/0.01602), whereas water at 80 F has a density of 62.20
is
of water
and
volume are
one increases the other decreases. The volume of many common materials can be found in various
as
density and/or the specific
tables.
which occurs in the case of a In the following sections, it will be shown that a gas may change its condition in a number of different ways and that certain laws have been formulated which govern the relationship between the pressure, temperature, and volume of the gas during these changes. It should be noted at the outset that in applying the fundamental gas laws it is always necessary to use absolute pressures and
solid or
liquid.
absolute
density
temperatures
in
degrees
Rankine.
it
and
specific
a gas always
p=
~v
(3-1)
The relationship between the pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas is more
easily
series
(3-2)
from some x v
(3-3)
V=M
M= V x P
where v
p
(3-4)
a way that only two of these properties vary during any one process, whereas the third property remains unchanged or condition in such
stant.
3-6.
Temperature-Volume Relationship at
If
its
a Constant Pressure.
under such conditions that
constant,
its
a gas
is
heated
is
= the
density in
pressure
kept
its its
(lb/cu ft)
volume
of
volume
at 32
for each 1
if
increase in
is
temperature.
Likewise,
a gas
cooled at a
Example
constant pressure, its volume will decrease 1/492 of its volume at 32 F for each 1 F decrease in
its
temperature.
In order to better visualize a constant pressure change in condition, assume that a gas is confined in
Solution.
Applying
perfectly
Equation
fitting,
ft
piston
that
(Fig.
3-la).
The
Example 3-2.
measuring 5
ft
which is exerted on the gas by the weight of the piston and by the weight of the atmosphere on top of the piston. Since
the piston
is
free to
If the density of the water is 26.8 lb per cubic foot, what is the total weight of the water in the
move up
or
down
in the
basin?
Solution.
The
total
volume
ft
x 4 ft x 1ft
its temperature and volume and the piston moves- upward in the
= 20 cu ft
Applying Equation total weight of water
As
the gas
is
cooled,
its
temperature
3-4, the
20 X 26.8 536 lb
and volume decrease and the piston moves downward in the cylinder. In either case, the pressure
26
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
[tttl I
Hi
Pistoh||
Perfectly fitting
frictionless
ft?
'.
'Of/^'"""-"-"^
1
Volume Volu change chai
piston
Piston
JL
if
?<
P = 100 psia
J&
P = 100 psia $
4.
fr = 500*R
$v;T=1000*R
&V=Icuft
fTTT
Heat
Heat
added
(a)
(a)
removed
(c)
(b)
Gas confined In a cylinder with a perfectly fitting, frictionless piston, Fig. 3-1. Constant pressure process, is (b) As gas is heated, both the temperature and the volume of the gas Increase. The increase in volume exactly proportional to the increase in absolute temperature, (c) As gas is cooled, both the temperature and the volume of the gas decrease. The decrease in volume is exactly proportional to the decrease in absolute
temperature.
of the gas remains the same or unchanged during the heating or cooling processes. 3-7. Charles' Law for a Constant Pressure
When any three of the preceding values are known, the fourth may be calculated by applying
Equation
3-5. 3-3.
Process.
when
the pressure
of the gas remains constant, the volume of the gas varies directly with its absolute temperature.
A gas, whose initial temand whose initial volume is 5 cu ft, is allowed to expand at a constant pressure until its volume is 10 cu ft. Determine
Example
is
perature
520
Thus, if the absolute temperature of a gas is doubled while its pressure is kept constant, its volume will also be doubled. Likewise, if the absolute temperature of a gas is reduced by
one-half while the pressure
is
Rankine.
Solution. By rearranging and applying Equation 3-5, the final temperature of the gas T2
kept constant,
Figs.
its
520 x 10
volume
3-lc.
will also
is
relationship
in
3-16 and
1040
as follows:
When
the
pressure
is
kept constant,
Example 3-4. gas, having an initial temperature of 80 F, is cooled at a constant pressure until its temperature is 40 F. If the initial volume of the gas is 8 cu ft, what is its
final
TrVt =
where
T^
volume?
(3-5)
T =
r2 =
Vx
the
initial
degrees Rankine
the final temperature of the gas in
Since the temperatures are given must be converted to degrees Rankine before being substituted in
Solution.
Equation
3-5.
degrees Rankine
the
initial
in
_ =
^i^i
Tt
500 x 8 540
7.4074 cu
ft
cubic feet
V2
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
3-8.
27
is
the
of a gas
a given
The number of molecules confined in space and their velocity will, of course,
not change, the absolute pressure will vary inversely with the volume. Thus, when a gas is compressed (volume decreased) while its temperature
remains
unchanged,
Similarly,
its
absolute
higher the temperature of the gas), the greater the pressure. The force with which the molethe velocity of the molecules.
is
when a gas
its
is
expanded
at
a constant temperature,
This
is
abso-
upon
The higher
increase in volume.
a statement of
The
greater the
and
It
is illustrated
and
3-2c.
space and the higher the velocity the the molecules will strike the walls.
has been previously stated that the molecules of a gas are flying about at random and at high velocities and that the molecules of the
gas frequently collide with one another and with
the walls of the container.
When
a gas
compressed at a constant
by the gas
collisions.
is
mains unchanged. The increase in pressure which occurs is accounted for by the fact that the volume of the gas is diminished and a given number of gas molecules are confined in a smaller space so that the frequency of impact is greater.
cules,
The
when
second. It is this incessant molecular bombardment which produces the pressure that a gas exerts upon the walls of its container. The magnitude of the pressure exerted depends upon the force and frequency of the molecular impacts upon a given area. The greater the force
expanded at a constant temperature. Any thermodynamic process which occurs in such a way that the temperature of the working substance does not change during the process is called an isothermal (constant temperature)
the gas
process.
Fig. 3-2.
ture process,
tion, (b)
condi-
Constant temperature
expansion
volume
L mi: piston: mi
1
i
!!
i
i
l i
-,
1 1
I-'
1
'
'::
II
'
;'.:.
Constant
-__-l-L_
"^:'l
l:---'v
miipiswiiu <p=ibopsi |
P * 50
.
psi
Heat must
V=lcuft
!
V2cuft
T=70*F
;
HI|liPiston:i||
iP m 200
psi<2
be
removed
during
com-
IV = 0.5cuft1
T=70*F
!J>.70*F
ft 'If
Heat idded
(c>>
(1
H'l ii
Heat
re
moved
U)
28
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Volume
cu
ft
Volume =
cu
ft
@>
Volume
cu
ft
Pressure
100 psia
Pressure
= 200
psia
Pressure
50
psia
Temperatures 500 R,
Temperature= 1000 R
Temperature
250'
TT
Heat added
(a)
TTT
Heat removed
(c)
(b)
Constant volume process, (a) Initial condition, (b) The absolute pressure increases in direct proportion to the increase in absolute temperature, (c) The absolute pressure decreases in direct proportion to the decrease in absolute temperature.
Fig. 3-3.
is
if
the temperature
constant,
pressure of the gas is 3000 psfa, determine the final pressure in psig.
initial
PiVi
where Px
= P*r*
absolute pressure
(3-6)
Solution.
By rearranging
3-6,
PiVi
3000 x 10
= Pa = Vx = K2 =
the the
initial
Pt =
the final
3-5.
4 7500 psfa
7500
144
Dividing by 144
Five pounds of air are expanded at a constant temperature from an initial volume of 5 cu ft to a final volume of 10 cu ft. If the initial pressure of the air is 20 psia, what is the final pressure in psia?
Solution. By rearranging and applying Equation 3-6, the final
Example
= = =
52.08 psia
14.7 52.08 37.38 psig
pressure
P2
20 x 5
=
Example
3-6.
10 10 psia
Relationship Pressure-Temperature at a Constant Volume. Assume that a gas is confined in a closed cylinder so that its volume cannot change as it is heated or cooled (Fig. 3-3a). When the temperature of a gas is
increased by the addition of heat, the absolute
pressure will increase in direct proportion to the
increase in absolute temperature (Fig. 3-3b).
If the gas is cooled, the absolute pressure of the
of gas are allowed to expand at a constant temperature from an initial pressure of 1500 psfa to a final Determine the final pressure of 900 psfa. volume of the gas.
feet
Four cubic
(velocity of the
By rearranging and
3-6,
_ PiVi
P*
molecules) of a gas
is
applying
final
Equation
the
volume
Vz
1500 x 4
900
=
Example 3-7.
volume
6.67 cu
cular impacts
initial
given weight of gas, whose 10 cu ft, is compressed isothermally until its volume is 4 cu ft. If the
is
Likewise,
volume, the force and frequency of molecular impingement on the walls of the container
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
diminish and the pressure of the gas will be
less
is v,
29
used, then
than before. The reduction in the force and the frequency of molecular impacts is accounted
for
and Equation
may be
written:
velocity.
Pv
Charles' Law for a Constant Volume Process. Charles' law states in effect that when a gas is heated or cooled under such conditions that the volume of the gas remains unchanged or constant, the absolute pressure varies directly with the absolute temperature.
3-10.
T
where
(3-9)
R=
The gas constant R is different for each gas. The gas constant for most common gases can
be found in in Table 3-1.
produces
tables.
Charles' law
may be
equation:
when
the volume
the same,
(3-7)
Vi = Vi
where
PMv = MRT
but since
Tx = r2 =
the
initial
Rankine
the final
Mv = V
then
Rankine
PV = MRT
pounds per
where
(3-10)
Px = P2 =
pounds per
Example
80
3-8.
P = the pressure in psfa V = the volume in ft3 M = the mass in pounds R = the gas constant T = the temperature in R
is
temperature of
pressure of 30 psig. If the gas is heated until the final gage pressure is 50 psi, what is the final temperature in degrees
initial
F and an
Equation 3-10
and
is
Fahrenheit?
Solution. By rearranging and applying Equa-
T,
= _
=
T, xi.
Pi
(80
tion 3-7,
460)
problems involving gases. Since the value of R for most gases can be found in tables, if any three of the four properties, P, V, M, and T, are known, the fourth property can be determined by Equation 3-10. Notice that the pressure must be in
x(50
(30
+ 14.7) + 14.7)
460
782
R
F
Example
The tank of an
ft
air
782
sor has a
volume of 5 cu
and
is filled
322
Combining
Solution.
From
equation:
P
Equation 3-8
is
-P= -P
Table
3-1,
for air
= ~
53.3
(151.1
0-8)
14.7)
weight of a gas, the product of the pressure in psfa and the volume in cubic feet divided by the
absolute temperature In degrees Rankine will
53.3
_ =
always be a constant. The constant, of course, will be different for different gases and, for any
one gas, will vary with the weight ofgas involved. However, if, for any one gas, the weight of 1 lb
Example 3-10. Two pounds of air have a volume of 3 cu ft. If the pressure of the air is 135.3 psig, what is the temperature of the air in
degrees Fahrenheit?
30
PRINCIPLES
Solution.
OF REFRIGERATION
amount of work done. The
increase in the temis
From
Table
3-1,
for air
53.3
By
T- PV
~
compressed is a be noted by
filled
MR
(135.3
being
air
with a
14.7)
compressor,
x 144x3
2 x 53.3
150 x 144 x 3
R,
2 x 53.3
Converting to
Fahrenheit,
3-12.
= = =
607.9
R
- 460
F
607.9
147.9
3-13. The General Energy Equation. The law of conservation of energy clearly indicates that the energy transferred to a body must be accounted for in its entirety. It has been shown that some part (or all) of the energy taken in by a material may leave the material as work, and that only that portion of the transferred energy which is not utilized to do external work remains
in the
It is
volume of the material done on the material. For example, consider a certain weight of gas confined in a cylinder equipped with a movable
If the
by the material.
decreases,
work
some combination of
(1) as
is
the following three ways: an increase in the internal kinetic energy, (2) as an increase in the internal potential energy,
As
and
this
(3) as external
is
the gas
it
is
heated,
its
energy equation
expands, moving
upward
Work
is
done
in
AQ = AK + AP + AW
where
(3-11)
moved through a
distance(Fig. 3-1A).*
is
AQ = AK =
AP =
AW =
material in Btu
required
do the work is supplied to the gas as the gas heated by an external source. It is possible, however, for a gas to do external work without the addition of energy from an external source. In such cases, the gas does the work at the
to
is
that fraction of the transferred energy which increases the internal kinetic energy that fraction of the transferred energy which increases the internal potential energy
that fraction
of the transferred
is
expense of
its
own
energy.
That
is,
as the gas
energy which
external
utilized
to
do
work
(delta),
amount equal to amount of energy required to do the work. When a gas is compressed (its volume decreased), a certain amount of work must be done on the gas in order to compress it. And, an amount of energy equal to the amount of work done will be imparted to the molecules of the
(temperature) decreases in an the
The Greek
condition.
letter,
used in front of a
term in an equation
identifies
a change of
For
instance,
where
represents
AK
represents the
gas during the compression. That is, the mechanical energy of the piston motion will be transformed into the internal kinetic energy of the gas (molecular motion) and, unless the gas is cooled during the compression, the temperature of the gas will increase in proportion to the
*
Depending upon the particular process or change in condition that the material undergoes, any of the terms in Equation 3-11 may have any
value either positive or negative, or any may be equal to zero. This will be made clear later.
3-14.
When
and
of the material, the material expands somewhat and a small amount of work is done. However,
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
the increase in volume and the external work done is so slight that the portion of the transferred energy
31
Many
which
is
utilized to
do
external
complex problems in mechanics are made simple by die assumption that no friction exists, the
effects
work
is negligible.
For
all
practical purposes,
it
can
The
the
same as
that
be assumed that all the energy added to a solid or a liquid during a temperature change increases the internal kinetic energy.
None leaves
set
the material as
this instance,
is
up
as
an
In
is
both
AP
and
AW
of Equation
AQ
equal to
AK
a solid melts into the liquid phase, the change in volume is again so slight that the external work done may be neglected. Furthermore, since the temperature also remains
constant during the phase change, none of the transferred energy increases the internal kinetic
energy.
solid
is
When
strong intermolecular forces within the liquid. However, as the liquid is heated and the molecules gain additional energy, the intermolecular
forces are
diminishes,
overcome somewhat, internal friction and the liquid flows more easily.
by the melting
in the internal
up
as
an increase
Therefore,
potential energy.
AK
and
AW are
AQ
is
equal to AP.
Vaporization of the liquid, of course, causes a greater separation of the molecules and brings about a substantial reduction in internal friction, but some interaction between the
molecules of the vapor still exists. In the gaseous state, intermolecular forces are greatest when the gas is near the liquid phase and
diminish rapidly as the gas
is
This is not true, however, when a liquid changes into the vapor phase. The change in
volume that occurs and therefore the external work done as the liquid changes into a vapor is considerable. For example, when 1 lb of water at atmospheric pressure changes into a vapor, its volume increases from 0.01671 cu ft to 26.79 cu ft. Of the 970.4 Btu required to vaporize 1 lb of water, approximately 72 Btu of this energy are required to do the work of expanding
against the pressure of the atmosphere.
heated and
its
temperature rises farther and farther above the gas approaches the saturation temperature. ideal state when it reaches a condition such that
the interaction between the molecules and hence, internal friction, is negligible. Although no such thing as an ideal or perfect
The
up
in the
many gases, such as air, hydrogen, helium, etc., so closely approach the ideal condition that any errors
result
only
AK is
which may
purposes.
AQ is equal to AP plus
3-15.
AW.
The various
ideal are of
no consequence
it is
practical
laws governing the pressure-volume-temperature relationships of gases as discussed in this chapter apply with absolute accuracy only to a hypothetical "ideal" or "perfect" gas.
refrigeration understand
"perfect"
important that the student of and be able to apply the laws of perfect gases, it should be understood that gases as they normally occur in the
Although
gas
is
there is no interaction between the molecules of the gas. The molecules of such a gas are entirely free and independent of each other's attractive forces. Hence, none of the energy transferred either to or from an ideal gas has
any effect on the internal potential energy. The concept of an ideal or perfect gas greatly simplifies the solution of problems concerning
approximately.
32
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
transferred to the gas increases the internal
kinetic energy of the gas.
and therefore the use of the gas laws to determine the pressure-volume-temperature relationships of such vapors will result in considerable inaccuracy. In working with vapors, it is usually
None
of the energy
necessary to use values which have been determined experimentally and are tabulated in
saturated and superheated vapor tables. These tables are included as a part of this textbook
a gas is cooled (heat removed) while volume remains constant, all the energy removed is effective in reducing the internal
its
When
It
should be noted
that
in
Equation 3-12,
and are discussed later. Processes for Ideal Gases. A gas is said to undergo a process when it passes from some initial state or condition to some final state or condition. A change in the condition of a gas may occur in an infinite number of ways, only five of which are of interest. These are the
3-16.
(1)
AW
heat
is
the gas.
gas,
Therefore,
is
AQ
negative.
Likewise,
decreases,
if
Hence,
constant pressure (isobaric), (2) constant volume (isometric), (3) constant temperature
(isothermal), (4) adiabatic,
cooled, both
and
(5) polytropic
processes.
In describing an ideal gas, it has been said that the molecules of such a gas are so far apart that they have no attraction for one another, and that none of the energy absorbed by an
ideal gas has
law
(Fig.
3-1).
any
effect
on the internal
potential
work
its
is
done by
energy.
heat absorbed
same time
that
internal energy
by an
increased.
will
leave the gas as external work, or both. Since the change in the internal potential energy, AP,
always be zero, the general energy equation for an ideal gas may be written:
will
identified
For a by the
may be written
(3-14)
AQ = AK + AW
(3-12)
AQP =AK
1I
+AW
In order to better understand the energy changes which occur during the various processes, it should be kept in mind that a change in the temperature of the gas indicates a change in the internal kinetic energy of the gas, whereas a change in the volume of the gas indicates work
3-19. Specific Heat of Gases. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of a gas 1 F while the volume of the gas
remains constant is known as the specific heat at a constant volume (C). Similarly, the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1
done
3-17.
either
by or on the
it
gas.
lb of a gas 1
When
a
its
gas
is
so confined that
volume cannot change, its pressure and temperature will vary according to Charles' law (Fig.
3-3). Since the volume of the gas does not change, no external work is done and is equal to zero. Therefore, for a constant
heat at a constant pressure (C). For any particular gas, the specific heat at a constant pressure is always greater than the specific heat
at
a constant volume.
AW
The reason
for this
is
easily explained.
*Qv -
Mv
(3-13)
The quantity of energy required to increase the internal kinetic energy of a gas to the extent that the temperature of the gas is increased 1 F is exactly the same for all processes. Since,
during a constant volume process, no work is done, the only energy required is that which
Equation 3-13 is a statement that during a constant volume process all of the energy
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
increases the internal kinetic energy.
33
However,
during a constant pressure process, the gas expands a fixed amount for each degree of
temperature
external
rise
is
Example 3-12. Twelve pounds of air are cooled from an initial temperature of 95 F to a final temperature of 72 F. Compute the
increase in the internal kinetic energy.
Solution.
and a
done.
certain
amount of
work
is
Therefore, during a
Apply-
= = =
12 x 0.169 12
work
done must be supplied in addition to that which increases the internal kinetic energy. For example, the specific heat of air at a constant volume is 0.169 Btu per pound, whereas the specific heat of air at a constant pressure is 0.2375 Btu per pound. For either
that process, the increase in the internal energy of
-46.64 Btu
AK
In Example 3-12,
that the gas
3-21.
is
AK
is
negative, indicating
is
0.169
Btu per pound. For the constant pressure process, the additional 0.068S Btu per pound (0.2375 0.169) is the energy required to do the work resulting from the volume increase accompanying the temperature rise. The specific heat of a gas may take any value
depending upon the amount of work that the gas does as it expands. 3-20. The Change in Internal Kinetic Energy. During any process in which the temperature of the gas changes, there will be a change in the internal kinetic energy of the gas. Regardless of the process, when the temperature of a given weight of gas is increased or
either positive or negative,
AQV = AKV
then
(3-16)
3-13. If, in Example 3-11, the gas heated while its volume is kept constant, what is the quantity of heat transferred to the gas during the process ?
Solution.
Apply-
AQV =
= =
Alternate Solution.
From Example
3-12,
AKV =
,
AK = MCv(tt where
fj
(3-15)
Since
AK =
Cv = tt = fx =
AQ V = AKV
air is
AQV =
3-14.
If,
M = the weight
the
initial
energy in Btu
Example
what
air
cooled while
its
temperature
in either
Solution.
From
.
Note.
Example
Since
3-12,
AQ = AKV
AKV = AQV
-46.67 Btu
46.67 Btu
AKV
is
Example
is
AQV
of air
negative,
indicating
heat
is
transferred
=5
= =
energy
AK
5 54.9 Btu
from the gas rather than to it. 3-22, External Work during a Constant Pressure Process. It will now be shown that the work done during a constant pressure process may be evaluated by the equation
W'PiVt-VJ
(3-17)
34
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the
where
sum
of
AKP
AW
Assume
area of
foot.
an
Example 3-17. Compute the total heat energy transferred to the air during the constant pressure process described in Example 3-15.
Solution.
P pounds
per square
Con-
Then, the
on the top of
verting
70
to
R =
= T2 " _
=
70
+ vx
460
PA
pounds, or
degrees Rankine,
530
F = P xA
Assume now that the gas
in the cylinder, having
Applying
Charles' law,
*1 X ^1
Equation
3-5,
to
530 x 15
13.34
an initial volume Vly is heated and allowed to expand to volume V2 while its pressure is kept
constant. In doing so, the force PA acts through
596"
the distance
and work
AA:
is
done. Hence,
W = P xA
but since
= =
A x
then
= (Vs - VJ
2
From Example
3-15
and
3-16,
W = P(V -VJ
Example
an
3-15.
One pound of
having
Since the specific heat at a constant pressure
initial volume of 13.34 cu ft and an initial temperature of 70 F is heated and allowed to expand at a constant pressure of 21 17 psfa to a final volume of 15 cu ft. Determine the amount of external work in foot-pounds.
CP
pound but
also the
work
rise
during a constant pressure expansion, for the constant pressure process only, AQ P may be
tj)
(3-20)
is
In Equation 3-12,
energy units.
By
W in Btu.
AQ V =
= =
in foot-
The
W AW = W = AW xJ
Example
Solution.
3-18, the
(3-18)
3-24.
Pressure-Volume
(PV)
Diagram.
(3-19)
3-16.
Example 3-15
work
3514
778
4.52 Btu
=
3-23.
Equation 3-8 is a statement that the thermodynamic state of a gas is adequately described by any two properties of the gas. Hence, using any two properties of the gas as mathematical coordinates, the thermodynamic state of a gas at any given instant may be shown as a point on a chart. Furthermore, when the conditions under which a gas passes from some initial state
to
some
3-14,
AQ
process follows
may be made
equal to
on the
chart.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
The
cycle
35
4000
in the analysis
and solution of cyclic problems. is a function of pressure and it is the work of a process or
Final
condition
which
is
volume.
When
13
14
16
To
illustrate the
use of the
3- IS is
PV
diagram, a
Fig.
3-4.
*i
v2
feet)
Volume (cubic
Example
shown
Pressure-volume
process.
diagram
of
constant
in Fig. 3-4.
pressure
Crosshatched
process.
area
between
Notice that the pressure in psfa is used as the vertical coordinate, whereas the volume in cubic
feet is
initial condition of the such that the pressure is 21 17 psfa and the volume is 13.34 cu ft. To establish the initial
gas
two dimensions. In
rectangle,
1-2-Kg-^
(crosshatched),
its
is
the
Fj).
origin
on the PV chart, start at the and proceed upward along the vertical
dotted line parallel to the base line
this point
base
(Kg
P(Vt VJ
is
the external
Draw a
through
evident then
chart.
Next,
and
from the point of origin proceed to the right along the horizontal volume axis to the given volume, 13.34 cu ft. Through this point draw a
vertical dotted line across the chart.
The
inter-
a measure of the external work done during the process in foot-pounds. This area is frequently referred to as "the area under the curve."
Figure 3-5
is
establishes
PV
diagram of a constant
that
volume
is
process.
Assume
is
the
initial
According to Example 3-1 5, the gas is heated and allowed to expand at a constant pressure until its volume is IS cu ft. Since the pressure remains the same during the process, the state
point representing the final state of the gas must
fall
volume volume
4 cu
The
gas
increases to
4000
psfa.
The process
takes place
initial
line
of constant
exact point
The
along the constant volume line from the condition 1 to the final condition 2.
on
determined by the intersection of the line drawn through the point on the volume axis
state
is
It has been stated that no work is done during a process unless the volume of the gas changes. Examination of the PV diagram in Fig. 3-5 will
show
to the final
that
no work
is
initial state 1
volume process.
2 the
air passes
can be represented by points which will fall along line 1 to 2. Line 1 to 2, then, represents the path that the process will follow as the thermodynamic state of the gas changes from 1 to 2, and is the PV diagram of the process described. The area of a rectangle is the product of its
dimension of length, there is no area between the process diagram and the base or volume axis. Hence, no work is done. 3-25. Constant Temperature Process. According to Boyle's law, when a gas is compressed or expanded at a constant temperature,
the pressure will vary inversely with the volume.
That
is,
is
36
PRINCIPLES
4500
P*
OF REFRIGERATION
shown
in Fig. 3-6.
In a constant temperature
^~
Final condition
4000
3500
3000
accordance with Boyle's law. The path followed by an isothermal expansion is indicated by line 1 to 2 and the work of the process in foot-
pounds
is
The
32500
| 2000
1500
Px
area,
of the process,
Initial
condition
tion
fF
= P1 K1 xln-^
(3-22)
where
500
In
II
4
5
Example
1
A
ft.
certain
weight of gas
having an
initial
initial
6
feet)
Volume (cubic
Fig.
3-5.
to a
of
volume volume of 4 cu
Pressure-volume
Since there
diagram
is
constant
volume
no area between the process diagram and the volume axis, there is no work done during a constant volume process.
process.
Determine: of the gas in psfa the work done in heat energy units.
Solution
(a)
expanded. Since the gas will do work as it expands, if the temperature is to remain constant, energy with which to do the work must be absorbed from an external source (Fig. 3-26). However,
is
PiVx
Vi
2500 x 2
=
(b)
1250 psfa
By applying Equa3-22,
tion
the ex-
since
constant,
gas remains of the energy absorbed by the gas during the process leaves the gas as work;
ail
the
temperature
of the
ternal
work of the
process in foot-
pounds
W
,
= = = =
none
is
internal energy.
When
~ 778 = 4.45
a gas
is
compressed, work
Btu
if the gas is compression, the internal energy of the gas will be increased by an amount equal to the work of
compression. Therefore,
the gas
is
if
the temperature of
must
reject to
body an amount of heat equal to work done upon it during the compression
(Fig. 3-2c).
Final
condition
There
is
no change
energy during a constant temperature process. Therefore, in Equation 3-12, AK is equal to zero
and the general energy equation for a constant temperature process may be written
AQ =
f
AW
(3-21)
3-26.
Work
of an Isothermal Process.
A
is
Fig. 3-6. Pressure-volume diagram of constant temperature process. Crosshatched area represents
PV
the
work
of the process.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
certain weight of gas pressure of 12S0 psfa and an initial volume of 4 cu ft is compressed isothermally to a volume of 2 cu ft. Determine:
3-19.
37
Example
Solution.
From Example
having an
initial
3-18,
AW = 4.45 Btu
process,
AW
equals
AQ
t,
AQ =
t
4.45 Btu
work done by
Solution
(a)
PiVi
1250 x 4 2
Example 3-21. What is the quantity of heat transferred to the gas during the constant temperature process described in Example 3-19.
Solution.
From
Example
Since A
3-19,
AW =
AQ
t,
equals
AQ =
t
^2
(b)
2500 psfa
is
By Applying Equa-
process
in
foot-
pounds
W
AW
this
amount
is
actually given
In 0.5
up by
the gas
-0.693
By applying
Equation 3-18,
the
cess
is
changes
work in heat
energy units
is
the
from or to an external body during the process. Furthermore, the pressure, volume, and temperature of the gas all vary during an adiabatic process, none of them
remaining constant.
Example
3-18.
Where
Example 3-18 is an expansion, the process in Example 3-19 is a compression. Both processes occur between the same two conditions, except that the initial and final
the process in conditions
are
reversed.
When a
energy
is
Notice
also
that
whereas work is done by the gas during the expansion process, work is done on the gas during the compression process. But since the change of condition takes place between the same limits in both cases, the amount of work done in each case is the same.
do the work from an external an adiabatic process, no heat is absorbed from an external source, the gas must do the external work at the expense of its
the energy to
source.
Since, during
own
energy.
An
adiabatic expansion
is
always
own
internal
3-7).
When a
gas
is
compressed adiabatically,
change
an isothermal
the internal
process,
there
is
no change
in
kinetic energy
and
AK equals
zero.
According
is
exactly
work done
in Btu.
is
During an
transferred to the
work is done on the gas by an external body. The energy of the gas is increased in an amount equal to the amount of work done, and since no heat energy is given up by the gas to an external body during the compression, the heat energy equivalent of the work done on the gas is set up as an increase in the internal energy, and the
temperature of the gas increases.
work
that
is
done by the
gas,
is
transferred to or
compression heat
transferred
that the internal energy of the gas is not increased by the performance of work on the gas.
from the gas during an adiabatic process, AQa is always zero and the energy equation for an
adiabatic process
is
written as follows:
Example
3-20.
heat transferred to the gas during the constant temperature expansion described in Example
3-18.
AKa
AW. = -AK.
+AW =0
a
(3-23)
and
AKa - -AWa
38
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Example 3-23. gas having an initial pressure of 945 psfa and an initial volume of
ft is compressed adiabatically to a volume of 2 cu ft. If the final pressure of the air is 2500 psfa, how much work is done in heat energy units?
4 cu
Solution.
From
k for
air
Example
Final
3-22,
1.406
condition
(945 x 4)
1.406
work done
pounds
in foot-
(2500 x 2)
3780
5000
0.406
-1220
Fig.
3-7.
Pressure-volume
diagram
is
of
adiabatic
in
process.
An
0.406
isothermal
curve
drawn
for
comparison.
-3005 -3005
778
ft-lb
work
A(C.
in
heat energy
Work
of an Adiabatic Process.
The
units
-3.86 Btu
W
where k
P1 V1 -P2 V2 k - 1
(3-24)
gas in question,
CJCV
initial initial
Example
3-22.
gas having an
2 cu ft is of 4 cu ft. If the final pressure is 945 psfa, determine the external work done in heat energy units.
Solution
Cj, for air
and an
3-30. Comparison of the Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes. A comparison of the isothermal and adiabatic processes is of interest. Whenever a gas expands, work is done by the gas, and energy from some source is required to do the work. In an isothermal expansion, all of the energy to do the work is supplied to the gas as heat from an external source. Since the energy is supplied to the gas from an external source at exactly the same rate that the gas is
doing work, the internal energy of the gas and the tempera-
C for
air
= =
of the
specific
process.
On
expansion there
no
The
heats,
ratio
c,
0.2375
k
0.169 1.406
=
Applying Equation 3-24, the work of adiabatic expansion in foot-pounds
energy of the gas. Therefore, the internal energy of the gas is always diminished by an
amount equal
x
4)
1
to the
(2500 x 2)
(945
1406
5000
3780
0.406 1220
0.406
work is done on the gas by the commember, usually a piston, and an amount of energy equal to the amount of work done on the gas is transferred to the gas as work.
process,
=
Applying Equation 3-18,
the
ft-lb
work
units
A Wa
in heat energy
~ =
3.86 Btu
During an isothermal compression process, is transferred as heat from the gas to an external sink at exactly the same rate that work is being done on the gas. Therefore, the internal
energy
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
energy of the gas neither increases nor decreases during the process and the temperature of the
gas remains constant.
39
On
during an adiabatic compression, there is no transfer of energy as heat from the gas to an
external sink.
N>
and
<K
Therefore, an
amount of energy
equal to the amount of work done on the gas is set up in the gas as an increase in the internal
energy,
3-34.
increases
accordingly.
The Polytropic
Perhaps the
is
simplest
way of denning a
polytropic process
in
Fig. 3-8.
which the energy to do the work of expansion is supplied entirely from an external source, and the adiabatic expansion, in which the energy to do the work of expansion is supplied entirely by the gas itself, may be thought of as the extreme limits between which all expansion processes will fall. Then, any expansion process in which the
energy to do the work of expansion is supplied partly from an external source and partly from
the gas
itself will
drawn
comparison.
Processes.
fall
somewhere between those of the isothermal and adiabatic processes (Fig. 3-8). Such a process is
and volume
Charles'
known
the
as a polytropic process.
If during
The
relationship
polytropic' expansion
most of the energy to do work comes from an external source, the polytropic process will more nearly approach the isothermal. On the other hand, when the greater part of the energy to do the external work comes from the gas itself, the process more nearly approaches the adiabatic.
between the pressure, temperature, and volume during an adiabatic process may be evaluated by
the following equations
Tt = Tx
H'
* -1)
F(*-l)
(3-25)
When
is true also for the compression process. a gas loses heat during a compression process, butnotataratesumcient to maintain the
This
(3-26)
temperature constant, the compression is polytropic. The greater the loss of heat, the closer
the polytropic process
thermal.'
p*=Pi
-P
(3-27)
approaches the
iso-
The
the polytropic process approaches the adiabatic. Of course, with no heat loss, the process
'*W
(3-28)
becomes
adiabatic.
The actual compression of a gas in a compressor will usually very nearly approach adiabatic
(3-29)
compression. This
pression
is
is because the time of comnormally very short and there is not sufficient time for any significant amount of heat to be transferred from the gas through the
Example
cally
v, .
(3>r
(3-30)
Water to the surroundings. jacketing of the cylinder will usually increase the
cylinder walls
40
PRINCIPLES
ft.
OF REFRIGERATION
gas undergoing the process.*
'
4 cu
psfa,
what
Solution.
From
for air
Table
3-1,
=
= = = =
1.406
,1.406
Usually, the value of must be determined by actual test of the machine in which the expansion or compression occurs. In some instances average
Applying Equation
3-27, the final pressure
some of the common gases undergoing changes under more or less standard
values of n for
If the values
initial
of
and
may be
calcu-
The
Example
batically
the relationship:
logC^/^)
having
(3-31)
Example
3-27." Air,
an
initial
From
k
for air
Table
3-1,
Applying Equation
3-25, the final tempera-
= =
1.406
pressure of 24,000 psfa and an initial temperature of 600 R, is expanded polytropically from
600x
(2) .406-1)
(4)(1.406(2)0.406
ture
T2
(4)0.408
1.325
1.756 0.755
is expanded adiapressure of 24,000 psfa to a final pressure of 9072 psfa. If the initial temperature is 600 R, what is the final temperature?
Example
3-26.
Air
batically
from an
initial
From Table
3-1,
R for air
Rearranging and applying Equation 3-10, the weight of
air
53.3
Solution.
From
k
for
RT _ 24,000
53.3
Table
air
x 2 x 600
3-1,
=
= = = =
=
1.406
1.406-1
1.5 lb
600 x
io \ ** / 9072 \
T9
* The value of n depends upon the specific heat of the gas during the process. Since the specific heat may take any value, it follows that theoretically
453
n may have any value. In actual machines, however, will nearly always have some value between 1
and
A:.
a polytropic process is any process during which the specific heat remains constant. By this definition, all five processes
discussed in this chapter are polytropic processes. It is general practice today to restrict the term polytropic to mean only those processes which follow
Broadly- defined,
ture-volume relationships for the polytropic process can be evaluated by Equations 3-25 through 3-30, except that the polytropic expansion or compression exponent n is substi-
a path
is
substituted for k.
will
1
The exponent n
somewhere between
between those of the isothermal and The exponents of isothermal and adiabatic expansions or compressions are 1 and k, respectively. Hence, the value of n for the polytropic process must fall between 1 and k. The closer the polytropic process approaches the adiabatic, the closer n will approach k.
falling
adiabatic processes.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
(b)
41
Applying Equation
pressure
Pa
The volume of a certain weight of air is kept constant while the temperature of the air is increased from 55 F to 100 F. If the initial pressure is 25 psig, what is the final pressure of the air in psig ? Am. 28 .47 psig
2.
(c)
Applying Equation
600 * x """
(4)<i.-i)
ture
Tt
-0x3K
(4)
o.
certain weight of air confined in a confrom 150 F to 70 F. If the initial pressure of the air is 36.3 psig, what is the final pressure of the air in psig ? Am. 29.6 psig
3.
tainer is cooled
One pound of air at atmospheric pressure has a volume of 13.34 cu ft at a temperature of 70 F. If the air is passed across a heat exchanger and is heated to a temperature of
4.
150
is
Applying Equation
(24,000
2)
F while its pressure is kept constant, what the final volume of the air ? Ans. 15.35 cu ft
ft.
3-24, the
done
work
(4
x 10,440)
5.
1.2
_ 48,000
6240
0.2
-1 - 41,760
A cylinder of oxygen has a volume of 5 cu A gage on the cylinder reads 2200 psi. If the
temperature of the oxygen is 85 F, what weight of the oxygen in the cylinder?
6.
is
the
0.2
=
Applying Equation
3-18, the
31,200 31,200
ft-lb
Am. 60.6 lb In Problem 4, determine: (a) The work done by the air during the heating. Am. 4254.8 ft-lb or 5.47 Btu (b) The increase in the internal kinetic energy.
Am.
(c)
13.52 Btu
work
in
BtuAW
(e)
=
3-1,
Am.
19 Btu
initial
From Table
air
= 0.169 Btu/lb
=
1.5
an
C for
Applying Equation
3-15, the increase
x 0.169 x
(522
- 600)
volume of 0.1334 cu ft and an initial temperature of 70 F is drawn into the suction side of an air compressor. If the air enters the cylinder at standard atmospheric pressure and is compressed isothermally to a final pressure of 150
psia, determine:
(a)
in internal energy
= =
1.5
AK
(/) Applying Equation 3-9, the heat energy transferred to the gas AQ
The weight of
start
AJSr
+ AfF
(b)
Am.
The final temperature of the
Rankine.
(c)
0.01 lb
air in degrees
40.10
Am.
530
Notice in Example 3-27 that the work done air in the polytropic expansion is equivalent to 40.10 Btu. Of this amount, 20.33 Btu
the air at the end of the compression stroke. Am. 0.0131 cu ft (d) The work of compression in Btu.
The volume of
by the
is
Am.
(e)
0.843 Btu
supplied from an external source, whereas the other portion, 19.77 Btu, is supplied by the gas itself, thereby reducing the internal kinetic
Am. None
(/)
8.
The energy
the compression.
energy by
this
amount.
Assume
PROBLEMS
Three pounds of air occupy a volume of 24 cu ft. Determine: (a) The density of the air. Arts. 0.125 lb/cu ft (b) The specific volume. Am. 8 cu ft/lb
1.
air in degrees
Am. 1038 the air at the end of the compression stroke. Am. 0.0256 cu ft (c) The work of compression in Btu.
The volume of
Am.
0.86 Btu
42
(d)
(c)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
(b)
The volume of
0.86 Btu
(c)
the air at the end of the Ans. 0.0192 cu ft compression stroke. The work of compression is Btu. Ans. 0.8S Btu
(d)
9.
Assuming that the air in Problem 7 is compressed polytropically rather than isothermally. If n equals 1.2, compute: () The final temperature of the air in degrees Ans. 119 A" Rankine.
(e)
The decrease in the internal kinetic energy. Ans. 0.45 Btu The heat energy transferred from the gas
during the compression.
Ans. 0.40 Btu
7,
10.
Compare
the results
of Problems
8,
and 9.
For example,
vessel
is
saturated and
vaporizing at 212
is
F as
supplied by the
4
Saturated and
the water
reaches the
condenser.
As
up
it
Superheated Vapors
condenses back into the liquid state. Since condensation occurs at a constant temperature, the water resulting from the condensing vapor is also at 212 F. The latent heat of vapor-
absorbed as the water vaporizes into given up by the steam as the steam condenses back into water.
ization,
steam,
is
4-3.
Superheated Vapor.
vapor at any
temperature above its saturation temperature is a superheated vapor (Section 2-34). If, after
vaporization, a vapor
is
heated so that
its
Saturation Temperature. When the temperature of a liquid is raised to a point such that any additional heat added to the liquid will cause a part of the liquid to vaporize, the liquid is said to be saturated. Such a liquid is known as a saturated liquid and the tempera4-1.
temperature
is
vapor
is
said to
be superheated.
necessary to
it is
shown in Fig.
This
is
4-2.
is
called the
and 2-32). Saturated Vapor. The vapor ensuing from a vaporizing liquid is called a saturated vapor as long as the temperature and pressure of the vapor are the same as those of the saturated liquid from which it came. A saturated
saturation temperature (Sections 2-31
4-2.
it will be saturated. because any heat added to a liquidvapor mixture will merely vaporize more liquid
and no superheating
will occur.
temperature.
vapor
may be
temperature such that any further cooling of the vapor will cause a portion of the vapor to condense and thereby resume the molecular
structure of the liquid state.
It is
vapor to decrease
ture
is
reached.
At
this
point,
any further
removal of heat
condense.
4-4.
will
important
of the liquid (the temperature at which the liquid will vaporize if heat is applied) and the saturation temperature of the vapor (the temperature at which the vapor will condense if heat is
If, after condensaa liquid is cooled so that its temperature is reduced below the saturation temperature, the
Subcooled Liquid.
tion,
removed) are the same for any given pressure and that the liquid cannot exist as a liquid at any temperature above its saturation temperature, whereas a vapor cannot exist as a vapor at any temperature below its saturation temperature.*
*
is said to be subcooled. Thus, a liquid at any temperature below the saturation temperature and above the fusion point is a subcooled
liquid
liquid.
4-5.
The Effect of Pressure on the Saturation Temperature. The saturation temperaIncreasing the pressure raises the
cool" water vapor momentarily below its saturation temperature. However, this is a very unstable condition and cannot be maintained except momentarily.
saturation temperature
pres-
For
example, the saturation temperature of water at atmospheric pressure (0 psig or 14.7 psia) is
43
44
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
212 F.
in-
is
212 F,
creased from
the temperature of the water will rise as the water is heated until it reaches 212 F. At this
point,
if
from 212
the heating
is
reduced from 14.7 psia to 10 psia, the new saturation temperature of the water will be 193.2 F. Figure 4-3 is a
pressure over the water
begin to vaporize.
and condenses
into water
Cold water
in
Saturated steam
at212"F
-*
.{
condenser-212F
Heat added
Fig. 4VI.
Saturated vapor.
graphical
representation
of the relationship
between the pressure and the saturation temperature of water. To illustrate the effect of pressure on the saturation temperature of a liquid, assume that water is confined in a closed vessel which is equipped with a throttling valve at the top compound gage is used to deter(Fig. 4-4a).
in the vessel
and two
thermometers are installed so that one records the temperature of the water and the other the temperature of the vapor over the water. With the throttling valve wide open, the pressure exerted over the water is atmospheric (0 psig or
14.7 psia).
Some of the vapor molecules will fall back into the water to become liquid molecules again, whereas others will escape through the opening to the outside and be carried away by air currents. If the opening at the top of the vessel is of sufficient size to allow the vapor to escape freely, the vapor will leave the vessel at the same rate that the liquid is vaporizing. That is, the number of molecules which are leaving the liquid to become vapor molecules will be exactly equal to the number of vapor molecules which are leaving the space, either by escaping to the outside or by falling back into the liquid. Thus, the number of vapor molecules and the density of the vapor above the liquid will
velocities.
45
r- iOiA-.t!j>.^.
:
-^j^~ -
Jt.i-^x4j^ ^.j
^Ls
^Steam superheated
in
superheater
Saturated steam
/T7-X
5 TfT"/ H
eat Fig. 4-2.
"
Superheated vapor.
added
Superheated steam
tint
Heat added
remain constant and the pressure exerted by the vapor will be equal to that of the atmosphere
outside of the vessel.
is
partially
from the
impeded somewhat.
Under
that
temperature and pressure will be the same as that of the water, 212 F and 14.7 psia. The density of the water vapor at that tempera-
liquid
not be leaving the vessel at the same rate the The number of vapor is vaporizing.
and pressure will be 0.0373 lb/cu ft and its specific volume will be 1 /0.0373 or 26.8 ft*/lb. Regardless of the rate at which the liquid is
ture
is
allowed to
escape freely to the outside so that the pressure and density of the vapor over the liquid does
DUU
500
-.400
re
'3
o.
Is
300
Fig.
4-3.
Variation
in
the
a.
200
100
14.7
50
100
150
200|
250
300
350
400
450
500
212
Saturation temperature (*F)
46
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
wit,e
P en
/S^
Steam
<'>
ft
^
ft
20
psia
^i'-'i-
Steam
Density-0.0373 Ib/cu
Density-0.0498 Ib/cu
212'F
>228'F
:
z_Water_ H>: Z
>^^
(a)
<b)
Fig. 4-4.
228 F, the density of the vapor will be 0.0498 lb/cu ft, and 1 lb of vapor will occupy a volume of 20.08 cu ft. This condition is illustrated in
Fig. 4-46.
vessel
is
sufficient to
allow
the vapor to escape at a rate equal to that at which the liquid is Vaporizing. The increase in
pressure, of course, results in
an increase
in the
By comparing
will
saturation temperature
and
is
and saturation
evident that the
temperature. Furthermore,
pressure
vapor. Likewise, any decrease in the rate of vaporization will have the opposite effect. The pressure and density of the vapor over the liquid will decrease and the saturation temperature
will
the rate
and the saturation temperature of by regulating at which the vapor escapes from over
be lower.
is
the liquid.
In Fig. 4-4, the rate of vaporization will have or no effect on the pressure and saturation temperature because the vapor is allowed to escape freely so that the density and pressure of
little
that the throttling valve on the again opened completely, as in Fig. 4-4a, so that the vapor is allowed to escape freely and unimpeded from over the liquid. The
Assume now
container
density
will decrease
the vapor over the liquid will neither increase nor decrease as the rate of vaporization is changed. On the other hand, in Fig. 4-46, any
increase in the rate of vaporization will cause an increase in the density and pressure of the vapor
of the vapor is again equal to that of the atmosphere outside of the container. Since the saturation temperature of water at atmospheric pressure is 212 F and since a liquid cannot exist as a liquid at any temperature above
its
its
pressure,
and
result
in
an increase
in
the saturation
temperature.
The reason
that
evident that the water must cool itself from 228 F to 212 F at the instant that the pressure drops from 20 psia to atmospheric
escape of a greater quantity of vapor in a given length of time. Since the size of the vapor outlet
is
To accomplish this cooling, a portion of the liquid will "flash" into a vapor. The
pressure.
latent heat necessary to vaporize the portion of the liquid that flashes into the vapor state is
result
fixed
by the
pressure of the vapor in the vessel will increase until the pressure difference between the inside
supplied by the mass of the liquid and, as a of supplying the vaporizing heat, the
47
S" of liquid
and become
vapor molecules
and
(2)
by
ebullition or "boiling."
The
vaporization of a liquid
by evaporation occurs only at the free surface of the liquid and may take place at any temperature below the saturation temperature.
On the other hand, ebullition both at the free surface place or boiling takes and within the body of the liquid and can occur only at the saturation temperature. Up to this
point,
Water
Fig. 4-5. Evaporation
from surface of a
liquid.
only ebullition
considered.
4-7.
Evaporation.
continually
Evaporation
is
taking
place
and the
fact
that
water
evaporates from lakes, rivers, ponds, clothes, etc., is sufficient evidence that evaporation can and does occur at temperatures below the
saturation temperature.
than others. Liquids havingthelowest "boiling" points, that is, the lowest saturation temperature for a given pressure, evaporate at the highest
rate.
to the
temperature, will
increases
In general, the rate of vaporization as the temperature of the liquid increases and as the pressure over the liquid decreases. Evaporation increases also with the
vaporization of liquids at temperatures below their saturation temperature can be explained in this manner. The molecules of a
The
and rapid motion, their determined by the temperature of the liquid. In the course of their movements the molecules are continually colliding with one
another and, as a result of these impacts, some of the molecules of the liquid momentarily attain velocities much higher than the average velocity of the other molecules of the mass.
amount of exposed surface. Furthermore, it will be shown later that the rate of evaporation is dependent on the degree of saturation of the vapor which is always adjacent to and above
the liquid.
4-9.
The Cooling
it is
Effect of Evaporation.
the higher velocity molecules (those having the most energy) which escape from the surface of an evaporating liquid, it follows that Since
the average energy of the mass
is thereby reduced and the temperature of the mass lowered. Whenever any portion of a liquid
Thus, their energy is much greater than the average energy of the mass. If this occurs within the body of the liquid, the high velocity molecules quickly lose their extra energy in
subsequent collisions with other molecules. However, if the molecules attaining the higher than normal velocities are near the surface, they may project themselves from the surface of the
liquid
vaporizes,
latent
heat of vaporization must be absorbed by that portion, either from the mass of the liquid, from the surrounding air, or from adjacent
air to
molecules.
Thus, the energy and temperature of the mass are reduced as it supplies the latent heat of vaporization to that portion of the liquid which vaporizes. The temperature of the
objects.
mass
is
reduced to a point
slightly
below that of
escaping from the liquid are diffused throughout the air. They occupy the relatively large spaces which exist between the molecules of the air and
the surrounding media and the temperature difference so established causes heat to flow from the surrounding media into the mass of the
liquid.
become a part of the atmospheric air. 4-8. Rate of Vaporization. For any given temperature, some liquids will evaporate faster
The energy
is
lost
vaporization
48
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Molecules escaping from
surface are carried
Molecules cannot
escape-fall back
into liquid to replace
away
by
is
air
so that evaporation
continuous
those leaving
0.74
in.
Hg
Saturated vapor
ft
below
air
>.
temperature
>
Absolute density
0.001148 Ib/cu
70 F
Saturated liquid
(a)
(b)
Vapor pressure1.13
in.
Hg
ft
Vapor pressure
0.52
in.
Absolute density-
Hg
0.001570 Ib/cu
Absolute density
60' F
Saturated vapor
/ 0.000828
Saturated vapor
60 F
Saturated liquid
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4-6.
any of the liquid remains. The vapor resulting from evaporation is diffused into and carried away by the air. 4-10. Confined Liquid-Vapor Mixtures. When a vapor is confined in a container with a
portion of its
liquid will be saturated.
saturated,
occur.
and no further evaporation will The energy of the liquid will be increased
by the vapor molecules which are returning to the liquid in exactly the same amount that it is diminished by the molecules that are leaving.
Since no further cooling will take place by evaporation, the liquid will assume the temperature of the surrounding air and' heat
transfer
will cease.
If,
that an open container is partially filled with water and is stored where the ambient temperature is 70 F (Fig. 4-6a). The water will be evaporating at 70 F and, as described in the previous section, the vapor molecules leaving
(Fig. 4-66).
80 F, heat transfer will again take place between the surrounding air and the
rises to, say,
of the liquid
is
evaporated.
However,
if
The temperature and average molecular and evaporation will be resumed. The number of
liquid.
the vapor molecules will be unable to escape to the outside and they will collect above theliquid.
Soon the space above the liquid will be so filled with vapor molecules that there will be as many molecules falling back into the liquid as there
are leaving the liquid. librium will be attained,
molecules leaving the liquid will again be greater than the number returning and the density and pressure of the vapor above the liquid will be increased. As the density and pressure of the vapor increase, the saturation
temperature of the liquid increases. Eventually, the saturation temperature reaches 80 F and is equal to the ambient temperature, no
when
49
established.
The
density
be greater than before, the saturation temperature of the liquid-vapor mixture will be higher, and there will be more vapor and less
will
vapor
4-12. Condensation. Condensation of a vapor may be accomplished in several ways: (1) by extracting heat from a saturated vapor, (2) by compressing the vapor while its temperature remains constant, or (3) by some combination of these two methods.
4-13.
cooler surrounding
As
the liquid-vapor
mixture loses heat to the surrounding air, its temperature and average molecular velocity will
be decreased and many of the vapor molecules, lacking sufficient energy to remain in the vapor state, will fall back into the liquid and resume the molecular arrangement of the liquid state; that is, a part of the vapor will condense. The density and pressure of the vapor will be
diminished and the saturation temperature of the mixture will be reduced. When the saturation temperature of the mixture falls to 60 F
will be the same as the ambient temperature and no further heat flow will occur. Equilibrium will have been established and the number of
it
been previously described as one at a condition such that any further cooling will cause a part of the vapor to condense. This is because a vapor cannot exist as a vapor at any temperature below its saturation temperature. When the vapor is cooled, the vapor molecules cannot maintain sufficient energy and velocity to over-
come
the attractive forces of one another and remain as vapor molecules. Some of the molecules, overcome by the attractive forces, will revert to the molecular structure of the
liquid state.
the vapor
is
At
this
new
saturation temperature. If, as in a vapor condenser (Fig. 4-1), more vapor is entering the vessel as the vapor condenses and drains from the vessel as a liquid, the density, pressure, and saturation temperature of the vapor will remain constant and condensation will continue
as long as heat
is
be less than before, the saturation temperaand since a part of the vapor condensed into liquid, there will be more liquid and less vapor comprising the mixture than at
ture will be lower,
the vapor.
Sublimation. It is possible for a substance to go directly from the solid state to the vapor state without apparently passing
Condensing by Increasing the Pressure at a Constant Temperature. When a vapor is compressed at a constant temperature, its volume diminishes and the density of the vapor increases as the molecules of the vapor
4-14.
The
satura-
through the liquid state. Any solid substance will sublime at any temperature below its fusion temperature. Sublimation takes place in a manner similar to evaporation, although
is
reached where
much slower, in that the higher velocity molecules near the surface escape from the mass
into the surrounding air and
the saturation temperature of the vapor is equal to the actual temperature of the vapor. When this occurs, the density of the vapor will be at a
maximum
become vapor
One of the most familiar examples of sublimation is that of solid C0 2 (dry ice), which, at normal temperatures and pressures, sublimes directly from the solid to the vapor
molecules.
of
the
liquid
state.
Thereafter,
condensation will continue as long as compression continues so that the density and
further increased.
Damp wash frozen on the line in the winter time will sublime dry. During freezing
state.
will
vapor is to remain constant, heat must be removed from the vapor during the compression
50
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
not removed from the of the vapor will vapor, the increase and condensation will not occur.
(Section 3-25). If heat
temperature
cause they can actually be measured. Enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy cannot be measured.
They must be
calculated
of Sections 4-13 and 4-14 will show that in either case the vapor is brought to a saturated condition before condensation begins and that heat is removed from the vapor in order to bring about condensation.
A careful analysis
follows.
Furthermore, the vapor is saturated in each case only when the saturation temperature and the actual temperature of the vapor are the
same.
4-18.
Enthalpy.
Enthalpy
is
calculated
property of matter which is sometimes loosely defined as "total heat content." More specifiof a given mass of material thermodynamic condition is an expression of the total heat which must be
cally, the
enthalpy
In Section 4-13, heat is removed from the vapor at a constant pressure until the temperature of the vapor falls to the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure, whereupon the continued removal of heat causes a part of
the vapor to condense.
at
any
specified
to the specified condition from some initial condition arbitrarily taken as the zero point of
enthalpy.
In Section 4-14, the pressure of the vapor is increased while the temperature of the vapor remains constant until the saturation temperature of the vapor corresponding to the increased
Whereas the
enthalpy of
M pounds,
1 lb.
total enthalpy
H represents the
it is
is
the enthalpy of
Since
usually the
pressure
is
the vapor. In both cases, since the vapor must give up the latent heat of vaporization in order
to condense, heat must be
which is of interest, hereafter in this text the term enthalpy shall be used to mean specific
enthalpy, h, the enthalpy of
1
lb.
Since
little is
vapor.
4-15. Critical
Temperature.
The tempera-
the other properties of materials at low temperatures, it is not possible to determine absolute
values for the calculated properties.
may be
For
this
reason,
the
amount of pressure
The
critical
temperature of any gas is the highest temperature the gas can have and still be condensible by the application of pressure. The critical temperature is different for every gas. Some
gases have high critical temperatures while the ^critical" temperatures of others are relatively
low. For example, the critical temperature of water vapor is 706 F, whereas the critical temperature of air is approximately -225 F. 4-16. Critical Pressure. Critical pressure is the lowest pressure at which a substance can exist in the liquid state at its critical temperature; ihit is, it is the saturation pressure at the
critical
must be determined from some arbitrarily selected zero point rather than from absolute zero.* For example, the zero point of enthalpy for water and its vapor, steam, is taken as a water at 32 F under atmospheric pressure.
The enthalpy of 1 lb of water at 60 F then is the total amount of heat which must be transferred
to the water in order to raise the temperature of the water from 32 F to 60 F. According to
Equation 2-9, this is 28 Btu (1 x 1 x 28). Hence, based on the assumption that the enthalpy of water is zero at 32 F, the enthalpy of water at 60 F is 28 Btu/lb.
Mathematically, enthalpy
is
defined as
temperature.
44J. Igriportant Properties of Gases and Vapors. Although a gas or vapor has many
properties, only six are of particular importance
Pv
(4-1)
in the study of refrigeration. These are pressure, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy,
and Pressure, temperature, and entropy. volume are called measurable properties be-
* Since it is required to know the change in the enthalpy of the working fluid during a process, rather than the absolute enthalpy at some particular condition, the fact that absolute enthalpy cannot be calculated is of little consequence.
51
s- Final condition
Pressure-volume diagram showing the external work done by fluid expansion as lb of water is vaporized
Fig. 4-7.
I
at
atmospheric
pressur
ft-lb.
approximately 59,000
S
a.
Specific
1 lb
volume of
ft/lb
of steam at 212
26.8 cu
Volume cubic
feet
where h
It
all
the mechanical energy equivalent has been demonstrated (Section 3-12) that the heat transferred to a fluid is not neces-
= = P= v = J =
u
(latent heat
of
F is 970.4 Btu. Of
A PV diagram of
in Fig. 4-7.
is
an increase
In
in the
shown
many
cases,
Entropy.
some part or
fluid passes fluid as
all
The entropy S
through the fluid and leaves the work. In Equation 4-1, that part of the transferred energy which is stored in the fluid as an increase in the internal energy is represented by the term u, whereas that part of the transferred heat which leaves the fluid as work is represented by the term PvjJ. Notice that, although the energy represented by the term PvjJ, does not increase the internal energy of the fluid and is not stored in the fluid, it nevertheless represents energy which must be transferred to the fluid in order to bring the fluid
condition
transferred to the material per degree of absolute temperature to bring the material to that
condition from
Since
some
initial
condition taken as
is
The zero
points of entropy
and enthalpy are the same for any one fluid. Hence, for water and its vapor, steam, the zero
point of entropy
is
to
the
specified
condition
from the
initial
taken as water at 32 F.
Furthermore,
is
even
though
the
fluid,
Again, as in the case of enthalpy, it is the specific entropy s rather than the total entropy
work energy
must pass back through the fluid and be given up by the fluid as the fluid returns to the initial
condition.
F under atmos-
pheric pressure. The volume of 1 lb of water at 212 F is 0.01670 cu ft whereas the volume of 1
which is useful. Therefore, in this book, the term entropy shall be used to mean specific entropy s rather than the total entropy S. It has been shown (Section 3-22) that the mechanical energy or work of a process can be expressed as the product of the change in volume and the average absolute pressure.
Likewise,
it is
steam at 212 F is 26.82 cu ft. Hence, the fluid expands from a volume of 0.0167 cu ft to a volume of 26.82 cu ft during the vaporization thereby doing work in expanding against the
lb of
heat energy transferred during a process as the product of two factors. The concept of entropy
makes
this possible.
trans-
52
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
672*R(212'F + 460)
Fig.
44
g]/
Entropy (Btu/lb/'R)
1.7566 Btu/lb/R
may
itself
equations:
AQ =
a
As x
Tm
(4-2)
However, the entropy of a fluid is not affected by external work done either by or on the fluid. Thus in a
as a result of internal friction.
frictionless (occurring
A <2
(4-3)
*
or external
friction), adiabatic
m
(4-4)
T = lm
where
AC
As
AQ =
As
the heat energy transferred in Btu the change in entropy in Btu per
a refrigeration compressor, the entropy of the remain the same or constant. 4-20. Vapor Tables. It has been stated previously that a vapor does not approach the
in
fluid will
pound per
Tm =
molecular
forces
which
exist
between
the
inR On a pressure-volume diagram (Fig. 4-7), the "area under the curve," which is the product of the change in volume and the average absolute pressure, represents the
Therefore, internal
Similarly,
whenever a vapor undergoes a change of condition so that the various properties of a vapor at the different conditions cannot be determined by applying the laws of ideal
(temperature
the
the product
The properties of vapors at various conditions have been determined by experiment for all common vapors and these data are published in the form of tables. Separate tables are used for
saturated
4-21.
treatment
of
Saturated
entropy
not required in the study of refrigeration and is beyond the scope of this book, it is important to note that according to Equation
is
vapor tables
liquids
when
heat
is
(3)
specific
(5)
volume,
If there is
no
and
entropy
(specific).
Normally,
is listed
is
no change
in the
transfer
may
occur
it
either to or
*
extreme left-hand column. The pressure given in the second and third columns,
The average absolute temperature is not merely the mean of the initial and final temperatures of the process, but is the average of all of the absolute
temperatures through which the process passes.
followed by the specific volume in cubic feet for both the liquid and the vapor in the fourth
and
list
fifth
columns, respectively.
Some
tables
53
Steam
Enthalpy
Volume
Sat.
Sat.
Entropy
Sat. Sat. Sat.
Temp., "F,
t
In.
Hg,
liquid,
P
(2)
P
(3) (4) (5)
h,
hfg
(8)
A.
(9)
s,
(10)
St,
(11)
s.
(12)
(1)
(6)
(7)
11.526
12.011
23.467 24.455
25.475
26.531
0.01663
0.01665
33.62
32.35
33.64
32.37
31.15
167.99 977.9
12.512
13.031
0.01666
0.01667
31.14 29.97
13.568
28.86 27.80
26.78
25.81
176.04 972.9
178.05 971.6
14.123
14.696
15.289
15.901
26.80
25.83
180.07 970.3
182.08 969.0
0.01674 0.01676
0.01677
24.88
24.90
24.01
184.10 967.8
186.11 966.5
16.533
33.662 34.992
36.365
23.99
23.13
22.31
220 222 224 226 228 230 240 250 260 270
17.186
17.861
0.01679
18.557
19.275
37.782
0.01680
0.01682
0.01683
21.53
1154.8 0.3298 1.4080 1.7378 1155.5 0.3328 1.4020 1.7348 1156.3 0.3357 1.3961 1.7318
20.78
20.79 20.07
C2O.O160
20.780 24.969
29.825 35.429 41.858
20.06
196.20 960.1
0.01684 0.01692
16.306 16.323 208.34 952.2 13.804 13.821 218.48 945.5 11.746 11.763 228.64 938.7
0.01700
0.01709
0.01717
72.134
85.225
Fig. 4-9.
Properties of Steam
specific
volume.
specific
is
given
and
volume is wanted, the specific is determined by dividing the density into one. Likewise, when the specific volume is given and the density is wanted, the density is found by dividing the specific volume into one
(Section 3-4).
temperature indicated; and (3) the enthalpy of the vapor (h g ), which is the sum of the enthalpy of the liquid (hf) and the enthalpy of vaporization (hfa). For example, the enthalpy of the liquid (hf) for water at 212 F under atmospheric
is 180 Btu (1 x 1 x 180), whereas the enthalpy of the saturated water vapor at 212 F under atmospheric pressure is 1050 Btu, which
pressure
Three values for enthalpy h are usually given in the saturated vapor tables: (1) the enthalpy of the liquid (ht), which is the heat
required to raise the temperature of the liquid from the temperature at the assumed zero point
is
Two
of enthalpy to the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the liquid; (2) the
enthalpy of vaporization (hfg), which
is
and
s g , the
entropy
the
of the vapor, the difference between the two being the change in entropy during vaporization.
54
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Abs. Pressure 38
lb/in.*
Abs. Pressure 40
lb/in. 2
Abs. Pressure 42
lb/in. 2
Temp. Gage Pressure 21.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 23.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 25.3 lb/in. 8 Gage Pressure 27.3 lb/in. 8 F (Sat. Temp. 23.2 F) (Sat. Temp. 28.5 F) (Sat. Temp. 20.4 F) (Sat. Temp. 25.9 F)
/
H
81.90 83.35
84.81 86.27 87.74
H
81.82 83.27
84.72 86.19 87.67 89.16 90.66 92.17 93.69 95.22 96.76 98.32 99.89 101.47 103.07 104.67 106.29
107.93 109.57 111.22 112.89 114.58
(at
sat'n)
30 40
1.140 1.168 1.196 1.223 1.250 1.278 1.305 1.332 1.359 1.386 1.412 1.439
1.465 1.492 1.518 1.545 1.571 1.597 1.623 1.650 1.676 1.702
0.967
0.991 1.016 1.040 1.063 1.087 1.110
50
60 70 80 90
89.22
90.71
1.070 1.095 1.120 1.144 1.169 1.194 1.218 1.242 1.267 1.291
1.315 1.340 1.364 1.388 1.412 1.435 1.459 1.482 1.506
84.56 0.17521 86.03 0.17806 87.51 0.18086 89.00 0.18365 90.50 0.18640
92.01 93.54 95.09 96.64
100
110 120 130 140
92.22
93.75 95.28 96.82 98.37 99.93 101.51 103.11 104.72 106.34
107.97 109.61 111.27 112.94 114.62
116.31
1.134 1.158 1.181 1.204 1.227 1.250 1.274 1.297 1.320 1.343
1.365 1.388 1.411 1.434 1.457
1.387 1.412 1.437 1.462 1.487 1.512 1.537 1.562 1.587 1.612 1.637 1.662 1.687 1.712 1.737
1.530
1.554 1.577 1.601 1.625 1.649
1.673
116.19 0.22728 117.90 0.22967 119.62 0.23204 121.36 0.23441 123.11 0.23675
1.762
0.24083
124.92
0.23994
124.87
0.23909
Fig. 4-10.
Copyright by
E.
I.
Reprinted by permission.
It
and reading across the table, the values by the heavy lines) for all the other properties of the vapor at this condition can be
Fig. 4-9
(set off
pressure, there
fluid
a saturated liquid or vapor at any one is only one temperature that the can have and still satisfy the conditions of
obtained.
4-22.
A super-
This is true also for the other of a saturated liquid or vapor. Therefore, if any one property of a saturated liquid or vapor is known, the value of the other
saturation.
properties
from the satuFor instance, assume that the pressure of one pound of dry saturated steam is 20 psia. By locating 20 psia (encircled) in the second column of the abbreviated table in
properties can be read directly
a superheated vapor rather than those of a saturated vapor, and the arrangement of a superheated vapor table is somewhat different from that of a saturated vapor table. One common form of the superheated vapor table is
illustrated in Fig. 4-10.
examining the superheated vapor important to take note of one significant difference between a saturated and a
Before
it
table,
is
55
(d)
(e)
in the
vapor in
vapor at any one pressure there is only one temperature which will satisfy the conditions of saturation, a superheated vapor may have any temperature above the saturation temperature Corresponding to
its
The change
superheating
in
(/)
The change
heating
pressure.
The
specific
volume, enthalpy, and entropy of a superheated vapor at any one pressure will vary with the
temperature.
Solution
(a)
This does not mean that the properties of a superheated vapor are entirely independent of the pressure of the vapor but only that the properties of the superheated
From
the head of
40 psia
=
body of
(first
itali-
25.9
vapor at any one pressure will vary with the temperature. As a matter of fact, superheated vapor tables are based on the pressure of the vapor, and before the properties of a superheated vapor can be determined from a table, the
pressure of the vapor or one
From
the
cized),thespecific
volume
tion
of the properties
of the vapor at saturation must be known. When one of the properties of the vapor at
saturation
=
=
the
1.009 cu ft/lb
known, the pressure of the vapor can be found by consulting a saturated vapor
is
81.16 Btu/lb
The entropy of
tion
(b)
table.
vapor at satura-
In addition to the properties of the superheated vapor at various temperatures above the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure, superheated vapor tables usually list some or all of the properties of the vapor at the saturation temperature. For example, in Fig. 4-10, the absolute and gage pressures, along
=
the
0.16914 Btu/lb/
From
body
(offset
by
with the saturation temperature corresponding to these pressures, are given at the head of
the table.
enthalpy,
heavy
4-10)
lines in Fig.
the specific
volume
The
first
table (italicized)
lists
and the entropy of the vapor at saturation. The specific volume, enthalpy, and
= = =
0.17612 Btu/lb/
entropy of the superheated vapor at various temperatures above the saturation temperature make up the body of the table. Notice that the temperature of the superheated vapor, given in the extreme left-hand column, is listed in 10 F
increments.
= =
50.0
F F
25.9
= 24.1F
Example
4-1.
Refrigerant-12 vapor is at a temperature of 50 F and its pressure is 40 psia. From the abbreviated table in Fig. 4-10, determine: (a) The temperature, volume, enthalpy, and entropy of the vapor at saturation (fc) The volume, enthalpy, and entropy of the
(c)
vapor
=
=
84.65 Btu/lb
81.16 Btu/lb
The
amount
of
superheat in the
vapor in Btu
3.49 Btu/lb
56
(e)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
= =
0.17612 Btu/lb/R
= =
1.070 cu ft/lb
R
R
tion
1.009 cu ft/lb
The
change
in
The change
in vol-
ume
0.00698 Btu/lb/
0.061 cu ft/lb
air
The volume occupied by any given weight of depends upon the pressure and temperature
of the air, and varies inversely with the barometric pressure and directly with the absolute
temperature. Air very nearly approaches the condition of an ideal gas and will follow the gas laws with sufficient accuracy for all practical
Therefore, the volume occupied by any given weight of air at any given pressure and temperature can be determined by applying Equation 3-10.
purposes.
5
Psych rometric Properties of Air
Example 5-1. Determine the volume occupied by 1 lb of air having a temperature of 70 F at standard sea level pressure (14.7 psia).
Solution.
Rearranging
y_
MxR
P
1
x x
53.3
(70
5-1.
+ 460)
x 144
ft
Air is a mechaand water vapor. Dry air (air without water vapor) is composed chiefly of nitrogen (approximately 78% by volume) and oxygen (approximately 21 %), the remaining 1 % being made up of carbon dioxide and minute quantities of other gases, such as
nical mixture of gases
Composition of Air.
14.7
=
Example
air in
13.34 cu
5-2.
Example
12.6 psia.
Solution. Applying Equation 3-10,
1
x
(70
12.6
53.3
hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, etc. With regard to these dry air components, the comof the air is practically the same everywhere. On the other hand, the amount of water vapor in the air varies greatly with the
position
V=
460)
x 144
=
Example 5-3.
air in
is
15.57 cu ft
Example
and with the weather conSince the water vapor in the air results primarily from the evaporation of water from
particular locality
ditions.
100 F.
1
x 53.3 x
the surface of various bodies of water, atmospheric humidity (water vapor content) is
greatest in regions located near large bodies of
K= =
(100
14.7
+ 460)
x 144
ft
14.10 cu
water and
Since
certain
is less
in the
more
arid regions.
all air in
amount
relationship between the volume and the weight of a given quantity of air at any condition is expressed by the following equations:
The
V=
Mxv
v
air in
(5-1)
is
M
where
V =-
(5-2)
Hereafter in this
used to denote air without water vapor, whereas the term "air" is used to mean the natural mixture of "dry air" and water vapor. 5-2. Air Quantities. Air quantities may be stated either in units of volume (cubic feet) or in units of weight (pounds) so that the need for
converting air
quantities
M = the weight of
V=
v
the volume of
M pounds of
pounds
air in
cubic feet
= the
specific
volume of the
air in
Example
95
is
58
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
partial
volume of the
air is 14.38 cu ft/lb, determine the weight of air passing over the coil in pounds per hour.
pressures
exerted
by
the
individual
gases or vapors.
Air, being a mechanical mixture of gases and water vapor, obeys Dalton's law. Therefore, the total barometric pressure is always equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the dry gases
Solution. Applying Equation 5-2, the weight of air passing over the
M _ 14.38
=
139.2 lb/min
2000
cooling coil
Multiplying by 60 min
M-
and the
139.1
x 60
8346 lb/hr
is the study of the properties of air as affected by the water vapor content,
Since psychrometry
5-3.
partial exerted by Standard Air. Because of the difference the individual dry gases are unimportant and, for all practical in the volume of any given weight of air at -purposes, the total barometric pressure may be various temperatures and pressures, an air
pressures
the
standard has been established for use in the rating of air handling equipment so that all
considered to be the
sum
equipment is rated at equal conditions. Dry air having a specific volume of 1 3.34 cu ft per pound or a density of 0.07496 (0.075) lb per cu ft (1/13.34) is defined as standard air. Air at a temperature of 70 F and at standard sea level pressure has this specific volume and density
(see
and
5-5.
vapor.
Dew
Point Temperature.
im-
the air
this
Example 5-1).
is the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. Since all of the components in a gaseous mixture are at the same temperature, it follows that when air is at any temperature above the saturation temperature
temperature
where
Vs = Va =
corresponding to the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor the water vapor in the air will
given condition
v a =* the specific
v,
volume of the
air at the
given condition
be superheated. On the other hand, when air is at a temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapor, the water vapor in the air is saturated and the air is said to be saturated (actually it is only the water vapor which is saturated). The temperature at which
the water vapor in the air
as the
is
saturated
is
Example
known
Ob-
For the
air in
dew
air.
dew
air.
Solution.
Applying
Equation
alent
2000 x 14.38
13.34
volume of standard
airK,
5-4.
=
Law
of
2155 cfm
always the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor. Hence, when the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor is known, the dew point temperature of the air can be determined
Dalton's
Partial
Pressure.
tables.
Likewise,
when
the
dew
Dalton's law of partial pressures states in effect that in any mechanical mixture of gases and
point temperature of the air is known, the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor can
vapors (those which do not combine chemically) (1) each gas or vapor in the mixture exerts an individual partial pressure which is equal to the pressure that the gas would exert if it occupied the space alone and (2) the total pressure of the gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the
Example
of
air
59
be saturated.
It is
greater
content.
5-7.
the
maximum
Example 5-7. certain quantity of air has a temperature of 80 F and a dew point temperature of 40 F. Determine the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor in the air.
Solution. From Table 4-1, the saturation pressure corresponding to 40 F is 0.12170 psia and therefore 0.12170 psia is the partial pressure
Absolute Humidity.
is
in the air
called humidity.
air at any given condition is denned as the actual weight of water vapor contained in 1 cu ft of air at that condition. Since the weight of water vapor contained in the air is relatively small, it is often measured in grains rather than in pounds (7000 grains equal
humidity of the
pressure
has been shown (Section 4-5) that the exerted by any vapor is directly
lib).
5-8.
The Psychrometric
Tables.
It
was
of
shown
volume) of the vapor. Since the dew point temperature of the air depends only on the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor, it follows that, for any given volume of air, the dew point temperature of the air depends only upon the weight of water vapor in the air. As long as the weight of water vapor in the air
remains unchanged, the dew point temperature of the air will also remain unchanged. If the amount of water vapor in the air is increased or
water vapor contained in a unit volume of air is solely a function of the dew point temperature
of the air. Because of this fixed relationship between the dew point temperature and the absolute humidity of the air, when the value of one
readily
is
dew
dew point temperature of the air be increased or decreased, respectively. Increasing the amount of water vapor in the air will increase the pressure exerted by the water
decreased, the
will also
and The dew point temperatures are listed in column (1) of the tables, and the absolute humidity corresponding to each of the dew point temperatures is given in columns (4) and The values given in column (4) are in (5).
point temperatures
5-2.
in Tables 5-1
vapor and raise the dew point temperature. Likewise, reducing the amount of water vapor in the air will reduce the pressure of the water vapor and lower the dew point temperature.
5-6.
be contained in any given volume of air depends only upon the temperature of the air. Since the amount of water vapor in the air determines the partial pressure exerted by the water vapor, it
is
pounds of water vapor per cubic foot of air, whereas the values given in column (5) are in grains of water vapor per cubic foot of air. Too, the partial pressure (saturation pressure) of the vapor corresponding to each dew point temperature is given in inches of mercury in column (2) and in pounds per square inch in
column (3).
5-9.
maximum
Since
the
Relative Humidity. Relative humidity (RH), expressed in percent, is the ratio of the actual weight of water vapor per cubic foot of air relative to the weight of water vapor contained in a cubic foot of saturated air at the
corresponding to
contain the
its
maximum
when
is
= ...
At
-z
100
this condition
dew point temperature will be one and the same and the air
the temperature of the air and the
same temperature
60
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION much
a certain temperature water vapor per
relative
For
instance, if air at
temperature
if it
at
any given
as the total
humidity of the air is 50%. The relative humidity of saturated air, of course, is 100%.
barometric pressure decreases and decreases as the total barometric pressure increases. The
Air at a temperature of 80 F has a dew point temperature of 50 F. Determine the relative humidity.
5-8.
Example
is
easily explained.
5-1
It
has been
shown (Examples
and
volume
occupied by 1 lb of air increases as the total barometric pressure decreases. Since the density
of a vapor varies inversely with the volume,
to produce a given vapor density
it
Solution.
From
and vapor
4.106 grains/cu
ft
increases.
1
vapor
of saturated
80
air at
_ =
4.106
11,04
37.1
x 1/MV 100
Percentage
is
Humidity.
Percentage
humidity
%
relative
Example
5-9.
Determine the
:
hu-
air to the
midity of the air in Example 5-8, if the air is cooled to 60 F. (Note the dew point temperature of the air does not change because the moisture content does not change.)
Solution.
saturate completely
same
humidity,
is
From Table
is associated with the weight of water vapor per unit weight of air, whereas relative humidity is associated with the
air.
= = _
4.106 grains/cu ft
5.795 grains/cu ft
For
Absolute humidity of
saturated air at 60
reason the percentage humidity varies with the total barometric pressure, whereas
this
relative
4.106
5.795
= 70.8%
Humidity. The specific humidand
is,
Example 5-10. Air at standard sea level pressure has a temperature of 80 F and a dew point temperature of 50 F. Determine the specific humidity and percentage humidity of the air.
Solution.
with
lb of dry air
is
usually stated in
From Table
air.
a function of
dew point temperature alone. The specific humidity of air at various dew point temperaColumns 6 and 7 of Tables 5-1 and 5-2. In Column 6, the specific humidity is given in pounds of water vapor per pound of dry air, whereas in Column 7 the specific humidity is given in grains of water vapor per pound of
tuies
is listed
53.38 grains/lb
in
humidity of
air
saturated
at
80
F
155.50 grains/lb
53.38
(Column
7)
Percentage humidity
x 100
155.50
dry
air.
34.3%
Note. Compare
this value
point temperature varies with the total barometric pressure, the values
dew
61
Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb TemperaThe dry bulb (DB) temperature of
the
tures.
When measuring the dry bulb temperature of the air, the bulb of the thermometer should be shaded to reduce the effects
dry bulb thermometer. of direct radiation. The wet bulb (WB) temperature of the air is the temperature as measured by a wet bulb ther-
Swivel connection
mometer. A wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer whose bulb is enclosed in a wetted cloth sac or wick. To obtain an accurate reading with a wet bulb thermometer, the wick should be wetted with clean water at approximately the dry bulb temperature of the air and the air velocity around the wick should be maintained between 1000 and 2000 ft per minute. As a practical matter, this velocity can be simulated in still air by whirling the thermometer about on the end of a chain. An instrument especially designed for this purpose is the sling psychrometer (Fig. 5-1). The sling psychrometer is made up of two thermometers, one dry bulb and one wet bulb, mounted side by side in a protective case which is attached to a handle by a swivel connection so that the case can be easily rotated about the hand. After saturating the wick with
clean water, the instrument
is
.Dry bulb
"thermometer
Wet bulb
thermometer
Wetted wick
whirled rapidly in
Fig. 5-1. Sling psychrometer.
time readings can be taken from both the dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers. The process
should be repeated several times to assure that the lowest possible wet bulb temperature has been recorded. Unless the air is 100 saturated, in which case the dry bulb, wet bulb, and dew point tempera-
any given dry bulb temperature, the lower the moisture content of the air, the lower is the wet
bulb temperature. The reason for this
explained.
is easily
be one and the same, the temperature recorded by a wet bulb thermometer will always be lower than the dry bulb temperature of the air. The amount by which the wet bulb temperature is reduced below the dry bulb temperature depends upon the relative humidity of the air and is called the wet bulb
tures of the air will
When unsaturated air is brought into contact with water, water will evaporate into the air at a
rate proportional to the difference in pressure
depression.
affected
Whereas a dry bulb thermometer, being unby humidity, measures only the actual
between the vapor pressure of the water and the vapor pressure of the air. Hence, when a wet bulb thermometer is whirled rapidly about in unsaturated air, water will evaporate from the wick, thereby cooling the water remaining in the wick (and the thermometer bulb) to some temperature below the dry bulb temperature of the
air. It is important to recognize the fact that the wet bulb temperature of the air is a measure of the relationship between the dry bulb and dew point temperatures of the air, and as such it provides a convenient means of determining the dew point temperature of the air when the dry
temperature of the air, a wet bulb thermometer, because of its wetted wick, is greatly influenced
by the moisture
between the dry bulb temperature of the air and the moisture content of the air. In general, for
62
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
bulb temperature
known.
Too,
it
will
be
and the
any
shown later that the wet bulb temperature is also an index of the total heat content of the air. In order to understand why the wet bulb temperature is a measure of the relationship between
the dry bulb and dew point temperatures, a knowledge of the theory of the wet bulb thermometer
required. When water evaporates from the wick of a wet bulb thermometer, heat must be
is
condition
the
sum
The sensible heat of the air is a function of the For any given dry bulb
is
taken
as the enthalpy of dry air at that temperature as calculated from 0 F. Air sensible heat at various
temperatures
in
is
wick
is
Before the temperature of the water in the reduced below the dry bulb temperature
air,
is
Column 10 of Tables 5-1 and 5-2. With regard to Column 10, the temperatures listed in Column
1
of the water
in the
the water
Therefore, as water
Example
5-1
1.
Using Table
5-2,
determine
ture of the
From Table
of
1
and heat begins to flow from the air to the wick. Under this condition, a part of the vaporization heat is being supplied by the air while the other part is supplied by the
differential is established
lb
F
of
air,
For 10
lb
the sen-
sible heat at 80
F
sensible
= = =
19.19 Btu/lb
10 x 19.19
191 .9 Btu
water in the wick. As the temperature of the wick continues to decrease, the temperature
difference between the air
The quantity of
removed
air
in
heat
added or
progressively so that
through a given temperature range may be computed by applying Equation 2-8. The mean
specific heat
vaporization heat
is
is
0.24
and
less is
When
reduced to
temperature difference
or gas varies somewhat with the temperature mean specific heat value is
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes.)
between the air and the "wick is such that the flow of heat from the air is sufficient to supply all of the vaporizing heat, the temperature of the wick will stabilize even though vaporization from the wick continues. The temperature at which the wick stabilizes is called the temperature of adiabatic saturation and is the wet bulb temperature of the air.
Example 5-12. Compute the quantity of sensible heat required to raise the temperature of 10 lb of air from 0 F to 80 F.
Solution.
Applying
Equation
2-8,
Qs
From
Through
it
Alternate Solution.
can be seen that the wet bulb temperature depends upon both the dry bulb temperature and the amount of water vapor in the air. For example, the lower the relative humidity of the
air,
= = = = = =
19.19 Btu/lb
lb of
Btu/lb
19.19
the greater
is
For
lb of air,
the
amount of heat
For 10
Qa
Q,
-0
19.19 Btu/lb
required for vaporization. Obviously, the greater the need for heat, the greater is the wet bulb depression below the dry bulb temperature. Too,
it
lb of air,
10 x 19.19
191.9 Btu
of
Air.
Since all the components of dry air are noncondensable at normal temperatures and pressures, for all practical purposes the only latent heat in the air is the latent heat of the water vapor in the air. Therefore, the amount of
63
upon upon
pound of dry
50
air at
F DP
Since the saturation temperature of the water vapor is the dew point temperature of the air,
point temperature determines not only the weight of water vapor in the air but also the value of the latent heat of vaporization. Hence, the
1081.7
the
sum of the
dew
and
total heat
is
of the
in
the
sum of the
the latent heat content of the air the dew point temperature alone.
is
a function of
computed computed
Example Example
and the
latent heat
air,
As long as the
as
dew
from Example
5-12
191.9 Btu
and
5-2.
include the sensible heat of the liquid above 32 F as well as the latent heat of
11
Column
Latent heat of water vapor mixed with 10 lb of dry air at 50 F DP, from Example 5-13
Total heat of 10 lb of air at 70 F DB and 50 F DP*
5-14.
82.5
Btu
common
water vapor
The
of air can be computed by multiplying the actual weight of water vapor in the air in pounds by the total heat of the water vapor as given in Column
11
Example 5-13. Compute the latent heat content of the air in Example 5-12, if the dew point temperature of the air is 50 F.
Solution.
of Total Heat. It has been shown in preceding sections that the sensible heat of the air (the heat content of the dry air) is a function of the dry bulb temperature and that the latent heat of the air (the heat content of the water vapor mixed with the dry air) is a function of the dew point temperature. Since, for any given combination of dry bulb and dew point temperatures,
the wet bulb temperature of the air can have only
From
Table 5-2, the actual weight of water vapor per pound of dry air (specific humidity) at
50
F DP (Column 6) F
0.007626 lb
(Column
*
11)
=
sum
1081.7 Btu/lb
one value, it is evident that the wet bulb temperature is an index of the total heat content of the air. However, it is important to recognize that although there is only one wet bulb temperature that will satisfy any given combination of dry bulb and dew point temperatures, there are many combinations of dry bulb and dew point temperatures which will have the same wet bulb temperature (see Fig. 5-2). This means in effect that different samples of air having the same wet
*
any conof the sensible and latent heat contained therein, as a practical matter it is more convenient to consider the total enthalpy of the air as being the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the water vapor mixed with the dry Since the amount of sensible heat is comair. Although the
is
The
dition
the
excess of 10 lb, being 10 lb of dry air plus the weight of water vapor (0.007626 lb) mixed with the dry air.
is
the
as that of the dry air (70 F), the water vapor contains a certain amount of superheat (50 F to
same
paratively
small,
assuming
heat
is
is not included in the total heat. Howboth of these values are very small, the error incurred by neglecting them has no practical
70 F) which
ever, since
significance.
64
PRINCIPLES
Temperature,
OF REFRIGERATION
Heat Content, Btu/lb
F
Wet
Bulb
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Dry
Bulb 60
65 70 75 80 85
Dew
Point
humidity of the air is known, the specific volume of partially saturated air at any condition can be
Sensible
14.39 15.59 16.79 17.99 19.19
Latent
11.98 10.78 9.58 8.38 7.18 5.98 4.78
Total
26.37 26.37 26.37 26.37 26.37 26.37 26.37
60 57
53.5
v*
vd )
%RH]
(5-5)
50
45.5 40.5 34.5
90
20.39 21.59
where va
vd
= = =
the
specific
volume of
partially
saturated air the specific volume of dry air at the same temperature the specific volume of saturated air at the same temperature
vol-
Fig. 5-2
vs
bulb temperature have the same total heat, even though the ratio of sensible to latent heat may be
different for the different samples.
Example 5-15. Compute the specific ume of air at 95 F DB and 50% RH.
Solution.
5-2, specific
The
temperatures in
5-2 are for
1
Column
From Table
volume of F (Column
dry air at 95
8)
Specific
ture shown.
However, since
samples of
air,
=
volume of
3.97
cu
ft/lb
same wet
bulb temperature have the same total heat, the Column 12 will apply to any sample of air when the temperatures listed in Column 1 are used as wet bulb temperatures. 100 lb of air having an initial wet bulb temperature of 78 F are cooled to a final wet bulb temperature of 60 F, determine the total heat removed from the air during the cooling process.
If
saturated air at 95
(Column
5-5, va
9)
Applying Equation
= = =
Example
14.38 cu ft/lb
5-14.
5-16. The Psychrometric Chart. Psychrometric charts (Fig. 5-3) are graphical representations of psychrometric data such as those
Solution.
From Table
of
1
lb of
contained in Tables 5-1 and 5-2. The use of psychrometric charts permits graphical analysis of psychrometric data and thereby facilitates the
solution of many practical problems dealing with
air which would otherwise require tedious mathe-
WB (Column 12) WB
Q
12)
63.05 Btu/lb
matical calculation.
Basically, the psychrometric chart
shows the
relationship between four fundamental properties of air: (1) dry bulb temperature, (2) dew point temperature, (3) wet bulb temperature, and (4) relative humidity. When any two of these four properties are known, the other two can be
pound of air,
total heat
For 1001b of
air,
the
t
removed,
has already been shown that the volume occupied by a given weight of air depends upon the temperature of
the air and
5-15. Specific
Volume of Air.
determined directly from the psychrometric chart without using mathematical calculations.
upon the
The skeleton chart in Fig. 5-4 illustrates the general construction of the psychrometric chart which is based primarily upon the relationship
that exists between the aforementioned four pro-
volume of
lb of dry air at various temperatures is listed in Column 8 of Tables 5-1 and 5-2. The volume
Notice that the lines of dry bulb temperature are vertical while the lines of dew point
perties.
of 1 lb of saturated air (1 lb of dry air and the water vapor to saturate it) is listed for various
temperatures in
temperature are horizontal. The lines of wet bulb temperature run diagonally across the chart
as
Column
9.
When
the relative
do
The curved
65
From Example
5-16,
pound of
per
the line of
that
called
&
Example 5-18.
If the air in
volume and
relative
cooled to 75 F, determine: (a) The final dew point temperature (b) The final wet bulb temperature (c) The final relative humidity (d) The final total heat per pound
Values of specific humidity and vapor pressure are given on the right and left margins of the chart. For any given air condition, the specific
corresponding to the dew point temperature can be determined by following the dew point temperature line to the specific humidity and vapor
pressure scales.
any wet bulb temperature is found by following the wet bulb lines to the total heat scale above the saturation curve. The following example will
illustrate the
below the point temperature, no moisture is removed from the air. Therefore, the specific humidity, dew point temperature, and latent heat of the air remain unchanged. Hence, the initial dew point temperature and the new dry bulb temperature can be used as coordinates to locate the new condition of the air on the psychrometric chart (point in Fig. 5-6). The following properties of the air at the new condition are taken from the psychrometric chart as indicated in Fig. 5-6: (a) Wet bulb temperature = 71.4 F = 85 (b) Relative humidity (c) Total heat per pound = 35.69 Btu/lb
Solution. Since the air is not cooled
initial
dew
Example 5-16.
temperature of 77 F. From the psychrometric chart determine all of the following values: (1) dew point temperature, (2) specific humidity,
(3)
Example 5-19. With respect to Fig. 5-6, in cooling the air from condition "A," as described in Example 5-16, to condition "B," as described
in
(a)
vapor pressure,
(4) specific
volume,
(5) total
heat,
and
Example 5-18, compute: The total heat removed per pound of air (b) The sensible heat removed per pound of
air.
Solution.
Solution.
(a)
the air as coordinates the condition of the air can be established as a point on the chart. Once this point has been established, the other properties of the air at this condition can be read
directly
From Example
heat at
5-16,
air total
A
air
= 40.50 Btu/lb =
35.69 Btu/lb
5-5, viz:
B
removed
of
air
Dew
70
F
grains/lb
The
per
in
total heat
Specific humidity
=110
pound
cooling
from
toB
(b) Since there is
the
Example 5-17.
determine:
air
no change in the latent heat of the sensible heat removed per pound of air is equal to the total heat removed
air,
per
pound of air.
5-20.
and
Example
Assume
that
the air in
Solution,
(a)
From Table
1
5-2,
en-
thalpy of at 95 F
lb of dry air
DB, Q,
= 22.80 Btu/lb
Example 5-16 is cooled to 40 F and determine: (a) The total heat removed per pound (b) The sensible heat removed per pound (c) The latent heat removed per pound.
66
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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68
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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70
PRINCIPLES
Solution.
OF REFRIGERATION
min
(cfm).
If the specific
Since the air is cooled below the point temperature, moisture will be condensed out of the air and the air at the final condition will be saturated. Therefore, the dry bulb temperature, the dew point temperature, and the wet bulb temperature will coincide at 40 F and the relative humidity of the air will be 100%. On the psychrometric chart, the condition of the air falls on the saturation curve at 40 F (point B in Fig. 5-7).
dew
14.10 cu
ft/lb,
volume of the air is compute the weight of air passing in pounds per hour.
Ans. 4255 lb/hr
the equivalent volume of standard air for the conditions of Problem 4. Ans. 946 cfm
Compute
(a)
From
the psychromet-
Compute the quantity of sensible heat required to raise the temperature of 10 lb of air from a temperature of 35 F to a temperature of 100 F. Ans. 156 Btu
6.
40.50 Btu/lb
air
=15.19 Btu/lb
40.50
80 lb of air having an initial wet bulb temperature of 80 F are cooled to a final wet bulb temperature of 65 F, determine the total heat removed from the air during the cooling process. Ans. 1085.6 Btu
7. If
The
(b)
total heat
removed
15.19
per pound
=
heat
re-
25.31 Btu/lb
the
air
(c)
moved
The
per
pound of
heat
re-
latent
removed
of air
per
pound
= Q - Q, = 25.31 13.20
t
certain quantity of air has "a dry bulb temperature of 90 F and a wet bulb temperature of 77 F. From the psychrometric chart determine all of the following values: (a) dew point temperature, (>) specific humidity, (c) vapor pressure, (d) specific volume, (e) total heat, and (/) relative humidity. Ans. (a) 72.3 F; (6) 119.5 gpp; (c) 0.395 psia;
8.
(a")
58%
=12.11 Btu/lb
9.
Assume that
is
cooled to
75
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the volume occupied by 1 lb of air having a temperature of 80 F at standard sea Ans. 13.59 cu ft level pressure.
determine: dew point temperature Ans. 72.3 F Ans. 73 F (b) the final wet bulb temperature Ans. 92 (c) the final relative humidity id) the final total heat per pound of air Ans. 36.6 Btu/lb
F and
2.
if
Compute the volume of the air in Problem 1 the barometric pressure is 13.5 psia. Ans. 14.80 cu ft
Determine the volume of the air in Problem
the temperature of the air
is
1
10.
Assume
Problem 8
is
cooled
to 55
F and
pound of air
3.
if
ft
4.
Air at a temperature of 90 F is circulated over a cooling coil at the rate of 1000 cu ft per
Ans. 17.2 Btu/lb heat removed per pound of air Ans. 8.40 Btu/lb (c) the latent heat removed per pound of air Ans. 8.8 Btu/lb
is
the
sum of the
space through the insulated walls, the heat that door openings, and the
6
Refrigeration
heat that must be removed from the refrigerated product in order to reduce the temperature of the product to the space or storage conditions. Heat given off by people working in the refrigerated space
electrical
and by motors,
lights,
and other
Methods of
6-4.
Compression System
The
Refrigerating Agent.
called the
may be
upon
classified as
the refrigerant.
When
6-1.
is
Refrigeration.
In general, refrigeration
denned as any process of heat removal. More specifically, refrigeration is denned as that branch of science which deals with the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a space or material below the temperature of the
surroundings.
process
To accomplish this, heat must be removed from the body being refrigerated and transferred to another body whose temperature is below that of the refrigerated body. Since the heat removed from the refrigerated body is transferred to another body, it is evident that refrigerating and heating are actually opposite ends of the same
process.
With either process, if the refrigeratingeffectisto be continuous, the temperature of the refrigerating agent must be maintained continuously
below that of the space or material being
refrigerated.
To
32
illustrate,
is
assume that
lb of water at
distin-
For a time, heat will flow from into the 32 F water and the
for Thermal Insulation. Since heat will always travel from a region of high temperature to a region of lower temperature, there is always a continuous flow of heat into
6-2.
Need
temperature of the space will decrease. Howeach one Btu of heat that the water absorbs from the space, the temperature of the water will increase 1 F, so that as the temperaever, for
warmer
sur-
roundings.
To
refrigerated region to
it is
some
practical
minimum, from
the water and the space will be exactly die same and no heat transfer will take place. Refrigeration will not be continuous because the temperature of the refrigerant does not remain
its
below the
material.
6-3. The Heat Load. The rate at which heat must be removed from the refrigerated space or
71
temperature of the space being refrigerated. Now assume that 1 lb of ice, also at 32 F, is substituted for the water (Fig. 6-2). This time
72
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Insulation
by heat conducted to
it
from these
materials.
expands and rises to the top of the space carrying the heat with it to the ice compartment. In passing over the ice the air is cooled as heat is conducted from the air to the ice. On cooling, the air becomes more dense and falls back into the storage space, whereupon it absorbs more heat and the cycling continues.
air is
it
As the
warmed
To
Heat leaking through insulation
be located near
from warm space to cold water. Water temperature rises as space temperature
Fig. 6-1. Heat flows
decreases.
with ice
tions.
it is
change as it absorbs heat from the space. The ice merely changes from the solid to the liquid state while its temperature remains constant at 32 F. The heat absorbed by the ice leaves the
space in the water going out the drain and the
refrigerating effect will
is
the
minimum
tem-
be continuous
until all
In some cases, the melting temperature of the ice can be lowered to approximately 0 F by adding sodium chloride or calcium chloride to produce a freezing mixture.
alone.
continuous refrigeration with a sensible cooling process provided that the refrigerant is continuously chilled and recirculated through the refrigerated space as shown in Fig. 6-3. Latent cooling may be accomplished with either solid or liquid refrigerants. The solid
Some of the other more obvious disadvantages of ice are the necessity of frequently replenishing
the supply, a practice which is neither convenient nor economical, and the problem of disposing of the water resulting from the melting.
Insulation
most frequently employed are ice carbon dioxide (dry ice). Ice, of course, melts into the liquid phase at 32 F, whereas solid carbon dioxide sublimes directly into the vapor phase at a temperature of 109 F under standard atmospheric pressure. 6-5. Ice Refrigeration. Melting ice has been used successfully for many years as a refrigerant. Not too many years ago ice was the only cooling agent available for use in domestic and small commercial refrigerators. In a typical ice refrigerator (Fig. 6-4) the heat
refrigerants
and
solid
from
all
the
by convection currents
refrigerated space.
set
up
The
air in contact
with the
is
heated
REFRIGERATION
Another less obvious, but more important, disadvantage of employing ice as a refrigerant is
the difficulty experienced in controlling the rate
SYSTEM
ability
73
Liquid
Refrigerants.
The
of
liquids to absorb
enormous
quantities of heat as
of refrigeration, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain the desired low temperature level
within the refrigerated space.
As refrigerants,
vapor-
izing liquids
which the
ice
absorbs heat
is
more
effect
the refrigerating
and to the
Heat taken
in
by the water
in
the space
is
given up to the
ice.
temperature difference between the space temperature and the melting temperature of the ice,
the rate of heat absorption by the ice diminishes
as the surface area of the ice is diminished by the
when
the refriger-
not being removed at the same rate that it is accumulating in the space from the various heat
the temperature
of cooling can be predetermined within small limits, and the vaporizing temperature of the liquid can be governed by controlling the pressure at which the liquid vaporizes. Moreover, the vapor can be readily collected and condensed back into the liquid state so that the same liquid can be used over and over again to provide a continuous supply of liquid for vaporization.
Until now, in discussing the various properties
sources,
increase.
fluids, water,
all
because of
its familiarity,
has
Despite
its
disadvantages, ice
preferable to
been used in
its
mechanical refrigeration in some applications. Fresh vegetables, fish, and poultry are often packed and shipped in cracked ice to prevent dehydration and to preserve appearance. Too, ice has tremendous eye appeal and can be used to considerable advantage in the displaying and serving of certain foods such as salads, cocktails,
etc.,
is not suitable for use as a refrigerant in the vapor-compression cycle. In order to vaporize at temperatures low enough to
most refrigeration requirements, water would have to vaporize under very low pressures, which are difficult to produce and mainsatisfy
and
in chilling beverages.
tain economically.
74
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a liquid at ordinary temperatures only if confined under pressure in heavy steel cylinders. Table 16-3 is a tabulation of the thermodynamic properties of R-12 saturated liquid and
vapor. This table
lists,
v;;;;;;;m//m;// ;;;;;;m/m/;;//.
I ?-
Baffle
among
,1
I
fs^i\ /
V
53
saturation temperature of R-12 corresponding to various pressures. Tables 16-4 through 16-6
list
40*
Ti
an
\
^
Drain
other
refrigerants.
These
and
vapor tables previously discussed and are employed in the same manner. An in6-7. Vaporizing the Refrigerant.
sulated space can be adequately refrigerated
44'
by merely allowing
liquid
R-12 to vaporize in a
WW///////MWA
Fig. 6-4. Ice
refrigerator.
shown in
Fig.
Heat
is
carried
from
is
warm
Air circulation
by
There are numerous other fluids which have lower saturation temperatures than water at the same pressure. However, many of these fluids
under atmospheric pressure, its saturation temperature is 21. 6 F. Vaporizing at this low temperature, the R-12 readily absorbs heat from the 40 F space through the walls of the containing vessel. The heat absorbed by the vaporizing liquid leaves the space in the vapor escaping through the open vent. Since the temperature of the liquid remains constant during the vaporizing process,
Since the R-12
is
vaporized.
Any container,
Refrigerant vapor
compounded specially for that purpose. There is no one refrigerant which is best suited
for
all
at atmospheric
pressure
conditions.
the different applications and operating For any specific application the
properties
be the one whose most closely fit the particular requirein use as refrigerants,
all
the
hydrocarbon of the
methane
having the chemical name dichlorodifluoromethane (CC1 2F 2). It is one of a group of refrigerants introduced to the industry under the trade name of "Freon," but is now
series
To
compound
is
now referred
takes
The Refrigerant-12 liquid vaporizes as it heat from the 40 F space. The heat taken in by the refrigerant leaves the space in the vapor
Fig. 6-5.
in
REFRIGERATION
which a refrigerant
is is
SYSTEM
Pressure of
75
one of the
essential
refrigerant vapor
below atmospheric
refrigerating system.
Controlling the Vaporizing Temperature. The temperature at which the liquid vaporizes in the evaporator can be controlled by controlling the pressure of the vapor over the liquid, which in turn is governed by regulating the rate at which the vapor escapes from the evaporator (Section 4-5). For example, if a hand valve is installed in the vent line and the vent is partially closed off so that the vapor cannot escape freely from the evaporator, vapor will
6-8. collect over the liquid causing the pressure in the
evaporator to
(Fig. 6-6).
rise
over the liquid and cause the R-12 to vaporize at any desired temperature between 21.6 F and
the space temperature. Should the vent valve be
pump.
no vapor is allowed to
and no heat
refrigerant.
will flow from the space to the Vaporization will cease and no further cooling will take place. When vaporizing temperatures below 21.6
are required,
it
is
no temperature
differential
some pressure
Refrigerant
below atmospheric. This can be accomplished through the use of a vapor pump as shown in Fig. 6-7. By this method, vaporization of the liquid R-12 can be brought about at very low temperatures in accordance with the pressuretemperature relationships given in Table 16-3. 6-9. Maintaining a Constant Amount of Liquid in the Evaporator. Continuous
vaporization of the liquid in the evaporator
requires that the supply of liquid be continuously
30*F
Refrigerant-12
liquid boiling at
replenished
if
is
the
amount of
liquid in the
evaporator
to be maintained constant.
One
liquid in
is through the use of a float valve assembly as illustrated in Fig. 6-8. The action of the float assembly is to maintain a constant
level
The
in
boiling
temperature
of the
liquid
evaporator is controlled by controlling the pressure of the vapor over the liquid with the throttling valve in the vent.
refrigerant
the
Any increase in
the rate of vaporization causes the liquid level in the evaporator to drop slightly, thereby opening
76
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
in Fig. 6-8, used to regulate the flow of liquid
High pressure
liquid
refrigerant
into
the
evaporator
is
called
refrigerant
The
refrigerant flow
control
is
an
mechanical
refrigerating system.
~ assembly
Needle valve
of refrigerant of which are in use to some extent at the present time. Each of these
five different types
all
There are
flow controls,
_ Low pressure
liquid refrigerant
The
float type
6-8 has
some
which tend to
applications.
refrigerant
KaSSsiSfc''
flow control
the
thermostatic
expansion valve.
use of a thermostatic expansion valve to control the flow of refrigerant into a serpentine coil
type evaporator
6-10.
Fig. 6-8. Float
liquid
level
in
is
shown
in Fig. 6-9.
valve
evaporator.
refrigerant
reduced
as
Salvaging the Refrigerant. As a matter of convenience and economy it is not practical to permit the refrigerant vapor to escape to the outside and be lost by diffusion into the air. The vapor must be collected continuously and condensed back into the liquid state so that the same refrigerant is used over and over again, thereby eliminating the need for ever replenishing the supply of refrigerant in the system.
High pressure
To
When
and
Low pressure Hiquid-vapor
mixture
When vapori-
the evaporator.
is such that the saturation temperature of the refrigerant is equal to the temperature of the surroundings (see Section
4-10).
the cylinder
and the float valve into the lower pressure evaporator. In passing through the float valve,
the high pressure refrigerant undergoes a pres-
its pressure to the evaporator pressure, thereby permitting the refrigerant liquid to vaporize in the evaporator at
Any
REFRIGERATION
provide some means of condensing the vapor,
SYSTEM
77
Low-pressure,
low-temperature
(Fig. 6-10).
L
is
low-temperature
liquid-vapor mixture
Refrigerant control -s
/
high-temperature
from the
condense the vapor back into the liquid state is that the latent heat be caused to flow out of the vapor into another body. The body of material employed to absorb the latent heat from the vapor, thereby causing the vapor to condense, is called the condensing medium. The most common condensing media are air and water. The water used as a condensing
in order to
medium
is
usually supplied
from the
city
main
condensing
medium
is
The
medium
the temperature
of the condensing medium must be below that of the refrigerant vapor. However, since the pressure and temperature of the saturated vapor leaving the evaporator are the same as those of the vaporizing liquid, the temperature of the vapor will always be considerably below that of any normally available condensing medium. Therefore, heat will not flow out of
the refrigerant vapor into the air or water used
as the condensing
High-pressure,
high-tempenhii
High-pressure,
high-temperature'
liquid-vapor mixture
High-pressure,
Mgh-temperitun! liquid
medium
vapor.
temperature of the refrigerant vapor has been increased by compression to some temperature
above the temperature of the condensing medium. The vapor pump or compressor
shown
at
cannot be cooled to a temperature below its saturation temperature, the continuous loss of heat by the refrigerant vapor in the condenser
causes the vapor to condense into the liquid state at the new, higher pressure and saturation
low, the
is
also
vapor
The heat given off by the vapor in is carried away by the condensing medium. The resulting condensed liquid, whose temperature and pressure will be the same as
temperature.
the condenser
corresponding saturation temperature is above the temperature of the condensing medium being
employed.
cal
it
At
is
work
the same time, since mechanidone on the vapor in compressing increased with a corresponding
those of the condensing vapor, flows out of the condenser into the liquid storage tank and is then ready to be recirculated to the evaporator. Notice that the refrigerant, sometimes called the working fluid, is merely a heat transfer
the vapor
agent which carries the heat from the refrigerated space to the outside. The refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space in the evaporator, carries it out of the space, and
rejects
it
temperature vapor
denser where
it
is
to the condensing
medium
in the
condenser.
78
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
4-12.
6-11. Typical
Vapor-Compression System.
in Fig. 6-11.
(1)
Service Valves.
The
suction
and
dis-
shown
The
principal
charge sides of the compressor and the outlet of the receiver tank are usually equipped with
an evaporator, whose function it is to provide a heat transfer surface through which heat can pass from the
parts of the system are:
refrigerated space or product into the vaporizing
refrigerant;
(2)
manual
operations.
a suction
line,
which conveys
ly
outlet.
6-13. Division of
the System.
refriger-
ating system
is
two
parts.
The low
with normally available condensing media; (4) a "hot-gas" or discharge line which delivers the
high-pressure, high-temperature vapor
consists
The pressure
is
from the
the
refrigerant is
is
a condenser, whose purpose it is to provide a heat transfer surface through which heat passes from the hot refrigerant vapor to the condensing medium; (6) a receiver tank, which provides storage for the liquid condenser so that a constant supply of liquid is available to the evaporator as needed; (7) a liquid line, which carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver
(5)
This pressure
known
During
service
is
usually measured
tank to the refrigerant flow control; (8) a refrigerant flow control, whose function it is to meter the proper amount of refrigerant to the evaporator and to reduce the pressure of the
liquid entering the evaporator so that the liquid
will vaporize in the
The high pressure side or "high side" of the system consists of the compressor, the discharge or "hot gas" line, the condenser, the receiver
tank, and the liquid line. The pressure exerted by the refrigerant in this part of the system is the high pressure under which the refrigerant is
temperature.
This pressure
is
flow control"!
Evaporator-]
<8K
j
Liquid
,ine
Suction
line ine~V.
dj~
"SB",
valve
Fig. 6-11. Flow diagram of simple vapor compression system showing the principal parts.
rDischargeline
Receiver
(g)
(-Condenser
J/tank
valve
Compressor
VJteceiver
tank
REFRIGERATION
79
Receiver tank
Fig, 6-12. Air-cooled condensing unit.
motor
shaft
over condenser.
Compressor
Compressor
driver
the "condensing pressure," the "discharge pressure," or, more often, the "head
called
ing to condensing
refrigerant.
medium used
to condense the
pressure."
the condensing
an
medium
is
a water-
reduced from the condensing pressure to the vaporizing pressure, and the discharge valves
ant
in
is
the compressor,
is
pressure vapor
It is
should be noted
considered to be a part of the high side of the system, the pressure on the suction side of the
motor-compressor assemblies. The assembly consists of a direct-driven compressor mounted on a common shaft with the motor rotor and the whole assembly hermetically sealed in a
compressor and
pressure.
in the
crankcase
is
the
low side
The change
in pressure, of course,
Condensing Units.
line,
The compressor,
hot gas
along with the compressor driver (usually an electric motor), are often combined into one
welded steel shell (Fig. 6-13). Condensing units equipped with hermetically sealed motor-compressor assemblies are known as "hermetic condensing units" and are employed on a number of small commercial refrigerators and on almost all household refrigerators, home freezers, and window air
conditioners.
later,
will
be shown
in Fig. 6-12.
Such an
many
It
is
accord-
Care should be taken not to confuse the suction and discharge valves in the compressor with the suction and discharge service valves. The suction and discharge valves in a reciprocating compressor perform the same function as the intake and exhaust valves in an automobile engine and are vital to the
operation of the compressor, whereas the suction and
far as the operation of the compressor
opened in the field for servicing. 6-16. Definition of a Cycle. As the refrigerant circulates through the system, it passes through a number of changes in state or condition, each of which is called a process.
The
refrigerant starts at
some
initial state
or
The
condition, passes through a series of processes in a definite sequence, and returns to the initial
80
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
employing hermetic motor-compressor. Note separate fan to circulate over condenser. (Courtesy Tecumseh Products Company.)
condition.
cycle.
is
called a
ation
part of the liquid vaporizes as it passes through the refrigerant control in order to reduce the
processes:
To
cycle
temperature of the liquid to the evaporating temperature. In the evaporator, the liquid vaporizes at a
constant pressure and temperature as heat to supply the latent heat of vaporization passes from the refrigerated space through the walls of
the evaporator to the vaporizing liquid. By the action of the compressor, the vapor resulting from the vaporization is drawn from the
understand
it is
complete
cycle.
Any change
A typical
flows
line
evaporator through the suction line into the suction inlet of the compressor. The vapor
the evaporator is saturated and its temperature and pressure are the same as those of the vaporizing liquid. While flowing through the suction line from the evaporator to the compressor, the vapor usually absorbs heat from the air surrounding the suction line and
Fig. 6-15.
leaving
temperature,
high-pressure
liquid
refrigerant
from the
to the
flow control. The pressure of the liquid is reduced to the evaporator pressure as the liquid passes through the refrigerant flow control so that the saturation
refrigerant
temperature of the refrigerant entering the evaporator will be below the temperature of the
refrigerated space.
It will
be shown
later that
suction line as the result of superheating, the pressure of the vapor does not change so that
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
81
o u
I
r
I
5 8 E
II !i
C V
L-
I*
9-
f 2<5
i
82
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid-vapor mixture
30'F-28.46 psig
Subcooled
liquid
86F-120.6 psig
Liquid-vapor mixture"
30T-28.46
psig
Saturated vapor
30F-28.46 psig
Superheated vapor
Saturated vapor
psig"
132*^-120.6
102"F-120.6 psig
t
Superheated vapo r
70F-28.46
psig~Xil(
Liquid-vapor mixture
"
>->
102F-120.6 psig
Saturated liquid
102F-120.6 psig
Fig. 6-15. Typical refrigeration system
differential
In
compressor,
the
temperature
and
either to or
from the
com-
by compression and the high-temperature, high-pressure vapor is discharged from the compressor into the
pressure of the vapor are raised
pression
is
usually negligible.
Therefore, com-
com-
hot-gas
line.
The vapor
up being drawn
it
gives
Although no heat as such is transferred either from the refrigerant during the compression, the temperature and enthalpy of the vapor
to or
are increased because of the mechanical
work
temperature
is
done on the vapor by the piston. Whenever a vapor is compressed, unless the vapor is cooled
during the compression, the internal kinetic
energy of the vapor
is
temperature corresponding to
state as additional heat is
new
pressure
liquid
increased by an
amount
By
the
condensed and the liquid passes into the receiver tank, ready to be
all
of the vapor
is
recirculated.
The Compression Process. In modern, high speed compressors, compression takes place very rapidly and the vapor is in contact with the compressor cylinder for only a short time. Because the time of compression
6-18.
is
in
direct
The
greater
is
the
work of
compression,
the greater
the increase in
short
between the evaporator and compressor because of the friction loss in the suction line
slightly
temperature and enthalpy. The energy equivalent of the work done is called the heat of compression. The energy to do the work of compression, which is transferred to the vapor during the compression
process,
is
resulting
from the
flow.
REFRIGERATION
usually an electric motor.
later that the theoretical
It will be shown horsepower required to drive the compressor can be calculated from the heat of compression.
SYSTEM
83
Since the condensing temperature is always equal to the temperature of the condensing
6-19.
Discharge Temperature.
Care should
medium, it follows that the condensing temperature varies directly with the temperature of the
be taken not to confuse discharge temperature with condensing temperature. The discharge temperature is that at which the vapor is discharged from the compressor, whereas the condensing temperature is that at which the vapor condenses in the condenser and is the saturation temperature of the vapor corresponding to the pressure in the condenser. Because the vapor is usually superheated as it enters the compressor and because it contains the heat of compression, the vapor discharged from the compressor is highly superheated and its temperature is considerably above the saturation temperature corresponding to
its
condensing medium and with the required rate of heat transfer at the condenser. 6-21. Condensing Pressure. The condensing
is always the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid-
pressure
vapor mixture in the condenser. When the compressor is not running, the
temperature of the refrigerant mixture in the condenser will be the same as that of the surrounding air, and the corresponding saturation pressure will be relatively low. quently,
Conse-
pressure.
when the compressor is started, the vapor pumped over into the condenser will not
begin to condense immediately because there is no temperature differential between the refrigerant and the condensing medium, and therefore
no heat
transfer
pumped into
point
a continuous refrigerating effect the refrigerant vapor must be condensed in the condenser at
the same rate that the refrigerant liquid
is
vapor
sufficiently
and suction
and
in the
condense as
fast
as
pumped
into
the
compressor as a result of the work of compression. Obviously, any increase in the rate of
vaporization will increase the required rate of
less
The quantity of
is
The
rate at
which heat
will
from the
from the
refrigerated space
known
as the
the function
refrigerating effect.
of three factors: (1) the area of the condensing surface, (2) the coefficient of conductance of the
For example, when 1 lb of ice melts it will absorb from the surrounding air and from adjacent objects an amount of heat
equal to its latent heat of fusion. If the ice melts at 32 F it will absorb 144 Btu per pound, so that
the refrigerating effect of
Likewise,
as
it
1
(3) the
temperature
differ-
ence between the refrigerant vapor and the condensing medium. For any given condenser,
the area of the condensing surface and the
coefficient
lb of ice
is
144 Btu.
will
when a
absorb
1
lb
its
of liquid refrigerant
potentially equal to
condensing medium.
If the temperature
84
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the condensing pressure, 120.6 psig.
from the
entire
of the liquid entering the refrigerant control liquid line is exactly equal to the
vaporizing temperature in the evaporator the
Since the
saturation temperature corresponding to 120.6 psig is 102 F, the 86 F liquid at the refrigerant
pound of
control
is
subcooled 16
(102
86) below
its
evaporator and produce useful cooling, in which case the refrigerating effect per pound
saturation temperature.
of refrigerant circulated
total latent
is
liquid
the
refrigerant
control
is
always
first
considerably higher than the vaporizing temperature in the evaporator, and must
its pressure is not reduced below 93.2 psig. However, as the liquid passes through the refrigerant control its pressure is reduced from 120.6 psig to 28.46 psig, the
be
reduced to the evaporator temperature before the liquid can vaporize in the evaporator and
absorb heat from the refrigerated space. For this reason, only a part of each pound of Hquid actually vaporizes in the evaporator and
produces useful cooling. Therefore, the refrigerating effect per pound of liquid circulated is always less than the total latent heat of vaporization.
Since the R-12 cannot exist as a any temperature above the saturation
temperature of 30
psig, the
F when F
its
pressure
is
28.46
from 86
is
to 30
at the instant
pressure
From Table
to Fig. 6-15, the pressure
is
With reference
psig
of 120
(satur-
corre-
and at 30 F is 27.73 Btu per pound and 14.76 Btu per pound, respectively, so that each pound of liquid must surrender 12.97 Btu (27.73 - 14,76) in order to cool from 86 F to
86
30 F. Because the hquid expands through the
refrigerant control so rapidly, the liquid
is
sponding to this pressure is 102 F. Since condensation occurs at a constant temperature, the temperature of the liquid resulting from the condensation is also 102 F. After condensation, as the liquid flows through the lower part of the condenser it continues to give up heat to the cooler condensing medium, so that before the liquid leaves the condenser its temperature is usually reduced somewhat below the temperature at which it condensed. The liquid is then The temperature at said to be subcooled. which the liquid leaves the condenser depends upon the temperature of the condensing medium and upon how long the hquid remains in contact with the condensing medium after
condensation.
not
from the
pound of hquid
latent heat of
is
through the refrigerant control to absorb exactly the 12.97 Btu of sensible heat that each pound of hquid must surrender in order to cool from 86 F
to 30
The
liquid
may be
and
F and
the refrigerant
is
discharged from
by surrendering heat to the surrounding air. In any case, because of the heat exchange between the refrigerant in the liquid line and the surrounding
receiver tank
in the liquid line
air,
likely to
be
fairly
and produce useful cooling. That portion of each pound of hquid circulated which vaporizes in the refrigerant control produces no useful cooling and represents a loss of
in the evaporator
refrigerating effect.
It follows, then, that
the liquid line. In Fig. 6-1 5, the liquid approaches the refrigerant control at a temperature
the
of 86 F, whereas
its
pressure
is still
the same as
REFRIGERATION
less the
SYSTEM
85
part of
each pound that vaporizes in the control to reduce the temperature of the liquid to the
vaporizing temperature.
Example 6-2. If, in Example 6-1, the temperature of the liquid entering the refrigerant control is 60 F rather than 86 F, determine the
refrigerating effect.
Solution.
16-3,
From Table
From
of
Table
tion of 'R-12 at 30
is
enthalpy
R-12
12.97 Btu
saturated vapor at 30
at 60
=81.61 Btu/lb
per pound, the refrigerating effect in this instance is (66.85 - 12.97) 53.88 Btu per pound.
refrigerant
Refrigerating effect
= =
21.57 Btu/lb
60.04 Btu/lb
determined by dividing the total latent heat of vaporization into the heat absorbed by that part of the pound that vaporizes in the control. In
this
Example 6-3. If, in Example 6-1, the pressure in the evaporator is 21.05 psig, and the liquid reaching the refrigerant control is 86" F, what is the refrigerating effect?
Solution.
16-3,
(12.97/66.85
pound x 100)
From
saturation
the
Table tem-
and pro-
53.88
of R-12 corresponding to 21.05 psig is 20 F and the enthalpy of R-12 saturated vapor at that temperature
perature
80.49 Btu/lb
cir-
does not change in the control. That is, since there is no heat transfer between the refrigerant and the control, the enthalpy of the liquid-vapor
mixture discharged from the control into the evaporator is exactly the same as the enthalpy of
the liquid approaching the control. Therefore, the difference between the enthalpy of the refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator
Refrigerating effect
comparison of Examples
and 6-2
in-
com-
parison of Example 6-1 and 6-3 shows that the refrigerating effect decreases as the vaporizing
and the
enthalpy of the liquid approaching the control is only the amount of heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, which is, of course, the refrigerating effect. Hence, for any given
conditions the refrigerating effect per
temperature decreases. Therefore, it is evident that the refrigerating effect per pound of liquid
circulated depends
upon two
factors:
(1)
the
evaporating temperature and (2) the temperature at which the liquid refrigerant enters the refrigerant control.
pound can
The higher the evaporating temperature and the lower the temperature of the liquid entering the refrigerant control,
the greater will be the refrigerating effect. 6-23. System Capacity. The capacity of any
refrigerating system is the rate at
Example
effect
6-1.
if
per pound
R-12 approaching the refrigerant control is 86 F and the temperature of the saturated vapor leaving the evaporator is 30 F. From Table Solution. 16-3, enthalpy of R-12 satur= 81.61 Btu/lb ated vapor at 30 F of liquid Enthalpy R-12
at 86
which it will remove heat from the refrigerated space and is usually stated in Btu per hour or in terms of its
ice-melting equivalent.
was widely used as a cooling medium. With the development of mechanical refrigeration, it was
only natural that the cooling capacity of mechanical refrigerators should be compared
27.73 Btu/lb
53.88 Btu/lb
pound
with an ice-melting equivalent. When one ton of ice melts.it will absorb 288,000 Btu (2000 lb x 144 Btu/lb). If one ton
86
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
liquid at the refrigerant control
find:
(a)
(b)
of ice melts in one day (24 hr), it will absorb heat at the rate of 12,000 Btu/hr (288,000 Btu/24 hr) or 200 Btu/min (12,000 Btu/hr/60). Therefore, a mechanical refrigerating system having the capacity of absorbing heat from the refrigerated space at the rate of 200 Btu/min (12,000 Btu/hr)
is
The refrigerating effect per pound The weight of refrigerant circulated per
minute per ton
(c)
The weight of
one ton of
24 hr and
is
said to have a
The
From
system, that
remove heat from the refrigerated space, depends upon two factors: (1) the weight of refrigerant circulated per unit of time and (2) the refrigerating effect of each
=
=
80.49 Btu/lb
31.16 Btu/lb 49.33 Btu/lb
Enthalpy of R-12
pound
circulated.
Refrigerating effect
(b)
Example 6-4. mechanical refrigerating system is operating under conditions such that the vaporizing temperature is 30 F while the temperature of the liquid approaching the refrigerant control
is
200
49.33 4.05 lb
86 F.
If
R-12
is
circulated
(c)
10 x 4.05 40.5 lb
6-5, the liquid
Example 6-6.
is
If,
in
Example
Solution
(a)
From Example
6-1,
refrigerating effect
= =
53.88 Btu/lb
F before it reaches the refrigerant control, calculate: (a) the refrigerating effect (b) the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton
subcooled from 100
to
80
Solution
5 lb
(a)
From
80.49 Btu/lb
Refrigerating effect
(b)
= 26J8 = 54.21
200
54.21
Btu/lb Btu/lb
in tons
200
=
6-24.
1.347 tons
3.69 lb
it
Weight of Refrigerant Circulated per Minute per Ton. The weight of refrigerant
is
which must be circulated per minute per ton of refrigerating capacity for any given operating conditions is found by dividing the refrigerating
effect
apparent that the weight of refrigerant which must be circulated per minute per ton of refrigerating capacity varies with the refrigerating
Example
An R-12 system is
operating
at conditions such that the vaporizing temperature is 20 F and the condensing temperature is
and depends upon the operating conditions of the system. As the refrigerating effect per pound increases, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton decreases. 6-25. Volume of Vapor Displaced per Mineffect
When
100 F.
If
it is
REFRIGERATION
depends upon the vaporizing temperature. The lower the vaporizing temperature and pressure, the greater is the volume of the vapor which is produced. When the vaporizing temperature is known, the specific volume of the saturated vapor which results from the vaporization can
SYSTEM
87
evaporator too rapidly, the pressure in the evaporator will decrease and result in a decrease in the boiling temperature of the liquid. In either case, design conditions will not be maintained
and the
factory.
be unsatis-
be found in the saturated vapor tables. For instance, from Table 16-3, the specific volume of R-12 saturated vapor at 10 F is 1.351 cu ft per pound. This means that each pound of R-12 that vaporizes at 10 F produces 1.351 cuft of vapor. Therefore, if 10 lb of R-12 are vaporized at 10 F in an evaporator each minute, saturated vapor will be produced at the rate of 13.51 cu ft
per minute (10 x 1.351).
The maintenance of design conditions and good refrigeration depends upon the selection of a compressor whose capacity is such
therefore
is
equal to
the volume occupied by the weight of refrigerant which must be vaporized during the same
In order to produce one ton of refrigerating capacity, a definite weight of refrigerant must be vaporized each minute. The volume of vapor which must be removed from the evaporator
each minute can be calculated by multiplying the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute by the specific volume of the saturated vapor at
the vaporizing temperature.
For instance, in Example 6-7, 4.05 lb of R-12 must be vaporized each minute at 20 F for each one ton of refrigerating capacity desired. In vaporizing, the 4.05 lb of R-12 produce 4.55 cuft of vapor (4.05 x 1.121). If the evaporator pressure and the boiling temperature of the
liquid in the evaporator are to
this
remain constant,
volume of vapor must be removed from the evaporator each minute for each one ton of
refrigerating capacity.
Example 6-7. Determine the volume of vapor to be removed from the evaporator per minute per ton of refrigerating capacity for the system described in Example 6-5.
Solution.
From
of Example 6-7 should have a capacity such that it will remove vapor from the evaporator at the rate of 4.55 cu ft per minute for each ton of refrigerating capacity required. For a 10 ton
system, the compressor would have to remove vapor from the evaporator at the rate of 45.50
1.121 cu ft/lb
From Example
6-5,
cu
ft
=
= =
4.05 lb/min/ton
PROBLEMS
1.
Volume of vapor
displaced per minute
4.05
1.121
The temperature of
is
liquid
per ton
6-26.
4.55 cu ft/min/ton
refrigerant control
(a)
86
temperature 30 F. Determine:
per pound of Ans. 53.89 Btu/lb (6) The loss of refrigerating effect per pound. Ans. 12.96 Btu/lb (c) The weight of refrigerant circulated per Ans. 3.71 lb/min/ton minute per ton. (d)The volume of vapor displaced per
The
refrigerating
effect
refrigerant circulated.
is drawn from the evaporator at the same rate that vapor is produced by the boiling action of the liquid
refrigerant.
than the compressor is able to remove the vapor, the excess vapor will accumulate in the evaporator and cause the pressure in the evaporator to
increase,
which in turn
On the other
hand,
the capacity of the compressor is such that the compressor removes the vapor from the
if
R-12 liquid reaches the refrigerant control at a pressure of 136 psig and the vaporizing pressure in the evaporator is 30.07 psig, determine: (a) The refrigerating effect per pound. Ans. 48.18 Btu/lb
88
(*)
(c)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
(c)
The weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton. Arts. 4.15 lb/min/ton The volume of vapor displaced per minute per ton. Arts. 3.77 cu ft/min/ton
liquid
to be displaced per
Arts. 3.13
cuft/min/ton
4.
70
determine:
(a) (b)
The refrigerating effect. Arts. 45.25 Btu/lb The weight of refrigerant circulated per
minute per ton. The volume of minute per ton.
4.42 lb/min/ton displaced per Arts. 6.44 cu ft/min/ton
Arts.
The refrigerating effect. Arts. 57.93 Btu/lb The weight of refrigerant circulated per
minute per ton.
Arts. 3.45
(c)
vapor
cu ft/min/ton
Fig. 7-1.*
The condition of
the refrigerant in
7
Cycle Diagrams and the Simple Saturated Cycle
any thermodynamic state can be represented as a point on the Ph chart. The point on the Ph chart which represents the condition of the refrigerant in any one particular thermodynamic state may be located if any two properties of the refrigerant at that state are known. Once the state point has been located on the chart, all the
other properties of the refrigerant for that state
can be determined directly from the chart. As shown by the skeleton Ph chart in Fig. 7-2, the chart is divided into three areas which are separated from each other by the saturated liquid and saturated vapor curves. The area
on the
curve
chart to the
left
is
At any
point in the subcooled region the refrigerant is in the liquid state and its temperature is below
its pressure.
the saturation temperature corresponding to The area to the right of the satuis
in the
form of a superheated
Cycle Diagrams.
vapor.
The center
that
make up
states.
At any
of the effects that changes in any one process in on all the other processes in the cycle. This is greatly simplified by the use of
the cycle have
charts
cycle
point between the two curves the refrigerant is in the form of a liquid-vapor mixture. The
distance between the
constant pressure
scale at the
line, as
may be shown
graphically.
Graphical
of vaporization
pressure.
refrigerant
that
representation of the refrigeration cycle permits the desired simultaneous consideration of all the
The
which occur during the cycle and the changes have on the cycle with-
parallel to each other because the latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant varies with the pressure at
out the necessity of holding in mind all the different numerical values involved in cyclic problems.
which the change in phase occurs. On the chart, the change in phase from the liquid to the vapor phase takes place progressively from left to right, whereas the change in phase from the vapor to the liquid phase occurs from right to left. Close to the saturated liquid
curve the liquid-vapor mixture
liquid,
is
(Ph) diagram and the temperature-entropy (Ts) diagram. Of the two, the pressure-enthalpy
nearly
all
diagram seems to be the most useful and is the one which is emphasized in the following sections.
already been introduced (Section 4-19) and its application to the refrigeration cycle will be discussed to some extent in this chapter.
7-2.
whereas close to the saturated vapor curve the liquid-vapor mixture is almost all vapor. The lines of constant quality (Fig. 7-3), extending from top to bottom through the center section of the chart and approximately parallel to the saturated liquid and vapor
*
is different,
A
in
The pressure-enthalpy chart for each refrigerant depending upon the properties of the
shown
particular refrigerant.
89
90
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
1 2
3
o.
(eisd) ajnsssjd
<
91
Subcooled region
(Refrigerant
is in
a liquid-
vapor mixture)
>
>
Superheated region
(Refrigerant is in the form of a superheated vapor)
Fig. 7-2. Skeleton Mi chart Illustrating the three regions of the chart and the direction of phase changing.
superheated
mixture in increments of 10%. For example, at any point on the constant quality line closest to
the saturated liquid curve the quality of the
liquid-vapor mixture
is
vapor region, fall off sharply toward the bottom of the chart. The straight lines which extend diagonally
and almost
curved,
10%
at
vapor.
any point along the constant quality line closest to the saturated vapor curve is 90% and the amount of vapor in the liquid-vapor mixture is 90%. At any point on the saturated liquid curve the refrigerant is a saturated liquid and at any point along the saturated vapor curve the refrigerant is a saturated vapor.
The values of any of the various properties of the refrigerant which are of importance in the
refrigerating cycle
may be
is
To
The pressure is plotted along the vertical axis, and the enthalpy is plotted along the
horizontal axis.
lines
constant enthalpy.
number of lines on the chart is kept to a minimum. For this reason, the value of those properties of the refrigerant which have no real significance at some points in the cycle are omitted from the chart at these points. For example, in the liquid region and in the region
of phase change (center section) the values of
The lines of constant temperature in the subcooled region are almost vertical on the chart and paralled to the lines of constant enthalpy. In the center section, since the refrigerant changes state at a constant temperature and pressure, the lines of constant temperature run horizontally across the chart and
parallel to the lines of constant pressure.
entropy
interest
and volume are of no particular and are therefore omitted from the
Ph
chart
is
based on a
lb
mass of
the refrigerant, the volume given is the specific volume, the enthalpy is in Btu per pound, and
At the
Btu per pound per degree of Enthalpy values are found on the horizontal scale at the bottom of
the entropy
is
in
absolute
temperature.
92
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
by using the simple saturated cycle as a standard against which actual cycles may be compared,
the relative efficiency of actual refrigerating
cycles at various operating conditions
the chart and the values of entropy and volume are given adjacent to the entropy and volume
lines, respectively.
and
can be
readily determined.
left side
of the
on a Ph
The system
is
chart. Temperature values in degrees Fahrenheit are found adjacent to the constant tempera-
and superheated
and on both the saturated and saturated vapor curves. The Simple Saturated Refrigerating
Cycle.
and the condensing pressure in the condenser is 131.6 psia. The points A, B, C, D, and E on the Ph diagram correspond to points in the refrigerating system as shown on the flow diagram in Fig. 7-5.
35.75 psia
it is assumed that the vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the compressor as a saturated vapor (at
At point A,
liquid
in
the refrigerant
is
refrigerant
the
condenser
at
the
its
a saturated condensing
properties, as
the vaporizing temperature and pressure) and the liquid leaves the condenser and enters the
refrigerant control as
a saturated liquid
(at
p =
h
131.6 psia
the
condensing
temperature
and
pressure).
31.16 Btu/lb
= =
100
F F
0.06316 Btu/lb/
Although the
refrigerating
refrigerating cycle of
an actual
= 0.0127 cu ft/lb
machine will usually deviate somewhat from the simple saturated cycle, the
analysis of a simple saturated cycle is nonetheless
worthwhile. In such a cycle, the fundamental processes which are the basis of every actual vapor compression refrigerating cycle are easily identified and understood. Furthermore,
At point A, the values of p, t, and h may be read directly from the Ph chart. Since the refrigerant is always a saturated liquid at point A, point A will always fall somewhere along
the saturated liquid curve and can be located the Ph chart if either/?,
t,
or h
is
on known. Usually
25
93
hx
ha
Specific enthalpy (Btu per lb)
he
h e hd
temperature of 20 F Fig. 7-4. Pressure-enthalpy diagram of a simple saturated cycle operating at a vaporizing
and a condensing temperature of 100
F.
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
t,
or both will be
measurable.
7-4.
The Expansion
is
expansion, frequently called "wire-drawing," in which the enthalpy of the working fluid does not change during the process. This type of
expansion occurs whenever a fluid is expanded through an orifice from a high pressure to a lower pressure. It is assumed to take place without the gain or loss of heat through the piping or valves and without the performance of
frigerant control
is the same as its condition described by the initial The process at point A. and final state points A-B occurs in the refrigerant control when the pressure of the liquid
work.f
Since the enthalpy of the refrigerant does not
reduced from the condensing pressure to the evaporating pressure as the liquidpassesthrough
is
change during process A-B, point B is located on the Ph chart by following the line of constant enthalpy from point A to the point where the
constant enthalpy line intersects the line of constant pressure corresponding to the evaporating pressure. To locate point B on the Ph chart, the evaporating pressure or temperature
the control.*
When
the liquid
is
expanded into
the evaporator through the orifice of the control, the temperature of the liquid is reduced from the
condensing temperature to the evaporating temperature by the flashing into vapor of a small
portion of the liquid.
Process
must be known.
As a result of the partial vaporization of the liquid refrigerant during process A-B, the
t Actually, a certain
A-B is
A-B
amount of work
itself
is
done by
of
* Process
an
through the
orifice
pansion during which the refrigerant passes through a series of state points in such a way that there is no uniform distribution of any of the properties. Hence, no true path can be drawn for the process and line A-B merely represents a process which begins
at state point
the control. However, since the heat equivalent of the work done in overcoming the friction of the orifice merely heats the orifice and is subsequently reabsorbed by the fluid, the assumption that the enthalpy of the fluid does not change during the
and terminates at
state point B.
process
is
not in error.
94
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
refrigerant at point
B is
a liquid-vapor mixture
The values of s and v at point B are usually of no interest and are not given either on the Ph
chart or in the vapor tables.
If the values
p =
t
35.75 psia 20 F
of s
and v are desired, they must be calculated. 7-5. The Vaporizing Process. The process
Note.
process
The change
B-C is the vaporization of the refrigerant in the evaporator. Since vaporization takes place at a constant temperature and pressure, B-C is both
isothermal and isobaric. Therefore, point C is located on the Ph chart by following the lines of constant pressure and constant temperature
transfer of heat energy which takes place within the refrigerant itself because of internal friction. transfer of energy which occurs entirely within the working
A-B
results
from a
from point
refrigerant
B to
is
fluid
does not affect the enthalpy of the only the entropy changes.
fluid,
At point B, in addition to the values of p, t, and h, the approximate quality of the vapor can be determined from the Ph chart by interpolating between the lines of constant quality. In this instance, the quality of the vapor as deter-
and
pressure.
The
from the Ph
chart, are:
p
t
is
approximately
27%.
Since the refrigerant at point B is a liquidvapor mixture, only the values of p and t can be
h
s
= = =
80.49 Btu/lb
v = 1.121 cu ft/lb
0.16949 Btu/lb/F
refrigerant
Table 16-3. However, because the enthalpy of the refrigerant at points A and B is the same, the enthalpy at point B may be read from Table 16-3 as the enthalpy at the conditions of point A. The quality of the vapor at point B can be determined as in Section 6-22, using enthalpy values taken either from Table 16-3 or from the Ph chart directly.
directly
read
from
increases
B-C
through the evaporator and absorbs heat from the refrigerated space. The quantity of heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator
(refrigerating effect)
is
the enthalpy of the refrigerant at points B and C. Thus, if h a , h b , h h d , h e and h x represent the
, ,
Refrigerant after
passing through
refrigerant control
c
Point at which
vaporization
In the
simple saturated
isv~~
complete
Suction vapor flows
^>
to the refrigerant
control without a
change
Point at which
in
condition
Discharge vapor
'from compressor
condensationbegins
without a
in
change
condition
/-S
Z)
l
Point at which
condensation is'
complete
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
enthalpies of the refrigerant at points A,B,C,D,
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
95
pression process
is
as such,
E,
and X,
respectively, then
qi=hc - K
,
itself)
(7-1)
is
source)
If
Ag
equal to zero, then As must also be equal to zero. Hence, there is no change in the entropy
^ = A. - K
When we
Equation 7-2 for the example in question,
ft
(7-2)
Since there is no change in the entropy of the vapor during process C-D, the entropy of the
refrigerant at point
Therefore, point
On
point
the
Ph diagram,
chart by following the line of constant entropy to the point where the constant from point
heat of vaporization of 1 lb of R-12 at the vaporizing pressure of 35.75 psia (hfg in Table 16-3). Therefore, since the distance B-C is the
useful refrigerating effect, the difference between
entropy line intersects the hne of constant pressure corresponding to the condensing pressure. At point D, the refrigerant is a superheated
X-C
7-6.
is
is
p =
t
131.6 psia
effect.
The Compression
h
v
s
no
= 112 F (approximate) = 90.6 Btu/lb (approximate) = 0.330 cu ft/lb (approximate) = 0.16949 Btu/lb/ F (same as at point C)
comthe
Process
C-D
takes
place
in
condition of point
chart.
Ph
compressor as the pressure of the vapor is increased by compression from the vaporizing
pressure to the condensing pressure.
h,
and v require
For the
The
simple saturated cycle, the compression process, C-D, is assumed to be isentropic* An isentropic compression
is
process which takes place without friction, f It is sometimes described as a "frictionlessadiabatic" or "constant-entropy" compression. According to Equation 4-3, Section 4-19, the
vapor cannot usually be read accurately from the vapor table unless the pressure of the vapor in question corresponds exactly to one of the pressures listed in the table, This is seldom the case, particularly at the higher pressures where
the pressure listings in the table are in 10 lb
increments.
change in entropy (As) during any process is equal to the transferred heat (Ag) divided by the C average absolute temperature ( R). In any
frictionless-adiabatic process, such as the
* It will
Work
is
pression process,
refrigerant
done on the vapor during the comC-D, and the enthalpy of the is increased by an amount equal to
com-
be shown later that compression of the vapor in an actual refrigerating compressor usually
deviates somewhat from true isentropic compression. As a general rule, compression is polytropic.
equivalent of the
pression
is
work done on the vapor. The heat energy work done during the comoften referred to as the heat of
t The term, adiabatic, is used to describe any number of processes which take place without the
transfer of energy as heat to or
compression and is equal to the difference in the enthalpy of the refrigerant at points D and C. Thus, where qt is the heat of compression per
pound of refrigerant
qt
circulated,
e
substance during the process. Thus, an isentropic process is only one of a number of different processes which may be termed adiabatic. For example,
=ha - h
90.60
(7-3)
in question,
compare process
adiabatic, but
C-D with process A-B. Both are C-D is frictionless, whereas A-B is
= =
80.49
10.11 Btu/lb
96
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The
quantity of sensible heat (superheat)
The mechanical work done on the vapor by the piston during the compression may be calculated from the heat of compression. If h> is the work done in foot-pounds per pound of refrigerant circulated and / is the mechanical
energy equivalent of heat, then
removed from 1 lb of vapor in the condenser in cooling the vapor from the discharge temperature to the condensing temperature is the difference between the enthalpy of the refrigerant at point and the enthalpy at point (ha ht).
or
w = ft x / w = J(ha - hj
substitute in Equation 7-4,
Process
(7-4) (7-5)
E-A
is
when we
Since condensation takes place at a constant temperature and pressure, process E-A follows along lines of constant pressure and temperature from point to
in the condenser.
w =
10.11
x 778
ft-lb
point A.
The heat
As a
7865.58
medium during
comfrom the
process
E-A
is
the difference
compressor is in a superheated condition, that is, its temperature is greater than the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. In this instance, the vapor leaves the compressor at a temperature of 1 12 F, whereas the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure of 131.6 psia is 100 F. Thus, before the vapor can be condensed, the superheat must be
between the enthalpy of the refrigerant at points E and A (he ha). On returning to point A, the refrigerant has completed one cycle and its properties are the
same as those previously described for point A. Since both processes D-E and E-A occur in the condenser, the total amount of heat rejected by the refrigerant to the condensing medium in
the condenser
is
the
sum
D-E
removed and the temperature of the vapor lowered from the discharge temperature to the
saturation
pressure.
7-7.
up by the
refrigerant at the
temperature corresponding to
*
%
condenser is the difference between the enthalpy of the superheated vapor at point and the
its
Hence,
(7-6)
processes
Usually, both
=h ~K
place in the
where ft
= the
condenser as the hot gas discharged from the compressor is cooled to the condensing tempera-
In this instance,
ft
and condensed. Process D-E occurs in the upper part of the condenser and to some extent
ture
in the hot gas line.
It
condensing temperature as the vapor rejects heat to the condensing medium. During
constant and point
point
D-E, the pressure of the vapor remains E is located on the Ph chart by following a line of constant pressure from
process
heat rejected by the refrigerant to the condensing medium in the condenser must be exactly
equal to the heat absorbed by the refrigerant at all other points in the cycle. In a simple saturated cycle, the refrigerant is heated at only
At point E, the refrigerant is a saturated vapor at the condensing temperature and pressure. Its properties, as read from either the Ph chart or from Table 16-3, are:
two points in the cycle: (1) in the evaporator by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space (ft) and in the compressor by the heat of compression
(ft).
Therefore,
ft
- ft + ft
(7-7)
In this instance,
ft
=49.33 +10.11
0.319 cu ft/lb
= 59.44 Btu/lb
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
97
Where
is
produced
m
For the cycle
200 Btu/min
(7-8)
by combining Equations
1-5
and
7-15:
1x in question,
hp
m(hd
Aj)
(7-17)
42.42
200
= 4.05 lb/min/ton
Then, where
Qa is the
Qa
total quantity
of heat
The compressor horsepower as calculated above represents only the horsepower required to compress the vapor. That is, it is the theoretical power which would be required per ton of refrigerating capacity by a 100% efficient
system. It does not take into account the power required to overcome friction in the compressor and other power losses. The actual (brake)
or
ft
= <fc) = mUhi ~ A)
(7-9)
(7-10)
For the
cycle in question,
ft
horsepower required per ton of refrigeration will usually be from 30% to 50% more than the theoretical horsepower calculated, depending upon the efficiency of the compressor. The factors governing compressor efficiency are
discussed later.
7-9. Coefficient
Where
Q%
ea
or
Substituting,
=/w(?8)
an expression of the
cycle efficiency
and
ft
m(fid
A,)
ft =4.05 x
=
Where
40.95 Btu/min/ton
is
the
performance
W=
or, since
rriiw)
(7-13)
A),
this
may
(7-14) (7-15)
be written as
c.o.p. r
or
or
Refrigerating effect
Heat of compression
(7-18)
(7-16)
(A,
(Ad
- kg) - A)
When we
Equation 7-15,
W
7-8.
= =
80.49)
(ft)
Theoretical Horsepower. The theoretihorsepower required to drive the compressor per ton of refrigerating capacity may be found by applying Equation 1-5 (Section 1-11):
cal
10.11
4.88
7-10. Effect
31,856
compression refrigerating cycle varies considerably with both the vaporizing and condensing
98
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
ha
Specific enthalpy (Btu/lb
h c h c h e hd hd
'
above
- 40 F)
Fig. 7-4.
distorted).
Of the two, the vaporizing temperature has by far the greater effect. To illustrate the effect that varying the suction
temperatures.
48.20 Btu/lb.
F vaporizWhen the
temperature has on cycle efficiency, cycle diagrams of two simple saturated cycles operating at different suction temperatures are drawn
vaporizing temperature of the cycle is raised to 40 F, the refrigerating effect increases to 51.55
Btu/lb.
refrigerating effect per
on the Ph chart in Fig. 7-6. One cycle, identified by the points A, B, C, D, and E, is operating at a vaporizing temperature of 10 F and a condensing temperature of 100 F.
(he
similar cycle
x 100
having the same condensing temperature but operating at a vaporizing temperature of 40 F is set off by the points A, W, C", >', and E. To facilitate a comparison of the two cycles, the following values have been determined from
the
x 100
=
The
6.95%
pound of
PA
chart:
vaporizing temperature
is
(a)
For the 10
cycle,
qi=h c -ha = 79.36 - 31.16 = 48.20 Btu/lb = 90.90 - 79.36 = 11.54 Btu/lb q i =h d -h e = 90.90 - 31.16 = 59.74 Btu/lb -h "h a d qa
(6)
fact that there is a smaller temperature differential between the vaporizing temperature and the
temperature
refrigerant
of the
control.
liquid
approaching the
at
Hence,
the
higher
For the 40
.
F cycle,
qi
qa
fl
= hc -ha = 82.71 - 31.16 = 51.55 Btu/lb = h* - A = 90.20 - 82.71 = 7.49 Btu/lb = h, -ha = 90.20 - 31.16 = 59.04 Btu/lb
<
suction temperature, a smaller fraction of the refrigerant vaporizes in the control and a greater portion vaporizes in the evaporator and pro-
pound
is
In comparing the two cycles, note that the refrigerating effect per pound of refrigerant circulated is greater for the cycle having the
higher vaporizing temperature.
which must be
capacity
is less
The
refrigerat-
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton for the 10 F cycle is
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
99
per minute per ton are less at the higher suction temperature, the work of compression per ton and therefore the theoretical horsepower
required per ton will be smaller at the higher suction temperature. The theoretical horsepower required per ton of refrigerating capacity for the 10 F cycle is
200
Ac
f>a
=
200
48.20
= 4.151b/min
The weight of refrigerant
per ton for the 40
circulated per
minute
42.42
4.15
F cycle is
200
only
x (90.90
42.42
79.36)
=
For the 40
200
required per ton
is
1.13
F cycle,
~ -
51.55
"Kb*
3.88 lb/min
hf)
3.88
42.42
The decrease in the weight of refrigerant circulated at the higher suction temperature is
4.15
(90.20
82.71)
42.42
0.683
3.88
x 100
4.15
6.5%
In this instance, increasing the vaporizing temperature of the cycle from 10 F to 40 F reduces the theoretical horsepower required per ton by
1.13
is smaller for the cycle having the higher suction temperature, the work of compression per pound required to
-0.683
X 10
1.13
compress the vapor from the vaporizing pressure to the condensing pressure is less for the higher temperature cycle than for the lower
temperature cycle. It follows then that the heat of compression per pound for the cycle having
the higher vaporizing temperature is also less than that for the cycle having the lower vaporizis
=
Later,
39.5%
when
will
be shown that
the difference in the actual horsepower required per ton at the various suction temperatures is
ing temperature.
F cycle is 11.54 Btu, whereas the heat of compression for the 40 F cycle is
pound
for the 10
only 7.49 Btu. This represents a decrease in the heat of compression per pound of
(A
two
be determined by comparing
their
coefficients
11.54
-7.49
x 100
ha = 48.20
11.54
11.54
-35.1%
Because both the work of compression per pound and the weight of refrigerant circulated
= 4.17
100
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Obviously,
refrigerant
then,
the
smaller
weight
per
of
ton
circulated
per
minute
hf hd
>
ha - h(f
51.55
accounts for only a very small part of the reduction in the volume of vapor displaced per minute per ton at the higher suction temperature.
~ =
To a
7.49
6.88
the volume of vapor displaced per minute per ton is a result of the lower specific volume of the
suction vapor which
is
of perform-
ance, and hence the efficiency of the cycle, improves considerably as the vaporizing temperature increases. In this instance, increasing the suction temperature from 10 F to 40 F increases the efficiency of the cycle by
6.88
be further
- 4.17
x 100
- 65%
4.17
refrigerant
Although the difference in the weight of which must be circulated per minute
is
performance in Chapter 12. The quantity of heat to be rejected at the condenser per minute per ton is much smaller for the cycle having the higher suction temperature. This is true even though the quantity of
refrigerant circulated
heat rejected at the condenser per pound of is nearly the same for
both
ton
cycles. For the 10 F cycle, the quantity of heat rejected at the condenser per minute per
is
handle per minute per ton varies greatly with changes in the suction temperature. This is probably one of the most important factors
influencing the capacity
Mha -h = 4.15
tt
x 59.74
247.92
and
efficiency
of a
whereas for the 40 F cycle the heat rejected at the condenser per minute per ton is only
"(Ad-
vapor-compression refrigerating system and is the one which is the most likely to be overlooked by the student when studying cycle diagrams.
A)
3.88
x 59.04
229.08 Btu
The
difference in the
volume of vapor to be
by a comparison of the two cycles in question. For the 10 F cycle, the volume of vapor to be
displaced per minute per ton
is
The quantity of heat rejected per minute per ton at the condenser is less for the higher suction temperature because of (1) the smaller weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton and (2) the smaller heat of compression per
pound. It has been shown previously that the heat rejected at the condenser per pound of refrigerant circulated is the sum of the heat absorbed
in
5.6cuft
effect)
Since increasing the vaporizing temperature of the cycle brings about an increase in the
refrigerating effect as well as a decrease in the
ntv)
It is
3.88
x 0.792
3.075 cu
ft
heat
of interest to note that, whereas the decrease in the weight of refrigerant circulated
per minute per ton at the higher suction temperature is only 6.5%, the decrease in the volume of vapor handled by the compressor per minute
per ton
is
of compression, the quantity of heat pound remains very nearly the same for both cycles (59.74 at 10 F as compared to 59.04 at 40 F). In
general, this
is
usually accompanied
by an
~^
5.6
3.075
x 100
=45%
ing
effect.
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
101
171.8
131.6
x/**
a/\iw
E'J
D'
Z)/^137.5'F
Eh
/X
//l
1
29.35
1
'
//
/lO*
'
B B
r
fc
i
l!
]!
/i
/
/
i i
|S?
i I
IS CO
Si
/
/mi
/ >
'
/tol
cyl id.
Sfi'
iir>
'
|o
1
Is
'
'cm l<T>
II
Aa h a
hc
above
h e h e hi hi'
- 40 F)
Fig. 7-7.
distorted).
7-1
the
condensing temperature.
is
Therefore,
as
increased, the
temperature
temperature are not as great as those brought about by changes in the vaporizing temperature,
they are nonetheless important.
if
and the
is
refriger-
pound
is
reduced.
In general,
condensing temperature increases, and increases as the condensing temperature decreases. To illustrate the effect of condensing temperature
a reduction of
48.20
- 43.20
X 10
on
two
48.20
10.37%
One
other cycle, A', B', C, D', and E', is operating at a condensing temperature of 120 F. The evaporating temperature of both cycles is 10 F. Values
for cycle
determined in
From
9! qi
the
Ph diagram,
-
Because the refrigerating effect per pound is less for the cycle having the higher condensing temperature, the weight of refrigerant to be circulated per minute per ton must be greater. For the cycle having the 100 F condensing temperature the weight of refrigerant to be circulated per minute per ton is 4.15 lb. When the condensing temperature is increased to 120 F, the weight of refrigerant which must be circulated per minute per ton increases to
?s
= = In
- ha = 79.36 - 36.16 = 43.20 Btu/lb hd - he = 93.20 - 79.36 = 13.84 Btu/lb h d - ha = 93.20 - 36.16 = 57.04 Btu/lb
he
.
. .
200
4T20=
This
is
4 631b
-
an increase of
4.63
simple
saturated
cycle
the
liquid
- 4.15
x 100
11.57%
4.15
102
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
power required per ton
temperature is only temperature
cal
is
at the 100
F condensing
greater at the
it
1.13
follows that
x 13.84
the
specific
volume of the
This
is
42.42
=L52hP
temperature.
is
As
of the vapor leaving the evaporator is also the same for both cycles and therefore the difference in the volume of vapor to be compressed per minute per ton is in direct proportion to the difference in the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton. At the 100 F condensing temperature the volume of vapor to be compressed per minute per ton is 5.6 cu ft, whereas at the 120 F condensing temperature the volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton
increases to
Note
the
higher condensing
temperature
is
This
is
accounted for by the fact that, in addition to the 20% increase in the work of compression per
pound, there
ton.
is also a 6.5% increase in the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per
4.63
1.351
=6.25cuft
The
coefficient of
This represents an increase in the volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton of
6.25
at the 100
condensing temperature is 4.17. When the condensing temperature is raised to 120 F, the coefficient of performance drops to
43.20
5.6
x 100 = 11.57%
volume
5.6
3.12
is
Note
13.84
of vapor handled by the compressor is exactly equal to the percent increase in the weight of
refrigerant circulated.
an
occurs
varied.
when
the vaporizing
temperature
is
power
4.17
in this instance
is
3.12
x 100
= 33.7%
and condensing pressures is greater, the work of compression per pound of refrigerant
circulated required to raise the pressure of the
is
the exact
vapor from the vaporizing to the condensing pressure is also greater for the cycle having the higher condensing temperature. In this instance, the heat of compression increases from 11.54 Btu/lb for the 100 F condensing temperature to 13.84 Btu/lb for the 120 F condensing temperature. This is an increase of
Whereas
temperature increases the refrigerating effect per pound and reduces the work of compression so
that the refrigerating capacity per unit of
power
13.84
11.54
iL54
Xl0= 20%
pound and work of compression so that the capacity per unit of power de-
As a result of the greater work of compression per pound and the greater weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute per ton, the theoretical
horsepower required per ton of refrigerating capacity increases as the condensing temperature increases.
Whereas the
theoretical horse-
effect
per pound,
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
103
Td
Fig.
7-8.
Temperature-entropy
of
diagram
cycle
simple
saturated
Ts
on
skeleton
chart
(figure distorted).
12.)
(Refrigerant-
M T* J I
*F)
the total heat rejected at the condenser per minute per ton varies considerably with changes in the condensing temperature because of the
difference in the weight of refrigerant circulated
greater portion of the condenser surface is being used merely to reduce the temperature of the discharge vapor to the condensing temperature.
7-12.
It
was shown
in Section 7-7
many who
prefer
minute per ton (gj) is always the sum of the heat absorbed in the evaporator per minute per ton (Qx ) and the total heat of compression per ton (Q 2 ). Since Q x is always 200 Btu/min/ton,
then
to
To
acquaint
Q3
with
Q2
the heat of
compression per minute per ton. Furthermore, since Q 2 always increases as the condensing
temperature increases,
increases.
it
Q3
is drawn on Ts coordinates in Fig. 7-8. The state points A, B, C, D, and E represent the points in the cycle as shown by the flow diagram in Fig. 7-5. The state point X represents saturated liquid
Process
A-B is
Btu.
minute per ton condensing temperature is 218.75 For the 120 F condensing temperature,
Process
B-C
the
is
the isoin
baric
and
isothermal
vaporization
the
evaporator.
Process
C-D
is
reversible
x (43.20
+
is
13.84)
310.4 Btu
The
percent increase
lii
310.40
comand processes D-E and E-A are the desuperheating and condensing processes in the condenser. Tt Tc and Td are the absolute suction, absolute condensing, and absolute
adiabatic (isentropic) compression in the
pressor
218.75
><
100
=41-8%
and
It is interesting to
of sensible heat rejected at the condenser increases considerably at the higher condensing
temperature, whereas the
at
The
is
shown on the
chart represent
The
line
A-B
the
higher
condensing
104
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Condensing Pressure, 136.16
30
Psia
40
20
10
61.39
51.68
12.02
9.32
pound
Weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per
ton
Specific
52.62 51.55
43.54 42.34
3.80
3.88
3.97
4.05
4.15
4.25
4.36
4.48
4.59
4.73
volume of suction
0.673 0.792 0.939
1.121
vapor
1.351
1.637 2.00
2.47
3.09
3.91
3.77
4.55
5.60
6.96
8.72
11.10
14.20
18.50
pound
Theoretical horsepower per
6.01
7.49
8.79
10.11
11.54
13.29
14.85
16.73
18.50 20.40
ton
1.13
1.35
1.54
1.78
2.00
2.26
Coefficient of performance
8.76
6.88
5.74
4.88
4.17
3.54
3.09
2.67
2.36
2.07
Fig. 7-9
20
18
4
3.5
16
14
3.0
2.5
a
E
12
| *
f 1 Q.
10
2-0
8 6
4
2
1.5
1.0
0.5
10
20
30
40
50
Suction temperature
Fig. 7-IOa. For Refrigerant- 1 2, the refrigerating effect per pound, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton, the specific volume of the suction vapor, and the volume of vapor compressed per minute
per ton are each plotted against suction temperature. Condensing temperature
is
constant at 100
F.
CYCLE DIAGRAMS
AND THE
SIMPLE
SATURATED CYCLE
105
2.6
2.2 Fig. 7-IOb. For Refrigerant- 1 2,
\V
8 g
suction
tem-
I o.
Q)
1.6
^
cop-P"*
^Horserjower
per ton
1
5 S
ture
is
constant at 100
F.
1.2
i
0.8 0.4
4$
-40 - 30-20-10
10
20
30
40
50
Suction temperature
A-X-C-D-E-A
equivalent of the
represents
the
heat
energy
work of adiabatic compression and, since the distance between the base line and T foreshortened in the figure, represents the
pound, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton, the specific volume of the suction
vapor, the volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton, the horsepower required per ton, and the coefficient of performance of the cycle has been calculated for various suction temperatures. These values are given in tabular form in Fig. 7-9 and are illustrated graphically
absolute vaporizing temperature of the liquid, area B-C-Sc-sg-B represents the refrigerating
effect
per pound.
D-E-A and
As
Ph diagram,
it
can be
on the Ts chart that either lowering the vaporizing temperature or raising the condensing temperature tends to increase the work
readily seen
and 7-106. In addition, the effect of condensing temperature on the horsepower required per ton of refrigerating capacity is
in Figs. 7-10a
shown
Fig. 7-11.
effect
per pound, and lower the efficiency of the cycle. 7-13. Summary. Regardless of the method
Since the properties of the refrigerant at point on the cycle diagram cannot ordinarily be
cycle,
it is
obtained from the refrigerant tables and since these properties are difficult to read accurately
size
of the
improve as the vaporizing temperature increases and as the condensing temperature decreases. Obviously, then, a refrigerating system should always be designed to operate at the highest possible vaporizing temperature and the lowest possible condensing temperature commensurate
with the requirements of the application. This will nearly always permit the most effective use of the smallest possible equipment and thereby
effect
discharge
vs X v *r1 \
i
^ * sjfcfc?
fc^l ^"s;
initial
cost
>o
-^_
1
-40 -30 -20 -10
^jT
10
-- ~.
40
50
In any event, the influence of the vaporizing and condensing temperatures on cycle efficiency is of sufficient importance to warrant a more
intensive study.
20
30
Suction temperature
To
this,
the
Fig. 7-11. The effect of condensing temperature on the horsepower per ton.
106
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
(3)
temperatures and the approximate enthalpy have been of the refrigerant vapor at point
compiled for a variety of vaporizing and condensing temperatures and are given in Table 7-1
to aid the student in arriving at
B. (1)
more accurate
end of the
(2)
chapter.
PROBLEMS
Refrigerant-12 system operating on a 1. simple saturated cycle has an evaporating temperature of 0 F and a condensing temperature of 110 F. Determine: A. (1) The refrigerating effect per pound of
refrigerant circulated.
Arts.
(3)
(4)
(5)
44.56 Btu/lb
(2)
The weight of
refrigerant circulated
C. (1)
4.49 lb/min/ton
On
the
Ph diagram
is
compared to one in which the suction vapor is superheated from 20 F to 70 F. Points A B, C, D, and E mark the saturated cycle, and points A, B, C", D', and E indisaturated cycle
,
8
Actual
Refrigerating
be assumed that the pressure of the suction vapor remains constant during the superheating. That is, after the superheating, the pressure of the
inlet
may
vapor at the suction of the compressor is still the same as the vaporizing pressure in the evaporator. With this assumption, point C'can be located on
the
Cycles
Ph
pressure
from point
constant temperature
line.
Deviation from the Simple Saturated Cycle. Actual refrigerating cycles deviate somewhat from the simple saturated cycle. The reason
is
In Fig. 8-2, the properties of the superheated vapor at points C" and D', as read from the Ph
chart, are as follows:
for this
made
for
which do not hold true for actual cycles. For example, in the simple saturated cycle, the drop in pressure in the lines and across the evaporator, condenser, etc., resulting from the flow of the refrigerant through these parts is neglected. Furthermore, the effects of subcooling the liquid and of superheating the suction vapor are not considered. Too, compression in the compressor is assumed to be true isentropic compression. In the
the simple saturated cycle
At point
C",
/
p =
v
35.75 psia
1
.260 cu ft/lb
s
= =
70
88.6 Btu/lb
= 0.1840 Btu/lb/ R
,
20*F
35.75 psia
-*&
20* F
c
30"F
'
35.75 psia
following sections
all
35.75 psia 4
effect
on the cycle
C \
20* F
D J
is
studied
50* F
Saturated vapor
Superheated vapor
8
/^\
XT
164* F_
psi'a
r^i
131.6
100 100* F
3
")
131.6 psia
has completely vaporized in the the cold, saturated vapor will usually continue to absorb heat and thereby become superheated before it reaches the compressor (Fig. 8-1).
refrigerant
evaporator,
100*
131.6 psia
and the
in
Fig. 8-1. Flow diagram of superheated cycle. Liquid completely vaporized at point C saturated vapor continues to absorb heat while flowing from C to vapor reaches compressor in superheated
C
107
condition.
Chapter
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
108
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
131.16
35.75
Superheat
Enthalpy (Btu/lb) Fig. 8-2. Ph diagram comparing simple saturated cycle to the superheated cycle.
(Refrigerant- 1 2).
At point/)',
/>
ably higher for the superheated cycle than for the saturated cycle in this case, 164 F for the
12
F for the
greater
cycle,
superheating of the suction vapor from 20 F to 70 F at the vaporizing pressure, and the
difference between the enthalpy of the
at these points is the
vapor
amount of heat required to superheat each pound of refrigerant. In comparing the two cycles, the following
observations are of interest:
1
.
condenser per pound than for the saturated cycle. This is because of the additional heat absorbed by the vapor in becoming superheated and because of the small increase in the heat of
pound
hand
is
K - 99.2
31.16
=
is
68.04 Btu/lb
superheated cycle
cycle, the heat
pound
of compression
88.6
hx
h&
= 99.2 -
hd
10.6 Btu/lb
The
hd
In
10.11 Btu/lb
68.04-59.44
x tnn 100
ijjd , 14.4%
must be
Note
10.11
dissipated per
pound
x 100
10.11
2.
4.84%
consider-
is all sensible heat. The amount of latent heat dissipated per pound is the same for both cycles. This means that in the superheated cycle a greater amount of sensible heat must be given up to the condensing medium
superheated cycle
109
200
portion of the condenser will be used in cooling the discharge vapor to its saturation temperature.
~K
200
49.33
Notice also that, since the pressure of the vapor remains constant during the superheating, the volume of the vapor increases
suction
= 4.05 lb/min/ton
Since the weight of refrigerant circulated is the
with the temperature approximately in accordance with Charles' law.* Therefore, a pound of superheated vapor will always occupy a greater volume than a pound of saturated vapor
same
cycles
at the
same pressure. For example, in Fig. 8-2, the specific volume of the suction vapor increases from 1.121 cu ft per pound at saturation to 1 .260 cu ft per pound when superheated to 70 F. This means that for each pound of refrigerant circulated, the compressor must compress a greater volume of vapor if the vapor is superheated than if the vapor is saturated. For this reason, in every instance where the vapor is allowed to become superheated before it reaches
at the
heated cycle than for the saturated cycle, it follows that the volume of vapor that the compressor must handle per minute per ton of
refrigerating capacity is greater for the super-
the compressor, the weight of refrigerant circulated by a compressor of any given displace-
The volume of
vapor compressed per minute per ton V
ment
will
always be
less
than
when
the suction
vapor reaches the compressor in a saturated condition, provided the pressure is the same. The effect that superheating of the suction vapor has on the capacity of the system and on the coefficient of performance depends entirely
upon where and how the superheating of the vapor occurs and upon whether or not the
heat absorbed by the vapor in becoming superheated produces useful cooling.* 8-3. Superheating without Useful Cooling.
Assume
first
that
the
superheating
of the
suction vapor
occurs in such
When
volume of vapor which must be handled by a compressor operating on the superheated cycle
gerating effect per pound of refrigerant circulated is the same for the superheated cycle as for a
weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton will also be the same for both the superheated and saturated cycles. Then, for both cycles
illustrated in Fig. 8-2,
This means, of course, that a compressor operating on the superheated cycle must be 10.3% larger than the one required for the
saturated cycle.
the vapor
do
not vary exactly in accordance with Charles' law because the refrigerant vapor is not a perfect gas. * The effects of superheating depend also upon
the refrigerant used. The discussion in this chapter is limited to systems using R-12. The effects of superheating on systems using other refrigerants are
discussed later.
Again, since the weight of refrigerant circuminute per ton is the same for both cycles and since the heat of compression per pound is greater for the superheated cycle than
lated per
it is
is
110
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
cycle,
m(h d
4.05
he)
42.42
10.11
weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton for the superheated cycle is
200
h-
200 hn
57.44
42.42
3.48 lb/min/ton
=
The
coefficient
0.965 hp/ton
of per-
he hd
ha
formance
-K
49.33
10.11
compressed per minute per ton and the horseless for the superheated cycle than for the saturated cycle. This is because of the reduction in the weight of refrigerant circulated. The volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton and the horsepower per ton for
=
For the superheated
cycle, the
4.88
m(h d
h C ')
horsepower per
42.42
4.05
10.6
ton
ft
42.42
=
The
coefficient
1.01
hp/ton
The volume of
vapor compressed per minute per ton V
of per-
hc hd
'
~ha
K-
= m x vc =3.48 x =
m{h a
3.48
>
1.260
formance
4.38 cu ft/min/ton
49.33
10.60
A c .)
42.42
=
In summary,
4.65
x 10.60
42.42
0.870 hp/ton
volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton, the horsepower per ton, and the quantity of heat given up in the condenser per minute per ton are
all
For the superheated cycle, both the refrigerating effect per pound and the heat of compression per pound are greater than for the saturated cycle. However, since the increase in
the refrigerating effect
is
This means that the compressor, the compressor driver, and the condensaturated cycle.
ser
greater proportionally
must all be larger for the superheated cycle than for the saturated cycle.
than the increase in the heat of compression, the coefficient of performance for the superheated
cycle
is
8-4.
Superheating That Produces Useful Cooling. Assume, now, that all of the heat taken in by the suction vapor produces useful
For the saturated cycle, the coefficient of performance is 4.69, whereas for the superheated
cycle
cooling.
The
coefficient
pound is greater by an amount equal to the amount of superheat. In Fig. 8-2, assuming that
per
the superheating produces useful cooling, the
refrigerating effect per pound for the superheated
(h c
of performance
(4r
h a) hc
)
57.44
10.60
5.42
cycle
is
equal to
88.60
h^
-h a =
31.16
It will be shown in the following sections that the superheating of the suction vapor in an actual cycle usually occurs in such a way that a part of the heat taken in by the vapor in becom-
57.44 Btu/lb
ing superheated
erated
is
refrig-
Since the refrigerating effect per pound is greater for the superheated cycle than for the saturated cycle, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton
is less
space
and produces
cooling,
heated
than for the saturated cycle. Whereas the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton for the saturated cycle is 4.05, the
cycle
whereas another part is absorbed by the vapor after the vapor leaves the refrigerated space and therefore produces no useful cooling. The portion of the superheat which produces useful
cooling will depend
tion,
upon
and the
effect
whenever
practical.
Regardless of the effect on capacity, except in some few special cases, a certain amount of
superheating
is
line.
most cases, desirable. When the suction vapor is drawn directly from the evaporator into the
suction inlet of the compressor without at least
a small amount of superheating, there is a good possibility that small particles of unvaporized
liquid will be entrained in the vapor.
expense of insulating the suction line depends primarily on the size of the system and on the
operating suction temperature.
Such a
When
high (35
is
relatively
vapor
"wet" vapor. It will be shown later that "wet" suction vapor drawn into the cylinder of the compressor adversely affects the
is
called a
will usually
reverse
is
pumps,
if
perature
is
is
vaporized liquid
Too,
at
efficiency
of the cycle
damage
to the compressor
may
result.
Since
superheating the suction vapor eliminates the possibility of "wet" suction vapor reaching the
degree of superheat will cause a greater reduction in cycle efficiency percentagewise than when
the suction temperature
is
high.
compressor
a certain amount of superheating is usually desirable. Again, the extent to which the suction vapor should be allowed to
inlet,
immediately
apparent
that
amount of superheating in the suction line of systems operating at low suction temperatures
will seriously
become superheated in any particular instance depends upon where and how the superheating occurs and upon the refrigerant used.
Superheating of the suction vapor may take place in any one or in any combination of the
following places:
and
under these conditions, insulating of the suction line is not only desirable but absolutely necessary if the efficiency of the cycle
that,
is
1.
In the end of the evaporator In the suction piping installed inside the
2.
even at the higher suction temperatures, insulating of the suction line is often required to prevent frosting or sweating of the suction line. In
flowing through the suction piping, the cold suction vapor will usually lower the temperature
a "drier
loop")
3.
refrigerated space
4.
Superheating in Suction Piping outside the Refrigerated Space. When the cool refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is allowed to become superheated while flowing through
8-5.
of the piping below the dew point temperature of the surrounding air so that moisture will condense out of the air onto the surface of the piping, causing the suction piping to either frost or sweat, depending upon whether or not the
temperature of the piping is below the freezing temperature of water. In any event, frosting or sweating of the suction piping is usually undesirable
by the vapor is absorbed from the surrounding air and no useful cooling
space, the heat taken in
results. It has already been demonstrated that superheating of the suction vapor which pro-
the piping.
8-6.
duces no useful cooling adversely affects the efficiency of the cycle. Obviously, then, superheating of the vapor in the suction line outside
frigerated Space. Superheating of the suction vapor inside the refrigerated space can take place either in the end of the evaporator or in
suction piping located inside the refrigerated
space, or both.
112
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
great to a vapor as to a liquid, the capacity of the
evaporator
is always reduced in any portion of the evaporator where only vapor exists. There-
vapor
evaporator unnecessarily and will require either that the evaporator be operated at a lower vaporizing temperature or that a larger evaporator be used in order to provide the desired evaporator capacity. Neither of these is desir-
able nor practical. Since the space available for evaporator installation is often limited and since evaporator surface is expensive, the use of a
larger evaporator
is
the effect on cycle efficiency, the undesirability of lowering the vaporizing temperature is obvious.
Often, a certain
amount of
is
suction piping,
Flow diagram showing drier loop for superheating suction vapor inside refrigerated space.
Fig. 8-3.
superheating the suction vapor (Fig. 8-3). Use of a drier loop permits more complete flooding
To assure the proper operation of the refrigerant control and to prevent liquid refrigerant
from overflowing the evaporator and being carried back to the compressor, when certain
types of refrigerant controls are used, it is necessary to adjust the control so that the liquid
of the evaporator with liquid refrigerant without the danger of the liquid overflowing into the suction line and being drawn into the compressor. This not only provides a means of superheating the suction vapor inside the refrigerated space so that the efficiency of the cycle is
completely evaporated before it reaches the end of the evaporator. In such cases, the cold
is
increased without the sacrifice of expensive evaporator surface, but it actually makes possible
vapor will continue to absorb heat and become superheated as it flows through the latter portion of the evaporator. Since the heat to superheat
more
effective
surface.
Also, in
some
instances, particularly
is
drawn from the refrigerated space, useful cooling results and the refrigerating effect of each pound of refrigerant is increased by an amount equal to the amount of heat absorbed in
is
the vapor
reasonably low, superheating of the suction vapor inside the refrigerated space will raise the temperature of the suction piping and prevent the formation of
air is
the superheating.
has been shown that when the superheating of the suction vapor produces useful cooling the efficiency of the cycle is improved somewhat.*
It
However, in spite of the increase in cycle efficiency, it must be emphasized that superheating the suction vapor in the evaporator is not economical and should always be limited to only that amount which is necessary to the proper
operation of the refrigerant control. Since the transfer of heat through the walls of the evaporator per degree of temperature difference is not as
* Although this
superheated inside the refrigerated space is limited by the space temperature. Ordinarily, if sufficient piping is used, the suction vapor can be heated to within 4 F to 5 F of the space
temperature. Thus, for a 40
ture, the suction
vapor
may
8-7.
approximately 35 F. The Effects of Subcooling the Liquid. On the PA diagram in Fig. 8-4, a simple saturated
cycle is
compared to one
a refrigerant,
it
true for systems using R-12 as will be shown later that this is not
is
F to 80 F before it reaches
the refrigerant control. Points A, B, C, D, and designate the simple saturated cycle, whereas
113
and
cooled cycle.
cycle,
has been shown (Section 6-28) that when the liquid is subcooled before it reaches the
It
will also
be
pound
is
cycle,
the subcooling
is
h v , and is exactly equal to the difference between h a and ha; which represents the heat removed
1.121
cu
ft/lb
from the liquid per pound during the subcooling. For the saturated
pound, qx
cycle,
x ve 4.05 x
1.121
pound, qt
4.55 cu ft/min
cu ft/lb
x ve
3.69
1.121
4.15 cu ft/min
Because of the greater refrigerating effect per pound, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton is less for the subcooled cycle than for the saturated cycle.
Because the volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton is less for the subcooled cycle, the compressor displacement required for the subcooled cycle is less than that required for the
saturated cycle.
For the saturated cycle, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton
200
~ =
49.33
4.05 lb
200
54.21 3.69 lb
pound and therefore the work of compression per pound is the same for both the saturated and subcooled cycles. This means that the refrigerating effect per pound resulting from the
subcooling
is
Notice that the condition of the refrigerant vapor entering the suction inlet of the compressor is the same for both cycles. For this reason, the specific volume of the vapor entering the compressor will be the
same
and subcooled
Any change which increases the quantity of heat absorbed in the refrigerated space without causing an increase in the energy input to the compressor will increase the c.o.p. of the cycle and reduce the horsepower required
the energy input to the compressor.
in the refrigerating cycle
is less
per ton.
131.16
comparcycle
the subcooled
simple
to
the
saturated
cycle.
S
:
(Refrigerant- 1 2.)
35.75
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
114
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid-vapor mixture
35.75 psia-20F
m<
Saturated vapor
K
Liquid subcooled
Subcooled liquid
131.16
psia-SCF
20*
illus-
surrounding
air while
passing through
liquid line, receiver,
etc.
,
the liquid
line.
(Refrigerant-
Superheated vapor
131.16
131.16
psia-lOOV
paa-112'F
12.)
Saturated liquid o
Saturated vapor
131.16 psia-100 F
3575psia-20*F
C
For the saturated
cycle,
K
K-K
hd
subcooling
offset
is
very often
more than
sufficient to
hc
of the subcooler,
mance
80.49
~ =
The horsepower per ton
90.60
4.88
31.16 80.49
particularly for
The
series
may be
piped either in
When
the subcooler
_ = =
m(h d
4.05
hc)
42A2
10.51
subcooler
first
0.965 hp/ton
hc
hd
h' -K
with the liquid being subcooled (Fig. 8-7). There is some doubt about the value of a subcooler piped in series with the condenser. Since
mance
80.49 - 26.28
is
90.60 - 80.49
54.21
10.51
it
increased
=
The horsepower per ton
5.16
m{h d
3.69
is offset
to
some
he)
10.51
densing temperature.
42.42
When
the subcooler
is
42.42
is
=
is
0.914 hp/ton
condenser water
by
pump must
-4.88
10
~^M~ X
7%
be increased when a subcooler is added. If this is not done, the quantity of water circulated through the condenser will be
diminished by the addition of the subcooler and
the condensing temperature of the cycle will be
increased, thus nullifying any benefit accruing
Subcooling of the liquid refrigerant can and does occur in several places and in several ways. Very often the liquid refrigerant becomes subcooled while stored in the liquid receiver tank
or while passing through the liquid line by giving
off heat to the surrounding air (Fig. 8-5).
In
subcooled
8-8.
is
some cases where water is used as the condensing medium, a special liquid .subcooler is used to subcool the liquid (Fig. 8-6). The gain in system
capacity and efficiency resulting from the liquid
to the system.
other
method of subcooling the liquid is to bring about an exchange of heat between the liquid
115
liquid so that the liquid is subcooled as the vapor is superheated, and, since the heat absorbed by the vapor in becoming superheated is drawn from the liquid, the heat of the liquid is diminished by an amount equal to the amount of heat taken in by the vapor. In each of the methods of subcooling discussed thus far, the heat given up by the liquid in becoming sub-
Water
from^/
Saturated liquid
to subcooler
condenser
cooled
is
given
up
to
some medium
external to
When
is
used,
Since the heat given up by the liquid in the heat exchanger in becoming subcooled is
exactly equal to the heat absorbed by the vapor
a simple saturated cycle is compared to one in which a liquid-suction heat exchanger is employed. Points A, B, C, Z),and identify the saturated
On
the
Ph diagram
becoming superheated, h a h a is equal to h c and therefore is also equal to 5.71 Btu/lb. Since h a ha represents an increase
in
-
hC
'
'
in
the
refrigerating
effect,
the
refrigerating
is
and points A', B', C", D', E identify the in which the heat exchanger is used. In the cycle latter cycle, it is assumed that the suction vapor is superheated from 20 F to 60 F in the heat
cycle
effect
hc
ha
80.49
25.45
55.04
for the heat
exchanger.
in the
.
- hd =
97.60
86.20
11.40
is
hc
-h =
c
86.20
80.49
5.71 Btu/lb
K - hn
The
55.04
11.40
h,.-h,
coefficient of
is
4.91
5
7
S3
ated cycle
4.88.
by only
-4.88
x 100
75'
tower
or city main
4.88
=0.5%
case,
Water-cooled
condenser
the
(10O*F condensing)
"^
100*
Liquid to
'subcooler
Fig. 8-4.
in series
performance of a cycle employing a heat exchanger may be either greater than, less than, or the same as that of a saturated cycle operating between the same pressure limits. In any event, the difference is negligible, and it is evident that the advantages accruing
coefficient of
116
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
20* vaporizing
temperature
Saturated
suctio n
f
v
vapor20'
Saturated
Subcooled
liquid-75"F~
liquid-lOOT
from the subcooling of the liquid in the heat exchanger are approximately offset by the disadvantages of superheating the vapor. Theoretically, then, the use of a heat exchanger cannot be justified on the basis of an increase in
system capacity and efficiency. However, since in actual practice a refrigerating system does not (cannot) operate on a simple saturated cycle, this does not represent a true appraisal of
the practical value of the heat exchanger. In an actual cycle, the suction vapor will
always become superheated before the compression process begins because nothing can be done to prevent it. This is true even if no
superheating takes place either in the evaporator or in the suction line and the vapor reaches
the inlet of the compressor at the vaporizing temperature. As the cold suction vapor flows
it will become superheated by absorbing heat from the hot cylinder walls.
Since the superheating in the compressor cylinder will occur before the compression process
131.16
&
35.75
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Hg. 8-. Ph diagrams comparing simple saturated cycle to cycle employing a liquid-suction heat exchanger. The amount of subcooling is equal to the amount of superheating. (Refrigerant- 2.)
1
117
on
cycle
if
vapor is always greater than the reduction in the temperature of the liquid. For instance, the
specific heat of
R-12 liquid
is
approximately
The disadvantages resulting from allowing the become superheated without pro-
0.24 Btu per pound, whereas the specific heat of the vapor is 0.15 Btu per pound. This means
that the temperature reduction of the liquid will
ducing useful cooling have already been pointed out. Obviously, then, since superheating of the
is unavoidable in an actual cycle, whether or not a heat exchanger is used, any practical means of causing the vapor to become superheated in such a way that useful cooling results are worthwhile. Hence, the value of a heat exchanger lies in the fact that it provides a method of superheating the vapor so that useful
be approximately 62% (0.15/0.24) of the rise in the temperature of the vapor, or that for each
suction vapor
F rise in the temperature of the vapor, the temperature of the liquid will be reduced 15 F. For the heat exchanger cycle in Fig. 8-9, the
24
vapor absorbs
5.71
heating from 20
F to
up by the liquid is
5.71
cooling results. For this reason, the effect of a heat exchanger on cycle efficiency can be
evaluated only by comparing the heat exchanger cycle to one in which the vapor is superheated
Btu, so that the temperature of the liquid is reduced 23.8 F (5.71/0.24) as the liquid passes
through the heat exchanger. The Effect of Pressure Losses Resulting from Friction. In overcoming friction, both
8-9.
The maximum amount of heat exchange which can take place between the liquid and the vapor in the heat exchanger depends on the initial temperatures of the liquid and the vapor as they enter the heat exchanger and on the length of time they are in contact with each
other.
and external
(surface),
while flowing through the piping, evaporator, condenser, receiver, and through the valves and
passages of the compressor (Fig. 8-10).
A Ph
diagram of an actual
is
cycle, illustrating
The
greater
period of contact. Thus, the lower the vaporizing temperature and the higher the condensing temperature, the greater is the possible heat
cooling
is
drawn
in for comparison.
exchange.
time, they
Theoretically,
if
the
two
fluids
sufficient length
of
is
psi.
Whereas
same temperature. In
not possible.
the pressure and saturation temperature of the liquid-vapor mixture at the evaporator inlet is
38.58 psia and 24 F, respectively, the pressure of
However, the longer the two fluids stay in contact, the more nearly the two temperatures will approach one another. Since the specific heat of the vapor is less than that of
the liquid, the rise in the temperature of the
* It will be
is
33.08 psia, corresponding to a saturation temperature of 16 F. The average vaporizing temperature in the evaporator is 20 F, the same as
that of the saturated cycle.
shown
later that
some advantages
As a
result of the
accrue from superheating which takes place in the compressor: (1) When the suction vapor absorbs
perature
process.
heat from the cylinder walls, the cylinder wall temis lowered somewhat and this brings about
evaporator, the vapor leaves the evaporator at a lower pressure and saturation temperature and
if
no drop in
a desirable change in the path of the compression However, the change is slight and is difficult to evaluate. (2) When hermetic motorcompressor assemblies are used, the suction vapor should reach the compressor at a relatively low temperature in order to help cool the motor windings.
The refrigerating effect per pound and the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton are approximately the same for both cycles,
but because of the greater specific volume the volume of vapor handled by the compressor per
118
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
V
c
c
L ,
1 114"F
90 F
(sat.
temp.)
|TTlOF
*^\
Fig. 8-10. Flow diagram illustrating the effect of pressure drop are exaggerated for clarity. (Refrigerant- 2.)
1
Pressure drop through hot gas line and condensers, 19.1 psi 131.6 psia (sat. temp.)
100F
is greater for the cycle experiencing the pressure drop. Too, because of the lower pressure of the vapor leaving the evapora-
through the suction line from the evaporator to the compressor inlet. Like pressure drop in the
evaporator, pressure drop in the suction line causes the suction vapor to reach the compressor
at a lower pressure
vapor must be compressed through a greater pressure range during the compression
tor, the
is
also
and in an expanded condition so that the volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton and the horsepower per ton are
both increased.
It is evident that the drop in pressure both in the evaporator and in the suction line should be
Line C'-C" represents the drop in pressure experienced by the suction vapor in flowing
eration
the
various
parts
of the system.
cycle
is
simple
in
saturated
for
1
drawn
comparison.
(Refrigerant-
2.)
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Pressure drop
1.
2.
4. Evaporator
5. 6.
Suction line
3. Liquid line
119
Line D'-A represents the drop in pressure resulting from the flow of the refrigerant through
the discharge line and condenser. That part of
line
In Fig. 8-11, the pressure drops are exaggerated for clarity. design
limits
evaporator to 2 or 3
or very short, depending upon the application. In any event, the result of the pressure drop will
between
and 2
psi.
of subcooling, super-
I.
simple saturated
in
cycle
is
drawn
for
comparison.
(Refrigerant- 1 2).
Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Pressure drop
1.
2.
3. Liquid line
Line
be the same.
the suction vapor undergoes in flowing through the suction valves and passages of the com-
The result of the drop in pressure through the valves and passages on the suction side of the compressor is the same as
if
charge valves and passages, in the discharge line, and in the condenser) will have the effect of
raising
the
discharge
increasing the
effect
good design requires that the drop in pressure be kept to a practical minimum.
Line
and
liquid line.
C-D
erant at A'
is
Notice that the vapor in the cylinder is compressed to a pressure considerably above the average condensing pressure. It is shown later that this is necessary in order to force the vapor
out of the cylinder through the discharge valves against the condensing pressure and against the additional pressure occasioned by the springloading of the discharge valves. Line D"-D' represents the drop in pressure
required to force the discharge valves open
of the liquid must decrease as the pressure decreases. If the liquid is not subcooled by
giving
as
its
pressure
line in order to
provide the
A"
lies
a vapor at
in
Despite the flashing of the liquid and the drop temperature coincident with the drop in
120
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
no effect on cycle efficiency. The pressure and temperature of die liquid must
be reduced to the vaporizing condition before
it
is
F in the suction line, whereas the liquid subcooled to 90 F by giving off heat to the ambient air. Determine:
to 70
(a)
The
pound.
The fact
that
a part of this takes place in the liquid line rather than in the refrigerant control has no direct
on the efficiency of the system. It does, however, reduce the capacity of both the liquid
effect
and the refrigerant control. Furthermore, passage of vapor through the refrigerant control
line
Ans. 54.01 Btu/lb (b) The weight of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton. Ans. 3.70 lb/min/ton (c) The volume of vapor compressed per minute per ton. Ans. 2.93 cu ft/min/ton (d) The loss of refrigerating effect per pound in the refrigerant control. Ans. 11.7 Btu/lb quantity of superheat in the suction vapor. Ans. 4.39 Btu/lb (/) The gain in refrigerating effect per pound resulting from the liquid subcooling. Ans. 4.93 Btu/lb (g) The adiabatic discharge temperature.
(c)
cause damage to the refrigerant control by eroding the valve needle and seat.
will eventually
The
Ordinarily, even without the use of a heat exchanger, sufficient subcooling of the liquid will occur in the liquid line to prevent the
flashing of the liquid if the
the line
is
Ans. 138.5
(A)
in the lines
is
and
in
discussed
more
compared
PROBLEMS
1.
Ans. 9 Btu/lb (0 The heat of compression per minute per ton. Ans. 33.3 Btu/min/ton The work of compression per minute per (J) ton. Ans. 25.907 lb/min/ton (At) The theoretical horsepower per ton. Ans. 0.755 hp/ton (/)The heat rejected at the condenser per pound. Arts. 67 .4 Btu/lb (m) The heat rejected at the condenser per ton. Ans. 249.38 Btu/min/ton () The coefficient of performance. Ans. 6
Note: Some of the properties of the refrigerant at various points in the cycle must be determined from the Ph chart in Fig. 7-1.
America is today, nor do they realize the extent to which such a society is dependent upon
mechanical refrigeration for its very existence. would not be possible, for instance, to preserve food in sufficient quantities to feed the growing urban population without mechanical
It
9
Survey
of Refrigeration Applications
Too, many of the large buildings which house much of the nation's business and industry would become untenable in the summer
refrigeration.
if
with
mechanical
equipment.
In addition to the better known applications of refrigeration, such as comfort air conditioning
tation,
commodity on the market today. The list of processes or products made possible or improved
through the use of mechanical refrigeration is almost endless. For example, refrigeration has
9-1.
made possible
the early days of mechanical refrigeration, the equipment available was bulky, expensive, and
the building of huge dams which are vital to large-scale reclamation and hydroelectric projects.
It
has
made
Also it was of such a nature as to require that a mechanic or operating engineer be on duty at all times. This limited the use of mechanical refrigeration to a few large applications such as ice plants, meat packing plants, and
efficient.
not too
and tunnels and the sinking of foundation and mining shafts through and across unstable ground formations. It has made
struction of roads
rubber, and
rials
possible the production of plastics, synthetic many other new and useful mate-
and products.
In the span of only a few decades refrigeration has grown into the giant and rapidly expanding
industry that
it is
refrigeration, bakers
came about as the result of several factors. First, with the development of precision manufacturing
methods,
it
bread from a barrel of flour, textile and paper manufacturers can speed up their machines and get more production, and better methods of hardening steels for machine tools are available.
became
equipment. This, along with the development of "safe" refrigerants and the invention of the fractional horsepower electric motor, made possible the small refrigerating unit which is so widely used at the present time in such applications as domestic refrigerators
efficient
more
These represent only a few of the hundreds of ways in which mechanical refrigeration is now being used and many new uses are being found
each year. In fact, the only thing slowing the growth of the refrigeration industry at the
present time
is
trained technical
manpower.
and
mercial fixtures.
cannot
business establishments in the United States that boast of one or more mechanical
general categories:
(1)
refrigeration units of
some
sort.
domestic refrigeration, (2) commercial refrigeration, (3) industrial refrigeration, (4) marine and transportation refrigeration, (5) comfort air conditioning,
will
air conditioning. It
technical
society
that
121
122
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
precisely defined
is
considerable
9-3.
overlapping between the several areas. Domestic Refrigeration. Domestic rebeing frigeration is rather limited in scope,
as well for vessels transporting perishable cargo vessels of as refrigeration for the ship's stores on
all
kinds.
refrigeration
is
Transportation
concerned
concerned primarily with household refrigerathe tors and home freezers. However, because
number of
units
in
service
is
quite large,
with refrigeration equipment as it is applied to local trucks, both long distance transports and Typicars. railway refrigerated delivery, and to
cal refrigerated truck bodies are
11-8.
shown
in Fig.
Domesticunits are usually small in size, having and J hp, and horsepower ratings of between
9-7.
implies,
these are of the hermetically sealed type. Since applications are familiar to everyone, they will be described further here. However, the
condition air conditioning is concerned with the of the air in some designated area or space. This
usually involves control not only of the space
not problems encountered in the design and maintenance of these units are discussed in appropriate places in the chapters
9-4.
temperature but also of space humidity and air motion, along with the filtering and cleaning of
the
air.
which
follow.
Com.nercial Refrigeration.
is
Commer-
cial refrigeration
concerned with the designing, installation, and maintenance of refrigerated resfixtures of the type used by retail stores,
taurants, hotels,
Air conditioning applications are of two types, their either comfort or industrial, according to purpose. Any air conditioning which has as its
and
primary function the conditioning of air for human comfort is called comfort air conditionTypical installations of comfort air ing.
conditioning are in homes,
schools,
offices,
are described
in
more
churches, hotels, retail stores, public buildings, factories, automobiles, buses, trains, planes,
ships, etc.
Refrigeration. refrigeration is often confused with commercial refrigeration because the division between these
9-5.
Industrial
Industrial
two areas
than
is
As a
general
size rule, industrial applications are larger in disthe have and applications commercial
Typical industrial applications are ice plants, large food-packing plants (meat, fish, poultry,
frozen foods,
etc.),
systems cannot serve as comfort air conditioning coincidentally with their primary function. Often this is the case, although not always so. The applications of industrial air conditioning
breweries, creameries,
and
industrial plants, such as oil refineries, chemical plants, rubber plants, etc. Industrial refrigera-
and in are almost without limit both in number of variety. Generally speaking, the functions control industrial air conditioning are to; (1)
the moisture content of hydroscopic materials; chemical and biochemical (2) govern the rate of reactions; (3) limit the variations in the size of precision manufactured articles because of ther-
tion includes also those applications concerned with the construction industry as described in
Section 9-1.
9-6.
tion.
could be
under commercial
refrig-
mal expansion and contraction and (4) provide essential to clean, filtered air which is often trouble-free operation and to the production of
;
refrigeraeration and partly under industrial specialization tion. However, both these areas of
quality products.
9-8.
preservation of
have grown
mention.
perishable commodities, particularly foodstuffs, of mechanical is one of the most common uses
refrigeration.
Marine
refrigeration,
of course, refers to
includes,
refrigeration
and
As such, it is a subject which should be given consideration in any comprehensive study of refrigeration.
123
The invention of the microscope and the subsequent discovery of microorganisms as a major cause of food spoilage led to the development of canning in France during the time of Napoleon.
With the invention of canning, man found a way
to preserve food of all kinds in large quantities
and
vegetables, are
must be stored
and preserved
if
they are to be
made
available
As a matter of life or
of food has long been one of man's most pressing problems. Almost from the very beginning of
man's existence on earth, it became necessary him to find ways of preserving food during seasons of abundance in order to live through
for
seasons of scarcity. It
is
man
ling,
should discover and develop such methods of food preservation as drying, smoking, pick-
and
no
modern societies where they serve to supplement the more modern methods of food preservation. For instance, millions of pounds of dehydrated
(dried) fruit, milk, eggs, fish, meat, potatoes, etc.,
consumed in the United States each year, along with huge quantities of smoked, pickled, and salted products, such as ham, bacon, and sausage, to name only a few. However, although these older methods are entirely adequate for the
are preservation of certain types of food, and often
often
it is
produce very unusual and tasty products which would not otherwise be available, they nonetheless have inherent disadvantages which limit their usefulness. Since by their very nature they bring about severe changes in appearance, taste, and odor, which in many cases are objectionable,
they are not universally adaptable for the preservation of all types of food products. Furthermore, the keeping qualities of food preserved by
Deterioration and Spoilage. Since the is simply a matter of preventing or retarding deterioration and spoilage regardless of the method used, a good knowledge of the causes of deterioration and spoilage is
9-9.
preservation of food
a prerequisite to the study of preservation methods. It should be recognized at the outset that
there are degrees of quality
such methods are definitely limited as to time. is to be preserved indefinitely or for a long period of time, some other means of preservation must be utilized.
Therefore, where a product
and that
all
perish-
through various stages of deterioration before becoming unfit for consumption. In most cases, the objective in the
able foods
pass
124
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
preservation of food
not only to preserve the foodstuff in an edible condition but also to preserve it as nearly as possible at the peak of its
quality with respect to appearance, odor, taste, and vitamin content. Except for a few processed
foodstuff
9-10.
is
to be adequately preserved.
Enzymes.
Enzymes
Not
yet fully
understood, they are probably best described as chemical catalytic agents which are capable
of bringing about chemical changes in organic materials. There are many different kinds of
original fresh
to cause a detectodor, or taste of appearance, able change in the fresh foods immediately reduces the commercial
value of the product and thereby represents an economic loss. Consider, for example, wilted
vegetables or overripe
enzymes and each one is specialized in that it produces only one specific chemical' reaction. In general, enzymes are identified either by the substance upon which they act or by the result of their action. For instance, the enzyme,
so known because it acts to convert lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid. This particular process is called lactic acid fermentation
lactase, is
Although their edibility is little impaired, an undesirable change in their appearance has been brought about which usually requires that they be disposed of at a reduced price. Too, since they are well on
fruit.
and
their
way
is the one principally responsible for the "souring" of milk. Enzymes associated with the various types of fermentation are sometimes
called ferments.
all living
proall
total loss.
For obvious reasons, maintaining the vitamin content at the highest possible level is always an important factor in the processing and/or preservation of all food products. In fact, many
food processors, such as bakers and dairymen, are now adding vitamins to their product to replace those which are lost during processing.
Fresh vegetables, fruit, and fruit juices are some of the food products which suffer heavy losses in vitamin content very quickly if they are not handled and protected properly. Although the loss of vitamin content is not something which in itself is apparent, in many fresh foods it is usually accompanied by recognizable changes in
appearance, odor, or taste, such as, for instance, wilting in leafy, green vegetables. For the most part, the deterioration and eventual spoilage of perishable food are caused
series of
organic materials (the cell tissue of all plants and animals, both living and dead). They are manufactured by all living cells to help carry on the
various living activities of the cell, such as respiration, digestion, growth, and reproduction, and they play an important part in such things
as the sprouting of seeds, the growth of plants and animals, the ripening of fruit, and the
digestive processes of animals, including man. However, enzymes are catabolic as well as anabolic.
as well as to maintain live cell tissue. In fact, enzymes are the agents primarily responsible for the decay
and decomposition of
all
organic
materials, as, for example, the putrification of meat and fish and the rotting of fruit and
vegetables.
by a
complex chemical changes which take place in the foodstuff after harvesting or killing. These chemical changes are brought about by
both internal and external agents. The former are the natural enzymes which are inherent in all organic materials, whereas the latter are microorganisms which grow in and on the surface of
the foodstuff. capable of bringing about the total destruction of a food product, both agents are involved in
Whether their action is catabolic or anabolic, enzymes are nearly always destructive to perishable foods. Therefore, except in those few
where fermentation or putrification processing, enzymic action must the is a part of be either eliminated entirely or severely inhibited if the product is to be preserved in good conspecial cases
dition.
is
the conditions of the surrounding media, particularly with regard to the temperature and the degree of acidity or alkalinity, which provides a
practical
125
enzymes are eliminated at temperatures above 160 F, cooking a food substance completely destroys the enzymes contained therein. On the other hand, enzymes are very resistant to low temperatures and their activity may continue at a slow rate even at temperatures below 0 F. However, it is a well-known fact that the rate of
chemical reaction decreases as the temperature decreases. Hence, although the enzymes are not
destroyed, their activity
is
Too, some microorganisms which are extremely dangerous to health, causing poisonsecrete poisonous substances (toxins)
ing, disease,
On
many
and necessary functions. As a it were not for the work of microorganisms, life of any kind would not be possible. Since decay and decomposition of all dead animal tissue are essential to make space available for new life and growth, the decaying
matter of
action of microorganisms
life cycle. is
greatly reduced at
low
indispensable to the
Enzymic action is greatest in the presence of free oxygen (as in the air) and decreases as the oxygen supply diminishes. With regard to the degree of acidity or alkalinity, some enzymes require acid surroundings,
whereas others prefer neutral or alkaline enstroyed
Of all living things, only green plants (those containing chlorophyll) are capable of using inorganic materials as food for building their
cell tissue.
Through a process
called photo-
radiant energy of the sun to combine carbon dioxide from the air with water and mineral
Those requiring acidity are deand those requiring alkalinity are likewise destroyed by acidity. Although an organic substance can be completely destroyed and decomposed solely by the
vironments.
by
alkalinity
from the soil and thereby manufacture from inorganic materials the organic compounds which make up their cell tissue. Conversely, all animals and all plants without
salts
action of
its
own
chlorophyll (fungi) require organic materials (those containing carbon) for food to carry on
necessity feed
known
dom
occurs.
More
Consequently, they must of upon the cell tissue of other plants and animals (either living or dead) and are,
their life activities.
term microorganism is used to cover a whole group of minute plants and animals of microscopic and submicroscopic size, of which only the following three are of particular interest in the study of food preservation: (1) bacteria, (2) yeasts, and (3) molds. These tiny organisms are found in large numbers everywhere in the air, in the ground, in water, in and on the bodies of plants and animals, and in every other place where conditions are such that living organisms can survive. Because they secrete enzymes which attack the organic materials upon which they grow, microorganisms are agents of fermentation, purification, and decay. As such, they are both beneficial and harmful to mankind. Thengrowth in and on the surface of perishable foods causes complex chemical changes in the food substance which usually results in undesirable
on green plants
soil, which serve as food for green plants, ever become exhausted, all life would soon disappear from the earth. This is not likely to happen, however, since microorganisms, as a part of their own living
of inorganic materials in the soil. With the exception of a few types of soil bacteria, all microorganisms need organic materials as food to carry on the living process. In most cases, they obtain these materials by
and appearance of allowed to continue for any length of time, will render the food unfit
alterations in the taste, odor,
if
decomposing animal wastes and the tissue of dead animals and plants. In the process of decomposition, the complex organic compounds which make up the tissue of animals and plants are broken down step by step and are eventually reduced to simple inorganic materials which are returned to the soil to be used as food by the
green plants.
126
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The
rate at
In addition to the important part they play in the "food chain" by helping to keep essential materials in circulation, microorganisms ale necessary in the processing of certain fermented
foods and other commodities. For example, bacteria are responsible for the lactic acid fermentation required in the processing of pickles,
cocoa, coffee, sauerkraut, ensilage, and certain sour milk products, such as butter, cheese, buttermilk, yogurt, etc., and for the
olives,
such environmental conditions as temperature, light, and the degree of acidity or alkalinity, and upon the availability of oxygen, moisture, and
an adequate supply of soluble food. However, there are many species of bacteria and they
differ greatly
duction
of vinegar
is
from various
alcohols.
Bacterial action
linen,
of certain other commodities such as leather, hemp, and tobacco, and in the treatment of industrial wastes of organic composition.
Yeasts, because of their ability to produce
alcoholic fermentation,
are of immeasurable
value to the brewing and wine-making industries and to the production of alcohols of all kinds.
same environmental conditions. Some species prefer conditions which are entirely fatal to others. Too, some bacteria are spore-formers. The spore is formed within the bacteria cell and is protected by a heavy covering or wall. In the spore state, which is actually a resting or dormant phase of the organism, bacteria are
extremely resistant to unfavorable conditions of environment and can survive in this state almost indefinitely. The spore will usually germinate
Too, everyone is aware of the importance of yeast in the baking industry. The chief commercial uses of molds are in the
processing of certain types of cheeses and, more important, in the production of antibiotics, such
as penicillin and aureomycin.
Despite their
many
useful
and necessary
Hence,
enzymes,
whenever conditions become favorable for the organism to carry on its living activities. Most bacteria are saprophytes. That is, they are "free living" and feed only on animal wastes
and on the dead tissue of animals and plants. Some, however, are parasites and require a
living host.
Most pathogenic
bacteria (those
if deterioration and
somewhat
causing infection and disease) are of the parasitic type. In the absence of a living host, some parasitic bacteria can live as saprophytes. Likewise,
live as parasites
worthwhile to examine each type separately. 9-12. Bacteria. Bacteria are a very simple form of plant life, being made up of one single
living cell.
division.
when
Reproduction is accomplished by cell reaching maturity, the bacterium divides into two separate and equal cells, each of which in turn grows to maturity and divides into two cells. Bacteria grow and reproduce at an enormous rate. Under ideal conditions, a
On
food substances, they require food in a soluble form. For this reason, most bacteria secrete enzymes which are capable of rendering insoluble compounds into a soluble state, thereby
The
by bacteria growth is a
bacterium can grow into maturity and reproduce in as little as 20 to 30 min. At this rate a single bacterium is capable of producing as many as 34,000,000,000,000 descendants in a 24-hr period. Fortunately, however, the life cycle of bacteria is relatively short, being a matter of minutes or hours, so that even under ideal conditions they cannot multiply at any-
of these bacterial enzymes. Bacteria, like all other living things, require
moisture as well as food to carry on their life As in other things, bacteria vary activities.
considerably in their ability to resist drought.
where near
this rate.
Although most species are readily destroyed by drying and will succumb within a few hours, the more hardy species are able to resist drought for several days. Bacterial spores can withstand
127
in
Milk
in
Various Periods
96
1,850
24
2,400 2,500
3,100
Time, hours 48
2,100
3,600
12,000
168
1,400
218,000
1,480,000
4,200,000
11,600
540,000
28,000,000
180,000
1,400,000,000
Fig. 9-1. From ASRE Data Book, Applications Volume, 1956-57. Reproduced by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
drought almost
indefinitely,
For each
dormant
:
mum
grow
there
In their need for oxygen, bacteria fall into two groups (1) those which require free oxygen (air)
exist without free oxyalthough having a preference for one condition or the other, can live in the presence of free oxygen or in the absence of it. Those bacteria living without free oxygen
and
(2) those
which can
Too, for each species a minimum temperature which will permit growth. At temperatures
is
maximum and
gen.
Some
species,
compound while
above the maximum, the bacteria are destroyed. At temperatures below the minimum, the bacteria are rendered inactive or dormant. The optimum temperature for most saprophytes is usually between 75 F and 85 F, whereas the optimum temperature for parasites is around 99 F or 100 F. A few species grow best at
temperatures near the boiling point of water, whereas a few other types thrive best at temperatures near the freezing point. However, most
species are either killed off or severely inhibited
at these temperatures.
oxygen is known as decay, whereas decomposition which takes place in the absence of free oxygen is called putrification. One of the products of putrification is hydrogen sulfide, a foul-smelling gas which is frequently noted arising from decomposing animal
carcasses.
on
siderably reduced
require either neutral or slightly alkaline surroundings, although some species prefer slightly
acid conditions. Because bacteria prefer neutral
9-13. Yeasts. Yeasts are simple, one-cell plants of the fungus family. Of microscopic size,
somewhat
larger
or
slightly
alkaline
surroundings,
nonacid
cells.
by fission
reproduction
bacteria.
usually by budding. Starting as a small protrusion of the mature cell, the bud
is
Whereas
visible
light
only
enlarges
cell.
from the mother budding is frequently so rapid that new buds are formed before
finally separates
and Under
ideal conditions,
otherwise, have
no power of
formed.
However,
provides
from
direct sunlight),
drying,
an
excellent
controlling
bacteria growth.
Like bacteria, yeasts are agents of fermentaThey secrete enzymes that bring about chemical changes in the food upon which they grow. Yeasts are noted for their ability
tion and decay.
128
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Mold spores are actually seeds and, under the proper conditions, will germinate and produce mold growth on any food substance with which
they
particularly fruits
and
their juices,
the alcoholic fermentation produced by yeasts is essential to the baking, brewing, and wine-
come
in contact.
making
industries.
about by air currents, mold spores are found almost everywhere and are particularly abundant
in the air.
Yeasts are spore-formers, with as many as eight spores being formed within a single yeast
cell.
Although molds are less resistant to high temperatures than are bacteria, they are more
tolerant to
spores are invariably found in the air and on the skin of fruit and berries, for which they have a
particular
affinity.
freely at
temperatures close to the freezing point of water. Mold growth is inhibited by temperatures below
32 F, more from the lack of free moisture than from the effect of low temperature. All mold growth ceases at temperatures of 10 F and
winter in the soil and are carried to the new fruit in the spring by insects or by the wind.
Like bacteria, yeasts require air, food, and moisture for growth, and are sensitive to temperature and the degree of acidity or alkalinity
in the environment. For the most part, yeasts prefer moderate temperatures and slight acidity.
below.
Molds
flourish in dark,
still air.
damp
surroundings,
In general, yeasts are not as resistant to unfavorable conditions as are bacteria, although they
abundant supply of oxygen is essential to mold growth, although a very few species can grow in the absence of
particularly in
An
oxygen.
can grow in acid surroundings which inhibit most bacteria. Yeast spores, like those of bacteria, are extremely hardy and can survive for long periods under adverse conditions. 9-14. Molds. Molds, like yeasts, are simple plants of the fungi family. However, they are much more complex in structure than either Whereas the individual bacteria or yeasts. bacteria or yeast plants consist of one single
somewhat by maintaining good air circulation in the storage room, by the use of germicidal paints, and ultraviolet radiation, and by frequent
scrubbing.
an individual mold plant is made up of a number of cells which are positioned end to end
cell,
vats,
and
common
fruits.
cause of spoilage in
form long, branching, threadlike fibers called hypha. The network which is formed by a mass
to
is called the mycelium and is easily visible to the naked eye. The hyphae of the mold plant are of two general types. Some are vegetative fibers which grow under the surface and act as roots to gather food
Control of Spoilage Agents. Despite complications arising from the differences in the
reaction of the various types of spoilage agents
to specific conditions in the environment, controlling these conditions provides the only means
others,
called
aerial
of controlling these spoilage agents. Thus, all methods of food preservation must of necessity involve manipulation of the environment in and around the preserved product in order to pro-
(1) as
round
clusters
duce one or more conditions unfavorable to the continued activity of the spoilage agents. When the product is to be preserved for any length of
time, the unfavorable conditions produced
within the fibrous hyphae network, (2) as a mass enclosed in a sac and attached to the end of
aerial
must
hyphae, and
on
the end of aerial hyphae. In any case, a single mold plant is capable of producing thousands of spores which break free from the mother plant and float away with the slightest air motion.
or dormant. All types of spoilage agents are destroyed when subjected to high temperatures over a period of
time.
This principle
is
129
smoke and
partially
by
which are
remain in a preserved state indefinitely. The exposure time required for the destruction of all spoilage agents depends upon the
temperature
level, level.
absorbed from the smoke. Too, some products are "cured" with sugar or salt which act as preservatives in that they create conditions unfavorable to the activity of spoilage agents. Some other frequently used preservatives are vinegar, borax, saltpeter, bonfew of the zoate of soda, and various spices.
the shorter is the exposure period required. In this regard, moist heat is more effective than dry heat because of its greater penetrating powers. When moist heat is used, the temperature level required is lower and the processing period is shorter. Enzymes and all living micro-
products preserved in this manner are sugarcured hams, salt pork, spiced fruits, certain
beverages,
9-16.
jellies,
Preservation by Refrigeration. The preservation of perishables by refrigeration involves the use of low temperature as a means of
eliminating or retarding the activity of spoilage agents. Although low temperatures are not as
effective in bringing
organisms are destroyed when exposed to the temperature of boiling water for approximately five minutes, but the more resistant bacteria
spores
survive at this condition for several hours before succumbing. For this reason, some
may
storage
of perishables
low temperatures
greatly reduces the activity of both enzymes and microorganisms and thereby provides a practical
require
long
processing
periods
means of preserving
perishables in their
which frequently result in overcooking of the product. These products are usually processed under pressure so that the processing temperature is increased and the processing time
shortened.
required for
adequate preservation varies with the type of product stored and with the length of time the
product is to be kept in storage. For purposes of preservation, food products
Another method of curtailing the activity of spoilage agents is to deprive them of the moisture and/or food which
is
continued
activity.
organisms require moisture to carry on their activities. Hence, removal of the free moisture from a product will severely limit their activities. The process of moisture removal is called drying (dehydration) and is one of the oldest methods of
preserving foods. Drying
naturally in the sun
is
can be grouped into two general categories (1) those which are alive at the time of distribution and storage and (2) those which are not. Nonliving food substances, such as meat, poultry,
:
and
bial
fish, are much more susceptible to microcontamination and spoilage than are living
accomplished either
and air or artificially in ovens. Dried products which are stored in a cool, dry place will remain in good condition
for long periods.
food substances, and they usually require more stringent preservation methods. With nonliving food substances, the problem of preservation is one of protecting dead tissue
from
all
Pickling
is
essentially
is
both enzymic and microbial. In the case of living food substances, such as fruit and vegetables, the fact of life itself affords considerable
protection against microbial invasion,
preservation problem
is chiefly
substances which serve as food for yeasts and bacteria. The product to be preserved by pickling is immersed in a salt brine solution and
and the one of keeping the food substance alive while at the same time retarding natural enzymic activity in order to
slow the rate of maturation or ripening. Vegetables and fruit are as much alive after harvesting as they are during the growing period. Previous to harvesting they receive a continuous supply of food substances from the growing
fermentation
allowed to take place, during in the food product are converted to lactic acid, primarily through the action of lactic acid bacteria. Smoked products are preserved partially by
is
130
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
plant,
some of which
from
its
or
fruit.
After harvesting,
its
and storage
at
normal supply of food, the living processes continue through utilization of the previously stored food substances. This causes the vegetable or fruit to undergo changes which will eventually result in deterioration and complete decay of the product. The primary purpose of placing such products under refrigeration is to slow the living processes by retarding enzymic activity, thereby keeping the product in a preserved condition for a longer
fruit is cut off
10
F and 10 F,
usually
with
retail
establishments
is
where
normally ex-
period.
The enzymes causing the most and oxidation and are associated with the breakdown of animal fats. The principal factor
enzymes.
trouble are those which catalyze hydrolysis
limiting the storage
life
term storage periods range from one or two days in some cases to a week or more in others, but seldom for more than fifteen days. Long-term storage is usually carried out by wholesalers and commercial storage warehouses. Again, the storage period depends on the type of product stored and upon the condition of the product on entering storage. Maximum storage
periods for long-term storage range from seven
to ten days for
some
sensitive products,
such as
of animal products, in
both the frozen and unfrozen states, is rancidity. Rancidity is caused by oxidation of animal fats and, since some types of animal fats are less stable than others, the storage life of animal products depends in part on fat composition. For example, because of the relative stability of
beef
fat,
to six or eight
months
products, such as
and
for the
meats.
When
and
Some
fresh foods,
the storage
life
of beef
is
considerably
whose
fatty
When
much
less stable.
method
Oxidation and hydrolysis are controlled by placing the product under refrigeration so that
the activity of the natural enzymes
is
Storage
Conditions.
The
optimum
reduced.
The
rate of oxidation
products in
tight-fitting,
which prevent
air (oxygen)
and vegetables
in
flexible
than
those
proof containers will cause suffocation and death. A dead fruit or vegetable decays very
quickly.
Recommended
short-
storage conditions for both and long-term storage and the approxilife
mate storage
is
As a
the storage
life
of the
product.
9-17. Refrigerated
product data. These data are the result of both experiment and experience and should be
followed
closely,
Storage.
Refrigerated
particularly
is
for
long-term
storage
gories:
(2)
may be
to be maintained
(1) short-term or
temporary storage,
(3)
frozen storage.
9-19.
For
chilled
and long-term storage, the product is and stored at some temperature above
Storage Temperature. Examination of show that the optimum storage temperature for most products is one slightly
131
air,
the rate of
Although the
effect
is
to
vapor pres-
peratures generally
sures
life,
some
fruits
and vege-
surface.
tables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature and are susceptible to so-called cold
storage diseases
when
stored at temperatures
critical
storage temperafruits
The difference in vapor pressure between the product and the air is primarily a function of the relative humidity and the velocity of the air in the storage space. In general, the lower the
relative
citrus
frequently
when
stored at relatively
high temperatures. On the other hand, they are subject to scald (browning of the rind) and watery breakdown when stored at temperatures
and the
from
the product.
storage space
Conversely,
minimum
moisture
below
Bananas
suffer
peel injury
when
celery undergoes soggy breakdown when stored at temperatures above 34 F. Although onions tend to sprout at temperatures above 32 F,
Irish potatoes tend to
when the humidity in the maintained at a high level with velocity. Hence, 100% relative humidity
air are ideal conditions for pre-
venting dehydration
become sweet
at storage
Unfortunately, these conditions are also conducive to rapid mold growth and the formation
of slime
(bacterial)
on meats.
is
Too,
good
pits
on
their surface
when
stored at or near 32 F. 30
Too, whereas the best varieties of apples most temperature for storage
is
to 32 F,
some
quate refrigeration of the product. For these reasons, space humidity must be maintained at
soft scald
below 35 F.
Others develop brown core at temperatures below 36 F, and still others develop internal browning when stored below
40 F.
9-20.
somewhat must be
velocities
less
than
100% and
to
air velocities
sufficient
circulation.
Humidity
all
and
Air
Motion.
The
storage of
(unpackaged) requires close control not only of the space temperature but also of space humidity and air motion. One of the chief causes of the deterioration of unpackaged fresh foods, such as meat, poultry,
cheese, eggs, etc.,
is
fish, fruit,
vegetables,
through 10-13. When the product is- stored in vapor-proof containers, space humidity and air velocity are not critical. Some products, such as dried fruits, tend to be hydroscopic and therefore require storage at low relative humidities. 9-21. Mixed Storage. Although the maintenance of optimum storage conditions requires
separate storage
this is
facilities
the surface of the product by evaporation into the surrounding air. This process is known as
desiccation or dehydration. In fruit
tables, desiccation is
for
most products,
feasible.
Thereoften
and accompanied by shriveling and wilting and the product undergoes a considerable loss in both weight and vitamin
vegecontent.
fore, except
when
are
involved,
that a
practical
considerations
demand
be placed in
common
Naturally, the
In meats, cheese,
discoloration,
It also increases
etc.,
desiccation
by
causes
shrinkage)
and heavy
trim losses.
tion. Eggs lose moisture through the porous shell, with a resulting loss of weight and general
space designed for common storage. As a general rule, storage conditions in such
spaces represent a compromise and usually
prescribe a storage temperature somewhat above the optimum for some of the products held in
132
PRINCIPLES
storage.
OF REFRIGERATION
storage tempera-
mixed
The higher
mixed storage in order to minimize the chances of damaging the more sensitive products which are subject to the
tures are used in
and
fruit intended for storage should be harvested before they are fully mature. The storage life of fully mature or damaged fruit
aforementioned "cold storage diseases" when stored at temperatures below their critical
temperature.
and vegetables
is
problem when
short
only
for
periods
as
in
temporary
immediately.
To
assure
maximum
storage
life
storage.
For long-term storage, most of the larger wholesale and commercial storage warehouses
have a number of separate storage spaces available. General practice in such cases is to group the various products for storage, and
only those products requiring approximately the same storage conditions are placed together
in
with minimum loss of quality, the product should be chilled to the storage temperature as soon
as possible after harvesting or killing. When products are to be shipped over long distances to storage, they should be precooled and shipped
by refrigerated transport.
9-23.
distinguished
chilling is
in that the
common
Another
is
storage.
storage
product enters the chilling room at a high temperature (usually either harvesting or killing
temperature) and
is
products absorb and/or give off odors while in storage. Care should be taken not to
store such products together even for short periods. Dairy products in particular are very
sensitive with regard to absorbing odors
Some
whereupon
it
is
normally removed from the chilling room and placed in a holding cooler for storage. The
handling of the product during the chilling period has a marked influence on the ultimate quality and storage life of the product.
chilling
flavors
On the other hand, potatoes are probably the worst offenders in imparting offflavors to other products in storage and should never be stored with fruit, eggs, dairy products,
storage.
The recommended conditions for product rooms are given in Tables 10-10 through
Before the hot product
is
10-13.
loaded into
room temperature
or nuts.
9-22.
age.
One
the storage
condition of the product on entering storage. It must be recognized that refrigeration merely
arrests
or retards
the natural
processes
of
and therefore cannot restore to good condition a product which has already
deterioration
it make a high out of one of initial poor quality. Hence, only vegetables and fruit in good condition should be accepted for storage. Those that have been bruised or otherwise
deteriorated.
Neither can
quality product
During loading and during the early part of the chilling period, the temperature and vapor pressure differential between the product and the chill room air will be quite large and the product will give off heat and moisture at a high rate. At this time, the temperature and humidity in the chill room will rise to a peak as indicated by the "chill start" conditions in the tables.* At the end of the cycle, the chill room temperature will again drop to the "chill finish"
conditions.
refrigerating
*
It
is
very
important
that
the
equipment have
sufficient capacity
damaged, particularly if the skin has been broken, have lost much of their natural protection against microbial invasion and are therefore subject to rapid spoilage by these agents. Too, as a general rule, since maturation and
The temperatures
and are
in-
tended for use in selecting the refrigerating equipment. Actual temperatures in the chilling room during the peak chilling period are usually 3 F to
4
F higher than
those
listed.
133
peak chilling period. 9-24. Relative Humidity and Air Velocity in Chill Rooms. The importance of relative humidity in chilling rooms depends upon the product being chilled, particularly upon whether the product is packaged or not. Naturally,
rising excessively during the
mineral
oil
Too,
poultry, fish,
and some vegetables are often for chilling and storage. When
ice are placed in refrigerated
when
is
the product
is
chilled in
vapor-proof
room
unimportant.
initial
However, during
stages of chilling,
product
room humidity
will
below.
frozen
The
list
of food products
commonly
which are
been evaporated.
includes
not
only
those
Products chilled in their natural state (unpackaged) lose moisture very rapidly, often producing fog in the chilling room during the early stages of chilling when the product temperature and vapor pressure are high.
chilling
preserved in their fresh state, such as vegetables, fruit, fruit juices, berries, meat, poultry, sea
foods,
many
Rapid
prepared foods, such as breads, pastries, ice cream, and a wide variety of specially prepared
and high
this
air
velocity
are
desirable
full
time so that the temperature and during vapor pressure of the product are lowered as
quickly as possible in order to avoid excessive
The
and storage
1
needed also in order to carry away the vapor and thereby prevent condensation of moisture on the surface of the product. Although high air velocity tends to increase the rate of evaporation of moisture from the
is
to be frozen
2.
product,
rate
it
4.
The The
freezing
method
storage conditions.
a more rapid reduction in product temperature and vapor pressure. Since the reduction in vapor pressure resulting from the higher chilling rate more than offsets the
and
results in
Only high quality products in good condition should be frozen. With vegetables and fruit, selecting the proper variety for freezing is very important. Some varieties are not suitable for freezing and will result in a low quality product
or in one with limited keeping qualities. Vegetables and fruit to be frozen should be
by the higher air velocity, the net effect of the higher air velocity during the early stages of chilling is to reduce the over-all loss of moisture
However, during
the final
when
the temperature
and
processed and frozen as quickly as possible after harvesting to avoid undesirable chemical
ing
room
is
Both vegetables and fruit require considerable After cleaning and washing to remove foreign materials leaves, from their surfaces, dirt, insects, juices, etc.
processing before freezing.
vegetables are
As a
kept at a high level when products subject to dehydration are being chilled. Some extremely sensitive products, such as poultry and fish, are frequently chilled in ice slush to reduce
chilling.
steam at 212 F in order to destroy the natural enzymes. It will be remembered that enzymes are not destroyed by low temperature and, although greatly reduced, their activity continues at a slow rate even in food stored at 0 F and below. Hence, blanching, which destroys
134
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 9-2.
Walk-in
installation.
Suspended
blast
in
Carrier Corporation.)
Fig. 9-3.
Suspended
blast
blast free-
through
Carrier
(Courtesy
Corporation.)
one room
is
and
storage
in
another
mounted
blast freezers.
(Cour-
135
increases
the
it
still air.
The tem-
The time required for blanching varies with the type and variety of the vegetable and ranges from 1 to l min for green beans to 1 1 min for large ears of
storage life of frozen vegetables.
corn. Although
tion
is
much
by natural convection, heat transfer from the product ranges from 3 hr to 3 days, depending upon the bulk of the product and
upon
many
bacteria survive.
To
prevent spoilage by these viable bacteria, vegetables should be chilled to 50 F immediately after blanching
aged for the freezer. Like vegetables, fruit must also be cleaned
and washed to remove foreign materials and to reduce microbial contamination. Although
fruit is
which are sharp frozen are beef and pork half-carcasses, boxed poultry, panned and whole fish, fruit in barrels and other large containers, and eggs (whites, yolks, or whole) in 10 and 30 lb cans. Quick freezing is accomplished in any one or in any combination of three ways: (1) immersion, (2) indirect contact, and (3) air blast.
cal items
perhaps even more subject to enzymic deterioration than are vegetables, it is never
9-27.
utilizes the
Air Blast Freezing. Air blast freezing combined effects of low temperature
air velocity to
and high
do so would destroy the natural fresh quality which is so desirable. The enzymes causing the most concern with regard to frozen fruit are the ones which catalyze oxidation and result in rapid browning
to
heat transfer from the product. Although the method employed varies considerably with the
application, blast freezing
is
accomplished by
of the
frozen
flesh.
is
To
be
covered with a light sugar syrup. In some cases, ascorbic acid, citric acid, or sulfur dioxide are also used for this purpose. As a general rule, meat products do not
require any special processing prior to freezing.
around the product. Regardless of the method used, it is important that the arrangement of the freezer is such that air can circulate freely around all parts of the product. Packaged blast freezers are available in both suspended and floor-mounted models. Typical applications are shown in Figs. 9-2 through 9-4.
Blast
freezing
is
However, because of consumer demand, specially prepared meats and meat products are being frozen in increasing amounts. This is true also of poultry and sea foods. Because of the relative instability of their fatty tissue, pork and fish are usually frozen as
soon
after chilling as possible.
is
frequently
carried
out in
large
insulated
tunnels,
particularly
where
be frozen (Figs. 9-5 and 9-6). In some instances, the product and is carried through the freezing tunnel frozen on slow-moving, mesh conveyor belts.
quantities of product are to
On
the other
is
hand, beef
cooler for several days before freezing. During this time the beef is tenderized to some extent
veyor at one end of the tunnel and is frozen by the time it reaches the other end. Another method is to load the product on tiered dollies.
by enzymic
activity.
The
dollies are
beef decreases its storage life, particularly aging period exceeds 6 or 7 days.
the
product is frozen; whereupon they are pushed out of the freezing tunnel into a storage room
(Fig. 9-5).
With
poultry,
experiments
indicate
that
poultry frozen within 12 to 24 hr after killing is more tender than that frozen immediately
after killing.
is
used to freeze
it is
types of products,
particularly
nonuniform
without
Contact Freezing.
Indirect
be either sharp (slow) frozen or quick frozen. Sharp freezing is accomplished by placing the product in a low temperature room and allowing
freezing
is
and involves placing the product on metal plates through which a refrigerant is circulated
136
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
15 F air
is
blasted
(Fig. 9-7). Since the product is in direct thermal contact with the refrigerated plate, heat transfer from the product occurs primarily by conduction
freezing
is
from
tamination
solution.
and
so that the efficiency of the freezer depends, for the most part, on the amount of contact surface.
This type of freezer is particularly useful when products are frozen in small quantities. One type of plate freezer widely used by the
larger
flat,
Too, where a sodium chloride brine is used, salt penetration into the product may sometimes be excessive. On the other hand,
when
fruit is
entirely beneficial.
multiplate
consists
The
multiplate
freezer
the plates are closed, the packages are held tightly between the plates. Since both the top and the bottom of the packages are in good
When
frozen by and shrimp. Immersion is particularly suitable for freezing fish and shrimp at sea, since the immersion freezer is relatively compact and space aboard ship is at a premium. In addition, immersion freezing produces a "glaze" (thin coating of ice) on the surface of the product which helps to prevent dehydration of unpackaged products during
frequently
immersion are
Quick Freezing
frozen
vs.
Sharp Freezing.
thermal contact with the refrigerated plates, the rate of heat transfer is high and the product
is
Quick
products
are
quickly frozen.
D. K.
9-29.
ing is accomplished by immersing the product in a low temperature brine solution, usually either
G. A. Fitzgerald, and stated the following as the main advantages of quick freezing over slow
freezing:
1 The ice crystals formed are much smaller, and therefore cause much less damage to cells. 2. The freezing period being much shorter,
sodium chloride or sugar. Since the refrigerated liquid is a good conductor and is in good
thermal contact with all the product, heat is rapid and the product is completely frozen in a very short time.
transfer
is
time is allowed for the diffusion of salts and the separation of water in the form of ice.
less
3. The product is quickly cooled below the temperature at which bacterial, mold, and yeast
The
principal
disadvantage of immersion
137
I
e
V
L.
&
138
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
contact freezing.
(Courtesy Dole
Refrigerating Company.)
time the product temperature is lowered to 25 F. The temperature range between 30 F and 25 F is often referred to as the zone of
The
maximum
ice-crystal formation,
in the size,
ice crystals
product as cellular fluids are solidified. When a product is slow frozen, large ice crystals are
formed which
tissue of
down.
result in serious damage to the some products through cellular breakQuick freezing, on the other hand,
removal through this zone is desirable from the standpoint of product quality. This is particularly true for fruits and vegetables because both undergo serious tissue damage when slow frozen. Since animal tissue is much tougher and
not as
of meats
produces smaller ice crystals which are formed almost entirely within the cell so that cellular
in fruits
and vege-
breakdown
cellular
is
greatly reduced.
Upon
thawing,
and
any, cellular
damage
damage are prone to lose excessive amounts of fluids through "drip" or "bleed,"
with a resulting loss of quality. Ice-crystal formation begins in most products at a temperature of approximately 30 F and,
This does not mean, however, that quick frozen meats are not superior to those which are slow frozen, but only that,
when slow
frozen.
meats as
is
in fruits
is
and
vegetables.
For
although some extremely concentrated fluids still remain unfrozen even at temperatures below 50 F, most of the fluids are solidified by the
* Air Conditioning Refrigerating Data Book, Applications Volume, 5th Edition, American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, 1954-55, p. 1-02.
darkened appearance which makes it much less This alone is attractive to the consumer. enough to justify the quick freezing of poultry. Too, in all cases, quick freezing reduces the
processing time and, consequently, the
amount
139
month by dipping
spraying.
9-32.
of the principal factors limiting the storage life of frozen foods, is greatly reduced by proper
packaging.
not
is
critical,
it
subject
sufficiently
Although
0F
usually
adequate for short-term (retail) storage, -5 F is the best temperature for all-around long-term
(wholesale) storage.
While in storage, unpackaged frozen products lose moisture to the air continuously by sublimation. This eventually results in a condition known as "freezer-burn," giving the
period.
When
products having
unstable fats (oxidizable, free, fatty acids) are stored in any quantity, the storage temperature
should be held at 10
realize the
or below in order to
life.
maximum
storage
burn
accompanied by oxidation, flavor changes, and loss of vitamin content. With few exceptions, all products are packaged before being placed in frozen storage. Although most products are packaged before freezing, some, such as loose frozen peas and lima beans, are packaged after the freezing process.
is
usually
products are stored above 20 F, which is normally the case, the temperature of the storage room should be maintained constant
When
F in either
cause alternate thawing and refreezing of some of the juices in the product. This tends to
increase the size of the ice crystals in the
To
provide
adequate
protection
against
and oxidation, the packaging material should be practically 100% gas and vapor proof and should fit tightly around the product to exclude as much air as possible. Too, air spaces in packages have an insulating effect which reduce the freezing rate and increase
dehydration
freezing costs.
product and eventually results in the same type of cellular damage as occurs with slow
freezing.
Since
many packaging
materials
do not
offer
complete protection against dehydration, the relative humidity should be kept at a high level
(85
competition to products preserved by other methods introduces several factors which must be taken
fact that frozen products are in
The
Proper
essential.
it
of
the
product
is
also
When
the product
is
product. It
consumer, the package must be attractive and convenient to use in order to stimulate sales.
good size air space between the stored product and the walls of the storage room. In addition
to permitting air circulation around the product,
this eliminates the possibility of the product absorbing heat directly from the warm walls. 9-33. Commercial Refrigerators. The term
From a
it
relatively inexpensive
that
processing costs.
Some packaging
aluminum
foil,
"commercial refrigerator"
the type used by
hotels,
retail
is
usually applied to
impregnated paperboard cartons, paper-board cartons overwrapped with vapor-proof wrappers, wax paper,
tin cans,
and markets,
for
restaurants,
and
institutions
the
cellophane,
plastics.
polyethylene,
and
an
other
sheet
and dispensing of perishable commodities. The term is someand rooms used for these
Frozen
ice glaze (a
However, since the ice glaze is very brittle, glazed fish must be handled carefully to avoid breaking the glaze. Too, since
protective covering.
purposes.
air,
the
Although there are a number of special purpose refrigerated fixtures which defy classification, in general, commercial fixtures can
140
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Corporation.)
and
of refrigerated display
is
fixtures,
first
9-34.
Reach-In Refrigerators. The reach-in refrigerator is probably the most versatile and the most widely used of all commercial fixtures. Typical users are grocery stores, meat markets, bakeries, drug stores, lunch counters, restaurants, florists, hotels, and institutions of all kinds. Whereas some reach-in refrigerators serve only a storage function, others are used for both storage and display (Fig. 9-8). Those serving only the storage function usually have solid doors, whereas those used for display have glazed doors. 9-35. Walk-In Coolers. Walk-in coolers are primarily storage fixtures and are available in a wide variety of sizes to fit every need. Nearly
all retail
consideration
product. In
many
not necessarily
compatible with providing the optimum storage conditions for the product being displayed.
life
of a product in a display
from
a few hours in some instances to a week or more in others, depending upon the type of product
and upon the type of fixture. Display fixtures are of two general types: (1) the self-service case, from which the customer serves himself directly, and (2) the service case, from which the customer is usually served by an attendant. The former is very popular in supermarkets and other large, retail, self-service
establishments, whereas the service case finds
shown in
Figs. 9-9
of
all types.
and
with glazed reach-in doors. This feature is especially convenient for the storing, displaying, and dispensing of such items as dairy products, Walk-in coolers with eggs, and beverages. reach-in doors are widely used in grocery stores, particularly drive-in groceries, for handling
With the advent of the supermarket, the trend has been increasingly toward
popularity.
type
self-service
cases
such items. 9-36. Display Cases. The principal function of any kind of display fixture is to display the
obsolete.
Several of the
more popular
open self-service cases are shown in Figs. 9-11 and 9-12. These are used to display meat
141
Too, designs
Although some provide additional storage do not. 9-37. Special Purpose Fixtures. Although all
space, others
the refrigerated fixtures discussed in the preceding sections are available in a variety of designs
in order to satisfy the specific requirements of
individual products
and
applications,
a number
of special purpose fixtures is manufactured which may or may not fall into one of the three general categories already mentioned. Some of
the
more common
As a
or
all
and/or
services:
1.
killed
meats.
2.
displaying
meats.
(Courtesy Tyler
Refrigeration
Corporation.)
and beverage dispensers, soda fountains, ice cream makers, water coolers, ice makers, backbar refrigerators, florist boxes, dough retarders, candy cases, and mortuary refrigerators. 9-38. Frozen Food Locker Plants. Normally,
the function of a frozen food locker plant
is
to
process and freeze foods for individual families and other groups, either for take-home storage
storage
or for storage at the locker plant. When is at the plant, the customer rents a
sales Fig. 9-11. High multishelf produce (Courtesy Tyler Refrigeration Corporation.)
142
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 9-12.
4.
A
is
freezing
room
food
5.
8. A curing and smoking room for handling bacon, ham, sausage, and other cured meats.
storage lockers.
6.
sausage making,
plants.
etc.,
some
7. An aging room where certain meats are kept under refrigeration and allowed to age (tenderize) for periods usually ranging from 7 to 10 days.
, v//>y////Y//////^/Y//w//y/^///, /yy/s/y/>
in Fig. 9-13.
The layout of a typical locker plant is shown The recommended design condiThe average
size
of the
M^
143
Room
temperature
Refrigerant
Insulation
thickness, inches.
temperature
Atmospheric
34 to 36
35
None
20 to 25
None
3 to 8
room
Design for
below room
10 to 15
below
room tempera-
culation
Aging room
Curing room
Freezing
34 to 36
35
F F
Design for
Same Same
as chill
room room
3 to 8
F
Design for
as chill
3 to 8
38 to 40
40F
room
(gravity
-10
to
-20 F
-20
-15
to
-30 F -20 F
-15 F
6 to 12
air circulation)
Not important
Depends on type of
system used
to
or 2
room)
Blast freezer
-10
-15
to
6 to 12
OF
to
-20 F
6 to 12
Fig. 9-14. (ASRE Data Book, Applications Volume, 1956-57. of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers.)
individual locker
is
6 cu
ft
is
same
Commerical
refrigeration
this area
was
Minimum
product
turnover
is
embraces a wide range of applications and because the problems encountered in this
area are representative of those in the other
areas.
this chapter
to base chilling
room
and
freezer capacities
on the handling of 2 to 4
Hence, even though the discussion in and in those which follow deals
with
Summary. Recognizing that a thorough knowledge of the application itself is a prerequisite to good system design and proper equipment selection, we have devoted the material in this chapter to a brief survey of a few of
9-39.
chiefly
commercial
refrigeration,
the
equipment selection
applied to
all
applications.
the applications of mechanical refrigeration, with special emphasis being given to the area of commercial refrigeration. Obviously, the applications of mechanical refrigeration are too many and too varied to permit detailed consideration of each and
Although no attempt
very general way,
it
is
made
in this
book
most commercial
particularly
applications,
those
concerned
with
product
every type. Fortunately, this is neither necessary nor desirable since methods of system designing
and equipment
selection
are practically
the
application,
it is
be
the
given to
all
heat evolving from them be taken into account in the over-all calculation.
10-2.
refrigerating
10
Cooling Load
Calculations
usually calculated
in
Btu per 24 hr. Then, to determine the required Btu per hour capacity of the equipment, the total load for the 24-hr period is divided by the desired running time for the equipment, viz:
is,
(10-1)
10-1.
equipment seldom results from any one single source of heat. Rather, it is the summation of the heat which usually evolves from several different sources. Some of the more common sources of heat which supply the load on refrigerating equipment are:
refrigerating
Because of the necessity for defrosting the at frequent intervals, it is not practical to design the refrigerating system in such a way that the equipment must operate continuously in order to handle the load. In
evaporator
most
is
a temperature below its dew point and moisture is condensed out of the air onto
chilled to
Heat that leaks into the refrigerated space from the outside by conduction through the
1.
coil.
is
When
the tem-
insulated walls.
2.
direct
Heat
that
is
warm
open doors or through cracks around windows and doors. 4. Heat given off by a warm product as its
temperature
5.
of the
late
coil,
lowered to the desired level. Heat given off by people occupying the
is
on the coil surface tends to insulate the coil and reduce the coil's capacity, the frost must
be melted off periodically by raising the surface temperature of the coil above the freezing point
of water and maintaining
it
refrigerated space.
6. Heat given off by any heat-producing equipment located inside the space, such as
electric
motors,
the
lights,
electronic equipment,
steam
these heat
individual
factors in
No matter how the defrosting is accomplished, the defrosting requires a certain amount of
time, during which the refrigerating effect of the system must be stopped.
any one application ordinarily include heat from all these sources. However, in any given
One method of defrosting the coil is to stop the compressor and allow the evaporator to warm up to the space temperature and remain
at this temperature for
sufficient length
of
144
145
and cooling
are
is
called
loads
for
air
conditioning
applications
"off-cycle" defrosting.
determined directly in Btu per hour. 10-3. Cooling Load Calculations. To simplify
cooling load calculations, the total cooling load
is
come from
and a consider-
divided into a
number of
individual loads
is
when
off-
used, the
maximum allowable
running time for the equipment is 16 hr out of each 24-hr period, the other 8 hr being allowed for the defrosting. This means, of course, that the refrigerating equipment must have sufficient capacity to accomplish the equivalent of 24 hr of cooling in 1 6 hr of actual running time. Hence, when off-cycle defrosting is used, the equipment running time used in Equation 10-1 is approximately 16 hr. When the refrigerated space is to be maintained at a temperature below 34 F, off-cycle
gain load, (2) the air change load, product load, and (4) the miscellaneous or supplementary load. 10-4. The Wall Gain Load, The wall gain load, sometimes called the wall leakage load, is a measure of the heat which leaks through the
(1) the wall
(3) the
there
not practical.
in
in
order to allow the cooling coil to attain a temperature sufficiently high to melt off the
frost during every off cycle
The wall gain load is common to all refrigeration applications and is ordinarily a considerable
part of the total cooling load.
outside area of the chiller
would be detrimental
Some exceptions
maintained below 34 F, automatic defrosting is ordinarily used. In such cases the surface of the coil is heated artificially, either with electric heating elements, with water, or with hot gas
space temperature
is
some
method
of
load that
neglected.
negligible
and
it is
usually
(see
On
accom-
off-cycle
used.
required
the
is
less for
maximum
Hence, the off-cycle time automatic defrosting and allowable running time for the
applications are both examples of applications wherein the wall gain load usually accounts for the greater portion of the total load.
10-5.
the door
equipment is greater than for the aforementioned off-cycle defrosting. For systems using automatic defrosting the maximum allowable running time is from 18 to 20 hr out of each 24-hr period, depending upon how often defrosting
is
of a refrigerated space is opened, warm outside air enters the space to replace the more dense cold air which is lost from the refrigerated space
question.
As a
through the open door. The heat which must be removed from this warm outside air to reduce its temperature to the space temperature becomes a part of the total cooling load on the equipment. This part of the total load is called
the air change load.
time
is
used.
of interest to note that since the temperature of the cooling coil in comfort air conditioning applications is normally around 40 F, no
It is
frost accumulates
fore,
there-
no
For
systems are
change load to the with the application. Whereas in some applications the air change load is not a factor at all, in others it represents a considerable portion of the total load. For example, with liquid chillers, there are no doors
air
146
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The importance of the product load in relation
to the total cooling load, like
all
or other openings through which air can pass and therefore the air change load is nonexistent.
others, varies
On
is
it is it
nonexistent
represents
some
applications, in others
by door
Where
for
the
openings, there
air into the
is
refrigerated
cooler
is
is
designed
product
conditioned space through cracks around windows and doors and in other parts of the structure. Too, in many air conditioning
applications outside air
is
purposely introduced
into the conditioned space to meet ventilating requirements. When large numbers of people
temperature.
the product enters a storage cooler at a temperature above the storage temperature, the
quantity of heat which must be removed from
are in the conditioned space, the quantity of fresh air which must be brought in from the
outside
is
quite large
its
temperature
often a
equipment.
In some few instances, the product enters the
a temperature below the normal storage temperature for the product. A case in point is ice cream which is frequently
storage fixture at
chilled to a temperature of
In air conditioning applications, the air change load is called either the ventilating load or the
infiltration load.
The term
ventilating load
is
used when the air changes in the conditioned space are the result of deliberate introduction of outside air into the space for ventilating purposes. The term infiltration load is used
0F
or
is
-10
usually
temperature.
storage
at
When
a
it
such
when
temperature
will
it
temperature,
Every
air
storage space as
warms up
temperature and
load or a ventilating load, but never both in the same application. Since the doors on commercial refrigerators are equipped with well-fitted gaskets, the cracks around the doors are tightly sealed and there is little, if any, leakage of air around the doors of a commercial fixture in good condition. Hence, in commercial refrigeration, the air changes are usually limited to those which are brought about by actual opening and closing of the door or
doors.
10-6.
amount of
refrigerating effect of
it
own.
In
other words,
cally
a negative product load which could theoretibe subtracted from the total cooling load. This is never done, however, since the refrigerating
effect
produced
is
small
and
is
not
continuous in nature.
The cooling load on the refrigerating equipment resulting from product cooling may be
either intermittent
or continuous, depending
made up of
the heat which must be removed from the refrigerated product in order to reduce
to
The term product as used here is taken mean any material whose temperature is
reduced by the refrigerating equipment and includes not only perishable commodities, such as foodstuff, but also such items as welding electrodes, masses of concrete, plastic, rubber,
The product load is a part of the total cooling load only while the temperature of the product is being reduced to the storage temperature. Once the product is cooled to the storage temperature, it is no longer a source of heat and the product load ceases to be a part of the load on the equipment. An exception to this is in the storage of fruit and vegetables which give off respiration heat for the entire time they are in storage even
on the
application.
though there
is
no
and
147
There
are,
tion
applications
human occupancy is frequently the largest single Too, many air conditioning systems are installed for the sole purpose
of cooling
electrical, electronic,
of heat-producing equipment.
the equipment
usually
supplies
moved out of the chilling room into a storage room and the chilling room is then reloaded with warm
to the storage temperature,
it is
usually
product. In such cases, the product load is continuous and is usually a large part of the
total load
ship
is
on the equipment.
is
Q=A
where
(10-2)
Liquid chilling
Q =
A
Btu/hr
the outside surface area of the wall
(square feet)
being chilled through the chiller is continuous with warm liquid entering the chiller and cold
liquid leaving.
F)
load
is
ment
since there is
is
no
air
D = the
The
is
the wall
F)
coefficient of transmission or
"U" factor
laneous load.
is
no
a
a measure of the rate at which heat will pass through a 1 sq ft area of wall surface from the
air
is
often
on one
1
on the other
side for
"pull-down load," which, in a sense, may be thought of as a product load. 10-7. The Miscellaneous Load. The miscellaneous load, sometimes referred to as the supplementary load, takes into account all miscellaneous sources of heat. Chief among these are people working in or otherwise occupying the refrigerated space along with lights or other electrical equipment operating
inside the space.
each
of temperature difference across the wall. The value of the U factor is given in Btu per hour and depends on the thickness of
the wall and
on
construction. Since
desirable to prevent as
much
good thermal
insulators
is
is
kept as low as
small,
by
and fan motors used inside the space. In air conditioning applications, there is no miscellaneous load as such. This is not to say that human occupancy and equipment are not a part of the cooling load in air conditioning
applications.
According to Equation 10-2, once the U is established for a wall, the rate of heat flow through the wall varies directly with the surface area of the wall and with the temperature differential across the wall. Since the value of
factor
On
the contrary,
people and
U is given in Btu/hr/sq ft/ F, the total quantity of heat passing through any given wall in 1 hr can be determined by multiplying the U factor by the wall area in square feet and by the temperature difference across the wall in degrees
Fahrenheit, that
10-2.
10-1. Determine the total quanof heat in Btu per hour which will pass through a wall 10 ft by 20 ft, if the U factor
tity
is,
as separate loads
by application of Equation
For example, in those air conditioning applications where large numbers of people occupy the
conditioned space, such as churches, theaters,
restaurants, etc., the cooling load resulting from
Example
148
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
ft/
and the
is
is
from
temperature on one side of the wall while the temperature on the other side
Solution
40 F 95 F.
top). In the next column select the desired thickness of clay tile (6 in.) and move to the right to the column listing values for 4 in. of
insulation.
Read
F.
the
10
ft
x 20
ft
Btu/hr/sq
ft
ft/
200 sq
95
Temperature
Should
it
be necessary, the
differ
- 40
>55F
Applying Equation
10-2, the heat gain
type of wall construction can be readily calculated provided that either the conductivity or the
200 x 0.16 x 55
1760 Btu/hr
wall construction
is
U in
Btu per hour, the result 10-2 is in Btu per hour. To determine the wall gain load in Btu per 24 hr as required in refrigeration load calculations, the result of Equation
10-2
is
from the
manufacturer or producer of the material. Table 10-4 lists the thermal conductivity or the
multiplied
by 24
hr.
conductance of materials frequently used in the construction of cold storage walls. The thermal conductivity or k factor of a
material
is
Equation 10-2
plication, viz:
is
sq
ft
in.
of temperature
Q=AxUxDx24
10-9.
(10-3)
is
all coefficients of transmission or U factors have been determined for various types of wall
Whereas the thermal conductivity or k factor available only for homogeneous materials and the value given is always for a 1 in. thickness
of the material, the thermal conductance or C is available for both homogeneous and
for the specified thickness of the material.
construction
tabular form.
available in
list
factor
Example
the
tile
10-2.
For any homogeneous material, the thermal conductance can be determined for any given
thickness of the material by dividing the
of corkboard insulation.
Solution. Turn to Table 10-1 and select the appropriate type of wall construction (third
Concrete aggregate
inches.
Hence, for a
C=\ x
where x
(10-4)
Air
spaces
Example
Solution
Determine
in.
conductance for a 5
From
k
Table 10-4,
factor of cork-
=_
Q
,
149
C factor from nonhomogeneous materials must be determined by experiment. The resistance that a wall or a material offers
several parts of the material, the
Calculate the value of /for in. cinder aggregate building blocks, insulated with 4 in. of corkboard, and finished on the inside with 0.5 in. of
10-4.
Example
a wall constructed of 8
is
inversely proportional to
cement
plaster.
Solution
Hence, the over-all thermal resistance of a wall can be expressed as the reciprocal of the over-all coefficient of transmission, whereas the thermal resistance of an individual material can be expressed as the reciprocal of its conductivity
C=0.60 k = 0.30
k =8.00
or conductance, viz:
From Table
10-5,4,
ance
~U
1 1
inside surface
conductance
ft
=
=
1-65
x
or
-l
or
outside surface
conductance
4.00
The terms I Ik and 1/C express the resistance to heat flow through a single material from
surface to surface only
-I+-L+-L
4
0.6
.
into
0.3
1
thermal
resist-
account the thermal resistance of the thin film of air which adheres to all exposed surfaces. In determining the over-all thermal resistance to
the flow of heat through a wall from the air
ance, 1/17
0.5
on
Therefore,
one side to the air on the other side, the resistance of the air on both sides of the wall should be considered. Air film coefficients or surface conductances for average wind velocities are
given in Table 10-5/*.
U
part,
= 0.25 + 1.667 + 13.333 + 0.0625 + 0.607 = 15.92 = 1/15.92 = 0.0622 Btu/hr/sq ft/ F
it is
T + L65
When
a wall
is
of different materials the total thermal resistance of the wall is the sum of the resistances of the
individual materials in the wall construction,
used in the wall construction that determines the value of U for cold storage walls. The surface conductances and the conductances of
the other materials in the wall have very
effect
little
on the value of
so large
x
**1
x
*2
materials.
\
it
is
U
Therefore
sufficiently accurate to
fi
kn
Jo
1
*
I
across Cold
differential
ft
kx
kt
kn
difference
where
rr '
'
temperatures.
or ceiling
is
The
that which
=
*
*
or roof
are
and usually depends upon the type of product to be stored and the length of time the product is to be kept in storage. The recommended
storage temperatures for various products are
Note.
used, 1/C
150
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
on For cold storage
is
The
taken
by or absorbed by any opaque material that Light-colored, smooth surfaces they strike. will tend to reflect mbre and absorb less radiant
energy
When
(Table 10-6)
perature.
is
The outdoor
than dark, rough-textured surfaces. Hence, the surface temperature of smooth, light-colored walls will be somewhat lower than that of dark, rough-textured walls under the same conditions of solar radiation.
Since any increase in the outside surface
given in Table 10-6 are average outdoor temperatures and include an allowance for normal
temperature
differential
will
increase
the
temperature
outdoor design dry bulb temperature during a 24-hr period. These temperatures should not be used for calculating
variations
in
the
the temperature
must be corrected
Correction
effect.
air
1
conditioning loads.
0-1
ings
cooler
is
located
at angles to
a building and there is adequate clearance between the top of the cooler and the
inside of
ceiling of the building to allow free circulation of
air
10-7,
average
cooler
treated the
same
as
an inside
is
wall.
through
ceiling,
Likewise,
when
exposed
When
treated as
an
the several walls or parts of walls are of different construction and have different
outdoor
except
slab
wall. The same holds true for floors when the cooler floor is laid directly on a on the ground. As a general rule, the
factors, the
parts
is
computed
ground temperature under a slab varies only slightly the year round and is always considerably less than the outdoor design dry bulb temperature for the region in summer. Ground
temperatures used in determining the temperature differential across the floor of cold storage
Walls having identical U factors may be considered together, provided that the temperature differential across the walls is the same. Too, where the difference
separately.
in the value of
U is
slight
involved
is
U factor
rooms are given in Table 10-6A and are based on the regional outdoor design dry bulb
temperature for winter.
10-12. Effect of
can be ignored and the walls or parts of walls can be grouped together for computation.
10-5. A walk-in cooler, 16 ft x x 10 ft high is located in the southwest corner of a store building in Dallas, Texas (Fig. 10-2). The south and west walls of the cooler are adjacent to and a part of the south and west walls of the store building. The store has a 14 ft ceiling so that there is a 4 ft clearance between the top of the cooler and the ceiling of the store. The store is air conditioned and the temperature
Example
ft
20
of the wall will usually be considerably above the temperature of the ambient air. familiar
example of
in
this
phenomenon
is
the sun.
is
The temperature of
surface
much
is maintained at approximately 80 F. The inside design temperature for the cooler is 35 F. Determine the wall gain load for the cooler if the walls of the cooler are of the following construction:
rounding air. The amount by which the surface temperature exceeds the surrounding air temperature depends upon the amount of radiant energy striking the surface and upon the reflectivity of the surface. Recall (Section 2-21)
6 6
in.
clay
tile
finish
on
inside
151
(inside walls)
'
Ceiling
M
6
in.
MM MIM
I
corkboard-'
Cooler 35 F
| 6
clay
tile
^mm
Floor
in.
corkboard laid on
10
20'
ft ceiling
5 in. slab
and
finished
:
with 3
Solution Wall surface area North wall 10 West wall 10
in.
of concrete
Partitions
3|
in.
x 16 x 20
South wall
East wall
Ceiling
10 x 16 10 x 20
16 x 20 16 x 20
Floor
on each side
Inside temperature
80'
Ceiling 14
ft
Wall U factors (Tables 10-1, 10-2, and 10-3) North and east 0.079 Btu/hr/sq ft/ F
walls
Ceiling
Floor
From Table
92
F
short method calculation may be used to determine the wall gain load for small coolers and for large coolers where the wall factor
From
Table
70
F
Inside
Outside
Normal
Wall T.D.
Design
Design
Temp.
North wall South wall West wall
East wall
Ceiling
Temp.
Table 10-7
Floor
F F 92 F 80 F 80 F 70 F
80 92
F F 35* F 35 F 35 F 35 F
35
35
F F 57= p 45 F 45 F 35 F
45
57
4F 6F
F F 63 F 45 F 45 F 35 F
45
61
Applying Equation
10-2,
Floor
160 x 0.079 200 x 0.045 160 x 0.045 200 x 0.079 320 x 0.079 320 x 0.066
x x x x x x
45
63
61
45 45 35
= = = = = =
and temperature difference are approximately same for all the walls. Table 10-18 lists wall gain factors (Btu/24 hr sq ft) based on the thickness of the wall insulation and on the temperature differential across the wall. To compute the wall gain load in Btu/24 hr by the short
the
739
4 162 Btu/hr
.
99,890 Btu/24 hr
and ceiling) by the appropriate wall gain factor from Table 10-18, viz:
152
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Solution
To
per24hr
cfm x 60 x 24 300 x 60 x 24
432,000 cu ft/24 hr
from Table
column of the table, move right to the column headed by the design wall temperature difference, and read the wall gain factor in Btu/24 hr/sq ft. For example, assume that the walls of a cooler are
insulation in the extreme left-hand
From Table
feet
=
=
1.86Btu/cuft
Ventilating (air
change) load
board and that the temperature difference is 55 F. From Table 10-18, read the wall gain factor of 99 Btu/24 hr/sq ft
across the walls
(see
= =
Example
10-18).
10-14.
to determine
with any real accuracy except in those few cases where a known quantity of air is introduced
into the space for ventilating purposes.
through door openings, The quantity of outside air entering a space through door openings in a 24-hr period depends upon the number, size,
When
24-hr period
resulting
is
from
air
and location of the door or doors, and upon the frequency and duration of the door openings. Since the combined effect of all these
factors varies with the individual installation
and
is difficult
it
and outside conditions and can be calculated by applying the following equation:
inside
curacy,
is
W(h
- hi)
(10-6)
air change quantity on the basis of experience with similar applications. Experience has shown
where
that, as
a general
rule, the
h,
hi
However, since air quantities are usually given in cubic feet rather than in pounds, to facilitate calculations the heat gain per cubic
foot of outside air entering the space
is listed
The
in
Tables 10-8A and 10-8B for various inside and outside air conditions. To determine the air change load in Btu per 24 hr, multiply the air
quantity in cubic feet per 24 hr by the appropriate factor
defines average
Average
subject
usage
not
to extreme temperatures
and where
Example
10-6.
air
not abnormal. Refrigerators in delicatessens classified under this type of usage. Heavy usage includes installations such as those in busy markets, restaurant and hotel kitchens where the room temperatures are likely to be high, where rush periods place heavy loads
is
are introduced into a refrigerated space for ventilation. If the inside of the cooler is maintained at 35 F and the outside dry bulb temperature and humidity are 85 F and 50%,
respectively, determine the air
on the
of
refrigerator,
and where
large quantities
it.*
warm
change load in
* The Refrigerating Data Book, Basic Volume, The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers,
Btu/24 hr.
1949,
New
York, p. 327.
153
Example
IS
ft
10-7.
walk-in cooler 8
ft
Example
10-8.
of
in
x 10 ft high is constructed of 4 in. of corkboard with 1 in. of wood on each side. The outside temperature is 95 F and the humidity is 50%. The cooler is maintained at 35 F and the usage is average. Determine the air change loadinBtu/24hr.
Since the walls of the cooler are approximately 6 in. thick (4 in. of corkboard and 2 in. of wood), the inside dimensions of the cooler are 1 ft less than the outside dimensions;
Solution.
and are
24
hr.
Solution
0.75 Btu/lb/
=
= =
therefore,
1000 x 0.75
Inside volume
= =
7 ft x 14 ft x 9 882 cu ft
x (55
ft
35)
From Table
10-9A,
Notice that no time element is inherent in Equation 10-7 and that the result obtained is merely the quantity of heat the product will
900cuft
quantity of air change per 24 hr
=19 =
Inside
Total
is
volume
= =
Table 10-8A, heat gain per cubic
feet
heat quantity represents the product load for a 24-hr period. When the desired cooling time
is less
From
is computed by dividing the heat quantity by the desired cooling time for the
product to obtain the hourly cooling rate and then multiplying the result by 24 hr to determine
the equivalent product load for a 24-hr period.
When
Equation 10-7
written:
Q
chill the
aav
0-8)
When
the
desired to
is
maintained
above the freezing temperature of the product, the amount of heat given off by the product in cooling to the space temperature depends Upon the temperature of the space and upon the weight, specific heat, and entering temperature of the product. In such cases, the space heat gain from the product is computed by the
following equation, (see Section 2-24):
(10-7) Q = W x C x(Ta -Tj where Q = the quantity of heat in Btu W = weight of the product (pounds) C = the specific heat above freezing
beef in Example 10-8 in 6 hr rather than in 24 hr. Determine the product load in Btu/24 hr.
Solution. Applying Equation 10-8, product load, Btu/24 hr
1000 x 0.75
_ =
x (55
35)
x 24
60,000 Btu/24 hr
Compare
Example
its
this
result
10-8.
When a
product
is
(Btu/lb/ F)
Tx = Ta =
F)
temperature.
154
2.
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
off by the product in solidi-
To cool from
freezing
fying or freezing.
3.
off
by the product
in cool-
500 x 0.37
x[27-(-5)]
5920 Btu
Total heat given up by product (summation of 1,2, and 3)
For parts
and
3,
Equation 10-7
is
used to
1,
Tx
in
Equation 10-7 is the entering temperature of the product, whereas Tz is the freezing temperature of the product (Tables 10-10 through 10-13). For part 3, Tx in Equation 10-7 is the freezing temperature of the product and Tt is the final
storage temperature.
= 64,000 Btu
64,000 x 24 hr
12 hr
The heat
quantity for
10-16. Chilling
128,000 Btu/24 hr
part 2
is
Q =
where
h it
Wxh
heat
if
(10-9)
of the product
(Btu/lb)
When
of the
summation of
and
24
hr.
When
and
freezing
is
summation of the three parts is divided by the desired processing time and then multiplied by
24 hr to determine the equivalent 24-hr product
load.
period,
Example
10-10.
the
initial stages
is
of chilling
when
enter a chiller at 40
F and are frozen and chilled to a final temperature of 5 F for storage in 12 hr. Compute the product load in Btu/24 hr.
Solution
load
at a peak.
distribution of
is
intro-
The
From Table
Specific
10-12,
of the chilling rate factor is to increase the product load calculation by an amount sufficient
heat
heat
above
freezing
Specific
=
below
0.79 Btu/lb/
freezing
Latent heat
Freezing temperature
= =
0.37 Btu/lb/
106 Btu/lb
to make the average hourly cooling rate approximately equal to the hourly load at the peak condition. This results in the selection of larger equipment, having sufficient capacity to carry the load during the initial stages of chilling.
Chilling rate factors for various products are
listed
= 27F
in
Tables
10-10
through 10-13.
The
actual
To
cool poultry from entering temperature to freezing temperature, applying Equation 10-7
on
and on
calculations
and
will
500 x 0.79
As an example,
test results
show
that in typical
x (40
27)
5135 Btu
beef and hog chilling operations the chilling rate is 50% greater during the first half of the chilling period than the average chilling rate for
the entire period.
To
freeze,
applying
Equation 10-9
The
show the
155
10-18.
muSt be multiplied by l.S. For convenience, the chilling rate factors are given in the tables
form and are used in the denomiThus the chilling rate
and vegetables
in baskets
and
in reciprocal
shown
in the table
is
0.67
Where a
10-7
is
Equation
10-7
is
written
10-19.
Q ~
W xC
xjTi-TJ
(1 " 10)
As a general rule chilling rate factors are not used for the final stages of chilling from the freezing temperature to the final storage temperature of the product. Too, chilling rate
factors are usually applied to chilling
the miscellaneous load consists primarily of the heat given off by lights and electric motors operating in the space and by people working in the space. The heat given off by lights is
3.42 Btu per watt per hour.
The heat
given off
by
electric
is
space
motors and by people working in the listed in Tables 10-15 and 10-16,
rooms
only and are not normally used in calculation of the product load for storage rooms. Since the product load for storage rooms usually
represents only a small percentage of the total
load, the uneven distribution of the product
The following calculations are to determine the heat gain from miscellaneous:
respectively.
made
load over the cooling period will not ordinarily cause overloading of the equipment and, therefore,
wattage x 3.42 Btu/watt/hr x 24 hr factor (Table 10-1 5) x horsepower x 24 hr People: factor (Table 10-16) x number of people x 24 hr
Lights:
Electric motors
:
for
this
condition.
10-17.
10-20. Use of Safety Factor. The total cooling load for a 24-hr period is the summation of the heat gains as calculated in the foregoing sections.
It is
are
still
and continue to
common
practice to
add
5%
to
10%
to
undergo changes while in storage. The more important of these changes are produced by respiration, a process during which oxygen from the air combines with the carbohydrates
this value as
a safety
factor.
The percentage
used depends upon the reliability of the information used in calculating the cooling load. As a
general rule
10%
is
used.
and results in the release of carbon dioxide and heat. The heat released is called respiration heat and must be considered
in the plant tissue
After the safety factor has been added, the 24-hr load is divided by the desired operating
time for the equipment to determine the average load in Btu per hour (see Section 10-2). The
average hourly load
is
The amount of heat evolving from the upon the type and
Respiration heat
is
equipment
selection.
and vegetables
is
listed in
10-21. Short Method Load Calculations. Whenever possible the cooling load should be determined by using the procedures set forth
Table 10-14.
Since respiration heat
Howft)
pound
given in Btu per per hr, the product load accruing from
is
when
are
respiration heat
total weight
used for general-purpose storage, the product load is frequently unknown and/or varies
somewhat from day to day so that it is not poscompute the product load with any real accuracy. In such cases, a short method of load calculation can be employed which involves the
sible to
x24hr
by experience.
When
the short
method of
156
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Average specific heat
of
vegetables 10-11)
(Table
and (2) the usage or service load. The wall gain load is calculated as outlined in Section 10-13. The usage load is computed by the following equation:
Usage load
= 0.9 Btu/lb/ F
=
0.09 Btu/lb/hr
Average respiration
heat of vegetables (Table 10-14)
interior
=
Notice that the usage factors
listed in
Table
and with the difference in temperature between the inside and outside of the cooler. Too, an allowance is made for normal and heavy usage. Normal and heavy usage have already been
defined in Section 10-14.
1.69 Btu/cuft
23,100 Btu/24 hr
No
safety factor is
used when the cooling load is calculated by the short method. The total cooling load is divided by the desired operating time for the equipment to find the average hourly load used
to select the equipment.
10-11. A walk-in cooler 18 ft x x 10 ft high has 4 in. of corkboard insulation and standard wall construction consisting of two layers of paper and 1 in. of wood on each
Example
ft
x24hr
7,560
10
Btu/24 hr
Summation:
Safety factor
123,720 Btu/24 hr
is
in.).
The tempera-
(10%)
Total cooling load
=1 2,370 Btu
=
136,100 Btu/24 hr
ture outside the cooler is 85 F. 35001b of mixed vegetables are cooled 10 F to the storage temperature each day. Compute the cooling load in Btu/hr based on a 16-hr per day operaThe inside ting time for the equipment.
Required
cooling capacity (Btu/hr)
temperature
Solution
is
40 F.
= 2 x 18 ft - 360 sq ft = 4 x 10 ft = 400 sq ft
760 sq
ft
x 10 ft x 10 ft
_
=
136,100 Btu/24 hr
16 hr 8,500 Btu/hr
in.,
Example 10-12. The dimensions of a banana storage room located in New Orleans, Louisiana are 22 ft x 32 ft x 9 ft. The walls are 1 in. boards on both sides of 2 x 4 studs and
insulated with 3$ in. granulated cork. The floor and roof are of the same construction as the
walls.
sions are
than
17ft
x9ft x9ft
1377 cu ft
TD
to the sun.
The tempera-
ture outside the storage room is approximately the same as the outdoor design temperature for
16.8 per
24 hr
1.69 Btu/cuft
the region. 30,000 lb of bananas are ripened at 70 F and then cooled to 56 F in 12 hr for holding storage. Compute the Btu/hr cooling load. (Note: Because of the high storage temperature the evaporator will not collect frost and the equipment is designed for continuous run.)
157
= 704 sq ft = 1676sqft
5208 cu
ft
volume
31
ft
x 8
ft)
1,476,860 Btu/24 hr
24 hr
=
=*89F
61,530 Btu/hr
Example
10-13.
chilling
room 35 ft x
Wall
U factor
= 0.079Btu/hr/sqft/F
= 20F
(Table 10-2)
50 ft x 15 ft is used to chill 50,000 lb of fresh beef per day from an initial temperature of 100 F to a final temperature of 35 F in 18 hr.
7/24hr
Four people work in the chiller during the loading period. The lighting load is 1500 watts. The floor, located over an unconditioned space, is a 5 in. concrete slab insulated with 4 in. of corkboard and finished with 3 in. of concrete. The ceiling, situated beneath an unconditioned
and
change(Table 10-8A)
(interpolated)
Specific heat of
.4
Btu/cu
ft
a 4 in. concrete slab with wood sleepers insulated with 4 in. of corkboard. All of the walls are inside partitions adjacent to unconspace, is
bananas (Table
10-10)
ditioned spaces (90 F) except the east wall which is adjacent to a 35 F storage cooler. Wall construction is 4 in. cinder block insulated with 4 in. of corkboard and finished pn one side with plaster. Compute the cooling load in Btu per hour based on a 16-hr operating time for the
equipment.
Solution
704 x 0.079 x 53 x 24
x50ft) x50ft)
(except
ft)
= = =
1,750 sq
ft
=
Walls and floor 1676 x 0.79 x 33 x 24
70,740 Btu/24 hr
Floor
(35 ft
1,750 sq ft
Walls
104,860 Btu/24 hr
east)
=
Air change load:
Inside volume
(120 ft x 15
Inside
1,800 sq
ft
(34
ft
volume x 49 ft x
=
Product load: Temperature reduction
13.5 ft)
- 22,491 cu ft
=
3.2 per
51,000 Btu/24 hr
_M _
C xjTj-Tj) x24hr
Chilling time (hr)
24 hr
30,000
0.9
x 14 x 24
(Table
10-8A)(50%RH)
Specific heat
12
= 756,000 Btu/24 hr Respiration heat = x reaction heat x 24 hr = 30,000 x 0.5 x 24 = 360,000 Btu/24 hr
of
Summation:
Safety factor (10%)
1,342,600 Btu/24 hr
1
Occupancy heat
gain (Table 10-16)
Ceiling
34,260 Btu
U factor
= 0.069 Btu/hr/sqft/F
1,476,860 Btu/24 hr
(Table 10-3)
158
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Wall
U factor
= 0.065 Btu/hr/sq ft/F
x24hr
eously with the chilling peak. If the occupancy occurred at any time other than at the peak, the occupancy load could be ignored.
(Table 10-1)
=
Air change load:
Inside volume
Example 10-14. Three thousand lug boxes of apples are stored at 35 F in a storage cooler 50 ft x 40 ft x 10 ft. The apples enter the cooler at a temperature of 90 F and at the rate of 200
lugs per period.
468,700 Btu/24 hr
The
and
ceiling
air
changes x Btu/cu ft
2x4
x 24
M x C x (T
x
18 0.75
- Tx)
50,000
x 65 x 24
x 0.67
boards on both sides of studs and are insulated with 3$ in. of rock wool. All of the walls are shaded and the ambient temperature is 85 F. The average weight of apples per lug box is 59 lb. The lug boxes have an average weight of 4.5 lb and a specific heat value of 0.60 Btu/lb/ F. Determine the average hourly cooling load based on 16 hr operating time for the equipment.
are constructed of
in.
= 4,850,700 Btu/24 hr
Miscellaneous:
Solution
= =
=
5800 sq
ft
volume
17,200 cu
ft
=
Lighting load = watts x 3.4
86,400 Btu/24 hr
(49
ft
x 39 ft x 9 ft)
Wall
U factor
0.072 Btu/hr/sq
ft/
x 24 hr
(Table 10-2)
1500 x 3.4 x 24
= =
122,400 Btu/24 hr
5,684,200 Btu/24 hr
Summation:
Safety factor (10%)
= =
3.7 per
24 hr
568,420 Btu
6,252,620 Btu/24 hr
1.86 Btu/cu ft
= 0.89 Btu/lb/ F
=
Note:
(1)
18 hr 390,800 Btu/hr
is
0.025 Btu/lb/hr
Since there
or loss of heat through the is ignored in the cooling load calculations However, this wall should be insulated with at least the minimum amount of insulation to prevent excessive heat gains through this wall in the event that the adjacent refrigerated space should become inoperative. (2) Since the TD
is
A x U
x TD x 24 hr 5800 x 0.072 x 50 x 24
=
Air change load:
Inside
501,100 Btu/24 hr
volume x
ft
air
changes
x Btu/cu 17,000 x
3.7
1.86
= _M
x
11 7,000
Btu/24 hr
across all the walls, including floor and ceiling, the same and since the difference in the wall factors is slight, the walls may be lumped together for calculation. (3) Although the workmen are in the space for only 4 hr each day for the purpose of load calculation, they are assumed to be in the cooler continuously. This is because their occupancy occurs simultan-
x (Tt
- Tx)
Apples
(200 x 59 lb) x 0.89 x 55
0.67
862,100 Btu/24 hr
159
Fig.
103
Lug boxes
(200 x 4.5 lb) x 0.6 x 55
0.67
and
finished with 4 in. of concrete. The floor is over a ventilated crawl space. Roof is exposed
= 44,300 Btu/24 hr
Respiration = x reaction heat x 24 hr = (3000 x 59 lb) x 0.025 x 24
to the sun. The equipment room is well ventilated so that the temperature inside is approximately the outdoor design temperature for the region. The storage room is maintained at 0 F, 10 F. whereas the temperature in the freezer is
=
Summation
Safety factor (10%)
The
106,200 Btu/24 hr
1,630,700 Btu/24 hr
Houston, Texas. Determine the average hourly refrigeration load based on 20 hr per day operating time for the equipment.
location
is
Solution
Roof
(9 ft (9 ft
14 ft)
=126sqft
_ =
Note:
selection
is
Floor
1,793,800 Btu/24 hr
x 14 ft)
x 10 ft)
16 hr 112,100 Btu/24 hr
N and E partitions
(23 ft
Load
S and
partitions
occurs
on
(8ft
Example
Twenty-two
thousand
936 cu
92
ft
pounds of dressed poultry are blast frozen on hand trucks each day (24 hr) in a freezing tunnel 14 ft x 9 ft x 10 ft high (see Fig. 10-3). The
precooled to 45 F before entering the freezer where it is frozen and its temperature lowered to 0 F for storage. The lighting load is 200 watts. The hand trucks carrying the poultry total 1400 lb per day and have a specific heat of 0.25 Btu/lb/ F. The partitions adjacent to the equipment room and vestibule are constructed of 6 in. clay tile insulated with 8 in. of corkboard. Partitions adjacent to storage cooler are 4 in. clay tile with 2 in. corkboard insulation. The roof is a 6 in. concrete slab insulated with 8 in. of corkboard and covered with tar, felt, and gravel. The floor is a 6 in. concrete slab insulated with 8 in. of corkboard
poultry
is
design temperature
U factors
Roof
(Table 10-3) Floor
(Table 10-3)
N and E partitions
(Table 10-2)
S and
partitions
(Table 10-2)
Roof sun
= 20F
13.5 per
Air changes
(Table 10-9B)
24 hr
3.56 Btu/cu ft
160
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
-N
-32.5*Lochtrs
18'
Cold storage
O'F
Lockers
38*F
Lockers
Freezer
>
Conditioned
space, 80* F
Lockers
N-
x latent heat Freezing = Poultry = 22,000 x 106 = 2,332,000 Btu/24 hr Miscellaneous: Lighting: 200 watts x 3.4 Btu/watt/hr x 24 hr = 16,300 Btu/24 hr
Summation:
Safety factor
Cold storage
3,014,100 Btu/24 hr
38"F
(10%)
= = _ =
301,400 Btu
(Table 10-12)
20 hr (running time)
165,775 Btu/hr
Above
Below
freezing
= 0.79 Btu/lb/ F
freezing
= 0.37 Btu/lb/ F
Latent heat of poultry (Table 10-12) = 106 Btu/lb Freezing temperature 27 F Wall gain load:
Example 10-16. frozen food locker plant 18 ft x 32.5 ft x 10 ft, containing 353 individual lockers and an 8 ft freezing cabinet, is located in Tulsa, Oklahoma (see Fig. 10-4). The north and west wall are constructed of 8 in.
tile with 6 in. of corkboard insulation. South and east walls are 4 in. clay tile with 4 in. of corkboard insulation. The roof is exposed to the sun and is constructed of 4 in. of concrete insulated with 8 in. of corkboard and covered with tar, felt, and gravel. The floor is a 5 in. concrete slab poured directly on the ground, insulated with 8 in. of corkboard, and finished
clay
^xt7xri)x24hrs
Floor
126 x 0.035 x 102 x 24 = 10,800 Btu/24 hr
Roof
126 x 0.036 x (102
= =
in. of concrete. The product load on cabinet freezer is 700 lb of assorted meats per day. (Standard practice is to allow for 2 lb of
with 3
= 6,600 Btu/24 hr
Air change load:
Inside
product per locker per day.) In this instance, the product is precooled to 38 F before being placed in the freezer. The lighting load is 500 watts and the average occupancy is three people. Determine the average hourly refrigerating rate based on a 20-hr equipment operating time.
Solution
air
changes
Outside surface area
3.56
= 45,000 Btu/24 hr
Product Load: Temperature reduction
Roof
Floor
(18
ft
x 32.5
ft
ft)
585 sq
(18
ft
=M
x 32.5
ft
ft)
C x(rs -TJ
South and east
585 sq
Poultry _ 22,000
0.79
(45
- 27)
partition
(50 .5
ft
ft
x 10 ft)
ft
505 sq
=
Trucks
1,400
302,700 Btu/24 hr
x 10
ft
ft)
180 sq
ft
West wall
Inside
(32 .5
x 10
ft
ft)
0.25
(92
325 sq
0)
volume
ft
0.67
.
(16
30.5 ft
ft)
48,000 Btu/24 hr
3904 cu
ft
161
= 92F
=
65
=M
x (Tt
Roof sun
factor
(Table 10-7)
= 20F
factor
Freezing
10-3)
U factors
Roof (Table
70,000 Btu/24 hr Miscellaneous: Lights = 500 watts x 3.4 Btu/hr = 40,800 Btu/24 hr x 24 hr
Occupancy = 3 x 1300 x 24
0.034 Btu/hr/sq
ft/
F
Summation:
Safety factor
= = = = _
93,600 Btu/24 hr
531,560 Btu/24 hr
53,150 Btu
(10%)
Air changes
(see
=
(Table 10-8B)
12.6(6.3
2)
per 24 hr
3.0 Btu/cu ft
20 hr
= 29,240 Btu/hr
Load on
freezer
meat)
Above
Below
freezing
freezing
91,780 Btu/24 hr
20 hr
(product load only, including
Latent heat
(average)
10%
safety factor)
= 4,590 Btu/hr
Load on locker room only
(total
Occupancy factor
=
Wall Gain Load:
= =
29,240 Btu/hr
1300 Btu/hr/person
load
less
- 4,590 Btu/hr
24,650 Btu/hr
freezer load)
A x U x TD x
Roof
24
585 x 0.036
x (92
+ 20)
x 24
=
Floor
56,600 Btu/24 hr
=
West wall
11,750 Btu/24 hr
325 x 0.034
=
Air change load:
Inside
Five hundred gallons of cream at 25 F are entering a hardening room 10 ft x 15 ft x 9 ft each day. Hardening is completed and the temperature of the ice cream is lowered to 20 F in 10 hr. The walls, including floor and ceiling, are insulated with 8 in. of corkboard and the overall thickness of the walls is 12 in. The ambient temperature is 90 F and the lighting load is 300 watts. Assume the average weight of ice cream is 5 lb per gallon, the average specific heat below freezing is 0.5 Btu/lb/F, and the average latent heat per pound is 100 Btu.* Determine the average hourly load based on 18 hr opera10-17.
partially frozen ice
tion.
Example
volume x x Btu/cu ft
air
composition of the mix, the percent of overrun, and the temperature of the ice cream leaving the
freezer.
147,570 Btu/24 hr
162
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Solution
Solution
=
x 7
ft)
750 cu
ft
=
Inside
(9
636 sq
ft
volume ft x lift x 8
ft)
=
Wall gain factor
(Table 10-18)
728 cu
ft
792 cu
ft
Usage factor
(Table 10-17)
50 Btu/cu ft/24 hr
16.7 per 24 hr
=3.88 Btu/cu
ft
750 x 99
=
air
74,250 Btu/24 hr
= =
changes
Btu/24 hr
3.88
=
Product load:
47,170 Btu/24 hr
16 hr
Temperature reduction
M x C(T
(500 x
5)
PROBLEMS
cooler wall 10 ft by 18 ft is insulated with 1. the equivalent of 3 in. of corkboard. Compute the heat gain through the wall in Btu/24 hr if the inside temperature is 37 F and the outside Ans. 165,312 Btu/24 hr temperature is 78 F.
wall of a locker plant is 12 ft by constructed of 8 in. hollow clay tile insulated with 8 in. of corkboard. The locker plant is located in Houston, Texas and the inside temperature is maintained at 0 F. Determine the heat gain through the wall in Btu/24 hr. Ans. 54,000 Btu/24 hr
2.
7\)
x 24 hr
Chilling time
0.5
x (25
10
20) x 24
=
Freezing
135,000 Btu/24 hr
_ _
Mx
latent heat
x 24
The north
is
Freezing time
(500 x 5)
60 ft and
x 100 x 24
10
=
Miscellaneous load: Lighting: 300 watts x 3.4 x 24
600,000 Btu/24 hr
=
Summation:
Safety factor
24,480 Btu/24 hr
880,900 Btu/24 hr 88,090 Btu
(10%)
=
=
968,990 Btu/24 hr
53,800 Btu/hr
cold storage warehouse in Orlando, Florida has a 30 ft by 50 ft flat roof constructed of 4 in. of concrete covered with tar and gravel and insulated with the equivalent of 4 in. of corkboard. If the roof is unshaded and the inside of the warehouse is maintained at 35 F, compute the heat gain through the roof in Ans. 181,330 Btu/24 hr Btu/24 hr.
3.
Example
ft
10-18.
A cooler 10 ft
x 12
ft
x 9
is used for general purpose storage in a grocery store. The cooler is maintained at 35 F and the service load is normal. The walls are insulated with the equivalent of 4 in. of corkboard and the ambient temperature is 80 F. Determine the cooling load in Btu per hour based on a 16 hr operating time.
small walk-in cooler has an interior volume of 400 cu ft and receives heavy usage. If the inside of the cooler is maintained at 35 F and the outside design conditions are 90 F and 60% relative humidity, determine the air change load Ans. 50,300 Btu/24 hr in Btu/24 hr.
4. 5.
of 2000 cu
and
is
maintained at a temperature
163
The beef
load.
is
reduced to 0
8. Fifty-five
hundred
6.
enter a chilling cooler at 100 F and are chilled to 38 F in 24 hr. Compute the chilling load in Btu/24 hr. Ans. 347,000 Btu/24 hr
storage at 37 F. An additional 500 crates enter the storage cooler at a temperature of 85 F and are chilled to the storage temperature in 24 hr.
The average weight of apples per crate is 60 lb. The crate weighs 10 lb and has a specific value
of 0.6Btu/lb/F. Determine the total product load in Btu/24 hr. Ans. l,679,80aBtu/24 hr
valve or
11-1).
action
by the
some other liquid level control (Fig. The vapor accumulating from the boiling of the refrigerant is drawn off the top action of the compressor. The principal
advantage of the flooded evaporator is that the inside surface of the evaporator is always completely wetted with liquid, a condition that
II
Evaporators
produces a very high rate of heat transfer. The principal disadvantage of the flooded evaporator
is
that
it is
usually bulky
and requires a
Liquid refrigerant
is
meters the liquid into the evaporator at a rate such that all the liquid is vaporized by the time
it
11-2).
1 1
For
is
which the
Types of Evaporators. As
stated pre-
liquid
upon
any heat transfer surface in which a refrigerant is vaporized for the purpose of removing heat from the refrigerated space or material is called an evaporator. Because of
viously,
of vaporization and increases or decreases as the heat load on the evaporator increases or decreases. However, whereas the flooded type is always completely filled with
the
rate
liquid, the amount of liquid present in the dryexpansion evaporator will vary with the load on
the
many
different requirements
of the various
sizes,
and
classified in
a number
of different ways, such as type of construction, operating condition, method of air (or liquid)
circulation,
the load on the evapoamount of liquid in the evaporator is small. As the load on the evaporator increases, the amount of liquid in the evaporator increases to accommodate the greater load.
the evaporator.
rator
is light,
When
the
application.
Flooded and Dry-Expansion Evaporators. Evaporators fall into two general categories, flooded and dry expansion, according to their operating condition. The flooded type is
1
1-2.
Thus, for the dry-expansion evaporator, the amount of liquid-wetted surface and, therefore, the evaporator efficiency, is greatest when the load is greatest.
11-3.
Types of Construction.
and
The
three
always completely
filled
control.
of the through the coil is by gravity. The vapor accumulated from the boiling action
Circulation
refrigerant
of
the coil -escapes to the top the accumulator and is drawn off by the suction of the
in
compressor.
164
EVAPORATORS
Bore-lube and
plate-surface
l*S
evaporators
are
sometimes dawned together as prime-surface evaporaion in thai the entire surface of both these types u more or leu in contact with the vaporiring refrigerant inside. With the finned
evaporator, the refrigcran(<cafTying
the only prime surface.
tube are
The fins themselves are not rilled wilh Tcfrigerani and are, therefore, only secondary hat transfer surfaces whose function J* (o pick up heat from the surrounding
air
and conduct
it
to the refrigerant-carrying
<
tubes.
Atthough prune-surface evaporate** of both the bare-tube and plait-surface types give salt* factory service on a wide variety of applications operating in any temperature range, they are most frequently applied to applications where the space temperature is maintained below 34* F and frost accumulation on the evaporator surface cannot be readily prevented. Frost accumulation on prime-surface evaporaion
does not
affect the
it
'c
(a)
doc* on finned coils. Further' more, most prime surface evaporators, particuextent thai
larly the fiate-turface type, are easily cleaned
and can be
readily defrosted
manually by either
brushing or scraping off the frost accumulation. This can be accomplished without interrupting
(be refrigerating process and jeopardizing the
quality
c
Flf.
11-3.
(o>
d6a
M
Common dmgm
eo+l.
T
H.
(ML
far
b*rt-tub*
coil.
Bare- lube
fin cignf
{&} C*l
trwnewi*
used for
luge evaporators and for evaporators to be employed with ammonia, whereas copper tubing
it
utilized in the
niton intended for use with refrigerants other than ammonia. Bare-tube coils are available tn a number of sues, shapes, and designs, and are usually custom made lo the individual
application.
coils are
fiat
Liquid
*nm
Rtfnetrtnt
Common
zigzag
ntctiw
j^Ro* contra*
3
3
3>
Mr
shown
11-5.
in Fig. I!-),
Some
are
constructed
of two fiat sheets of metal so embossed and welded together as to provide a path for refrigerant flow between the two sheets
(Fig.
11-4).
Mb
Liquid
r#-
This
particular
type
of
plate-
Fig.
11-5.
Dry-wpvtslun aviporuer.
urfacc evaporator is widely uaed in household refrigerators and home freezers because it is
easily cleaned,
frlftrtftl
It
flown through
vapor.
economical to manufacture, and can be readily formed into any one of the various
shapes required (Fig,
11-5).
rata of
now
through tha
orrflca at tha
flow control.
(M
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Flf.
MM.
Truuer Manufacturing,
Inc.)
^^
Rg.
11-5.
Soma
mmm
Inc.)
Heavy,
olnctrkally
(E) Fitting
whir* vacuum
In
ll
wddfid steel. Smooth surface, (B) Continuous steel tubing through which
eratit passei.
ontlv (tiled.
refrlg-
(F)
p.|
Vacuum ip
dry pit to
hold-over
K(
No
maintenance required
struct Jon.
limp In con-
refrigerant* except
EVAPORATORS
Another type of plalc-surfacc evaporator consuls of formed tubing installed between two metal plates which arc welded together at the
edges (Fig.
It -6).
1*7
plates
is
eutectic solution.
Plate-type evaporators
in
may
be used singly or
In order to provide
banks.
how
the plates
in
space
The
between the plates is either filled with a eutcciic solution or evacuated so that the pressure of the
may be manifolded
(Fig.
the refrigerant
11-9)
or they
may be
provide excellent
Those containing the eutectic Solution are especially useful where a holdover capacity is required. Many are used on refrigertubing inside.
ated trucks,
let
shelves in freezer
(Fig.
11-10).
cream cabinets,
are
Plate
liquid
mounted
evaporators
especially
useful
for
are usually connected to a central plant refrigeration system while the trucks are parked at the
The
refrigerating
is
By bank on the surface of the plain during periods of light loads, a holdover refrigerating capacity is established which will help be refrigerating equipment carry the load through the heavy or peak conditions Fig, 11-11),
up an
ice
Pig,
1*1.
In
whottHlt
Fc*
IfiS
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
employed
in
ow
ftcfrt|enuifl|
Company.)
Since this allows Che use of smaller capacity equipment than would ordinarily be required by the peak load, a savings affected in Initial
cost and, usually, also in operating expenses,
1
be connected to the tubing in such a manner that good thermal contact between the fins and
the tubing
flni
is
assured.
In
some
instances, the
1-6.
in
fins
fins,
tubing
is
have been
13-15),
The
serving as secondary heat-absorbing surfaces, have the effect of increasing the over-all surface
means so that the fins bite imo the tube surface and establish good thermal contact. A variation of the latter method is to flare the fin hole
slightly to allow the fin to slip
its
After the
fin is installed,
the flare
straightened
of the
over the coil passes through the open spaces between Ihe tubes and docs not come in contact with the cm surface.
I
and the
fin is
part
on the
added to a coil, the fins extend open spaces be (ween the tubes and act as heat collectors. They remove heat from that portion of the air which would not ordinarily conic in contact with the prime surface and conduct it back to the tubing,
fins arc
When
out
designed,
The
fin.
size
imo
the
size
of the
the size
As
fin
Small tubes require small fins. of the tube increases, the size of the
Fin spacing
may
be effectively increased,
from one to fourteen fins per inch, depending primarily on the operating temperavaries
It is
fVAfORATOAS
16?
Fl|
1-*.
ien
tlow.
Ptau bank with pluu minifeJdtd for ptraJM rrfriftnr* ftow. (Cduntiy Kold-Hdd DickonTrinwr Hnufctur1ni, '"t-J
Plat**
may
ttto b
Kmnt*d
for
Fig.
tl-10.
implayid
for
imngtdi
flow.
Mhti ndrtftnni
,
Trwwr Minuhcturinf
170
PRINCIPLES OF AEFAKJEAATTON
by
buii^.ftf
up
etnbtank
of
l on
plite
aipenun,
Rafrlfarilinf
(Court**)* Dol*
Cwnptflf.)
Frost
accumulation
at
on
air-cooling
is
colls
restricting
the
air
circuit son
over
the
coil
operating
low temperatures
frost
unavoidable,
unnecessarily.
accumulation on finned coils tends to restrict the air passages between the lint and to retard air circulation through the coil, evaporators designed for tow temperature
and
since
any
is
affected
more by
frost
is
maintained above
34' F.
When
or Ihree fins per inch) in order to minimize the danger of blocking air circulation. On the other hand, coils designed for air conditioning and other installation* where the coil Optra ICi
it temperatures high
temperature operation, some means of defrost* ing the coil at regular inter val* must be provided.
This
may be accomplished
automatically by
in
several
another
enough so that no
coil surface
frost
chapter
accumulates On the
may
have as
is
Because of the
more
many
When
gravity,
by
is
little
be
built
more compactly.
occupy
less
Generally, a finned
the
resistance lo air
in
How
as
is
therefore,
coil will
general,
fin
spacing should
be wider for
same
Hut
provides
for
a considerable
coils ideally
makes tinned
has been determined that a definite relationship exists between the inside and outside
It
surfaces of an evaporator
he addition of
beyond
in
increase
fad.
some
may
by
actually
reduce
evaporator
capacity
EVAPORATORS
selected for
171
any
specific application
must always
where
V = the
ft
over-all
ft/
conductance factor in
have
sufficient capacity to
Btu/hr/sq
D
ft
when
operating
of inside
FD
to heat flow offered
Heat reaches the evaporator by all three methods of heat transfer. In air-cooling applications most of the heat is carried to the evaporator by convection currents set up in the refrigerated space either by action of a fan or by gravity circulation resulting from the difference in temperature between the evaporator and the space. Too, some heat is radiated directly to the evaporator from the product and from the wall of the space. Where the product is in
thermal contact with the outer surface of the evaporator, heat is transferred from the product to the evaporator by direct conduction. This
is
LjK
= resistance
by
metal of tubes and fins / =.the conductance factor of the outside surface film in Btu/hr/sq ft of
outside surface/"
R =
surface
Since a high rate of heat transfer through the evaporator walls is desirable, the U or conductance factor should be as high as possible.
Metals,
factor, are
tion.
because of their high conductance always used in evaporator construcHowever, a metal which will not react
always in
However, by gravity
with the refrigerant must be selected. Iron, steel, brass, copper, and aluminum are the metals
or by action of a pump is still necessary for good heat transfer. Regardless of how the heat reaches the outside surface of the evaporator, it must pass through the walls of the evaporator to the
most commonly used. Iron and steel are not affected by any of the common refrigerants, but are apt to rust if any moisture is present in the system. Brass and copper can be used with any refrigerant except ammonia, which dis-
refrigerant inside
by conduction.
Therefore,
is,
the rate
Aluminum may be used with any refrigerant except methyl chloride. Magnesium and magnesium alloys cannot be used with the fluorinated hydrocarbons or with
solves copper.
mined by the same factors that govern the rate of heat flow by conduction through any heat transfer surface and is expressed by the formula
methyl chloride.
Of
Q
where
=A
(11-1)
Q =
A =
Btu/hr
the outside surface area of the evaporator (both prime and finned)
metal of the evaporator walls is the The amount of resistance to heat flow offered by the metal is so small, especially where copper and aluminum are concerned, that it is usually of no consequence. Thus, the U factor of the evaporator is deter11-2, the
least significant.
U = the
D = the
logarithmic
in
mean temperature
Fahrenheit
difference
degrees
of of
coil construction
or Over-All Conductance Factor. The resistance to heat flow offered by the evaporator walls is the sum of three factors whose relationship is expressed by the following:
11-8.
1
amount of
interior wetted surface, the velocity of the refrigerant inside the coil, the amount of oil present in the evaporator, the material being cooled, the condition of the external
_R
surface,
U~fi
K +f
(11-2)
to outside surface.
172
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Heat transfer by conduction is greater through and the rate at which the refrigerant absorbs heat from the evaporator walls increases as the amount of interior wetted
liquids than through gases
Any
evaporator walls.
surface
increases.
In
this
respect,
flooded
efficient
than the
is
When
is
the
improved by internal
in direct
influenced by fluid
and the
shape of the
fins.
surface.
Any
11-9. The Advantage of Fins. The advantage of finning depends on the relative values of the coefficients of conductance of the inside and outside surface films and upon R, the ratio of
mal insulation and decreases the conductance factor of the evaporator walls and reduces the
rate of heat transfer.
from the
such that
it
usually
lint
caused by an accumulation of dust and from the air which adheres to the wet surfaces or by frost accumulation on the
surface.
coil
coil
which heat passes to the outside surface from the cooled medium, the over-all capacity of the evaporator is limited by the capacity of the
outside surface.
In liquid-cooling applications, fouling of the external tube surface usually results from
scale formation
value of
that the
the outside
internal
surface
amounts of
oil in
At low
velocities,
amount
of interior wetted surface. Increasing the refrigerant velocity produces a scrubbing action on the walls of the tube which carries away the oil
from the
is
much
outside surface.
For
use of
flow.
On
the
ever,
The refrigerant velocity is limited, howby the maximum allowable pressure drop through the coil and, if increased beyond a certain point, will result in a decrease rather than an increase in coil capacity. This depends to some extent on the method of coil circuiting and is discussed later. It can be shown also that the conductance of the outside surface film is improved by increasing the fluid velocity over the outside
surface of the coil.
cases the
rator
and the rate of flow is approximately equal for both surfaces, barenube evaporators perform at high efficiency and finning is usually unnecessary. In some applications, where fluid
velocity over the outside of the evaporator
is
may be
from the
this
When
many
maximum velocity
itself.
amount of
Several
interior
wetted surface
is
increased.
methods
EVAPORATORS
173
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11-12.
Some methods
of
inner finning.
(O
11-10.
Logarithmic
Mean
Temperature
Difference.
As
mean temperature
(40
difference
is
temperature of air (or any other fluid) decreases progressively as it passes through the cooling
coil.
D
It
20)
(30
20)
15
The drop
a curved
line (A)
approximately as indicated.
evident that the difference
calculated
between the refrigerant and the air will be greater at the point where the air enters the coil than at the point where it leaves,
by the dotted
in Fig. 11-13.
difference in
(a) at
The
which
actual logarithmic
is
mean
temperature,
is
given by equation
(f. D=
Although the value obtained deviates slightly from the actual logarithmic mean, an approximate mean temperature difference may be calculated by the following equation:
tr)
(11-4)
D
where
/
JU-t )^H-Q
T
(U3)
For the values given in Fig. 1 1 - 1 3, the logarithmic mean temperature difference will be
(40 D=
= the
=
14.43
the coil
tr
The preceding calculations were made on the assumption that the refrigerant temperature remains constant. When this is not die case,
174
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
The velocity of the air passing over the coil has a considerable influence on both the value of U and the and is important in deter-
METD
When
air velocity
Thus, the
As
a greater quantity of air is brought in contact with the coil per unit of time, the increases, and the rate of heat
transfer
velocities
Leaving
air
improves.
adjacent to
all surfaces.
temperature-30 F
disturbance increases
Fig. 11-13.
passing through
the conductance of the outside surface film and the over-all value of
evaporator.
U improves.
tr
will
This condition
is
The
after called
(METD), may
11-1.
from Table
11-11. The Effect of Air Quantity on Evaporator Capacity. Although not a part of
CoflA
which greatly
performance. Principal
among
these
and distribution of air in the refrigerated space and over the coil. These factors are closely related and in many cases are dependent one on the other. Except in liquid cooling and in applications
are the circulation, velocity,
where the product is in direct contact with the evaporator, most of the heat from the product is carried to the evaporator by air circulation:
If air circulation
is
CoilB
inadequate, heat
is
not
at a
carried
form
at
important also
evenly distributed
the
air
and over Poor distribution of the circulating results in uneven temperatures and "dead
coil.
A W
CoilC
Fig.
1
Air
spots" in the refrigerated space, whereas the uneven distribution of air over the coil surface causes some parts of the surface to function less efficiently than others and lowers evaporator
capacity.
1-14. Coils
or
coil B.
EVAPORATORS
Surface Area. Equation 11-1 indicates that the capacity of an evaporator varies
11-12.
directly with the outside surface area.
is
175
This
U factor
of the evaporator
number of rows as in coil B, the METD will be decreased and the increase in capacity will not be nearly as great as when the surface area is increased as in coil C. For the same
ing the
remains the same. In many of U and the METD are affected when the surface area of the evaporator is changed. In such cases, the capacity of the evaporator does not increase or decrease in direct proportion to the change in surface area. To illustrate, in Fig. 11-14, coils B and C each
and the
METD
a long, wide, flat coil will, in perform more efficiently than a short, narrow coil having more rows depth. However,
total surface area,
general,
in
is
many
limited
and compact
coils
coil
A, yet the
ing the
the loss of capacity resulting from increasnumber of rows can be compensated for
3rd
2nd
1st
Row
Row
Row
Leaving -<Air
<
Air
-<
Entering
C
temperature drop across typical three-row
Fig.
11-15. Air
Air -*rto
2
35
no
Air
32
M
0)
cooling
coil.
Temperature -<-
^
Air
CC
C\J
^
Air
Temperature
o CM
40*
30*--
Coil
to
be greater for
coil
Pro-
the
some extent by increasing the air velocity over coil. Too, in some applications, the use of
coils
is
the
same
(the total
deep
11-13.
desirable
for
the purpose
of
must be
dehumidification.
twice that circulated over coil A), the will be exactly the same as that across across
METD
Evaporator Circuiting.
It
was demon-
A and
the capacity of
C will
how
therefore be twice
the
METD
is
afis
when
Chapter 8 that excessive pressure drop in the evaporator results in the suction vapor arriving at the suction inlet of the compressor at a lower pressure than is actually necessary, thereby causing a loss of compressor capacity
strated in
and
efficiency.
Note
To
much
capacity
row. This is accounted for by the fact that the temperature difference between the air and the refrigerant is much greater across the first row,
less and less as the temperature of the reduced in passing across each row, and is least across the last row. It is evident then that the rate of heat transfer is greater for the first row and that the first row performs the
ences a
amount of
pressure drop
becomes
air is
required to flow the refrigerant through the evaporator, and since velocity is a function of
pressure drop, the drop in pressure
must be
high
most
efficiently.
For
area of coil
A in Fig.
enough to sweep the tube surfaces free of vapor bubbles and oil and to carry the oil back to the compressor. Hence, good design requires that the method of evaporator circuiting be such
176
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
can be eliminated to a great extent by
splitting
When
series
a single
maximum,
two
at
circuit
into
of
Refrigerant
out
one
series refrigerant
two paths to one-half the value it would have without the split, and the pressure drop per foot is reduced to one-eighth of the value it would have in the lower part of the evaporator with a
This, of course, permit greater loading of the coil without exceeding the allowable pressure drop. At the
single single series circuit.*
will
same
is
the
time, the velocity in all parts of the coil maintained within the desirable limits so that the rate of heat transfer is not unduly
transfer
and good
oil return.
affected.
depend upon the size of the tube, the length of the circuit, and the circuit load. By circuit load is meant the timerate of heat flow through the tube walls of the circuit. The circuit load determines the quantity of refrigerant which must pass through the one evaporator
circuit will
Another method of reducing the pressure drop through the evaporator is to install refrigerant headers at the top and bottom of the evaporator
so that the refrigerant
is
fed simultaneously
of time. The greater the circuit must be the quantity of refrigerant flowing through the circuit and the
circuit per unit
load,
tiie
greater
through a multiple of parallel circuits (Fig. 11-18). However, this arrangement is not too satisfactory and is not widely used. While the pressure drop through the evaporator is low, this method of circuiting ordinarily results in
Hence,
size,
Evaporators
having
only
single
series
one
illustrated
perform
satisfactorily within
When
is
exceeded, the refrigerant velocity will be increased beyond the desired range and the
pressure drop will be excessive.
Notice that the refrigerant enters at the top of the evaporator as a liquid and leaves at the bottom as a vapor. Since the volume of the
refrigerant increases as the refrigerant vaporizes,
per foot increase progressively as the refrigerant travels through die circuit, and are greatest at
the
is
100
vapor.
drop increases as the square of the Reducing the velocity to one-half reduces the pressure drop to one-quarter of its original value. Then, since the length of each parallel branch is only one-half the length of a single circuit, the drop
velocity.
* Pressure
The
is
latter part
of a single
series circuit
evaporator
EVAPORATORS
reducing the refrigerant velocity below the
desired
177
and the rate of heat transfer are also low. Another disadvantage of this type of circuiting
is
the temperature
between
the
air
Refrigerant
in
Refrigerant
distributor
and the drop in pressure through the several circuits are uneven and a large portion of the coil operates inefficiently. This criticism can be applied to some extent also for the circuit arrangements in Figs. H-16 and 1 1-17. In all three arrangements, the lower portion of the evaporator will not perform as effectively as the upper portion because wetting of the internal tube surface will not be as great in the lower portion. This is because the refrigerant in the lower portion contains a high percentage of vapor, whereas in the upper
portion the refrigerant
It is
is
>
.
Fig. 11-19. Evaporator with refrigerant distributor and suction header. Notice counterflow arrangement for refrigerant and air.
nearly
all liquid.
always lowest
of the fact that the saturation temperature of the refrigerant is lowest at the
outlet, in spite
outlet
coil.
The
is
when
of
where the temperature between the refrigerant and the air is large and where external finning is heavy. Notice that the air passes in counterflow to the refrigerant so that the warmest air is in contact with the warmest part of the coil surface. This provides the greatest mean temperature differential and the highest rate of heat transfer. Notice also that loading of the circuits is even. The number and length of the circuits that such a coil should have are determined by the size of the tube and the load on the circuits. For the multipass, headered evaporator, the arrangement shown in Fig. 11-20 is much more desirable than that shown in Fig. 11-18. Counterflowing of the air and the refrigerant increases the METD and permits more even loading of
air conditioning coil
an
differential
the circuits.
1
1-14.
the factors
out
V^
Refrigerant
in
which influence evaporator capacity is usually impractical and in many cases impossible. For the most part, evaporator capacities must be determined by actual testing of the evaporator. The results of such tests are contained in the rating tables published by the various evaporator manufacturers.
The method of rating evaporators varies somewhat with the type of evaporator and with
Circuits
Howsimilar
Crossflow of air
in
uneven
circuit loading.
evaporator rating tables, instructions as to how to use the ratings. In most cases, where the
178
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig.
11-20.
Counter-flow
of
more even
a
circuit loading
and
ASRE
same.t
It is
countered.
TD
coil
The
selection of evaporators
to operate
Typical evaporator rating tables, along with methods of evaporator selection, are discussed at the end of the chapter. 11-15. Evaporator TD. One of the most
having a larger surface area but operating at a smaller TD. Thus, insofar as Btu per hour capacity alone is concerned, a small coil will
have that same refrigerating effect as a larger one, provided that the TD at which the small coil operates is greater in proportion. However,
it
important factors to consider in selecting the proper evaporator for any given application
is
will
the
evaporator
TD.
Evaporator
TD
is
and the refrigerated space has considerable on the condition of the stored product and upon the operating efficiency of the entire system, and is usually, therefore, the determining factor in coil selection. Before an evaporator
rator
influence
evaporator outlet.*
can be
the
selected,
it is
necessary to
first
determine
Once known, an
evaporators for
air
conditioning applications
and some product storage applications where space temperature and humidity are especially critical, ratings for most evaporators designed for product cooling applications are based on
evaporator TD.
Care should be taken not to confuse METD TD. According to Equation 11-1, the Btu per hour capacity of any given evaporator (whose U factor and surface area are fixed at the
t
with evaporator
The relationship between evaporator capacity and evaporator TD is shown by the curve in
Notice that the capacity of the evaporator (Btu/hr) varies directly with the evaporator TD. That is, if an evaporator has a certain capacity at a 1 F TD, it will have exactly
Fig. 11-21.
of manufacture) varies directly with the However, assuming that the refrigerant temperature and all else remains constant, the between the air passing over the evaporator
time
METD.
METD
and the
evaporator.
entering
increases.
That
is,
if
the
evaporator
the
METD
if
the
TD is increased to
ASRE
Hence, the METD varies in proportion to the evaporator TD and, therefore, the capacity of the evaporator also varies in proportion to the evaporator TD.
EVAPORATORS
evaporator having sufficient surface area to provide the required cooling capacity at the design can be selected.
quate, the capacity of the evaporator
creased, the product
rate, the
is is
17?
de-
TD
not cooled at a
sufficient
is
encour-
11-16.
The
Effect of Coil
TD
on Space
on some products. On
air circulation
Humidity. The preservation of food and other products in optimum condition by refrigeration depends not only upon the temperature of the
refrigerated space but also
much
can be
little.
When
the circula-
tion of air, is too great, the rate of moisture evaporation from the product surface increases
When
too low,
and
excessive
results.
Excessive
it
costly in that
dehydration
growth of mold, fungus, and bacteria is encouraged and bad sliming conditions occur, particularly on meats and especially in the wintertime. Space humidity is of little importance, of course,
appearance and quality and shortens the life of the product. Furthermore, the loss of weight resulting from shrinkage and trimming is a
considerable factor in dealer profits and in the price of perishable foods.
The
cans,
The most important factor governing the humidity in the refrigerated space is the evaporatorTD.* The smaller the difference in temperature between the evaporator
and depends upon the space humidity, the type of product, and the length of the storage period. With respect to product condition, air circulaand space humidity are closely associated. Poor air circulation has the same effect on the
tion
higher
is
TD,
the
lower
is
product as high humidity, whereas too much air circulation produces the same effect as low humidity. In many instances, it is difficult to product deterioration in a particular application is caused by faulty air circulation or poor humidity conditions. For
the most part, product condition depends upon the combined effects of humidity and air
circulation, rather than
When
determine whether
TD that will provide the optimum humidity conditions for the product should be selected. In such cases, the evaporator TD is the most important factor determining the evaporator selection. The design evaporator
evaporator
TD
is
and forced-convection evaporators. In applications where the space humidity is of no importance, the factors governing evaporator selection are: (1) system efficiency and
one alone, and either of these two factors can be varied somewhat, provided that the other is varied in an off-setting direction. For example, higher than normal air velocities can be used
without damage to the product when the space humidity is also maintained at a higher level.
economy of
initial cost.
and
(3)
11-17.
The
on
is
30 a2 5
l'
uj
Product Condition.
As
stated previously,
E 15
the evaporator.
When
* Some of the other factors which influence the space humidity are: air motion, system running
time, type of system control,
15*
20*
25*
30*
35*
Evaporator
TD
amount of exposed
Fig. 11-21. Variation
in
product surface,
etc.
evaporator TD.
180
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
length of the cooler
exposed surface should be given consideration when determining the desired rate of air circulation.
greater
As
the
Some
products,
depth of the
damaged by excessive
since they
and the
cold air
fall
METD
is
is
special consideration.
Cut meats,
have more exposed surface, are more susceptible to loss of weight and deterioration than are beef quarters or sides, and air velocities should be lower. On the other hand, where the product is in vapor-proof containers, it will not be affected
denser than
to the floor,
warm
room between
by high
velocities
and the
rate of air
to obtain the
maximum
air
cooling
effect.
Recommended
11-18.
velocities
for
product
For coolers less than 8 ft wide, single, ceilingmounted evaporators are frequently used. When the width of the cooler exceeds 8 ft, two or more
evaporators should be used.
there
is
In coolers where
Natural Convection
Evaporators.
Natural convection evaporators are frequently used in applications where low air velocities
not sufficient head room to permit the use of overhead coils, side-wall evaporators
may
be used.
refrigerators,
walk-in coolers,
the cooling coil by
rooms are
reach-in refrigerators,
and
shown
in Figs. 11-22
and
11-23, respectively.
The
coil
they aid and direct the free flow of air over the
refrigerated space.
The
The
is
cold and
warm
air flues
area approximately equal to one-sixth or oneseventh of the floor area of the cooler. Assuming that the flues extend the
fixture,
full
length of the
space.
Generally,
shallow coils
Since
Fig. 11-22.
tion
Overhead
installa-
of
natural
convection
has
evaporator.
cast
Evaporator
fins.
aluminum
Ice
(Courtesy
Detroit
Machine Company.)
EVAPORATORS
III
Ftf. tion
II.23L of
naturil
tonvtalon
warm
eoJd
the
Air has
air.
3 (o
in.
beto* the
coil.
The
)
horizontal baffles
in.
or
on"
coil
to 2
per foot to
warm
it
tx a
little
air flue.
In Fig.
Due
warm
equal to
W','6.
The
distance
M)
be insulated so that moisture does not condone on the undersurfcee of the deck and drip off on
from the
should be approximaldy equal to the width of the watm air flue and never less than 3 in. Vertical side baffles
coil to the ceiling
The dimension (if) is 4 to 7 in., whereas (O is usually 1 to 4 in, IMf-Coi1-ajid-Bafr1eAii*mblls. The availthe product.
in.
above and
of radory-buill coJI-and-bafrk assemblies eliminated the need for the custom building of baffles on the job. A typkal ready built coil-and-bafflc assembly is shown
ability
has
practically
in
Fig.
11-25.
Since
these
assemblies
are
wide variety or sizes and combination (an Table R-l), they can be readily applied to almost any natural convection
available in a
application.
11-20. Hating and Select on uf Natural Convection Evaporators, Basic capacity ratings
I
F TD.
However,
in
some
instances,
selection,
I
where
F.
it
will
simplify
evaporator
capacity
For the
in the
mentioned
per inch of finned length. For bare pipe evaporators, the ratings given are per square foot of externa] pipe surface, although in some instances bare pipe evaporators are rated per lineal foot
of pipe.
Ratings for plate evaporators are given per
Hf.
11-24.
Tvpkal
baflla
amngamaflt
for
natunl
Both
sides
of the
conractlon end I.
when computing
the area
K.
MUNCltt.ES
OF REfRlGEIUTlON
Ft|.
11*35,
Nitunl cn.
Int.)
of the
specific
plate,
Frequently,
ratings
Tor
plate
To
determine approxi-
Tvp^-.ii
data
f^?
hhjcth
typp of
in
17
ft
mural
Tables R-l
through
R-7.
The use or
these
of evaporators is best illustrated through the use or a series of examples. i natural convection cou-and-baflfe assembly (Fig. 1 J -25 and Table R-l) for the vegetable storage cool? in Example
J
Allowing I ft on each end of evaporator for working space, the approximate over-all length of the evaporatori4(cFig.Jl-16)
(I7fl-2ft)
-|5ft
Enamels
M.
Select
According to the
manufacturer's specifications {Table ft-1). the over-all length of the evaporator is 7 in longer than the actual finned length. Hence,
the
KM
I.
Solution. Since the capacity ratings for this type of evaporator are given in Btufhr/T TD/in. of finned length, the required evaporator capacity must be reduced to this value before a selection can be made from the rating (able, Abo. recall that a natural convection evaporator should extend almost the full length of the cooler in order to assure adequate air circulation around the product.
approximate
14
ft
in.
{15
ft
-7 in.)
or 171
in.
To determine
*FTD,in.
From Example
10-11.
TD
17
ft
x9A
-
Fin
,
8500Biu/hr
e0 7Bu;hr.
FTD
From Table
sired space
10-11. de*
humidity for
Approx.
87%
Rcquirett
i
<
From Table
evaporator
1-2,
TO
design required
forS7%RH
EVAPORATORS
Became or
tcciicti
IS)
evaporator
Reference to Tabic R-l indicates that Model #PK-I6 with two fin* per inch (J -in. fin spacing)
has
capacity
this
ofl 65
is
Biu/hr/ F/in.
Using
finned length
- lAfun
J,*5 BtWnr/' F/in.
The overall
in.
is
173
fit.
(166
in.
in.)
204
twtporttori
in.,
natural
(i*
(on**cton
1
Example
1. 1).
the
dc*rancc between the evaporator and the cooler wall at each end is 15 5 in.
The width of
(IS in.
cooler.
2),
the evaporator
logical
is
shown
in
recommendations. For evaporators of this type, the manufacturer recommends that the side of the evaporator be not less than 6 in. nor
To
number,
spacing,
and finned
length, viz:
Model #PK-
6.3-166 in
from the cooler wall {installation dimension A of Table R-l) and that the distance between the two sections of the evaporator (dimension C) be not less than 6 in. nor more than 8 ft. The maximum allowable evaporator width can be determined by subtracting the minimum of dimensions A and C from the inside width of
12 in.
more than
Note. To avoid excessi vely long evaporators, which are inconvenient to ship and install, a
multiple of evaporators should be used in large
coolers.
are
shown
These arrangements
ExampJ*
in the
11*2,
select
locker
room
To assure
select
Maximum
width
of evaporator
Inside
good
room,
width of cooler
ticular case, the
{A
+ C + Q.
In this par-
FTD,
evaporator
108
in.
is
(6
in.
+6 in. +
in.)
90
in.
Since the combined width of the two sections of evaporator. Model #PK-16, is only 36 in.
inftdt
hngei of coota? r
I
Analysis of room dimensions x 16 ft) indicates that four to six evaporators (two or three banks installed end-toend over each aisle will be needed to provide good ceiling coverage and adequate air distribution. Reference to Table R-3 will show that plate banks are available in stock lengths of 108 in. (9ft) and 144 in, (lift). Three banks 108 in. long (a total of 27 ft) or two banks 144 in, long (a total of 24 ft) could be installed end-to-end over each aisle and allow adequate working clearance at the ends.
(30.5
mmuni
eonvteiion
1
Exampi*
t-|).
Number
of banks desired
IB4
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Solution. Inspection of Tabte R-4 will show that the ratings of the p stand assemblies an based on a J 5 F TD. Since the design
li
:
._-
24,650 Btu/hr
6 or
buna
-4lWBtWhr/13*FTD
TD
24,650 Btu/hr
4 banks
6l62Blu/hr/)5'
FTD
Referring to Table R-3, we see thai plate bank. Model #5-1 210B-B, has a capacity of 4320 Btu/hr at a 15" F TD when operating below 32 F (frosted). This will permit good coverage of the ceiling and at the same time allow sufficient working space ui the ends of the banks (see
Fig- ll-29>.
only 10 F. it is necessary to determine (he capacity the plate must have at a IV TD in order to have the desired design TD of 10- F. This is accomplished by dividing the average hourly load by the design TD of 10* F and then multiplying by the rating of 15* F, vis;
in this
instance
is
TD
6885 Btu/hr
In ordering the evaporators, specify refrigtype of connections desired (series or manifold), viz Mode) #6-J2l44-B, series connected for Refrigerant- 12. Notice {Table R-J) that the manufacturer specifies that two refrigerant flow controls should be used with each bank for Refrigeran 1-12, whereas only one a needed when
Thus, it is determined that an evaporator having a capacity of 6885 Btu/hr ai a 15 F TD will have he desired capacity of 4590 Btu/hr at the design TD of ID* F. Th* value can then be used to select the plate stand directly from the
'
rating table.
By
referring
to
Tabic
is
R-4,
plate
stand,
ammonia
is
the refrigerant.
approximately 26 in. wide and 88 in. long (including piping connections), will (it the freeaorr cabinet and has a capacity of 7140 Btu/hr ai a 15" F (4760 Btu/hr at 10* F TD>, This provides a small
TD
safety factor
and
is
Example
11-3,
From Table
R-4, select a
the application.
plate-stand assembly for the freezing cabinet in Example 10-16. The inside dimensions of (be cabinet are 28 in. x 90 in. and the freezing load
is
Alternate Solution.
rule of
ft
thumb used
in
4590 Btu/hr.
cations
is
to allow 0.5 Sq
TD.
ft
the
plate
required la
this
7fi.S
sq
ft
By
which best
flu the cabinet. Model #22S4 (22 in. x 84 in.), has a surface area (both sides of plate) of 27.24
sq
per plate. Therefore, seven pistes of are required. Seven plates have a total 5 capacity of 7140 Btu/hr ai a I5 F or 4760
ft
this size
TD
Btu/hr at a 10
F TD.
Assuming a space tem-
Example
11-4.
perature of 0* F and a refrigerant temperature of F (1 7" F evaporalor TD), determine the lineal feet of 1 i in. iron pipt required to handle the cooling load on the locker room in Example
10-16.
con-
vection evaporator*
lirjt cooten.
Solution, By referring to Table R*6, the capacity per square foot of pipe (outside surface) at the given conditions is 1.5 Btu/hr/ F TD, To determine the square feet of pipe surface required, divide the average hourly load by the
EVAPORATORS
IIS
305"
|
* r
tl IT
g*
*^r^
** "
t\
*-r
Flf.
tanks
locker
11-3.)
ptint
(sm
Eximpl*
^^^^^^^^^
'
capacity per square foot per degree die design TD, viz:
TD
and by
below its dew point temperature, both the temperature and the moisture content of the air an
reduced (Chapter
5).
F) x
TD
ft)
tion
is
Pipe surface I sq
moisture removed
is the result of latent coo ting. Kence. for an evaporator having a total cooling capacity of one ton (12,000 Btu/hr) and a
24,650 Btu/hr
1.3
17
>M"
lineal
ft
is
10,200 Btu/hr
<W%
of
I
or
12,000).
is
By
referring to
I
in.
capacity
Naturally,
1800
the
will
10.200).
pipe equals
Hence, the
lineal feet
of
J in-
pipe required
ft
is
evaporator
966 x Z.3
11*21-
2220
of any of the application, the design of the evaporate r, and the air quantity. An average sensible heat ratio
sensible
heal
ratio
depend upon
the conditions
Forced
Convection
Evaporator*.
Forced
convection
As a general rule, the air temperature drop through a well -designed unit cooler is approximately one- half the difference between the space
temperature and the refrigerant temperature.
Some
11-30.
typical unit
cookrs
on shown
in Fig.
For example, for an evaporator TD of 10 F. the air temperature drop through the unit
u.H)lcr
should be .tppri^inuid', f
in
I 1
The
is
of any evaporator
Equation
1-3 is a
con-
directly related
The
air
quantity capacity
(i) the
in
required
is
for
a given
ratio
evaporator
hour (*0).*
basically a function
sensible
heat
the
temperature of the
rator. vix:
air passing
x m en p I b 1 1 -5. 1 (ermine the approximate quantity of air {cfm) circulated over a unit cooler having a capacity of 20.000 Btu/hr if the sensible heat ratio is 0,85 and the design evaporator is 1 3* F.
TD
sensible heat
air
ratio
1.08
_ 30.000
-
Btu/hr
0.83
7.5
1.08
(11-5)
2)00 cfm
The
is
Ai a general
When
cooled
186
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Noikl
mch
It
not dttcharjid
(Counety Dunham-Bush,
500
ft
Although higher
cooler
capacity
resulting
from
effect in
higher
air
velocities.
it
such cases
to decrease, rather
tkm
alio
increase
When
all
Too, where
by
it)
the fan
motor
resulting
500 fpm there Is a tendency for moisture to he blown from the face of the coil into the space and onto the
the
velocity exceeds
horsepower
will
product.
EVArOWKTORS
The
iir velocity
117
ii
a function of the air quantity (din) and the face ana of the evaporator (v\ ft), viz
Velocity (fptro
Face area
|sq
f i)
Example I J -7. From Table R-8, select a forced convection evaporator (unit cooler) suitable for installation in a beer storage cooler having a calculated heal load of 16,600 Btu/hr. Since apace humidity is not a factor, use JO F for high system efficiency.
TD
Example
1 1
*.
am of
Solution.
From Table
Model
#UO!80
F
By rearranging and
11*6,
_ 2100 dm
"
Btu/hr at a 10*
applying Equation
face
1
the
350 fpm
ft
ana
Rat ng and Saf action of
i
6 iq
Un
i
motor operates inside the refrigerated space, the motor heat becomes a part of the space cooling load and must be added to the load calculations.
R-g, the heat given off by the Tan 24,000 Btu/24 hr, Since the fan operates continuously to provide air circulation in
1-22-
Coolers
From Table
is
Basic rating! for unil cooler* are given in Blu/hr/ * F TD. For convenience, sometimes ratings
motor
F and
li*
F TDs. Aa
in the
the
cooling load
is
TD
on
the average Btu per hour load resulting the fan motor heat is
from
for any given space humidity, the design for unit coolers is about 4* lo ** F leas than those
TD
34,000 BtiV?4 hr
300 Btu/hr
16
far
fan selection
at
Hence, when the fan motor beat is considered, the average hourly cooling load for the beer cooler becomes 18,100 Btu/hr (16,600 + 1500).
Since the unit cooler selected has capacity of IS.OOO Btu/hr, it will be adequate for the
application.
upon whether or not the coil is kepi reasonably free of frost by adequate defrosting When the space is maintained below 34' F, some means of
automatic defrosting musi be used (see Chapter
20).
in
walk-
shown
in Fig. 11-11,
ftg.
location
for
In
walk-in
tti* Mft Dots ftcok, Volume, 1957-M edition, reproduced by ptrmmlon of Ux American Society of Hmlnf. RvtriftrMint; and Air-Condi* tlMldf Enjinrv)
(From D**Jjn
IBS
PRINCIPLES Of REFRIGERATION
11-13.
and design according to the type of duly for which they art intended. Five
general types of liquid chiller* are in
together by reThe advantages movable return bends (inset claimed for ink unit are rigid construction, the elimination of refrigerant [uints, and easy
I,
common
accessibility
cooler (3) the lank-type cooler. (4) theshell*andcoil cooler, and (3) the shell-and-tube cooler.
.
of the inner tubes for cleaning. Double-pipe coolers ma;, ix; operated cither In either cue, dry-expansion or floodci!.
counterflowing of the fluids
in the
lubes pro*
In all cases, the factors which performance of liquid chillers are the same as those which govern the performance of aircooling evaporators and all other heat transfer
influence the
duces a
high heai transfer coefficient. However, ihis type of cooler hits the disadvanrelatively
more space, particularly head room, than some of the oiher cooler design*.
tage of requiring
Current conservative design values of heat transfer coefficient C based on outside surface for bare tube coolers, unless mentioned otherwise, are as
follows:
Min
su
Flooded shell -and- tube cooler (water to ammonia or R-12) Flooded ihell-and -finned tube high velocity R-12 water cooler
|ft 150
JO
45 j
150
100
Flooded shell-and-tube cooler (brine to ammonia) Flooded shell-and-tube cooler (brine to R-I2>
Dry-expansion shel)-nd-tube cooler, R-12 in tubes, water
Baudelot cooler. Hooded (ammonia or R-12 to water) Bau deloi cooler, dry-expansion (ammonia to water) Baudelot cooler, dry-expansion (R-12 to water)
in shell
90
115
50
100
200
150
60 60
50 50
10
10
120
150
125
ammonia)
ammonia)
25
25
(ammonia
or R-12)
ISO
250
125
Tank-and-agitator, coil-type water cooler, ammonia, flooded Tank-and-agiiator, coil-type waler cooler. R-12 Hooded
so 60
15
100
Tank, ammonia, brine cooling, coils between can in k* tank Tank, high velocity raceway type, brine to ammonia
Fig.
40
110
SO
It-XL
Ht
tniwftr coeftidants (or vsrfout types of liquid chlllan. (Rtpi-miad from JMJ-5* furmlulon of th* Amtfican SoclKy of H**tlnj. ftlri{rsttr-i, nd AJr-CondltJoiUnt
En|in*tn,)
surfaces.
designs of
11-24.
Heat transfer coefficients for average tome of the various chiller types are
1
For
double-pipe cooler
is
used
1-32.
Double-Pipe Coolers, The double-pipe cooler consists of two lubes SO arranged that one tube is inside the other. The chilled fluid
flows in one direction through the inner tube while the refrigerant flows in the opposite direction through the annular space between the inner and outer tubes.
pipe
some few special appliea lions. A number have been used in the wine-nuking and brewing industries to chill wine and wort, and in ihe
only in
petroleum industry for the shilling of oils. 1 -IS. Baudelot Coolers- The Baudelot cooler shown in Hg. l-M contisu of a series of horizontal pipes which are located One under the
1 I
I her
One
design of a double1
cookr is shown
in Fig,
expansion or flooded operation, the refrigerant is circulated through the inside of the tubes
while the chilled liquid flows in a thin film over
EVAPORATORS
IB?
Fij. 11-11.
accessible, for
Double pip* cootar. Removable b*ndi (right) ira ditlfnad to make tub* clunlnj (Courtey Viltar rltnuficturini Company.)
mum
readily
the outside.
The
liquid
the
collected in a trough
The
of water Tor carbonation in bottling this particular type of chiller it is possible lo chili liquid to a temperature very close to the freezing point without the danger
chilling
plan is.
With
open to
the air
of damaging
the
equipment
if
occasional
nukes
chilling application
when
Aeration
u a
factor
Another advantage of the Baudelot cooler, and one which is shared by the double-pipe
cooler,
is
is
readily
Flf-
1-14.
Bmddoi
in
tooltr
I
employ *d
application.
milk-cool nj
190
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
_
Warm
fcquWI
Flf. If-JS.
Typlal construc-
J?Bfnj(er*n1
fines
a circumstance which
permits precoohng of the chilled liquid with cold wain: before the liquid enter* the direct-
a baffle arrangement. As shown in Fig. 11-35. a motor driven agitator is unlived to circulate
the
chilled liquid
over
the
cooling coil
at
expansion portion of the cooler (see Fig. 7-34>. 11-16. Tank-Type Cooler*. The lank-type
1
between LOO and 50 ft per minute, the liquet being drawn in at one end of the coil compart men .ind discharged
1 I
one
the chilled
the
refrigerant
coil
is
bare-mbc coils mentioned and the race t-jt -type coil illus1-36 arc two coO designs fretrated in Fig. quently employed in tank-i>pe chillers. With
spiral-shaped,
1
The
in
Section
1*4
M. Flooded rac*w*f
colt,
IVAPOMATOHS
either design
the coils are operated flooded.
191
a welded
1-37),
As
a genera]
The
lee-Cel
shown
chiller*
in
Fig.
11-11
is
another
and
Tank -type
liquid-chilling
operated
is
in the
and the
through the
ihe
or water,
and other
liquids
tubes.
ad van*
Because
liquxs line
ntVffMlM
tc uuen
dfatn
Flj.
{Courtis/
Acm*
tndintriai.)
making
toads,
this
In
such cases, a comparatively large chilled-liquid storage tank is provided in order to minimize the rise in the temperature of the chilled liquid during periods of peak demand. The advantage gained by precooling is often considerable in
cases where the liquid to be chilled enters the
commonly
referred to as
an "instantaneous"
liquid chiller.
One
She -and -Coil Cooler*. The shelland-coil chiller is usually made up of one or more spiral-shaped, bare-tube coils enclosed in
11-27.
1
1
capacity.
arrangement is that there is no holdover Since the liquid is not recirculated, it must be chilled instantaneously as it passes
192
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Liquid Outlet
MM
*c r ^"t
t i
'l
f*l
Bf>
tl-3*. Typical
iheilmd-tub* chilltn.
(0)
Hooded
typ-
Not*
taffllnf of
Wiur
circuit
Tuba bundla li ramovablc |b) Dry-txpuuion Tub* theati ire fixed. (C*ur(t*y WonMnftOII
ihrough the
coils.
Ihc danger of
of freeze-up is greatly increased in any chiller where the chilled liquid is circulated through the coils or tubes, rather than over the outside of the tubes. For this reason, chillers employing
this arrangement cannot be recommended for any application where it is required to chill the liquid below 38 F,
tube chiller it by far the mosi widely used type. Although individual designs il filer somewhat, depending upon Ihc refrigen-ini used and upon whether the chiller is operated dry-expansion
or flooded, the shcli-and-tube chiller consists essentially of ft cylindrical Keel shell in which a number of Straight tubes are arranged in parallel and held in place at the ends by tube sheets.
When
chilled
refrigerant
expanded
beverages
in
"draw-bars,"
in
liquid is circulated
1 1
ilmmgh the
is
shell
(Fig.
-38b).
When
the chiller
is
operated
beverage is usually precooled to some extent before entering the chiller. 1-2& Shell-and-Tvbe Chillers, Shell-and1
circulated through
minimum of
floor space
room, are
application.
easily maintained,
ii contained in the of the liquid refrigerant in the shell being maintained with some type of float control {Fig. LlOBd), In either case, the chilled liquid is circulated through the chiller and connecting piping by means of a liquid circulating
iilics .111 J
the refrigerant
pump,
EVAPORATORS
Shell
t?J
flooded type
required
me
number of tubes
return
stated,
to the compressor.
the possibility of
Too, aa previously
is
Lhan SO to several thousand- Tube dkmclem range from I in. through 2 in., and lube lengths vary from S to 20 ft. Chillers designed for use with
damage
is
event of freeze-up
always considerably
when
lubes
steel tubes,
whereas
ml her lhan through them. The more important construction details of several designs
of dry-cupansion
1
refrigerant!
an
chillers
are
shown
liquid
in
Figs.
1-39 "and
En
1-40.
ooefnaenl.
Because of the rela lively low film conductance of halocarbon refrigerants, chillers
designed for use with these refrigerants are often
order to
maintain
the
velocity
drop
ratio, ihe
equipped with tubes which are fumed on the refrigerant side. In the case of dry-expansion
chillers,
vctochy of the chilled liquid circulated over the lubes is controlled by varying the length and
spacing of the segmental
baffles,
is
the
When
the
shown
in
Fig.
high, short,
which
the chiller.
When
,\thof an
inch.
As
a general rule,
in small
dry<*p*nlkm
drillers are
employed
more closely spaced used in order to increase fluid velocity and improve the heat transfer coefviscosity is low.
baffles
longer,
are
ficient (Fig.
Flooded
chillers,
available
circuits required
ranging from approximately 10 through several thousand tons, are more frequently applied in ihe larger tonnage installations.
and
METD.
Il-M. Dry-Expansion CMEIar*. The principal advantages of the dry-expansion chiller over the
optimum
refrigerant
design
atso
Flf .
!-.
C uw*
Mrtloit llltMirstini eoimrucrion dtutli of drr-wtpUMlon chllfer with ftxad tub* ihMta,
(Counter Aem*
Industrial.)
SM
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Dry-expirtKon (hilJ*r with tub* bundl* fnnl*riy rtmovtd IO llMW lutw inwjimint mnif Tub* bundl* b* rtrnov*d U t unll, (CourtMjf Ktnmrd Cn.non, Amtritln Air Fihmr Com piny Inc.)
Flf.
I
MO.
refrlferani flUtribirtcn,
,
For
this
made
siX'put arrangements are ihe most common, more pears are used in many instances.
lengths.
in
Tig.
11-39,
As in the case of the dr\ -expansion chiller, some Hooded chillers are deu^ned with removable tube bundles, whereas other? have fixed
the number and length or the refrigerant circuits depend on the lube length and on the arrangement of the baffling in the end-plates or refrigerant beads which are bolted to the lube sheets
at
lube sheets.
tube sheets are welded to the shell so that the lube bundle is not removable. However,
the
ends of the
chilter.
The
refrigeranl
arrangement for any one model chiller can be changed by -changing the refrigerant heads (Fig. 11 -41 A}'
circuit
and individual
if
necessary.
11-30.
Flooded Chilian,
Standard flooded
and multipass
lube arrangements,
passes through
lor single pass flow, the tubes ere so arranged lhat ihe chilled liquid
all
The chillers shown in Fig* LI 3Bfr and 11-39 employ fixed tube sheets, whereas those in Figs. M->3Bu and MO have tube huiidlcs. In some flooded chiller designs, the shell
I
is
only partially
filled
with tubea
in
order to
the
lubes simultaneously
and
in only
one direction.
low velocity
in the
Multipass circulation of the chilled liquid through the ehilkr is accomplished through the
(Fig. 11*43).
Th n design dim
n.j | e<i
the possibility
line
and
use of baffled end-plates or heads which are boiled lo the ends or the chiller (Fig. 1 1-42),
sudden
shell
is
The arrangement of the determines the number of liquid makes from one to
leaving the chiller.
end-plate
the
baffling
where Ihe
other before
four,
completely
Although two,
and
EVAPORATORS
enter* the suction line.
IW
in
Some
flooded chiller*
heal
The
Fig.
shown
re
equipped with
he prima ry
line,
minimum amount
is
of floor space.
The
chiller
to insure that
it
operated flooded.
The
has
the chiller at the top and flows by gravity the inside of the tubes.
circulating
down pump
of the
chiller
in
that
it
approaching the
chiller
draws chilled liquid from the storage tank at the bottom and delivers it through the connecting
pipingtributor
The
box
return liquid
at the top.
is
from where
again
specially designed
imparts
liquid,
paratively
turfites,
11-31.
Short cut
thin
film
down
the
inside
tube
on-***
ipKir^g
tional
that
the
refrigerant
sprayed over the outside of the waier tubes from nozzle* located in a spray
header above the tube bundle (Fig. 20-19). The unevaporated liquid drains from the tube into a
tump
is
bottom of the chiller from where it low head liquid pump. A high recirculation rate assures continuous wetting of the tube surfaces and
at the
a high rale of heat transfer. advantages of this type of chiller is its high cflicicncy and relatively small refrigerant charge. Disadvantages are the high
results in
The
principal
installation
cost and
the
recirculating
1
1
pump.
Although
differ
4-FHs
JOtiHh
somewhat depending upon the type of chiller and the particular manufacturer, all are based on the simple fundamentals of heat transfer and fluid now which have already been described. Almost without
selection
a-ataa 2 Circuits
procedure
along
with
the
design
^
Flf.
I
and The
very
following
closely
selection
procedure
in
follows
given
the
catalog
chillers-*
Ml.
(D)
kfi.
(o) Baffla ipiCinf in d ry-** pwulon ehilTyp+oJ refrliertnt headl far dry-*Kp*nile>n
Example II-*, ]i is desired to cool 50 gpm of wrner from 54 F to 46 F with a refrigemnt tempera lure ai measured at the cooler outlet of 40- F usinj; Refrigerant* 2.
1
chiller.
(CDurter of
Acme
InduitrkM.)
Acme
Industrie*. Inc.
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 11*41. Flooded thlller d**F(nd far multlpI circulation of chiliad liquid. I",>. circulation i* ttcompliihed by mean* of th* C4ffld *fld-l*-, or writer heads which ir* bc-lud to Ihe endi of the chiller.
pm
{CourtHr
Vilter
Minu^ctuhni Company.)
produces the highest pumping had Hence, if space it not problem, ihe must logical choice would lean to be type 8M U-wcvcr, a check
I
Solution
Step
tons.
1.
Determine ihe
Gpm
1
SO x 500 x (54
>
46)
16.7 ions
2,000
Water
in
minus
refrig-
erant temperature
54
re-Mi
40
- 40
14*
F LTD
frigerant temperature
6"
F STD
From Table
Step
Fig.
1
II -1,
METD - 9.47* F
and
I
3.
baffles spacing)
at
from Fig, of Table R-9. Enter 50 gpm on the lower vertical scale and
horizontally across the chart to the diagonal line representing the type unit desired, The number indicates shell diameter and the letter indicates baffle spicing, Possible choices are 10M, I2L, SM, 12K, 10K, and SL, As a general rule, small diameter chillers are more economical, whereas large diameter chillers are more compact. Type burning produces the lowest pumping head, whereas type L baffling
move
Fig.
filled
ML
order to provide i lirgc vapor d-Hniafln & tree ibovi the tubri. {CourtMy Worthln|tdn Corporation.)
with tubst
EVAPORATORS
will
197
show
that neither
8M
nor 8L
is
available
with sufficient surface area in this instance. Therefore, select type 10M (8 to 30 tons). From the point of intersection move vertically upward to a diagonal line in the upper portion of Fig. 1 which represents a of 9.47 F as found
METD
14 ft DXH chiller has a surface area of 184 sq ft (Model No. DXH-1014). Step 6. Determine the water pressure drop through the chiller. From the bottom of Fig. 1, Table R-9, the pressure drop per foot of length with type baffling is 0.425 ft of water column.
Gas
outlet
Water
inlet
Refrigerant
feed
Inset
Fig. 11-44. Vertical shell-and-tube "Spira-Flo" chiller designed for flooded operation.
is
in Step 2. From this intersection move horizontally to the scale at the left margin and read the loading of 1110 Btu/hr/sq ft (loading is the
14 feet x 0.425
11-33.
5.95
ft
HaO
Any
Surface area
-^^
Loading
180.2 sq
heat transfer surface into which a volatile liquid (refrigerant) is expanded and evaporated in
order to produce a cooling effect
is
200.000
-^5--
called a
ft
Step 5. Select chiller length from Table R-9 to meet surface area requirements. 10 in. x
so evaporated
refrigerant.
is
called
a "direct-expansion"
or "direct"
direct-expansion
198
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
WWW/WW/WW/W/W,
Refrigerated
Brine
coil "V.
space or
material
V/s;///;ss///s;;j;ss;;ss;;;//v.
Cold brine
to coil
Warm
brine_ "
to chiller
&-i
control
Vapor to compressor
suction
Brine solution!
?mrm/m/m///??r#mrA
Fig.
I
Brine
pump
M5o.
Indirect system.
Brine
coil
t4- 7~\
Cold
air to
refrigerated space
Warm
brine
-Air duct
to chiller
Cold brine
to coil
Warm
air
receiver
,^^BZ^mB^.
'**r
.
Refrigerant control
from space
Vapor to compressor
suction
rx. s;
Brine solution
z|
.. vM
"
. wwiw hw p wbhw/ *
i
>7
^
Fig. Il-45b. Indirect system
brine
is
communicating duct.
refrigerating system is
ing system
employed.
is
located in air
Up
to
have been considered. Very often it is either inconvenient or uneconomical to circulate a direct-expansion refrigerant to the area or areas where the cooling
expansion refrigerant in then pumped through appropriate piping to the space or product being refrigerated. The chilled liquid, called a secondary refrigerant, may be circulated directly around the refrigerated product or vessel or it may be passed through an air-cooling coil or some other type
EVAPORATORS
of heat transfer surface (Fig. 11-45).
case, the secondary refrigerant,
199
it
In either
the
unit,
from where
is
warmed by
chiller.
absorption of heat from the refrigerated space or product, is returned to the chiller to be
chilled
and
recirculated.
Indirect
refrigerating
systems
are
usually
employed to an advantage in any installation where the space or product to be cooled is located a considerable distance from the condensing equipment. The reason for this is that long direct-expansion refrigerant lines are
below its dew amount of water vapor is condensed from the air and is carried to the basin with the spray water. With either the cooling coil or the spray unit, the amount of cooling and dehumidification can be controlled by varying the amount and temperature
through the water spray
chilled
Water
is
seldom
practical.
In the
first
lines,
lems and cause excessive refrigerant pressure losses which tend to reauce the capacity and efficiency of the system. Furthermore, leaks
are
more
serious
likely to
required also in
many
where it is often impractical to maintain a vapor tight seal around the product or vessel being cooled. Too, indirect systems are used to an advantage in any application where the leakage of refrigerant and/or oil from the lines may cause contamination or other damage to a stored product. The latter applies particularly to meat packing plants and large cold storage applications when ammonia is used as a refrigerant. 1 1-34. Secondary Refrigerants. Some commonly used secondary refrigerants are water, calcium chloride and sodium chloride brines, ethylene and propylene glycols, Methanol (methyl alcohol), and glycerin. Almost without exception, water is used as
industrial process cooling applications
high of the product than would be possible with air. Too, the water supplies a holdover capacity which tends to level out load fluctuations resulting from intermittent loading of the cooler. 11-35. Brines. Obviously, water cannot be employed as a secondary refrigerant in any application where the temperature to be maintained is below the freezing point of water. In such cases, a brine solution is often used. Brine is the name given to the solution which
its
more rapid
chilling
results If
Up
to a
more
However,
if
Hence, a solution of any water has a certain concentration at which the freezing point of the solution is lowest. solution at the critical concentration is called
the secondary refrigerant in large air conditioning systems and also in industrial process cooling
installations
a eutectic solution. At any concentration above or below this critical concentration, the freezing
temperature of the solution will be higher, that is, above the eutectic temperature.* When the
salt
is
is less
an
excellent
secondary refrigerant. It also has the advantage of being inexpensive and relatively noncorrosive.
In air conditioning applications, the chilled water is circulated through an air cooling coil or through a water spray unit. In either case, the air is both cooled and dehumidified. In the water spray unit, the water i. sprayed from
nozzles and collected in a
water will begin to precipitate from the solution in the form of ice crystals at some temperature above the eutectic temperature. The exact temperature at which the ice crystals will begin to
*
eutectic
is
pan or basin
at the
used to mean the temperature at which ice or crystals begin to precipitate from the solution.
salt
200
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
(2)
form depends upon the degree of the salt concentration and upon the relative solubility of the
salt in water,
sodium
chloride.
The two
pared from calcium chloride (CaCl^ and sodium chloride (NaCl) salts, respectively, the latter
salt
The
being the
common
table variety.
is
used primarily in
remaining brine
ture,
will exist.
a slush consisting of ice and eutectic brine The further removal of heat from this mixture will result in solidification of the eutectic brine.
and storage, and in other brine applications where temperatures below 0 F are required. The lowest freezing temperature which can be
tic
take place at a constant temperature. On the other hand, when the salt content of
the brine
is
in excess of the
concentration in the eutectic solution is approximately 30% by weight. The freezing temperature of various concentrations of calcium chloride brine are given in Table 11-3,
perties
precipitate
crystals at
from the solution in the form of salt some temperature above the eutectic
Continued precipitation of
salt
along with some of the other important proof the brine. The principal disadvantage of calcium
temperature.
from the mixture as the temperature is reduced will result in a mixture of salt and eutectic brine
is its dehydrating effect and its tendency to impart a bitter taste to food pro-
chloride brine
it
comes in
contact.
is
For
this
when
is
reached.
The
will
when calcium
chloride brine
used in
constant temperature.
Two
commonly used
in
and
Air
product contamination prevents the use of calcium chloride brine. Sodium chloride brine
is
employed extensively
in installations
fish,
where
and other
at various concentrations
It is
is
iff
Mr
1r
M
ii
of interest to notice that the thermal properties of both calcium chloride and sodium
'"
Jl
Brine to concentrator
somewhat
less satisfactory
As
Air
m
I
i
I
Concentrator
value,
from
\, Brine
concentrator
*" Brine to
Hence, the stronger the brine solution, the greater the quantity of brine that must be circulated in order to produce a given
decrease.
refrigerating effect.
Brine
chiller
Fig.
EVAPORATORS
201
Air
-*
M
Fig.
1
Eliminators
ut
unit
Brine to concentrator
Brine
WWMhHAai.'i
To condensing
Direct
expansion evaporator
soluble compounds, generally described as antifreeze agents, are often used to depress the
advantages of glycol solutions, they are being used to replace brines in a number of installations, particularly in the brewing and dairy industries. The change-over from brine to glycol can be accomplished with practically no change
in the plant facilities.
1
1-37.
Methanol (methyl
and glycerin.
All these
compounds are soluble in water in all proportions. The freezing temperature of water
in solution with various percentages of each of
these
compounds
is
Propylene glycol
sively
used antifreeze agent in refrigeration service. In common with ethylene glycol, propylene glycol has a number of desirable
properties.
may be around the refrigerated product or container, or it may be used to cool the air in a refrigerated space. When used to cool air, the chilled brine is circulated through a serpentine coil or through a brine spray unit. Two types of brine spray units which have been used extensively are shown in Figs. 11-46 and 11-47. In the former unit chilled brine from a
the chilled brine (or antifreeze solution)
circulated directly
They are also nonelectrolytic and therefore may be employed in systems containing dissimilar metals. Being extremely stable comnoncorrosive.
space
is
is- sprayed
down from
from where
it
chiller.
pounds, glycols will not evaporate under normal operating conditions. Because of the many
the brine
by a direct-expansion
202
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Based on an evaporator TD of 10 F, determine the size and number of individual freezer plates to be used as shelves in the freezing cabinet.
3.
PROBLEMS
walk-in cooler 8 ft by 9 ft by 9 ft high has walls 6 in. thick and is maintained at a temperature of 35 F. The load on the cooler is 7500
1.
brine cooler
is
Btu/hr.
(a) Select
a natural convection cooling coil which will produce a relative humidity of approximately 85%
(Plasti-Cooler)
in the cooler.
(6) Select
of 19 F. Assuming little or no agitation of the brine, determine the lineal feet of | in. pipe required for the evaporator.
cool 100
a Unit Cooler which will produce approximately the same conditions in the
deep,
4. It is desired to
gpm
of water from
cooler.
2.
and
80
to 46 F with a refrigerant temperature at the cooler outlet. Select an appropriate chiller and determine the water pressure drop through the chiller in psi.
56 38
F F
centrifugal compressors.
12-2. The Compression Cycle. Before attempting to analyze the performance of the compressor, it is necessary to become familiar with the series of processes which make up
12
Performance
of Reciprocating
com-
in Fig. 12-1.
As the
is
piston
on the suction
stroke, low-pressure
drawn
On the upstroke of
is first
Compressors
com-
vapor through the discharge valves into the head of the compressor.
the valve
12-1.
Refrigeration
Compressors.
Vapor
compressors are designed with a small amount of clearance between the top of the piston and the valve plate when the
piston
this
is
at the top of
its
stroke.
The volume of
the clearance
and
(3) centrifugal.
Of
is
clearance space
is
is
called
cating compressor
by
one most
volume and
the piston
is
when
frequently used.
Rotary compressors are limited to use in very small fractional horsepower applications, such as home refrigerators and freezers and small commercial applications. Even in this limited
area, rotary compressors represent only a small
fraction of the total number used. Some rotary compressors are used also as booster compressors.* Their use for this purpose appears to be
increasing.
Not all will pass out through the discharge valves at the end of the compression stroke. A certain amount will remain in the cylinder in the clearance space between the piston and the valve plate. The vapor which remains in the clearance space at the end of each discharge stroke is called the
clearance vapor.
clarify the operation
1
on
Reference to Figs. 12-2 and 12-3 will help to of the compressor. Figure
is
very large applications, usually at least SO tons or above. In this area, they are widely accepted
pressure
against
crank
position.
increasing in
number because
is
large applications
growing
Only the performance of reciprocating comwill be discussed in this chapter. Reciprocating compressor design, along with the design and performance of rotary and centripressors
fugal compressors,
text at
is
Fig. 12-1.
At point A,
stroke,
the piston
is
at the top of
its
a more appropriate time and place. However, much that is said in this chapter about
* Booster compressors are discussed in Chapter
20.
which is known as top dead center. When the piston is at this position, both the suction and discharge valves are closed. The high pressure of the vapor trapped in the clearance
space acts upward on the suction valves and holds them closed against the pressure of the
suction vapor in the suction line.
Because the
203
204
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
comDischarge^
vapor in the clearance volume, the discharge valves are held closed either by their own weight or by light spring loading.
clearance space
is
allowed to expand.
The
180
Crank position
Fig. 12-2. Theoretical time-pressure diagram of compression cycle in which cylinder pressure is plotted against crank position.
its
stroke at point
During the time that the piston is moving from B to C, the cylinder is filled with suction vapor and the pressure in the cylinder remains
constant at the suction pressure.
At point
C,
begins.
The
C-D
as the piston
stroke.
moves
By the time
vapor in the cylinder has been increased until it is higher than the pressure of the vapor in the head of the compressor and the discharge valves are forced open; whereupon the high-pressure vapor passes from the cylinder into the hot gas line through the discharge valves. The flow of
valves open,
Fig. 12-1. (a) Piston at top dead center, (b) Suction (c) Piston at bottom dead center, (d)
A-B
so that
the pressure in the cylinder decreases as the volume of the clearance vapor increases. When the piston reaches point B, the pressure of the
re-expanded clearance vapor in the cylinder becomes slightly less than the pressure of the
Clearance
vapor in the suction line; whereupon the suction valves are forced open by the higher pressure in the suction line and vapor from the suction line flows into the cylinder. The flow of suction
vapor into the cylinder begins when the suction
valves open at point
Volume
of
re-expanded
Volume
clearance vapor
com-
pression cycle.
205
Example
placement
12-1.
moves from
D
is
to
while
the pressure in the cylinder remains constant at the discharge pressure. When the piston returns
of a two cylinder compressor rotating at 1450 rpm, if the diameter of the cylinder is 2.S in. and the length of stroke is 2
in.
completed and the crankshaft of the compressor has rotated one complete revolution. 12-3. Piston Displacement. The piston displacement of a reciprocating compressor
total cylinder
is
Solution.
4 x 1728
the
12-4.
=
The
16.52 cu ft/min
volume swept through by the piston in any certain time interval and is usually expressed in cubic feet per minute. For any
single-acting, reciprocating compressor, the pis-
Theoretical Refrigerating Capacity. any compressor depends upon the operating conditions' of the
refrigerating capacity of
ton displacement
is
computed as follows: x
system and, like system capacity, is determined by the weight of refrigerant circulated per unit
v,-where V
-
n-Z)*
Nxn
(12-1)
4 x 1728
of time and by the refrigerating effect of each pound circulated.* The weight of refrigerant circulated per minute by the compressor is equal to the weight
minute
of the suction vapor that the compressor compresses per minute. If it is assumed that the compressor is 100% efficient and that the
cylinder of the compressor
fills
completely with
per
the
The volume of the cylinder which is swept through by the piston each stroke (each revolution of the crankshaft) is the difference between the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke and the volume of
when the piston is at the top of its This part of the cylinder volume is found by multiplying the cross-sectional area of
the cylinder
stroke.
the volume of suction vapor drawn into the compressor cylinder and compressed per minute will be exactly equal to the piston displacement of the compressor. The weight of this volume of vapor, which is the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute, can be calculated by multiplying the piston displacement of the compressor by the density of the suction vapor at the compressor inlet. Once the weight of refrigerant compressed per minute by the compressor has been determined, the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor in tons can be found by multiplying the weight of refrigerant compressed per minute by the refrigerating effect per pound and then dividing by 200.
xL
is
Example
12-2.
12-1 is operating
known, the total cylinder volume swept through by the piston of a single cylinder compressor each minute in cubic inches can be determined by multiplying the cylinder volume by the rpm (N). When the compressor has more than one cylinder, the cylinder volume must also be multiplied by the
the cylinder volume
Once
temperature of 20 F. If the suction vapor reaching the compressor inlet is saturated and if the temperature of the liquid at the refrigerant control is 100 F, determine (a) the total weight of refrigerant circulated per minute (6) the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor in tons.
* Since
it is
dividing
206
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
(c)
Solution
(a)
Piston displacement of
From Example
12-1,
compressor
= _ ~ =
= = = = = = = = = =
is
16.52 cu ft/min
4.55
3.63 tons
compressor in tons
0.8921 lb/cu ft 16.52 x 0.8921 14.74 lb/min
12-5.
The
is
From Table
16-3,
always
80.49 Btu/lb 31.16 Btu/lb 49.33 Btu/lb
14.74 x 49.33 727.12 Btu/min 727.12
than
its
theoretical
capacity
as
In the
(1)
preceding examples
it
Theoretical refrigerating
capacity of pressor
com-
of the compressor fills completely with suction vapor from the suction line and (2) that the density of the vapor filling the cylinder is the
same as that
If these
200
3.63 tons
assumptions were correct, the actual refrigerating capacity would be exactly equal to
the theoretical capacity.
Unfortunately, this
is
the reciprocal of
an
alternate
method of determining
is
by the compressor
to
divide
the
piston
not the case. Because of the compressibility of the refrigerant vapor and the mechanical clearance between the piston and the valve plate of the compressor, the volume of suction vapor
the cylinder during the suction stroke is always less than the cylinder volume swept through by the piston. Too, it will be shown
filling
at the
compressor
When
per minute per ton for any given operating conditions is known, the capacity of the compressor in tons for the operating conditions in
cylinder
is less
question
may be found by
For these reasons, the actual volume of suction vapor at suction line conditions which is drawn into the cylinder of the
in the suction line.
compressor
is
always
less
Example
For
the
com-
always
less
than
its
theoretical
Total Volumetric Efficiency. The volume of suction vapor compressed per minute is the actual displacement of the comactual
pressor.
Solution
(a)
From Example
12-2,
the compressor to
piston displacement
is
refrigerating effect
= _
~~
49.33 Btu/lb
known
200
4933
4.05 lb/min
E
where
-*
x 100
(12-2)
1.121
cu
ft/lb
=4.05 x
1.121
Vv
the
piston
displacement
of (he
= 4.55
cu ft/min
compressor
207
The
Ev =
compressed
comknown, the actual displacement and refrigerating capacity can be found as follows:
the volumetric efficiency of the
When
pressor
is
Vn and
Actual
refrigerating
Ev
K. x
100
(12-3)
Theoretical
refrigerating
^-
(12-4)
capacity
capacity
12-4.
If the volumetric efficiency
vapor left in the clearance space has been compressed to the discharge pressure and, at the beginning of the suction stroke, this vapor must be re-expanded to the suction pressure before the suction valves can open and allow vapor from the suction line to flow into the cylinder. The piston will have completed a part of its suction stroke and the cylinder will already be partially filled with the re-expanded clearance vapor before the suction valves can open and admit suction vapor to the cylinder. Hence, suction vapor from the suction line will fill only that part of the cylinder volume which is not already filled with the re-expanded clearance
vapor.
In Fig. 12-3,
cylinder
stroke.
Example
of the compressor in Example 12-3 is 76%, determine: (a) the actual volumetric displacement (b) the actual refrigerating capacity.
Solution
()
Vc
is
From Example
12-1,
piston displacement
16.52 cu ft/min
is at the bottom of its which represents the clearance volume, is the volume occupied by the clearance vapor at the end of the compression stroke. The difference between Vc and Va then is the volume of the cylinder swept through by the
when
the piston
Va
On
the
down
stroke of the
From Example
Va
to
12-3,
Vb
3.63 tons 3.63 x 0.76 2.76 tons
Therefore,
is filled
theoretical refrigerating
capacity
Actual refrigerating
capacity
is
Vj,
and
12-9.
Ve
The actual refrigerating capacity of the compressor may also be determined as in Examples 12-2 and 12-3, if actual displacement
'
Theoretical
Volumetric
Efficiency.
The volumetric
is
Factors Influencing Total Volumetric The factors which tend to limit the volume of suction vapor compressed per work12-7.
a compressor due to the clearance factor alone is known as the theoretical volumetric efficiency. It can be shown mathematically that the theoretical
efficiency of
Efficiency.
2. 3.
If the clearance
increased in respect to the piston displacement, the percentage of high-pressure vapor remaining
in the cylinder at the
4.
When
re-expansion
12-8.
Efficiency.
and the compressibility of the refrigerant vapor, the volume of suction vapor flowing into the cylinder is less than the volume swept through by the piston. As previously shown, at the end
of each compression stroke a certain amount of vapor remains in the cylinder in the clearance
be
is
smaller.
To
maximum
volumetric
efficiency, the clearance volume of a vapor compressor should be kept as small as possible.
208
It
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
this
pump. Since a
left in
the
same specific volume as the liquid the suction inlet. Therefore, there is no
it
is
regardless
of
of the compressor
Pressures. Increasing the discharge pressure or lowering the suction pressure will have the same effect on volumetric efficiency as increasing the
clearance. If the discharge pressure
is
For
a compressor of any given clearance, the volumetric efficiency varies inversely with the
increased,
compression
12-13.
ratio.
The
is
Effects of
Wiredrawing. Wire-
re-expansion will
pressure
drawing
flowing
(internal
fluid,
the suction
and
of heat or performance of work; throttling."* In order to have a flow of vapor from the
suction line through the suction valves into the compressor cylinder, there must be a pressure
differential across the valves sufficient to over-
On
pressure, the
amount of re-expansion
that the
come
weight
and
inertia.
This
means
that
the
the volumetric
it
flows
efficiency
ratio of the
absolute
pressure
is
to
the
absolute
discharge pressure
ratio.
Thus,
JK
(12-3)
through the suction valves and passages of the compressor. Therefore, the pressure of the suction vapor filling the cylinder of the compressor is always less than the pressure of the vapor in the suction line. As a result of the expanded condition of the vapor filling the cylinder, the volume of suction vapor taken in from the suction line each stroke is less than if the vapor filling the cylinder was at the
suction line pressure.
where
R =
is
required
ratio
12-5. Calculate the compression of a R-12 compressor when the suction temperature is 20 F and the condensing tem-
Example
To
perature
is
100 F.
Solution.
From Table
absolute pressure of R-12 saturated vapor at 20 F Absolute pressure of R-12 saturated vapor at 100 F
35.75 psi
131.6 psi
a pressure somewhat higher than die actual condensing pressure. The vapor left in the clearance space at the end of the di charge
stroke will be at this higher pressure.
Compression
ratio
= _ =
To
re-
131.6
35?75 3.69
expand from
* Asre
during the
209
a greater amount of re-expansion than if it had been compressed only to the condensing pressure. As a result of the greater expansion of the clearance vapor, a larger portion of the cylinder volume is filled with the re-expanded clearance vapor during the down stroke of the piston and the amount of suction vapor drawn
in
age.
The Effect of Piston and Valve LeakAny back leakage of gas through either the
volume of vapor pumped by
line is reduced.
Because of precision manuis very little leakage of gas around the pistons of a compressor in good condition. However, since it is not possible to
the compressor. design valves that will close instantaneously,
there
is
affected
by the compression
is
wiredrawing
As
is
the velocity of
increased, the
As
is
lowered at
of wiredrawing increases. The refrigerant velocity through the valves of a compressor depends upon the design of the valves, the refrigerant used, and the speed of the
compressor.
in the
head of
the compressor will leak back into the cylinder before the discharge valves can close tightly.
Similarly, at the start of the compression stroke,
Wiredrawing
is
some of
volumes and the lowest latent heat values because the volume of vapor circulated per ton of refrigerating
capacity
is
greater.
wiredrawing
Increasing
effect associated
the
speed
of
the vapor in the cylinder will flow back through the suction valves into the, suction line before the suction valves can close. To assure prompt closing of the valves, both the suction and discharge valves are usually constructed of lightweight materials and are slightly spring loaded. However, since the spring
tension increases wiredrawing, the
amount of
and the
spring loading
is critical.
rpm
are increased.
12-14. The Effects of Cylinder Heating. Another factor which tends to reduce the volumetric efficiency of the compressor is the heating of the suction vapor in the compressor The suction vapor entering the cylinder. compressor cylinder is heated by heat conducted from the hot cylinder walls and by friction which results from the turbulence of the vapor in the cylinder and from the fact that the refrigerant vapor is not a perfect gas. The heating causes the vapor to expand after entering the cylinder so mat a smaller weight of vapor will fill the cylinder and thereby still further reduce the volume of vapor taken in from the suction line.
For any given compressor, the amount of backleakage through the valves is a function of the compression ratio and the speed of the
compressor. The higher the compression ratio, the greater is the amount of valve leakage.
The
effect
is
of compressor
speed
on valve
leakage
12-16.
discussed later.
Determining the Total Volumetric The combined effects of all of the foregoing factors on the volumetric efficiency of
Efficiency.
the compressor varies with the design of the compressor and with the refrigerant used.
Furthermore,
it
volumetric efficiency
system.
any one compressor the is not a constant amount; changes with the operating conditions of the
for
effi-
ciency of a compressor
difficult
to predict
ratio increases.
Cylinder heating increases as the compression At high compression ratios, the work of compression is greater and the
discharge temperature
is
mathematically and can be determined with accuracy only by actual testing of the compressor
in a laboratory.
higher.
This causes
However, the
that
results
of such
tests indicate
the
volumetric
efficiency
of any
one
210
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
of the suction vapor, each cubic foot of vapor compressed by the compressor will represent a
greater weight of refrigerant
when
the suction
efficiency
temperature temperature
given
Volumetric
is
is
position
displacement,
weight of
refrigerant circulated
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Compression ratio
The
effect
pressor capacity
best illustrated
by an actual
example.
Example
if
12-6.
Assuming 100%
efficiency,
compressor is primarily a function of the compression ratio and, for any given compression ratio, remains practically constant, regardless of the operating range. It has been determined also that compressors having the same design characteristics will have approximately the same volumetric efficiencies, regardless of the size of the compressor.
the liquid reaches the refrigerant control at 100 F in each case, determine the weight
of refrigerant circulated per minute and the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor in Example 12-1 when operating at each of the following suction temperatures: (a) 10 F and (b) 40 F.
Solution
(a)
From Table
16-3,
The relationship between the compression ratio and the volumetric efficiency of a typical
R-12 compressor
Fig.
12-4.
is
0.7402 lb/cu
ft
illustrated
by the curve
in
From Example
ment
12-1,
piston displace-
future
calculations,
average
volumetric
are
16.52 cu ft/min
efficiencies
Weight of refrigerant
circulated per minute at 10
pressors
at
compression ratios
The
compressors ranging in
efficiencies,
size
from 5 to 25 hp.
will
suction
= =
16.52
x 0.7402
12.23 lb/min
From Table
16-3,
have
Variation in Compressor Capacity with Suction Temperature. Compressor performance and cycle efficiency will vary consider12-17.
F F
= = =
79.36 Btu/lb
Enthalpy of R-12
liquid at 100
31.16 Btu/lb
Refrigerating effect
48.20 Btu/lb
factor
is
governing
the
the vaporizing
temperature of the liquid in the evaporator, that is, the suction temperature. The large
variations in compressor capacity which accom-
Btu/min
= =
pany changes
density
589.49
200
=
(b)
2.95 tons
of the
suction
From Table
16-3,
The higher
the
= =
1.263 lb/cu ft
From Example
ment
12-1,
is
211
suction
16-3,
From Table
only 6.95 %, when this increase is applied to the entire weight of refrigerant
circulated at the higher suction temperature, the
enthalpy of R-12
saturated vapor at 40 F
Enthalpy of R-12
liquid at 100
Refrigerating effect
= =
31.16 Btu/lb
51.55 Btu/lb
which can be attributed to the greater refrigerating effect is 11.8% (1.705 x 0.0695 = 1.823 and 1.283 - 1.705 = 0.118 or 11.8%). The actual variation in compressor capacity with changes in suction temperature is more pronounced than that indicated by theoretical computations. That is, the change in the actual compressor capacity with variations in suction temperature is always greater than the change
in the theoretical capacity.
is
200
The reason
for this
5.38 tons
When
the vapor-
Although the piston displacement of the compressor is the same in each case, the weight of refrigerant circulated per minute by the compressor increases from 12.23 lb/min to
1.
ratio
is
of the compressor
higher
suction
temperature,
addition
to
20.86
lb/min
is
when
raised
the
temperature
from 10
pumping a greater weight of refrigerant per unit of volume, the volume of vapor pumped by the
compressor is also larger because of the improved efficiency.
compressor.
20.86
12.23
x 100
12.23
2.
=70.5%
Example 12-7. Assuming that the saturated discharge temperature is 100 F, determine the actual refrigerating capacity of the compressor in Example 12-6 when operating at each of the suction temperatures in question.
Solution
(a)
The
From Table
16-3,
2.95
tons,
whereas
= =
29.35 psi
131.6
2.95
2^5
x 100
82.3%
Compression
ratio
Although the increased density of the suction vapor at the higher suction temperature
accounts for the greater part of the increase in compressor capacity, it is not the only reason
for
it.
29.35 4.47
From Table
12-1,
volumetric efficiency
76.3%
From Example
12-6,
As
of refrigerant circulated is only 70.5%, whereas the total increase in compressor capacity is
suction
=
F
2.95 tons
Actual refrigerating
capacity at 10 suction
82.3%. The additional 1 1.8 %gain in capacity is brought about by an increase in the refrigerating
= =
2.95
x 0.763
2.22 tons
212
(b)
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Theoretical weight of
refrigerant circulated
From Table
16-3,
= = =
131.6 psi
compressor
Refrigerating effect per pound at 10 F vaporizing and 120 F
= =
16.52
x 0.7402
12.23 lb
51.68 psi
131.6
Compression
ratio
condensing
Theoretical refrigerating capacity of
= = =
43.20 Btu/lb
31.68
2.55
12.23
From Table
12-1,
compressor
volumetric efficiency
85.7%
From Example
12-6,
527.34
theoretical refrigerating
capacity at 40 suction
= =
From Table
5.38 tons
16-3,
2.64 tons
= 5.38 = 4.61
= =
29.35 psi
x 0.857
tons
Absolute discharge
pressure
171.8 psi 171.8
Whereas the
pressor
theoretical
is
increase in
com-
Compression
ratio
capacity
=
From Table
12-1,
29.35 5.85
-2.22
x 100
2.22
volumetric efficiency
=
12-18. Effect
= = =
66.5%
2.645
1.76
x 0.665
107.7%
For the 40
suction temperature.
12-1,
From Example
piston displacement
compressor de-
of compressor
16.52 cu ft/min
From Table
16-3, den-
The
effect
that
the
condensing
=
=
1.263 lb/cu
ft
12-7.
Example
and actual
12-8.
refrigerating capacities of the compressor in Example 12-1 for each of the two vaporizing temperatures given in Examples 12-6 and 12-7, if the condensing temperature in each case is 120 F rather than 100 F.
=
= =
46.55 Btu/lb
compressor
Theoretical refrigerating capacity in tons
(a)
vaporizing temperature.
12-1,
~200
From Example
= =
From Table
16.52 cu ft/min
16-3,
4.85
piston displacement
of compressor
From Table
sity
16-3, den-
= =
51.68 psi
of R-12 saturated
Absolute discharge
vapor at 10
= 0.7402 lb/cu ft
pressure
171.8 psi
213
171.8
51.68 3.32
temperature is somewhat greater than that in the condensing temperature. Whereas the increase in condensing temperature is only 20 F
(120
From Table
12-1,
100),
is
volumetric efficiency
78.5%
4.85
3.81
Actual refrigerating
capacity in tons
x 0.785
Examining
to 120
first
the 10
from 100
F (137.5 - 114). This is accounted for by the greater work of compression at the higher compression ratio. Had the condensing temperature been increased in such a way that the compression ratio does not change (by increasing the suction temperature
temperature
in proportion), the increase in the discharge
capacity of the compressor from 2.95 tons to 2.64 tons and the actual capacity from 2.22 tons
to 1.76 tons.
same as
ture.
Since a
volume of vapor equal to its piston displacement and since the density of the suction vapor entering the compressor for any one vaporizing temperature is always the same regardless of the condensing temperato displace a theoretical
ture,
High discharge temperatures are undesirable and are to be avoided whenever possible. The
higher the discharge temperature, the higher
is
and the greater is the superheating of the suction vapor in the compressor cylinder. In
addition to
efficiency,
its adverse effect of compressor high discharge temperatures tend to increase the rate of acid formation in the
the
theoretical
weight
is
of refrigerant
the
same
at all
condensing temperatures, and therefore the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor for any condensing temperature depends
only upon the refrigerating effect per pound of
refrigerant circulated.
equipment.
Hence, the difference in the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor at the two condensing temperatures
results
entirely
from the
difference
in
the
pound. The reduction in actual compressor capacity may be attributed to several factors: (1) a
reduction in the refrigerating effect per
The loss of compressor efficiency and capacity resulting from an increase in the condensing temperature of the cycle is more serious when the suction temperature of the cycle is low than when the suction temperature is high. The
desirability
pound
and
(2)
efficiency
of the compressor. Increasing the condensing temperature while the suction temperature remains constant increases the compression ratio and reduces the volumetric efficiency of the compressor so that the actual volume of vapor displaced by the compressor per unit of time decreases. Therefore, even though the density of the vapor entering the compressor remains the same at all condensing temperatures, the actual weight of refrigerant circulated by the compressor per unit of time decreases because of the reduction in the quantity of vapor handled. Increasing the condensing temperature increases the isentropic discharge temperature. In
this instance, it is interesting to
has already been pointed out. This is of particular importance when the suction temperature of the cycle is low and the compressor is already
operating at a relatively low efficiency.
When
the
cycle
is
operating at a 40
increasing
F F
vaporizing temperature,
the
to
con-
120
from
and the
from
4.61 tons to
The
5.38
4.85
x 100
5.38
= 10%
The loss
to
in actual
4.61
3.81
4 61
x 100
17.4%
214
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the loss in theoretical
For the 10
cycle,
is
compressor capacity
2.95
compressor operating on an ideal compression cycle and does not represent the actual total horsepower which must be delivered
efficient
2.64
x 100
2.95
10.5%
is
to
In actual
power which
and the
loss in actual
compressor capacity
2.55
1.76
x 100
2.55
= 31%
accrue because of the mechanical friction in the compressor and because of the deviation of an actual compression cycle from the ideal compression cycle.
Naturally, additional
power
offset
Note
these
losses.
Therefore,
the
actual
power
brought about by increasing the condensing temperature is approximately the same for both suction temperatures, whereas the loss in actual compressor capacity is much greater at the lower suction temperature. To a great
extent,
it is
rises,
the
causes
the
marked decrease
compressor
in at
the the
actual
capacity
of the
higher
in volu-
condensing temperature.
The change
horsepower required by the compressor may either increase or decrease, depending upon whether the work done by the compressor
increases or decreases.
metric efficiency for a given change in condensing temperature becomes greater as the suction
temperature
of
the
cycle
decreases.
This
accounts for the greater effect that a change in condensing temperature has on compressor capacity when the suction temperature is low.
12-19.
tical
The total amount of work done by the compressor per unit of time in compressing the vapor and, hence, the power required to drive the compressor, is the function of only two factors (1) the work of compression per pound
:
of vapor compressed and (2) the weight of vapor compressed per unit of time.
sor
may be found by
theoretical
compressing
The amount of work which is done in the vapor from the suction The
greater the
is
by the
Example
the
greater
the
comwork of
suction
compression.
Therefore,
is
when
the
Example
12-4.
temperature
ratio
raised
while
the condensing
Solution.
From Example
capacity in tons
= = =
2.76 tons
pression per
From Fig.
7-9, theoretical
same
0.965
2.76 2.66
hp
x 0.965
hp
by the compressor per unit of time increases. Since the saving in work done resulting from the reduction in the work per pound is seldom
outweigh the increase in the work of the compressor because of the increase in the weight of vapor compressed, raising the suction temperature will usually increase the power requirements of the compressor.
sufficient to
Notice that it is the actual refrigerating capacity of the compressor, rather than the theoretical refrigerating capacity, which must
Example
12-10.
Compute
the theoretical
The
horsepower required by the compressor in Example 12-7 at each of the suction temperatures listed.
215
comparison to
12-7,
From Example
capacity.
suction temperature
2.22 tons
From
cal
1.13
hp
suction
(6)
= =
2.22 x 1.13
2.51
hp
suction temperature, the capacity of the compressor increased 107%, whereas compressor horsepower increased only 21 %. The average increase in compressor capacity per degree of rise in suction temperature is 107%/ 30 F or 3.21 %, whereas the increase in horsepower amounts to only 0.7 per degree of rise. The relationship between compressor capacity and the horsepower of the compressor at
From Example
12-7,
is
shown by the
are for a typical
actual refrigerating
The curves
at
= =
a constant con-
From
cal
hp
As shown by the curve in Fig. 12-5 the horsepower required by a R-12 compressor
increases as the suction temperature increases
up
to
= 4.61 = 3.15
x 0.683 hp
at a
maximum.
Although the horsepower per ton decreases as the suction temperature is raised from 39.5
10
horsepower required by the compressor increases from 2.51 hp to 3.15 hp. This represents an increase in the power required of
1T-X100=21%
3.15
-2.51
The
The suction temperature at which the horsepower required by a R-12 compressors reaches a maximum depends upon the condensing temperature and increases as the condensing
temperature increases.
7
relatively small in
*&*
-**"
Fig. 12-5.
&y
Curves
illustrate the
&sf>
f&
^s A>?
^2**
S^r,w
fo
-40'
-30'
-20
-10*
0'
10*
20
30*
40
50*
Suction temperature
216
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
42
3.0
^^
^s s
vx^^^-J
**
4.6
4.5
-.2.8
4-4"
2.6
Fig.
12-6.
Curves
illustrate
e
2.6
o
4.3 -S
2.2
a 5
sJS>-
s I i
o
2.4
4.2
V**
12
?.o
&**24.1
| a. E o
<->
i.8
compressors.
1.4
m
4.0
1.0
80
90'
100*
110-
120*
Condensing temperature
12-21.
The
Effect of
Condensing TemperaThe
12-22.
total horse-
power which must be supplied to the shaft of the compressor is called the brake horsepower and may be computed from the theoretical horsepower by application of a factor called over-all
compressor
efficiency.
The
over-all efficiency is
temperatures
keptconstant.
an expression of the relationship of the theoretical horsepower to the brake horsepower in percent. Written as an equation, the relationship
is
horsepower required per ton increases as the condensing temperature increases, the theoretical horsepower required by any one compressor will not increase in the same proportion. This is true
because the decrease in the refrigerating capacity of the compressor which is coincident with
E
and
where E Thp
xl0 =w P
Thp
(12-6)
Bhp
Thp
E l\00
o
(12-7)
an increase
offset to
some
= = Bhp =
F
1
vaporizing temperature,
.52
from
1.1
3 to
temperature of the cycle is increased from 100 F to 120 F. At the same time, Example 12-10
illustrates that the actual refrigerating capacity
Example 12-11. Determine the brake horsepower required by the compressor in Example 12-14, if the over-all efficiency of the compressor is 80%.
Solution. From Example 12-4, Thp Applying Equation 12-7, the
3.12
hp
of one particular compressor drops from 2.22 tons to 1.76 tons when the condensing temperature
is
Thp
Bhp
E
3.12
raised
theoretical
086
F condensing temperature is
=
:
3.9
hp
x 2.22
2.51
hp
The over-all efficiency is sometimes broken down into two components (1) the compression
efficiency
and
(2) die
mechanical
is
efficiency.
In
1.52
1.76
=2.68hp
(12-8)
217
Ee = the
cent
Em =
so that
Bhp
Thp
X E
(12-9)
theoretical indicator diagram for an ideal compression cycle is shown in Fig. 12-7. It has been illustrated previously that the area under a process diagram on a pressure-volume chart In is a measure of the work of the process.
dDCd represents
the
in compressing the
The compression efficiency of a compressor is a measure of the losses resulting from the deviation of the actual compression cycle from the ideal compression cycle, whereas the mechanical
a measure of the losses resulting from the mechanical friction in the compressor. The principal factors which bring about the deviation of an actual compression cycle from the ideal compression cycle are: (1) wiredrawing, (2) the exchange of heat between the vapor and the cylinder walls, and (3) fluid friction due to the turbulence of the vapor in the cylinder and to the fact that the refrigerant vapor is not an ideal gas. Notice that the factors which determine the compression efficiency of the compressor are the same as those which influence the volumetric efficiency. As a matter of fact, for any one compressor, the volumetric and compression efficiencies are
efficiency
vapor during the isentropic process CD, and that the area aADba represents the work done by the piston in discharging the vapor from the
cylinder during the constant pressure process
of the compressor
is
the
work
work input to the compression the work of processes CD and DA, less the work of process AB. Therefore, the net work of the compression cycle is represented by the area BADCB, the total area enclosed by the cycle diagram. The work of the compression cycle as determined from the indicator diagram is called the indicated work and the horsepower computed from the indicated work is called the indicated
fluid,
the net
the
cycle
is
sum of
roughly the same and they vary with the compression ratio in about the
horsepower.
Since the indicator diagram illustrated in
is a theoretical indicator diagram of compression cycle, the indicated work is the work of an ideal compression cycle and the indicated horsepower computed from the indicated work would, of course, be exactly
same proportions.
For
Fig. 12-7
per ton of refrigerating capacity can be approximated with reasonable accuracy by dividing the
theoretical
an
ideal
adding about 10% to offset the power loss due to the mechanical friction in the compressor. Written as an equation,
Bhp
M(hd
-h )
e
1.1
42.42 x E
(12-10)
effi-
be determined accurately only by actual testing of the compressor. 12-23. Indicated Horsepower. A device frequently used to determine the compression efficiency is the indicator diagram. An indicator diagram is a pressure-volume diagram of the actual compression cycle of the compressor which is produced during the actual testing of the compressor.
Volume
Fig. 12-7. Theoretical indicator diagram for an ideal
compression cycle.
218
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The
relationship of the indicated horsepower
is
_4l^
lJ
Thp
(12-12)
An
Q
indicator diagram of
is
an actual com-
pression cycle
shown
in Fig. 12-8.
The area
is,
ABCD,
of
"'
1
1Q
1
1
1
Vb
Fig.
12-8. Theoretical
Vc
Volume
indicator
'
work of the cycle. An ideal cycle, AB'CD', is drawn in for comparison. Pressures P1 and P2 represent the pressure of the vapor entering and leaving the compressor. The areas above line P2 and below line P x represent the increased work of
course, a measure of the
an
diagram
for
Notice that at
diagram
and the pressure of the vapor tends to Px and P2 respectively. The other deviations from the ideal cycle represent the losses resulting from the heating of the vapor
return to
in the
reproduces
the
true
paths
compressor cylinder.
Line
BC indicates
the approximate volume of the suction vapor at the end of the suction stroke, whereas line
represents the approximate
work of
the diagram
is
an
BC
work of the
compression cycle and, therefore, the ^indicated horsepower computed on the basis of the indicated work is the actual horsepower required to do the work of the actual compression cycle.
weight of vapor in the suction line. The deviation of the actual compression process
from the
by comparing
to the isen-
CD
cated
Care should be taken not to confuse indihorsepower with brake horsepower. Although the indicated horsepower includes the power required to offset the losses resulting from the deviation of an actual compression cycle from the ideal cycle, it does not include the power required to overcome the losses resulting from the mechanical friction in the
compressor.
In other words, the indicated
The direction of the periodic heat transfer between the vapor and the cylinder walls at
various times and points in the cycle cated by the arrows.
is
indi-
denote heat transfer to the vapor, whereas arrows pointing out indicate heat transfer from the vapor to the cylinder
walls.
in
horsepower takes into account the compression efficiency but not the mechanical efficiency. Hence, brake horsepower differs from indicated horsepower in that the brake horsepower includes the power required to overcome the mechanical friction in the compressor, whereas the indicated horsepower does not. The horsepower necessary to overcome the mechanical friction in the compressor is sometimes referred to as the friction horsepower (Fhp), so
that
The temperature of the cylinder walls of the compressor will fluctuate around some mean value which is between the suction and discharge temperatures of the vapor. During the latter part of the re-expansion process, during the period in which the vapor is being admitted to the cylinder, and during the initial part of the compression stroke, the cylinder wall temperature is greater than the vapor temperature and
heat passes from the cylinder walls to the vapor.
During the latter part of the compression stroke, during the discharge period, and during the
early part of the suction stroke, the temperature
Bhp
Ihp
Fhp
(12-11)
219
in
is
much
an air-cooled compressor.
lowering the temperature of the and cooling of the vapor during
Isothermal
Compresif
results
in
sion.
cylinder walls,
work
of the compression cycle would be reduced even though the work of the compression process itself is greater for isothermal compression than for isentropic compression. The reduction in the work of the cycle which would be realized through isothermal compression is indicated by the crosshatched area in Fig. 12-9. Isothermal compression is not practical for a refrigeration compressor since it would result in the discharge of saturated liquid from the compressor. Furthermore, if a cooling medium were available at a temperature low enough to cool the compressor sufficiently to produce isothermal compression, the cooling medium could be used directly as the refrigerant and there would be no need for the refrigeration
cycle.
12-25.
Water-Jacketing
the
is
Compressor
given
Any
compression will be greater for the compressor having a water jacket. Too, cylinder heating is reduced and the vapor is discharged from the compressor at a lower temperature. All of this has the effect of reducing the work of the compression cycle. However, the gain is usually not sufficient to warrant the use of a water jacket on most compressors, particularly compressors designed for R-12. For the most part, water-jacketing of the compressor is limited to compressors designed for use with refrigerants which have unusually high discharge temperatures, such as ammonia. Even then, the purpose of the jacketing is not so much for increasing compressor efficiency as it is to reduce the rate of oil carbonization and the formation of acids, both of which increase rapidly as the discharge temperature increases. 12-26. Wet Compression. Wet compression occurs when small particles of unvaporized liquid are entrained in the suction vapor
medium
up by
during the compression process. Cooling of the vapor during compression causes the path of the compression process to shift from the isentropic path toward an isothermal path. Of course, the greater the amount of cooling, the greater will be the shift toward the
the vapor
isothermal.
If the temperature of the air surrounding the
However, theoretical computations indicate that wet compression will bring about desirable gains in compression efficiency and reduce the work of compression. This would be true if the small particles of liquid vaporized during the actual compression of the vapor. However, in actual practice, this is not the case. Since heat transfer is a function of
entering the compressor.
time and since compression of the vapor in a modern high-speed compressor takes place very
compressor were exactly the same as the temperature of the compressor cylinder, there would be no transfer of heat from the cylinder to the air and any heat given up by the vapor to the cylinder would be eventually reabsorbed by the vapor and the compression process would be approximately adiabatic. However, since there is nearly always some transfer of heat from the compressor to the surrounding
compression is usually polytropic rather than isentropic. For an air-cooled compressor, the transfer of heat to the air will be slight and, therefore, the value of the polytropic compression exponent, n, will very nearly approach the isentropic compression exponent, k. Hence,
air,
Volume
Fig. 12-9. Isentropic vs. isothermal compression.
220
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
speed changes, and therefore the change in compressor capacity will not be proportional
to the speed change.
The
This action reduces the volumetric efficiency of the compressor without benefit of the return of work to the piston by
is brought about principally by changes in the -effects of wiredrawing, cylinder heating, and the back leakage of gas through the suction and discharge
valves.
encountered when
placed
pressor
is
at a
maximum
at
low compressor
is
increased.
greatest at
On
is
the
at a
minimum
at
The
Effect of
Compressor Clearance
on Horsepower.
of the compressor has no effect on the horsepower, since the work done by the piston in
vapor passing through the valves. Hence, as the speed of rotation increases, the volumetric efficiency of the compressor due to
velocity of the
compressing the clearance vapor is returned to the piston as the clearance vapor re-expands at the start of the suction stroke. However, since the refrigerant vapor is not an ideal gas, there is some loss of power in overcoming the internal friction of the fluid so that the power returned to the piston during the re-expansion of the clearance vapor will always be less than the power required to compress it. Hence, the clearance does have some, although probably
slight, effect
due to the wiredrawing factor defollows, then, that there is one critical speed of rotation at which the combined effect of these factors are at a minimum and the
creases.
It
volumetric efficiency
is
at a
maximum. From
an efficiency standpoint, this is the speed at which the compressor should be operated. At
speeds
higher
than this
critical
speed,
the
12-28.
rotation
drawing
resulting
effect will
when
the
is
changed.
If the
speed of the compressor is increased, the piston displacement is increased and the compressor
displaces a greater time. Theoretically, based
from the decrease in the effect of cylinder heating and valve leakage. Likewise, at speeds below the critical speed, the volumetric efficiency will be lower because the losses accruing from the increase in cylinder heating and valve leakage will be greater than the gain resulting from the decrease in the wiredrawing
losses.
remains constant, the capacity of the compressor varies in direct proportion to the speed change. That is, if the speed of the compressor is doubled, the piston displacement and capacity of the compressor are also doubled. Likewise, if the speed of the compressor is reduced, the piston displacement and capacity of the
The
critical
of the
modern
compressor are reduced in the same proportion. However, the volumetric efficiency of the compressor does not remain constant during
minimum. These
tend
to
valve-plate
increase
the
clearance
efficiency
221
no
offsetting gain in
capacity
and the
is
compressor
the
This
is
particularly
of power
reduced in inverse proportion to the specific volume of the suction vapor at the compressor inlet. Regardless of whether or not the superheating produces useful cooling, the horsepower
increase in
to
required
drive
any
It
one compressor
is
practically the
same
compressor varies with the speed of rotation, but for any one speed, the mechanical friction,
was shown
in Section
when
superheating
of the vapor
power,
will
operating conditions.
produces useful cooling, both the horsepower required per ton and the refrigerating capacity of the compressor are the same for the superheated cycle as for the saturated cycle. It
follows, then, that the horsepower required
mechanical efficiency of the compressor depends entirely upon the loading of the compressor.
by
due to loading of the compressor, the horsepower, being constant, will become
and smaller percentage of the total horsepower .and the mechanical efficiency will increase. It is evident that the mechanical efficiency of the compressor will be greatest when the compressor is fully loaded. The mechanical efficiency of the compressor will vary with the design of the compressor and with compressor speed. An average compressor of good design operating fully loaded at a standard speed should have a mechanical efficiency somewhat above 90%. 12-30. The Effect of Suction Superheat on
a smaller
be the same for both cycles. On the other hand, when superheating of the vapor produces no useful cooling, the horsepower per ton is greater than for the saturated cycle. However, at the same time, the refrigerating capacity of the compressor is less for the superheated cycle and the increase in the horsepower required per ton is more or less offset by the reduction in compressor capacity, so that the horsepower required by the compressor is still approximately the same as for the saturated cycle. Notice that, although the horsepower required by any one compressor is not appreciably changed by the superheating of the suction vapor, when the superheating does not produce useful cooling, the refrigerwill
Compressor Performance.
the
It
ating capacity
and
efficiency
of the compressor
is
This
is
particularly
vapor to reach the compressor in an expanded condition. Therefore, when the vapor reaches the compressor in a superheated condition, the weight of refrigerant circulated by the compressor per minute is less than when the vapor reaches the compressor saturated. Whether or not the reduction in the weight of refrigerant circulated by the compressor reduces the refrigerating capacity of the compressor depends upon whether or not the superheating produces useful cooling. When the superheating produces useful cooling, the gain in
refrigerating capacity resulting from the increase
in the refrigerating effect per
sufficient
when
the compressor
It
operating at a low
suction temperature.
the amount of cylinder heating and the efficiency of the compressor is increased to some extent. 12-31. The Effect of Subcooling on Compressor Performance. When subcooling of
is
accomplished in such a
way
up by the
liquid leaves
inlet is unaffected
by
pound
in
is
usually
to
offset
the
loss
refrigerating
by the compressor is the same as when no subcooling takes place. Since the refrigerating effect per pound is increased by
the subcooling, the capacity of the compressor increased by an
is
weight of refrigerant circulated. On the other hand, when the superheating produces no
amount equal
to the
amount of
subcooling.
222
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
compressor
result-
pressor efficiency, provided the heat given up during the subcooling leaves the system.
Table R-10C. Since the compressor ratings given in Table R-10A are in accordance with ASHRAE standards, it follows that in order to realize the listed ratings, the suction vapor must enter the suction inlet of the compressor at the conditions shown in Table R-10C. For example, for a compressor operating at a saturated suction of 40 F, the suction vapor should enter the compressor at a temperature of 35 F
(superheated 75
the listed rating
is
F from -40 F
to 35 F), if
due to the superheating, and the refrigerating capacity of the compressor is very little affected. However, there is some small gain in compressor efficiency, since the superheating of the vapor in the heat exchanger
loss in capacity
F from
40
to
65" F).
Where
Selection.
As
of
performance
are
not practical.
accurately
Hence, com-
vapor is less than that indicated in Table R-10C, the tabulated rating is corrected by using an appropriate multiplier to obtain the actual compressor capacity. The multipliers given in Table R-10D correct the ratings to a
basis of no superheat for the saturated condition
listed.
determined
Where
is
compressor rating table supplied by the compressor manufacturer for use in compressor selection. The ratings have been determined by actual testing of the compressor under operating conditions set forth in the compressor testing and rating standards of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (see Table R-10B). It has been shown in the foregoing sections that both the refrigerating capacity and the horsepower requirements of a compressor vary with the condition of the refrigerant vapor entering and leaving the compressor. Notice in Table R-10A that compressor refrigerating capacities (Btu/hr) and horsepower requirements are listed for various saturated suction
perature
the temperature
multiplier
is
shown
is
in
corrected accordingly.
The superheating
assumed to occur
evaporator, in the suction line inside the refrigerated space, or in a liquid-suction heat exchanger so that the superheat produces useful
cooling
(Section
8-4).
Superheating
which
The
superheating
standards at
requirement
first
of
the
ASHRAE
appears to compli-
and
However,
this is
not the
The
saturated
realistic
and the
approaches that amount which would normally be expected in a well-designed application. Hence, the effect of the superheating requirement is to cause the compressor to be rated under conditions similar to those under which
the compressor will be operating in the
field.
amount of
and
specify that
unusual cases, no appreciable error will occur if the compressor ratings given in Table R-10A are used without
For
Furthermore, com-
be those
listed
in
223
16-3,
From Table
reasons for
First of
all,
the methods of
determining the required compressor capacity (cooling load calculations) are not in themselves
Too, it is seldom possible to select a compressor which has exactly the required capacity at the design conditions. Another reason that compressor capacity is not critical
exact.
suction line, the pressure of the vapor at the suction inlet of the compressor
(41.59
is
38.39 psia
3).
From Table
is
temperature corresponding to a pressure of 38.59 psia, and, therefore, the saturated suction
temperature,
is
approximately 24 F.
size
The design
selected
loading of the system, the temperature of the condensing medium, etc. General practice is to
select a compressor having a capacity equal to or somewhat in excess of the required capacity
of the condenser
and upon the quantity and temperature of the available condensing medium. Methods of
was shown
in
condenser selection are discussed in Chapter 14. 12-33. Condensing Unit Rating and Selection. Since condensing unit capacity depends
upon
pound
and thereby increases compressor capacity. With regard to subcooling, the ratings given in Table R-10A are based on
saturated liquid
control, that
liquid is
is,
the capacity of the compressor, methods of rating and selecting condensing units are
practically the
selecting compressors.
that,
increased approximately
2%
for each
may be 5F of
on the saturated suction and discharge temperatures, condensing unit capacities are based on the saturated suction temperature and on the
quantity and temperature of the condensing
medium.
is
condenser loading, the only variables determining the saturation temperature at the discharge of the compressor (and therefore the
capacity of the compressor at any given suction
The
required
refrigerating
capacity
(Btu/hr)
2.
3.
The design saturated suction temperature The design saturated discharge temperature
densing units,
when
by the fan
cooling
load calculations.
selection
is
However,
prior
if
an
the
evaporator
made
to
compressor
compressor should be selected to match the evaporator capacity rather than the calculated load. The reasons for this are discussed in Chapter 13. The design saturated suction temperature depends upon the design conditions of the application. Specifically, it depends upon the evaporator temperature (the saturation temperature of the refrigerant at the evaporator
selection, the
the
saturated
suction
temperature
on and the
ambient
air temperature.
Ratings for water-cooled condensing units are based on the saturated suction temperature
and upon the pressure loss in the suction line. For instance, assume an evaporator temperature of 28 F and a suction line pressure
outlet)
For any given condenser loading and entering water temperature, the leaving water temperature depends only on the quantity of water (gallons per minute) flowing through the condenser.
224
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Approximate capacity
of compressor at a 23
saturated suction
certain
refrigeration
Example
12-12.
= =
application has a calculated cooling load of 33,000 Btu/hr. If the design saturated suction and discharge temperatures are 20 F and 100 F, respectively, select a compressor from
Example
12-15.
certain
will
application has a calculated cooling load of 8750 Btu/hr and the ambient temperature is 90 F. If the design saturated suction temperature is 20 F, select an air-cooled condensing unit which will satisfy the requirements of the
application.
Solution. From Table R-ll, select a 1 hp condensing unit having a capacity of 9340 Btu/hr at the prescribed conditions.
Solution. Locate the desired saturated discharge temperature in the first column of the table (100 F). Next, in the second column, locate the desired saturated suction temperature and read to the right until a compressor having a capacity equal to or somewhat in excess of the desired capacity is found. Select compressor, Model #5F20, which has a capacity of 34,000 Btu/hr at 1450 rpm.
PROBLEMS
1.
four-cylinder
in.
Example
12-13.
Assume
having a 2
that the design is 0 F and
rotating
at
saturated suction in
Example 12-12
selection.
reciprocating compressor bore and a 2.5 in. stroke is 100 rpm. Compute the piston
Arts. 18.18
cfm
Using the procedure outlined in the solution to Example 12-12, select compressor Model #5F30 which has a capacity of 36,000 Btu/hr at 1750 rpm.
2.
Assume the compressor in Problem 12-1 is operating on the cycle described in Problem 7-1
and compute the theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor in Btu/hr. Ans. 2.47 tons
3.
Example 12-14. Determine the capacity of compressor Model #5F20 when operating at a
23
saturated suction temperature, if the saturated discharge temperature is 100 F.
Solution.
at 30
Using
(a)
the
conditions
of
Problem
12-2,
determine:
The volumetric
efficiency
of the com-
pressor.
(b)
Compressor capacity
F F
suction suction
44,200 Btu/hr
(c)
Compressor capacity
at 20
=
= =
34,600 Btu/hr
The actual refrigerating capacity of the Ans. 1.52 tons compressor in tons. The brake horsepower required per ton (allow 10% for mechanical friction and assume the compression efficiency is the
same as the volumetric
efficiency).
F change in saturated
44,200 - 34,600 9600 Btu/hr
4.
suction temperature
(d)
Ans. 2.7 hp/ton brake horsepower required to Ans. 4.1 hp drive the compressor.
The
total
9600
10
From the compressor rating tables, select a compressor which will satisfy the following
(a)
conditions:
(b)
=
Total capacity change for 3 F change in suction temperature
960 Btu/hr
= =
(c)
13
System Equilibrium and Cycling Controls
not perform satisfactorily. In any event, it is important to understand that, regardless of the equipment selected, the system will always establish equilibrium at some conditions such that all the system components will have equal capacity. Hence, whether or not system equilibrium is established at the sys-
tem design conditions depends entirely upon whether or not the equipment is selected to have
approximately equal capacities at the system
design conditions.
This concept
is
best
illu-
series
of examples.
Example 13-1. walk-in cooler, having a calculated cooling load of 11,000 Btu/hr, is to be maintained at 35 F. The desired evaporator is 12 F and the ambient temperature is
TD
90 F. Allowing 3 F (equivalent to approximately 2 lb) for the pressure drop in the suction
line (see
Section
12-32,
select
an air-cooled
System Balance. In
is
the designing of a
refrigerating system,
considerations
is
and condensing sections of the system. important to recognize that whenever an evaporator and a condensing unit are connected
together in a
Solution. Since the design space temperature 35 F and the design evaporator is 12 F, the design evaporator temperature is 23 F 12 F). When we allow for a 3 F (35 F
TD
common
system,
is
a condition
automatically
from pressure drop, the saturation temperature at the compressor suction is 20 F (23 F - 3 F).
loss in the suction line resulting
of equilibrium or "balance"
of vaporization
condensation.
R-ll, select lj hp condensing which has a capacity of 12,630 Btu/hr at a 20 F saturated suction and 90 F ambient air temperature. Although the condensing unit
unit,
From Table
capacity
is
sufficiently close to
make
How-
a refrigerating system are connected together in series, the refrigerant flow rate through all
system balance, the unit cooler selection must now be based on the condensing unit capacity of 12,630 Btu/hr
ever, to assure proper
rather than
on
components
is
the same.
all
It follows, therefore,
TD
of necessity the same. Obviously, then, where the system components are selected to have equal capacities at the system design conditions, the point of system equilibrium or balance will occur at the system design conditions.
is
required.
On
From Table R-8, unit cooler Model #105 has a capacity of 10,500 Btu/hr at a 10 F TD. Using the procedure outlined in Section 11-23, it can be determined that this unit cooler will have a capacity of 1 2,600 Btu/hr when operating
* Either the evaporator or the condensing unit
when
not have
may be selected
system
first. However, once either one has been selected, the other must be selected for approximately the same capacity.
225
226
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
instance, the evaporator
TD will be 12 F when,
F
will
Any
Nf
^&
an evaporator TD either greater or smaller than 12 F. For example, assume a suction temperature of 25 F. Adding 3 F to
result in
(Compressor; -
loss,
temperature
is
found to be 28 F (25
\*w
\r \\
fc
V\ >
1
Then from
0'
10
15
20
25
it is determined be 7 F (35 F 28 F) when the suction temperature is 25 F. Using the same procedure, it can be shown that
TD
will
Suction temperature
J
I
I
if the suction
I
temperature
is
reduced to 15 F,
the evaporator
TD
will increase to 17 F,
and
32
27
22
XT
TD
12
when
Evaporator
TD
Provided that the space temperature is kept raising the suction temperature reduces the evaporator TD, whereas lowering
constant,
TD.
With regard to Fig. 13-1, the following procedure is used in making a graphical analysis of the system equilibrium conditions:
1.
common
between the two, that is, the point of system balance, can be evaluated graphically by plotting evaporator capacity against condensing unit capacity on a common graph. Using data taken from the manufacturers' rating tables, condensing unit capacity is plotted against suction temperature, whereas evaporator capacity is plotted against evaporator TD. A graphical analysis of the system described in
On
and evaporator
TD ( F).
The horizontal
lines
Example
13-1
is
shown
in Fig. 13-1.
3-1 ,
it is
important
both suction temperature and evaporator TD. latter is meaningful, however, only when the suction temperature and evaporator TD scales are so correlated that the two conditions which identify any one vertical line are condi-
The
That
once
is
is,
for
temperature,
selected,
the
evaporator
TD
is
evaporator
TD
scales
was discussed
the
there
temperature
preceding paragraphs. 2. Using manufacturer's catalog data, plot the capacity curve for the condensing unit.
Since condensing unit capacity
is
Notice that, in Example 13-1, for the design space temperature of 35 F and assuming a
3
not exactly
suction temperature that can coexist with the design evaporator of 12 F is 20 F. In this
densing unit capacity curve will ordinarily have a slight curvature. Hence, for accuracy, a
capacity point
is
TD
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
temperatures listed in the table and these points are connected with the "best-fitting" curve.
227
evaporator manufacturer's catalog data, plot the evaporator capacity curve. Since evaporator capacity is assumed to be
3.
From the
For instance, assume that unit Model #UC-120, rather than Model #UC-105, is selected in the foregoing example. At the design evaporator TD of 12 F, this unit
conditions.
cooler
proportional to the evaporator TD, the evaporator capacity curve isa straight line, the position
cooler has capacity of 14,000 Btu/hr, whereas the condensing unit selected has a capacity of
and direction of which is adequately established by plotting the evaporator capacity at any two selected TDs. The evaporator capacity at any other TD will fall somewhere along a straight line drawn through these two points. In Fig. 13-1, evaporator TDs of 7F and 12 F are used in plotting the two capacity points required
to establish the evaporator capacity curve.
only
12,630 Btu/hr at the design suction temperature of 20 F. Consequently, at the design conditions, evaporator capacity will be
greater than condensing unit capacity, that
is,
vapor
be produced in the evaporator at a greater rate than it is removed from the evaporator and condensed by the condensing unit. Therefore, the system will not be in equilibrium
will
at these conditions.
Notice in Fig. 13-1, that as the suction temperature increases, the evaporator TD decreases. This means, in effect, that as the suction temperature increases the capacity of
the evaporator decreases while the capacity of the
Likewise, as the suction temperature decreases, the capacity of the evaporator increases while the capacity of the condensing unit decreases.
Rather, the excess vapor accumulate in the evaporator and cause an increase in the evaporator temperature and pressure. Since raising the evaporator temperature increases the suction temperature and, at the same time, reduces the evaporator TD, the condensing unit capacity will increase and the evaporator capacity will decrease. System
will will be established when the evaporator temperature rises to some point where the suction temperature and evaporator
equilibrium
The
this
intersection of the
TD
because
evaporator
and
condensing unit have been selected to have equal capacities at the system design conditions,
the point of system equilibrium occurs at the system design conditions (12 F and 20 F
in Fig.
13-2),
is
established
at
TD
TD
suction
temperature).
is
Although
is
the
total
which
is 3
system capacity
somewhat
TD
not sufficiently
and
means only
of humidity somewhat higher than the design condition. The total system capacity is approximately 13,500 Btu/hr, which is about 23%
greater
F less than the design evaporator 12 F and which will result in a space
hours out of each 24 than was originally anticipated.* The relationship between system capacity and the calculated load is discussed
than the calculated hourly load of This means that the system running time will be considerably shorter than
11,000 Btu/hr.
originally
more
It
calculated.
For
is
instance,
if
the
has already been pointed out that where the evaporator and condensing unit selected do not have equal capacities at the system design
conditions, the point of system equilibrium will
*
For
based on a 16-hr running time, the system will operate only about 13 hr out of each 24. The question immediately arises as to whether or not this system will perform satisfactorily.
original load calculation
rator fan
Although
this
neglected.
added to the cooling load, the total system capacity would be almost exactly equal to the calculated load. It is not often that equipment can be found which so nearly meets the requirements of an application as in
this instance.
that
it
probably would not in the majority of cases. There are several reasons for this. First, the evaporator TD of 9 F is considerably less than
the design
TD
of 12
228
PRINCIPLES
28 26 24
OF REFRIGERATION
logical corrective
\
X
<"'
| 8
22
'
20
| 18
16
^\B
1
reduction in the evaporator capacity in order to re-establish the point of system equilibrium at
conditions nearer to the design conditions.
will produce the depends upon the relationship between the over-all system capacity and the calculated load. Whereas increasing either the condensing unit capacity or the evaporator capacity will always bring about an increase in the over-all system capacity, reducing either the condensing unit capacity or the evaporator capacity will always bring about a reduction in the over-all system capacity. Referring to Fig. 13-2 for the system under con-
most
\
I"l4
&12
10
II
z
\
^p
I
8
0*
^r
5*
l\
1
\\
1 1
\
25'
1
10*
15*
20*
Suction temperature
1 1 1 1 1
32*
27*
22*
17*
12*
7*
Evaporator
TD
Fig. 13-Z
a space humidity too high for the appliOrdinarily, the humidity in the refrig-
from point
to point B.
cation.
must be maintained within certain fixed limits. Assuming that the design TD is selected to produce the median condition within these limits, a one degree deviation from the
erated space
from
is
to C.
design
TD
is
balanced at the design conditions at either points B or C, the over-all system capacity at
point
be allowed
if
the space
is
Another consideration
is
load.
Hence, in
this instance,
it is
evident that
system capacity is some 23% greater than the calculated load so that the system operating time will be relatively short. Although the sys-
tem capacity exceeds the calculated load by a margin than good practice prescribes, this in itself would not ordinarily cause any serious problem in a majority of applications. Howlarger
ever, since the shorter
means of bringing the system into balance at the design conditions cannot be recommended, since it would also increase the over-all system capacity and therefore tend to aggravate the already existing problem of excessive system
capacity with relation to the calculated load.
the other hand, in addition to bringing the system into balance at the design conditions, reducing the evaporator capacity will also have the beneficial effect of reducing the over-all system capacity and thereby bringing it more
into line with the calculated load.
13-3. Decreasing or Increasing Evaporator Capacity. Reducing the evaporator capacity can be accomplished in several ways. One is to
running time
will also
On
of high humidity, especially in the wintertime, when the two conditions are taken together, it seems unlikely that the system would produce satisfactory results in any application where the space humidity is an important factor. In the event that the equipment in question
represents the best available selection, the ques-
what can be done to bring the system into balance at conditions more in keeping with the design conditions. In this instance, since the problem is one of excessive
tion arises as to
is,
to reduce the
amount of
by adjusting the
the evaporator
liquid.
evaporator capacity with relation to the condensing unit capacity at the design conditions,
only partially flooded with This effectively reduces the size of the evaporator, since that part of the evaporator
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
which is not filled with liquid becomes, in effect, a part of the suction line. Another method of reducing the capacity of
the evaporator
is
229
is
Note.
Where
four-pole, alternating-current
motor operating
on 60 cycle power, the approximate driver speed is 1750 rpm. For a two-pole, alternating-current
motor, the approximate speed
is
3500 rpm.
blower.
tions
method has its limitain that the air velocity must be maintained
However,
this
level sufficient
Example
having a 10
the
13-2.
A refrigeration compressor
is
at a
Too, rechange in the sensible heat ratio of the evaporator. Depending upon the particular application, this may or may not be desirable. As a general rule, there is little, if anything, that can be done to increase the capacity of an undersized evaporator. Occasionally, the evaporator capacity can be increased by increasing the air quantity. However, since increasing the air quantity also increases air velocity and fan horsepower requirements, this method has its
circulation in the refrigerated space.
motor pulley
in.,
ducing the
of the compressor.
Solution. Rearranging and applying Equation 13-1,
Rpmi
=R _ =
^D,
1750 x 4
10
700
limitations
for
13-3. Determine the diameter of motor pulley required to reduce the speed of the compressor in Example 13-2 from 700 to 600 rpm.
Example
the
Section 11-22.
Solution. Rearranging
and
In
some
can be increased somewhat by using a length of eitherjjare tubing or finned tubing as a "drier loop" or as additional evaporator surface. However, this too has its limitations because of the
Ds
_ Rpm
Rpm^
600 x 10
1750
=
capacity
is
3.5 in.
Decreasing the condensing unit capacity can be accomplished in several ways, all of which involve decreasing the compressor displacement.
Unit Capacity.
the compressor by
volume.
stalling
This increase
some
on the compressor
required
is
driver.
when
tial,
is
substan-
is
usually
more
practical
and more
The
driver
economical to use a larger size condensing unit and reduce the capacity as necessary. The
reasons for this are several.
Rpm1
where
D = Rpmt
x
D2
(13-1)
compressor capabe accompanied by an increase in the horsepower requirements, any substantial inFirst, since the increase in
city will
Rpmx =
D =
1
overload the compressor driver and necessitate the use of a larger size. Too, some thought must
Rpmt =
Z)2
the
speed
of the compressor
be given to the condenser capacity. Here again, any increase in compressor capacity will tend to
the condenser. If the not increased in proportion to the increase in the condenser load,
size
driver (rpm)
on
of the condenser
is
230
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
it is
evident that
if
is
to be
maintained within fixed limits, the pumping system must be selected to have a capacity equal
to or somewhat in excess of the highest sustained
It is
some means of cycling the pump "off" and "on" must be provided. Otherwise, during periods when the flow rate of the water entering the tank is less than maximum, the pumping rate will be excessive and the level
of the water in the tank will be reduced below the desired levei. One convenient and practical
Fig. 13-3
is
to install a float
and
Not only will this materially of the equipment and increase maintenance and operating costs, but it will also tend to nullify to some extent the gain in capapressure will result.
arranged to close
3-4).
reduce the
life
start the
to a predetermined
pump when the water in the tank rises maximum level. When the
in
water level in the tank falls to a predetermined lower limit, the float control acts to close the
electrical contacts
compressor speed. It is apparent from the foregoing that, in most cases, increasing the capacity of either the evaporator or the condensing unit is something
this
way, intermittent operation of the pump will maintain a relatively constant water level in
the tank.
which
not easily accomplished. Therefore, it is usually more practical and more economical to select oversized equipment rather than underis
The
sized equipment.
When
the system
is
condensing unit
tion
is
oversized
This
is
little, if
temperature of the space or product can be maintained at the desired low level even under
and one which warrants careful consideration and which can be best explained by comparing the refrigerating system to a water pumping system. For example, assume that it is desired to maintain a constant water level in
The
system load
To pump motor
the tank
shown
in Fig. 13-3.
If the
water flows
rate
and constant
which
be maintained at a fixed level simply by installing a pumping system which has a capacity exactly
equal to the flow rate of the water into the tank. Since the flow rate of the water entering the tank
is
is
equal
pump
will
operate
Fig. 13-4
any kind
will
be needed.
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
231
pumping
capacity will always exceed the actual cooling load, some means of cycling the system "off"
is needed in order to maintain the temperature of the space or product at a constant level within reasonable limits and to prevent the temperature of the space or product
and "on"
Stationary contact
from being reduced below the desirable minimum. For any refrigerating system, the relative length of the "off" and "on" cycles will vary with the loading of the system. During periods of peak loading, the "running" or "on" cycles will be long and the "off" cycles will be short,
whereas during periods of minimum loading the "on" cycles will be short and the "off" cycles will be long.*
13-6.
Bellows
control.
(1)
temperature actuated
and
is
of these types
sections.
13-7.
changes in temperature. Thermostats are used to control the temperature level of a refrigerated space or product by cycling the compressor
^m
<a)
and stopping the compressor driving motor) in the same way that float controls are used to control liquid level by cycling the pump
(starting
and stopping the pump motor). Temperature Sensing Elements. Two types of elements are commonly used in thermo(starting
13-8.
stats to sense
~>k .
nisms. One is a fluid-filled tube or bulb which is connected to a bellows or diaphragm and filled with a gas, a liquid, or a saturated mixture of
the
temperature of the bulb or tube increases the pressure of the confined fluid which acts through
(b)
* Unlike the water pumping system, refrigerating systems are designed to have sufficient capacity to permit "off" cycles even during periods of peak
compensating mechanisms (Fig. 13-6). Decreasing the temperature of the tube or bulb will have the opposite effect.
f
The thermostat
described
loading. This
is
remote-bulb
thermostat.
However, allowances
the load calculations
are
number of different types of thermostats, this is the type most frequently used in commercial refrigeration applications. Thermostats are used for
(the 24-hr load, is divided by the desired running time to obtain the average hourly load) and need not be further considered when selecting the equipment.
many
purposes
than controlling a compressor driving motor, as, for example, opening and closing valves, starting and stopping damper motors, etc.
other
232
PRINCIPLES
Dissimilar
OF REFRIGERATION
/
Invar-
metals
___
Brass
steel
"or
Fig.
_Bimetal
13-7.
Bimetal-t/pe tem-
"element
Normal
M
Another and
called
entirely different temperature
of the temperature sensing element. Where the temperature sensing element of the thermostat is
located in or
on
steel)
is
Invar
product temperature directly, the differential is usually small (2 F or 3 F). On the other hand, where the sensing element is located in the space
very low coefficient of expansion, whereas brass and steel have relatively high coefficients of expansions. Since the change in the length of
the Invar per degree of temperature change will
ordinarily about 6
or 7 F.
In
many
always be
less
steel,
or product temperature
controlled indirectly
ment causes
the bimetal to warp in the direction of the Invar (the inactive metal) as shown in Fig. 13-76, whereas decreasing the temperature
by controlling the evaporator temperature, in which case the differential used must be larger (15 F to 20 F or more) in order to avoid shortcycling of the equipment.
warp
active metal) as
shown
in Fig.
13-7c.
This
When the thermostat controls the space or product temperature directly, the average space or product temperature is approximately the
median of the
cut-in
change in the configuration of the bimetal element with changes in temperature can be utilized directly or indirectly to open and close electrical contacts or to actuate other compensating mechanisms.
13-9. Differential
Adjustment.
Like float
controls, thermostats
have definite "cut-in" and "cut-out" points. That is, the thermostat is adjusted to start the compressor when the temperature of the space or product rises to some
predetermined
ture)
On
ture
when
is
maximum
evaporator temperature, an allowance must be made in the cut-out setting to compensate for For example, for an the evaporator TD.
average space temperature of 35 F and assumof 12 F, to compensate ing an evaporator for the evaporator TD, the cut-out temperature would be set at 20 F (32 F - 12) rather than
temperature of the space or product is reduced to some predetermined minimum (the cut-out
temperature).
TD
The
and
cut-
out temperatures is called the differential. In general, the size of the differential depends upon
the particular application and
at 32 F. Notice that the cut-in temperature is set at 38 F in either case. This is because the
space temperature and the evaporator temperasame at the time that the system
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
After the compressor cycles off the evaporator continues to absorb heat from the space and warms up to the space temperature
cycles on.
233
in many cases it is necessary to use trial-anderror methods to determine the optimum settings
for a specific installation.
13-10.
during the ofT cycle (Fig. 13-8). Therefore, when the space temperature rises to the cut-in temperature of 38 F, the evaporator will also be at the cut-in temperature of 38 F. As soon as the
to the
also asso-
compressor
is started,
ture is quickly reduced below the space temperature by an amount approximately equal to the
design evaporator
stance,
TD.
when
reduced
to 32
the evaporator
will
temperature (which the thermostat is controlling) be approximately 20 F (12 F less than the
space temperature).
Regardless of whether the thermostat controls the space temperature directly or indirectly,
and cut-out temperatures. Although, like the differential, the range can be defined as the difference between the cut-in and cut-out temperatures, the two are not the same. For example, assume that a thermostat is adjusted for a cut-in temperature of 30 F and a cut-out temperature of 20 F. Whereas the differential is said to be 10 F (30 - 20), the range is said to be between 30 F and 20 F. Although it is possible to change the range
without changing the
possible
differential,
it
is
not
to
change the
differential
without
proper adjustment of the cut-in and cut-out temperatures is essential to good operation. If the cut-in and cut-out temperatures are set too
close together (differential too small) the system
will
changing the range. For instance, suppose that the thermostat previously mentioned is readjusted so that the cut-in temperature is raised to 35 F and the cut-out temperature is raised to
(start
and
25 F.
(35
is
Although the
than
is it
differential is
still
10
stop too frequently). This will materially reduce the life of the equipment and may result in other
unsatisfactory conditions.
if
F higher
was
originally, that
the
On
operating range
the cut-in
cycles will
and cut-out temperatures are set too on and off be too long and unnecessarily large
Naturally, this too
is
whereas previously it was between 30 F and 20 F. In this instance, the range of the control is changed, but the differential remains the same.
undesirable.
Although approximate cut-in and cut-out temperature settings for various types of applications have been determined by field experience,
Under the new control setting the average space temperature will be maintained approximately 5 F higher than under the old setting.
5
Suppose now that the differential is increased F by raising the cut-in temperature from 30 F
(cut-out temperature)
Fig. 13-8. Notice that when the unit cycles "on," the evaporator temperature is the same as the space temperature, whereas when the unit cycles "off," the evaporator temperature is lower than the space temperature by an amount equal to the design evaporator TD.
234
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
,
Differential
adjustment
Fig. 13-9.
Schematic diagram
of thermostatic
motor control
and differen-
illustrating range
tial
adjustments.
Range
adjustment
to 35
is left
at
to
move toward
the
the differential and the range are changed. The differential, originally 10 F, is now 15 F and the range, originally between 30 F and 20 F, is
screw head, thereby increasing the travel of the pin B in the slot. This has the effect of increasing the differential by lowering the cut-out
temperature. Turning the differential adjusting
this control
somewhat
Too,
is
screw counterclockwise raises the cut-out temperature and reduces the differential.
lating
larger.
By manipuboth range and differential adjustments, the thermostat can be adjusted for any desired
and cut-out temperatures. The arrangement shown in Fig. 13-9 represents only one of a number of methods which can be employed to adjust the cut-in and cut-out temperatures. The particular method used in
cut-in
lowering the cut-out temperature 5 F rather than by raising the cut-in temperature 5 F, the operating range of the control would have
and the average space temperature would have been 2 or 3 degrees lower than the original space temperashifted to the opposite direction
ture.
any one control depends on the type of control and on the manufacturer. For example, for the
shown
in Fig.
13-9.
shown in Fig. 13-9, changing the range adjustment changes both the cut-in and cut-out temperatures simultaneously, whereas for ancontrol
other type of control changing the range adjustment changes only the cut-in temperature. For
still
come
in
order
therefore, raises
temperatures.
close the contacts and, both the cut-in and cut-out Turning the range-adjusting to
another type of control, changing the range adjustment changes only the cut-out temperature. However, whatever the method of adjust-
spring
ment, the principles involved are similar and the exact method of adjustment is readily deter-
out temperatures.
In
many cases,
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
instructions for adjusting the control are given
directly
trol.
235
on
the control
itself.
open or
which employ electrical contacts must all be equipped with some means of causing the con-
open and close rapidly in order to avoid In Fig. 13-9, the armature and permanent magnet serve this purpose. As the
tacts to
arcing.
pressure in the bellows increases and the movable contact moves toward the stationary
contact,
On the other hand, for applications where off-cycle defrosting is required and where minor fluctuations in the space or product temresults.
the
strength
of the magnetic
field
perature are not objectionable, indirect control of the space temperature by evaporator temperais probably the better method. In order to assure complete defrosting of the evaporator, the evaporator must be allowed to
ture control
When
warm up
37 or 38
to a temperature of approximately
is pulled into the magnet and the contacts are closed rapidly with a snap
F during each off cycle. When the thermostat controls the evaporator temperature, the cut-in temperature of the thermostat can be set for 38 F. Since the evaporator must warm
up
to this temperature before the compressor can be cycled on, complete defrosting of the evaporator during each off cycle is almost certain. On the other hand, when the thermostat controls the space temperature, there is no assurance that the evaporator will always warm
the pressure in the bellows decreases, spring tension acts to open the contacts. However, since the force of the spring is
As
opposed
somewhat by the
able force
the contacts will not separate until a consideris developed in the spring. This causes the contacts to snap open quickly so that
up
arcing
is
again avoided.
If
we assume
is
properly
Toggle mechanisms are also frequently used as a means of causing the contacts to open and close with a snap action. Too, some controls employ a mercury switch as a means of overcoming the arcing problem. A typical mercury
switch
is
on the system
is relatively is
handle the load, no defrosting problems are likely to arise with either method of temperature control. However, if the system
subject to considerable changes in load, defrosting problems are sometimes experienced
is
As
the glass
tube
is tilted
make
in applications
two
left,
electrodes.
As
the bulb
back to the
When
the system
is
contact
is
broken.
The
surface tension of
Space Control
vs.
Evaporator Con-
trol.
When
thermostat controls the space temperature or product temperature directly. Likewise, when the sensing element is clamped to the evaporator, the thermostat controls the evaporator temperature directly. In such cases, control of the space or product temperature is accomplished in-
Pool of
mercury
Contacts
Fig. 13-10.
Mercury contacts.
236
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the system rises above a certain, predetermined
pressure, the high-pressure control acts to break
operating tinder peak load conditions, the temperature of the space tends to remain above the
cut-out
temperature
of the
thermostat
for
the circuit
extended periods so that running cycles are long and frost accumulation on the evaporator is
heavy.
pressure
and stop the compressor. When the on the high-pressure side of the system
space temperature
warms up
to
the cut-in
temperature of the thermostat very quickly during the off cycle so that the off cycles are
usually short. Frequently, the off cycles are too
and start the compressor. However, some high-pressure controls are equipped with "lock-out" devices which require that the control be reset manually before the compressor can be started again. Although
acts to close the circuit
high-pressure
controls
are
desirable
on
all
In such cases,
when
the compressor
is
on
caught on the evaporator and frozen into ice. Eventually the evaporator will be completely
frozen over with ice, air flow over the evaporator
will
be severely
restricted,
will
become
13-12.
inoperative.
Pressure Actuated Cycling Controls. Pressure actuated cycling controls are of two types: (1) low-pressure actuated and (2) highLow-pressure controls are connected to the low-pressure side of the system
pressure actuated.
(usually at the compressor suction)
temperature controls.
When
used as a safety
when
the
and are
High-
and
actuated
by
the
low-side
pressure.
and
start the
compressor
pressure controls,
when
com-
remote-bulb thermostat.
The
principal differ-
ence between remote-bulb thermostat and the pressure controls is the source of the pressure
which actuates the bellows or diaphragm. Whereas the pressure actuating the bellows of the thermostat is the pressure of the fluid confined in the bulb, the pressures actuating the
can be
utilized to control
compressor, respectively.
way
that
this
both controls have cut-in and cut-out points which are usually adjustable in the field.
13-13.
used for
purpose.
Connected to the discharge of the compressor, the purpose of the high-pressure control is to cycle the compressor off in the event that the
pressure
on the high-pressure
excessive.
and cut-out temperatures of a remote-bulb thermostat employed in the same application. For example, assume that for a certain application the cut-in and cut-out temperature
settings for
becomes
This
is
done in order to
side of
and 20 F,
trol is
con-
When
the pressure
on the high-pressure
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
pressure setting for the lew-pressure control wj|]
line
237
pressor
when
comwas
be 36 psia (the
reduced to only 39 psia rather than the desired 36 psia. The system would have a tendency to
short cycle because the differential
is
too small
result.
As
thie
no way
Since
of the control.
accordingly.
When
pressure drop
tor rises to the cut-in pressure setting of the lowpressure control, the low-pressure control acts
to close the circuit
a function of velocity or how, there is no pressure drop in the suction line when the system is idle. As soon as the comis
Very soon
after
the
pressor cycles
off,
compressor
temperature and pressure of ihe evaporator are reduced to approximately the design evaporator
temperature and pressure and they remain nt this condition throughout most of the running
cycle (see Fig.
inlet
is
the
same
made without
or the running cycle the evaporator temperature and pressure are gradually reduced below the design conditions. When the evaporator pressure is reduced to the cut-out pressure setting of the
13-8},
Near
the end
is
an
ideal
Ads
to break
where the compressor is located some distance from the evaporator, tn such installations, lowpressure temperature control has a distinct advantage over thermostatic temperature control in that
it
pressure of the vapor at the suction of the compressor is usually 2 or 3 lb less than the evaporator pressure. This is particuline, the
inlet
when the compressor is located some distance from the evaporator. Since ihe
larly
true
low-pressure control
at
is
the
be taken into account when the pressure control Bettings are made. To compensate for Ihe
pressure loss in the suction pressure setting
is
wiring. Because of the remote bulb, the thermostat must always be located near the evaporator or space whose temperature is being controlled. This requires that a pair of electrical conductors be installed between the fk)it are and the condensing unit. On
saving
in
electrical
the
other hand,
the
low-pressure control
control wiring needed
is
line,
the cut-out
so that the
amount of
is
For example,
is
much
13-15.
less.
assuming
Dual-Praiiur* Controls,
Is
A dual-prescontact
when
36
psia,
sure control
high- pressure
the pressure at the suction inlet of the compressor will be 33 psia. Hence,
cycle the compressor off
if it is
desired to
Ordinarily, only
one
in
set
of
electrical
when
the pressure in
psia, the cut-out
is set
points
are used
the
control,
although a
the evaporator
is
reduced to 36
for
separate bellows assembly is employed for each of the two pressures. A typical dual pressure
In
this instance,
failure to
make an
control
is
shown
in Fig.
13-11.
This type of
pressure control
is
33S
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Rg.
11-11.
Du*l
pnmirt
control,
{Covrtmj
9<
Pnn Contrail.
Inc.)
In 1 or evaporator tccrh perature is controlled directly by the thermostat. However, instead of starting and stopping the compressor driver, the thermostat nets 10 open
the compressor.
When
the temperature
of the
pump-dawn
space or evaporator
perature
rises
of the
thermostat,
the
thermostat
and energizes the solenoid, thereby opening the liquid line and
permitting
evaporator.
the
liquid
refrigerant
the
to
enter
is
the
Since
c^ipumtar
.-..ipuraujr
warm,
(Fig. 13-12).
As
vaporises
perature
is
immediately
low-pressure
to
the
cut-in
pressure
of
the
control,
whereupon
the
low-
Gow of
liquid
the
evaporator-
Continued
and
start* the
compressor.
operation of the compressor causes evacuation of the refrigerant from that portion of the
system beyond the point where the refrigerant flow is interrupted by the solenoid. When the
pressure in the evacuated portion of the system
is
The advantages of the purip-down cycle are many. One of the most important ones being that the amount of refrigerant absorbed by the
oil in the cranfceasc
The problem
reduced
to
[he
cut-out
pressure
of
the
of crankcase
oil dilution
by refrigerant absorpis
low pressure control, the low-pressure control breaks the compressor driver circuit and stops
fully discussed in
Chapter
IS.
STSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
13-17.
239
Si is
worth while lo notice that balh the operating conditions and the capacity ol" a refrigerating system change as the load on lie system changes.
I
design conditions,
13-10,
When
will
the load
on the system
is
is
heavy and he
I
Any
time the
space temperature
high,
he evaporator
TD
System capacity deviates considerably from the system load, unsatisfactory operating conditions
will result.
It
rator
be greater than the design evaporator capacity. Because of the higher evaporator capacity, the
suction temperature will also be higher so that
good
in
practice
the
system
be
maximum
sustained
will
equilibrium
ing
is
load.
This
is
have
and condensing
system.
sufficient capacity to
and
humidity
during
Obviously, as the
is
a lendency for
in relation
capacity
is
somewhat
become oversized
to
design capacity.
Obviously,
the
horsepower
compressor
and
the
In applications where the changes in the average system load are not great, capacity
must be selected lo have sufficient horselo meet these requirements. Conversely, when the load on the system is light, the space temperature wilt be lower (Kan
driver
control
the
is
power
preceding sections.
the
average
design
space
less
temperature,
the
on and
the
than the design TD, and the suction temperature will be lower than
evaporator
TD will
be
on
is
system.
During
when
the load
Therefore, the
tower than the average design operating con* ditiofls and the system capacity will be somewhat less than the average design capacity
be long and off cycles will be short, whereas during periods when the load is light, on cycles will be short and off cycles will be long. Naturally,
the
through a complete series of operating conditions and capacities, the operaiing conditions and capacity being highest at the beginning of
of load fluctuation. However, since the system must always be designed to have sufficient
capacity to handle the
maximum
load,
when
when
and lowest at the end of the running cycle when the space temperature Is lowest. However, during most of the running cycle, a
highest,
!,
oversized
when
the load is at a
is
minimum.
system which
ftiwef JinT"
flew antral
c
Flj.
I
S>-|1.
Pump-down
EvwofHw
cycle.
c
hmmh
i.
:i
i.
VPii nwnmiii
140
PRINCIPLES OF
MFMGERATtON
reduction)
loads.*
and
latent
(nvuistun
reduction)
utile** sensible
In such
space
in
the
form of
relic, u
The
air is first
paased across a cooling coil and cooled to the temperature necessary to reduce the moisture content to the desired level ,md the air is then
Fif,
I
J- 13.
Evaporator
iplit
Into
two lefmcnti
lor
capacity control.
The
reheating
is
llqwW tto* Of iff rtwfii A rtndtrt ihlt portion of th* viporvcor irwpemiva. Th* cipicn, reduction
hot water
coils,
iiiriac*
iru cydwl
some
of the system
adequately controlled by
When
the system
is
the
same
in all
in the
"
will
component
will
automatiin
will
be high
similar
.iiljustment
the
emended
com portents.
Therefore,
too short to permit adequate dcfrosiing of ihe On the other hand, where the system is oversized for the load, the off cycles
evaporator.
of the
compressor
it
or decrease
However,
be loo long and the equipment running time wtll he insufficient to remove the required amount of moisture from the space. This will
will
important to notice that with this method of capacity control the operating conditions of
the system will change as the capacity of the system changes.
than normal)
humidity conditions in the refrigerated space. For this reason, when changes in the system toad arc substantial, it is usually necessary to provide some means of automatically (or manually) varying the capacity of the system other than by cycling Ihe system on and off. This b true also of large installations when the size of the equipment renders cycling the system
Where it is desired to vnr\ ihe Capacity of the System without allowing the operating conditions of the system to change it is necessary lo
on and
off impractical.
the
refrigerating load.
method in any one case will conditions and requirements of the installation
Some installations require only one or two step* of capacity control, whereas others require a number of steps. Frequently, several methods are employed simultaneously in order
itself.
flexibility.
is
necessary to
Too, impose an
in
some
Filter
Company,
artificial
* This problem is usually rr,lime when the transmission i
-
load on the equipment to achieve the proper balance between the sensible (temperature
<
<
.11
.it
gAin) load
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
control both the evaporator capacity and the compressor capacity directly.*
the more common methods of conevaporator and compressor capacities are considered in the following sections.
trolling
341
Some of
13-1?. Evaporator Capacity Control. Probably the most effective method of providing evaporator capacity control it lo divide the evaporator into several separate sections or
Fact damper
which are individually controlled so that one or more sections or circuit* an be cycled
circuits
It 14, Evaporator equipped with * (ace damper co vary the quantity otalrpasjin g ever chc evaporator. Al the dam par movn toward the cloud paiition. the
Fig.
rwiiunea
aialrut
which the
is
out as the land decreases (Fig. 13-13}. Using this method, any percentage of the evaporator capacity con be cycled out in any desired number of sieps. The number and size of the individual evaporator sections depend on the number of steps of capacity desired and the percent change in capacity required per step,
respectively.
On the other hand, "depth" control always changes the sensible heat ratio. As a
ofTected.t
more depth
its
the
sections
(moisture removal) capacity. Hence, as one or more rows of the evaporator are cycled out, the sensible
is
greater
Jatcnt
cooling
ship of the sensible load to ihe total load at 11k various load conditions- Basically, two circuit arrangements are possible- Evaporator circuiting can be arranged lo provide cither "face" control of "depth" control, or both (Fig. 13-14
Another common method of varying the evaporator capacity is to vary the amount of air circulated over (he evaporator through the use of "face" or "face-ond-by-pass" dampers.
(Fig*.
1
and
11-15).
When
"face" control
is
used, the
is
3-
16 and 13-17)
not
some
in-
together
if)
foregoing
control will
methods
compressor capacity. 13-M, Compressor Capacity Control. There in a number of different methods of controlling the capacity of reciprocating compressors. One method, already mentioned, is to vary the speed
of the compressor by varying the speed of the compressor driver. When an engine or turbine a employed to drive the compressor. Ihe compressor capacity can he modulated over a wide range by governor control of the compressor driver.
Hb>
teijr
J- IS,
(Cour*
Company,
Inc.).
Only two speeds are usually available SO that the compressor operates either at full capacity or at
Any
desired,
it
is
windings
will
;
of the condenser and on the sin of the refrigerant lines. These topics lie d taunted in Chapter* J 4
and
17, respectively.
MI
i
!
unloadcr
piston
Mt
When
is
\Fk
Pit-
dime**
deto
is
relumed
fMT. Evaporator aqulpped with fit* and bypus dimptn lor dpicicy control. D*mp*r* if* JrttereoAnectad tint by-pui damper opum wider
w
It
a*
ft dmp*r
tlowd
eft.
With
thii
iirinjerrmnt
dim para,
unloadcr* of all t;,pes art used to unload the compressor cylinders during compressor start-up so that the compressor starts in an unloaded condition, thereby reducing (he inrush current demand. When any of the capacity control methods described thus far are used. Ihe horsepower
cylinder
same
Capacity control of multicylinder cornpretwrt it frequently obtained by "unloading" one or more cylinders that they become
to throttle the
it
cm
if
pressor suction.
However, since
One method of accomplishing this by-pas the discharge from one or more cylinder] buck into the suction tine as shown
ineffective.
is
to
method
Still
it
seldom used.
it employed with good results is two or more compressors in parallel
When
capacity which
to operate (Fig.
13-20).
and alky**
ihe discharge
from
The
cut-in
one or more cylinders to flow through the by-put tine back into the suction line where it mixes with the incoming suction vapor. At
long as (he suction pressure remains below the cut-in setting of the conirol. the discharge from
the unloaded cylinders continues to the suction line.
rises
are so adjusted that the corn pressors cycle off in sequence as the suction pressure decreases
and cycle on
pressure
rises.
in sequence
when
the suction
by-pus
to
When
additional
steps
Multiple
in
comin
to
pressor
systems
discussed
detail
con trot, the solenoid valve ,% dc-energixed and the by-pass tine is closed so that the compressor
it
Chapter 20.
returned to
full
capacity operation.
Another method of unloading compressor cylinders is to depress the suction valves of the cylinder or cylinders to be unloaded so that they remain open during the compression (up)
With the auction v.thes held open, die suction vapor drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke is returned to the suction line
stroke.
during
the
compnuvDn
this
stroke.
typical
unloadcr of
as follows:
type
it
shown
in Fig. 13-19,
The operation of the unloadcr mechanism is when the suction pressure falls (o
He.
ML
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM
Typical solenoid valve (shown energized)
243
Connect to
discharge side
of
compressor
Fig. 13-19.
Condenser prescylinder
sure
actuated
un-
loader mechanism.
(Courtesy
Dunham-Bush,
Inc.)
Valve plate
Cylinder
13-21. Multiple-System Capacity Control. Another method of controlling capacity is to employ two or more separate systems. The evaporators for the separate systems may be in the same housing and air stream or they may be in separate housings and air streams. In either case, separate compressors and condensers
suited to installations
some
densers
may be
in a
common
housing.
combination chilling and storage applications. The use of two or more separate systems has the added advantage of providing a certain amount of insurance against losses accruing from equipment failure. Should one system become inoperative, the other can usually hold the load until repairs can be made.
PROBLEMS
1.
Assuming a
an air-cooled condensing unit to operate in conjunction with the natural convection evaporator in Problem 12-1. (2) Plot the evaporator and condensing unit
(1) Select
Fig. 13-20.
Two
compressors
installed in parallel as
capacities
As the
one compressor
is
cycled out to
determine: (a) The saturated suction temperature at the point of system balance (b) The capacity of the system in Btu/hr at the point of system balance.
densing medium includes both the heat absorbed in the evaporator and the heat of compression, the heat load
amount
14
Condensers and Cooling Towers
equal to the heat of compression. Since the work (heat) of compression per unit of refrigerating capacity depends
ratio, the
evaporator
load
varies
operating
per
minute per
ton
of evaporator
14-1.
condenser
wails
Condensers. Like the evaporator, the is a heat transfer surface. Heat from
and condensing temperatures can be estimated from Charts 14-1, 14-2, and 14-3. Chart 14-1 applies to R-12 systems, whereas Charts 14-2 and 14-3 apply to R-22 and R-717 (ammonia) systems, respectively. The values given are based on a simple
at various
suction
saturated cycle.
Example
at a 15
14-1.
An
of the condenser to the condensing medium. As the result of losing heat to the condensing medium, the refrigerant vapor is first cooled to saturation and then condensed
into the liquid state.
suction temperature, has a condensing temperature of 100 F. Determine the load on the condenser in Btu per minute per ton.
Solution. In Chart 14-1, locate the 15 F suction temperature line at the base of the graph. Follow the line until it intersects the 100 F
Although brine or direct expansion refrigare sometimes used as condensing mediums in low temperature applications, in the great majority of cases the condensing medium employed is either air or water, or a combination of both. Condensers are of three general types: (1) air-cooled, (2) water-cooled, and (3) evaporative. Air-cooled condensers employ air as the condensing medium, whereas water-cooled condensers utilize water to condense the refrigerant. In both the air-cooled and watercooled condensers, the heat given off by the condensing refrigerant increases the temperature of the air or water used as the condensing medium. Evaporative condensers employ both air and water. Although there is some increase in the temperature of the air passing through the
erants
condensing temperature curve. The value on the left-hand index corresponding to this point is approximately 245 Btu per minute per ton.
any given set of operating a fixed relationship between the condenser load and the evaporator load. For instance, for the R-12 system described in Example 14-1, the relationship between the
It is evident that for
is
conditions there
condenser load and the evaporator load is such that 245 Btu are liberated at the condenser for each 200 Btu taken in at the evaporator. Once the relationship between the condenser
load and the evaporator load has been established for
any given
set
of operating conditions,
given
condenser, the cooling of the refrigerant in the condenser results initially from the evaporation
ax*
He
(14-1)
of the water from the surface of the condenser. The function of the air is to increase the rate of evaporation by carrying away the water vapor which results from the evaporating process. 14-2. The Condenser Load. Since the heat given up by the refrigerant vapor to the con244
where
Qc = Qe = qe =
qe
the condenser load in Btu/hr the evaporator load in Btu/hr the condenser load in Btu/min/ton (from Fig. 14-15) the evaporator load in Btu/min/ton (always 200 Btu)
245
For the system described in Example 14-1, determine the load on the condenser if the load on the evaporator is 35,000
14-2.
Example
temperature.
Btu/hr.
Solution.
condenser
is
will be the condensing Too, since the load on the always proportional to the load on
Applying
Equation
on the condenser,
It is
Qc
in the load
an increase or a decrease,
condensing temperature.
important to notice that any increase or on the evaporator (system) will result in a proportional increase or decrease in the load on the condenser. 14-3. Condenser Capacity. Since heat transdecrease in the load
fer
14-4. Quantity and Temperature Rise of Condensing Medium. In both the air-cooled
and water-cooled condensers, all the heat given off by the condensing refrigerant increases the temperature of the condensing medium. Therefore,
condenser capacity
through the condenser walls is by conduction, is a function of the fundamental heat transfer equation:
in accordance with
rise
Equation
2-8,
the
temperature
medium
inversely
Q=A
where
(14-2)
proportional
to
quantity
and
Q= A =
specific
U=
(Ta
ft/
- Tx) =
MxC
(7",)
ft
(14-3)
F)
where
Tx =
between the condensing refrigerant and the condensing medium Examination of the factors in Equation 14-2 will show that for any fixed value of U the capacity of the condenser depends on the surface area of the condenser and on the temperature difference between the condensing refrigerant and the condensing medium. It is evident also that for any one condenser of specific size and design, wherein the surface area and the U factor are both fixed at the time of manufacture, the capacity of the condenser depends only on the temperature differential between the refrigerant and the condensing medium. Therefore, for any one specific condenser, the capacity of the condenser is increased or decreased only by increasing or
decreasing the temperature differential. Further-
T2 =
(r2
(Tx)
Tj)
Q,
M=
C=
enced in the condenser the load on the condenser in Btu per hour the weight of air or water circulated through the condenser in pounds per hour
the
specific
heat
at
constant
Assuming that C has a constant value, for any given condenser load (Q,), Equation 14-2 contains only two variables, and AT, the
value of each
being
inversely
proportional
more, if it is assumed that the average temperature of the condensing medium is constant, it follows that an increase or a decrease in the capacity of the condenser is brought about only by an increase or a decrease, respectively, in the condensing temperature.
Q. M=C x AT
(14-4)
AT =
xM
(14-5)
medium
246
is
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
convert from pounds per minute to cubic feet
known, the quantity of condensing medium circulated through the condenser in pounds per hour can be determined by applying Equation
14-4.
Likewise,
if
is
cfm
(lb/hr)
rz 60 min
t>(cu ft/lb)
:
known, the temperature rise through the condenser can be computed by applying Equation
14-5.
Assuming the specific volume of the air to be the specific volume of standard air (13.34 cu ft/
incorporation of these conversion factors into Equation 14-7 results in the following:
lb),
Average
and water
Btu/lb, respectively.
By
C,
the
appropriate
value
for
Equations 14-4 and 14-5 can be written to apply specifically to either water or air, viz:
cfm
or,
Q, x 13.34 cu
0.24 x 60 x
ft/lb
AT
for water
-
-%
M
"'
1/1.08),
(14-6)
cfm
(14-7)
AT
(14-11)
and for
air
Q'
0.24 x
AT
(14-8)
Example 14-3. If the load on a watercooled condenser is 150,000 Btu/hr and the temperature rise of the water in the condenser What is the quantity of water ciris 10 F.
culated in
IT *"
Qs
0.24 x
is
gpm ?
Applying Equation
(14-9)
Solution.
gpm
150,000
to express air
and
water quantities in cubic feet per minute (cfm) and in gallons per minute (gpm), respectively, it is usually desirable to compute condensing
500 x 10 30 gpm
medium
pounds per hour. To convert pounds of water per hour into gallons per minute, divide by 60 min to reduce pounds per hour to pounds per minute, and then divide by 8.33 lb per gallon to convert pounds per minute to gallons per minute, viz:
M(lb/hr)
Example 14-4. TheJoad on a water-cooled condenser is 90,000 Btu/hr. If the quantity of water circulated through the condenser is 15 gallons per minute, determine the temperature rise of the water in the condenser.
Solution.
Rearranging and
AT
90,000
~ =
500 x 15
12F
gpm
60 min x 8.33
lb/gal
Example 14-5. Thirty-six gallons of water per minute are circulated through a watercooled condenser. If the temperature rise of the water in the condenser is 12 F, compute the load on the condenser in Btu/hr.
Solution.
computed
directly in
Rearrang-
tion results:
8pm =
or,
Q. 60 x 8.33 x
Ar
500),
= = =
gpm
To
G, 500 X
AT
(14-10)
Example 14-6. The load on an air-cooled condenser is 121,500 Btu/hr. If the desired temperature rise of the air in the condenser is 25 F, determine the air quantity in cfm which must be circulated over the condenser.
Applying EquaSolution. tion 14-11, the air quantity in
121,500
1.08
reduce pounds of air per hour to cubic pounds per hour by 60 min to determine pounds per minute and then multiply by the specific volume of the air to
feet per minute, divide
cfm
x 25
4500 cfm
247
92-.Water out
Fig. 14-1.
rise
Water temperature
through condenser.
Example
14-7.
air
medium
general
are circulated over an air-cooled condenser. If the load on the condenser is 64,800 Btu/hr, compute the temperature rise of the air passing over the condenser.
Solution. Rearranging and applying Equation 14-1 1, AT
Condenser Application. As a
rule, for
64,800 -= -^ = 20F
any given condenser load, the size of the condenser and the quantity of condensing medium circulated will depend upon the
medium
and 14-4 will show that the condensing temperature of the refrigerant in the condenser is a
depend only
upon
the
densing medium flowing through the condenser. The lower the average temperature of the condensing medium the lower is the condensing temperature. For example, assume that the size and loading of a condenser are such that the required mean temperature differential between the refrigerant and the condensing medium is 15 F. If the average temperature of the condensing medium is 90 F, the condensing
temperature of the condensing medium, (2) the temperature rise in the condenser, and (3) the
condenser varies inversely with the flow rate of the condensing medium and that the temperature differential between the refrigerant
and the
it
condensing
size
medium
temperature
the
will
be 105
F (90 +
15),
whereas if
evident that:
1.
medium
will
be 100
(85
15).
flow rate,
the condensing
temperature will
increases or de-
of the condensing
creases.
2.
medium
For any given entering temperature, the and the higher the flow rate, the lower will be the condensing
larger the condensing surface
temperature.
3.
Assuming the
be con-
the
stant.
248
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
surface required for a
increases.
If the flow rate is increased
amount of condensing
medium
increases.
medium
more
than
With regard to the latter statement, this means in effect that the same condensing
temperature can be maintained with either a
small condensing surface and a high flow rate
condensing
circulated
or a large condensing surface and a low flow rate. However, it should be recognized that the
flow rate of the condensing
the condenser.
medium
is fixed
is limited by the power requirements of the fan, blower, or pump. Obviously, the optimum flow rate for the condensing medium is the one which will result
through the
condenser is too low, flow will be streamlined rather than turbulent and a low transfer coefficient will result.
system. This will vary somewhat with the conditions of the individual installation, being
influenced by the type of application, the size
if
the flow
rates,
and
such practical considerations as the cost and availability of water, utility costs, local codes
and
medium is usually fixed by condibeyond the control of the system designer, it follows that the size and design of the condenser and the flow rate of toe condensing medium are determined almost entirely by the
condensing
tions
restrictions, etc. For example, since good system efficiency prescribes lower condensing temperatures for low temperature applications than for high temperature applications, it
rate will
Although low condensing temperatures are desirable in that they result in high compressor efficiency and low horsepower requirements for
the compressor, this does not necessarily
that the use of a large condensing surface
Too, where the entering temperature of the condensing medium is relatively high, larger condensing surfaces and higher flow rates
are required to provide reasonable condensing
mean
high flow rate densing temperature will always result in the most practical and economical installation. Other factors which must be taken into account
medium
is
lower.
Air-Cooled Condensers. The circulation of air over an air-cooled condenser may be either by natural convection or by action of a fan or blower. Where air circulation is by
natural convection, the air quantity circulated
medium
and
fan, blower, or
over the condenser is low and a relatively large condensing surface is required. Because of
their limited capacity natural convection con-
on small
applications,
and cost of the water must also be considered. The limitations imposed on condenser size by the factors of initial cost and available space are self-evident. As for the power requirements
of the fan, blower, or pump circulating the condensing medium, it has already been stated
that the
When
finned tubing
little
or no resistance is offered to the free circulation of air. Too, wide fin spacing reduces the possibility of the condenser being fouled with
dirt
power required to
densing
medium
increases
is
mounted on the
249
limitation in physical size, chassis-mounted condensers of the type shown in Fig. 6-12 are
rarely
air-cooled condenser
fouling.
their susceptibility to
condenser type or location, it is essential that the refrigerator be so located that air is permitted
to circulate freely through the condenser at
times.
all
Since
most condensing
floor, the
units
are
mounted on the
condenser air tends to sweep across the floor so that dirt, lint, and
other foreign materials are picked
floor
Too, warm locations, such as one adjacent to an oven, should be avoided whenever possible.
up from
the
and carried
This
is
usually
mounted on
accomplished by bonding bare tubing to the inside surface of the outer shell so that the
becomes a plate-type heat transfer surface. The use of these "wraparound" condensers permits a considerable
entire outer shell
Naturally this limits both the size and the location of the fan so that the quantity of air
circulated over the condenser
is
always
less
than
that,
that
maximum
reduction in the size of the freezer (6 to 8 in. on both length and width), not only because it eliminates the space ordinarily required for the
condenser but also because it allows the use of 3 to 4 in. of insulation in the walls where normally 6 to 8 in. is required in order to prevent moisture from condensing on the outside surface
of the freezer.
Notice also because of the fan location, the distribution of the air over the condenser surface is very uneven, being much greater on the end of
the condenser directly in front of the fan.
Remote
sizes
The
from 1 ton up to 100 tons or more and may be mounted either indoors or outdoors. When located indoors, provisions must be made for an
adequate supply of outside air to the condenser (Fig. 14-2). If the condenser is installed in a warm location, such as in an attic or boiler room, ducts should be used to carry the air into the condenser and back to the outside. Because
of the large quantity of air required, only the
smaller sizes are
amount of
possible.
wall insulation
is
more than
offset
by the savings
makes
Air-cooled condensers employing fans or blowers to provide "forced-air" circulation can be divided into two groups according to the
location of the condenser: (1) chassis-mounted and (2) remote.
mounted indoors.
is
When located outdoors, the air-cooled condenser may be mounted on the ground, on the
roof, or
one that is mounted on a common chassis with the compressor and compressor driver so that it is an integral part of the air-cooled "condensing unit" (Fig. 6-12). Although chassismounting of the air-cooled condenser makes possible a very compact, completely selfcontained condensing unit which is ideally suited for use on small commercial fixtures, this arrangement has certain inherent disadvantages which make chassis-mounting impractical
in larger applications.
shown
In
in Figures
14-3
and
14-4, respectively.
all cases,
the condenser
will aid rather
summertime
than retard the action of the fan. In the event that such orientation is not possible, wind
deflectors should
chassis-
required
densing.
on a
that
the
limited to
power
is
Naturally, this
Because of the
250
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Purge valve
Ceiling
air-cooled condenser.
(Cour-
tesy
pany.)
Compressor''
Locate receiver below unicon outlet
One
significant
air-
type
14-7.
is
and
is
now
For an
a definite relation-
The
Fig. 14-6
typical of these
Good
design pre-
scribes the
minimum
duce turbulent flow and a high transfer coefficient. Increasing the air velocity beyond this point causes an excessive pressure drop through the condenser and results in an unnecessary increase in the power requirements of the fan or blower
circulating the air.
The velocity of the air passing through an aircooled condenser is a function of the free face
area of the condenser and the quantity of air
circulated.
The
relationship
is
given in the
following equation:
The free face area of the condenser is the area air spaces between the tubes and fins. The actual free area per unit of face area varies
of the free Remote air-cooled condensers installed on outside wall. (Courtesy Kramer Trenton Company.)
Fig. 14-3.
with the design of the condenser, being dependent upon the size, number, and arrangement of
the tubes and
fins.
25
Fig. 14-4.
Remote
air-cooled condensers
mounted on
roof.
(Courtesy Dunham-Bush,
Inc.)
Normally,
con-
densers are between 500 and 1000 fpm. However, because of the many variables involved,
the
optimum
is
a given condenser
design
this reason,
from the
condensers are usually given in Btu/hr for various operating conditions. It has already been shown that since the surface area and the
value of
blowers so that the air quantity and velocity over the condenser are fixed by the manufacturer. In all cases, to realize peak perform-
the capacity of any one condenser depends only on the mean temperature difference between
the air
ance
from
an
air-cooled
condenser,
the
Since
Fig.
14-5.
Remote
air-cooled
condensers
wind
252
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 14-6. Air-cooled condensing unit designed for remote (Courtesy Kramer Trenton Company.)
installation.
is
The design
peratures
suction
average temperature of the air passing over the condenser depends only on the dry bulb temperature of the entering air and the load on the condenser. Obviously, then, in such cases, the capacity of the condenser is directly proportional
to the temperature difference between the dry
(2) (3)
The compressor capacity in Btu/hr The design outdoor dry bulb temperature
(use values in Table 10-6A.
Round off to
R-13, select
Example
14-8.
From Table
bulb temperature of the entering air and the condensing temperature. This temperature
differential is often referred to as the
"tempera-
it
from the
an air-cooled condenser for a compressor having a capacity of 75,000 Btu/hr if the design evaporating and condensing temperatures are 20 F and 110 F, respectively, and the outdoor
design dry bulb for the region
is
mean
table
effective
temperature differential.*
is
90 F.
Table R-13
for
From Table R-l 3B, the correction factor for 20 F suction temSolution.
ambient
perature
0.95
A by the correction
(Table R-13B) and for variation in entering air and condensing temperatures (Table R-13Q.
*
The temperature
split is
always proportional to
densing temperature of 110 F and entering air temperature of 90 F Required capacity of condenser at basic rating conditions
= =
0.665
75 000
0.95
x 0.665
Btu/hr
the
METD.
11 8,700
253
selecting
result in the
Hence, the actual size of the condenser selected will depend upon the outdoor design dry bulb temperature for the region in question. The higher the dry bulb temperature, the larger the condenser required. For example, for a condensing temperature of 1 10 F, if the dry bulb temperature is 85 F, the condenser can be selected for a 25 F temperature split, whereas
if
that, in general, a water flow rate of between 2.5 and 3 gal per minute per ton usually provides the most economical balance between compressor horsepower and pump horsepower. In some instances, the water supply for a waste-water system is taken from a well or from some nearby body of water, such as a river, lake, pond, etc., in which case both the cost of the water and the pumping horsepower must be considered in determining the optimum water
shown
flow rate.
To
cir-
a function of time,
it
the dry bulb temperature is 90 F, the condenser must be selected for a 20 F temperature split, which will require a larger size.
14-9.
a high temperature
densing refrigerant for a longer period than when the water flow rate is high and the temperature rise required
the water flow rate
circuits circuits are
is is
Systems employing water-cooled condensers can be divided into two general categories: (1) waste-water systems and (2) recirculated water In waste-water systems the water systems. supply for the condenser is usually taken from
the city
smaller.
Hence, where
passing through the condenser (Fig. 14-7). In recirculated water systems the water leaving the
condenser is piped to a water cooling tower where its temperature is reduced to the entering temperature, after which the water is recirculated through the condenser (Fig. 14-8).
through the long so that the water will remain in the condenser for enough time to permit the required amount of heat to be absorbed. On the other hand, when the flow rate is high and the temperature rise low, more circuits are used and the circuits are shorter in order to reduce the pressure drop to a minimum. This is illustrated in Figs. 14-9a
and
Naturally, where the condenser water is wasted to the sewer, the availability and cost of the water are important factors in determining the quantity of water circulated per unit of condenser load. As a general rule, an economical
connected in series for a low flow rate and a high temperature rise. The water enters through
opening
Opening
A B
and
is
leaves
through opening C.
In Fig.
14-9ft,
capped.
the two
balance between water and power costs prescribes a water flow rate of approximately 1.5
gal per minute per ton of capacity. The high cost of water, along with limited sewer facilities and recurring water shortages in many regions, has tended to limit waste-water
water circuits are connected in parallel for a high flow rate and a low temperature rise. The water
enters through opening
and
leaves through
openings
A and
C.
particular attention
sizes.
Too,
many
cities
Suction
restrictions
on waste-water
Warm
mater out
_^.
systems, particularly where the water supply is taken from the city main and wasted to the
sewer.
When
is
recirculated the
power required to circulate the water through the water system must be taken into account in
determining the water flow rate. Experience has
Fig. 14-7.
254
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
water
system.
Hot gas
in
Pump-^
velocity
the water
city
is
denser.
velocity
all
cases the
minimum
permissible
main
the condenser
flow and a high transfer coefficient. Since pressure drop is a function of velocity, the
pressure drop through the condenser increases
as the water velocity increases.
is not critical as long as it is within the limits of turbulent flow and the avail-
able city
velocities are
For
this reason,
the
maximum
is
case
advantage of the higher transfer coefficient. On the other hand, when the water is circulated by action of a pump, a high pressure drop through
the condenser will increase the
pressure drop. *
pumping head
optimum water velocity is one which will provide the most economical balance between a
high transfer coefficient and a low pumping head.
In Figs. 14-9a and 14-9A,
to)
it is
of interest to
same flow
and pressure drop through the circuit arrangement in Fig. 14-9a are approximately four times
Water out
//t\rtsJDhJjt\
|
in Fig. 14-96.
city,
**
>*
**
'*'
B ~U A\ A\ A\ A\
\y \y \y_\y
<b)
Water
in
somewhat higher and less condensing surface is required for the same heat
for the condensing surface in Fig. 14-9a
transfer capacity.
14-10. Fouling Rates. Another factor which must be considered in selecting a water-cooled condenser is fouling of the tube surface on the water side. The fouling is caused primarily by mineral solids which precipitate out of the water and adhere to the tube surface. The scale thus formed on the tube not only reduces the water
Water circuit connected for series Water circuit connected for parallel flow.
water changes direction. The maximum velocity recommended by Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ART) is 8 fps.
it
also tends to
255
this arrangement,
some
of water circulated, both of which will cause serious increases in the condensing pressure.
In general, the rate of tube fouling
fluenced by:
(1) the quality
is
erant
is
cooling.
in-
results
in the greatest
with regard to the amount of impurities contained therein, (2) the condensing temperature, and (3) the frequency of tube cleaning with
relation to the total operating time.
Most manufacturers of water-cooled condensers give condenser ratings for clean tubes
shown shown
ically
in Figs.
14-11
and
14-12.
The type
in Fig. 14-11
The
type
shown
cleaned by circu-
lating
an index of the reduction in the tube transfer coefficient resulting from the scale deposit. In
selecting a water-cooled condenser, a
make
use
ex-
minimum
Refrigerant
"
"booster"
condensers
for
with
vapor
in
Water out
Fig.
14-10.
Double -tube
water-cooled condenser.
Water in^
Condensed
refrigerant out
P
effi-
be used.
Under no circumstances should a condenser be selected on the basis of clean tubes. However, when the condensing temperature is low (leaving
water temperature less than 100 F) and the condenser tubes are to be cleaned frequently, the fouling factor from Table 14-1 may be reduced to the next lowest value. The use of
scale factors will
chassis-mounted air-cooled condensers during periods of peak loading. Since the water valve
can be adjusted to open and allow water to flow through the condenser only when the condensing pressure
level,
the
small in
afforded
ciency.
rises to some predetermined amount of water used is relatively comparison to the savings in power
be
illustrated
later
in the
chapter.
14-11.
Water-Cooled Condensers.
and
Water(3) shell-
The shell-and-coil condenser is made up of one or more bare-tube or finned-tube coils enclosed in a welded steel shell (Fig. 14-9). The condensing water circulates through the coils
is contained in the shell surrounding the coils. Hot refrigerant vapor enters at the top of the shell and condenses as it comes in contact with the water coils. The con-
and-tube.
As
its
name
denser consists of two tubes so arranged that one is inside of the other (Fig. 14-10). Water is piped through the inner tube while the refrigerant flows in the opposite direction in the space between the inner and outer tubes. With
densed liquid drains off the coils into the bottom of the shell, which often serves also as the receiver tank. Care should be taken not to
256
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
denser
will
much
of the conFrit
lubes,
the
Most
with a
equipped
number of tubes per pass varies inversely with the number of passes. For example, assuming
that a condenser has a total of forty tubes, if
there are
split
water
circuit.
The two
series for
parts of the
circuit are
connected in
J
waste-water
systems (Fig.
pass
the
is
twenty, whereas
As a
general rule,
number of
It is
up
to
approximately
10
tons
total
capacity,
quantity,
culating
water
coils.
two-pass condenser. Because of the higher velocity the transfer coefficient will be higher for the
which a number of
four-pass condenser
and held
Construc-
The
con-
densing water
is
However, on the other hand, because of the high pressure drop, the power required to circulate the water will be greater. Hence, for a waste- water system, the- four-pass condenser is
capacity.
which may be either steel or copper, bare or extended surface. The refrigerant is contained in the steel shell between the tube sheets. Water circulates in the annular spaces between the tube sheets and the end-piates, the end-plates being baffled to act as manifolds to guide the water flow through the tubes. The arrangement of the end-plate bathing determines the number of passes the water makes through the condenser
probably
the
best
selection,
whereas
for
a
is
probably the better of the two.* Shcil-and-fube condensers are available in capacities ranging from 2 tons up to several
*
This example
is
principles of design
to
mean
157
Hg.
tion.
condenser cortfiguriofl*.
(fl)
Trombone
configuration,
(t)
HeUlt configura-
hundred tons or more. Shell diameters range from approximately 4 in, up to 60 in,, whereas tube length varies from approximately j ft to 20 ft. The number and the diameter or the tubes depend on the diameter of the shell. Tube
through 2 in. are common, whereas the number of Lubes in the condenser varies from as few as six or eight to as many as a
diameters of
g in.
Table R-I4 are based on condensing temperatures of 102 and 105^ F, 20" and 10" water rise
and 0.0005
scale factor
which
is
the
minimum
Condensers must not be selected for less than gpm per tube below which streamline instead
permit
mechanical
of turbulent water flow occurs. ART standards indicate that the water velocity should not exceed E fps which is 5.75 gpm per tube for
large
ammonia
vertical
condensers.
condenser
side).
-44.
th a
2.
3. 4.
5.
bottom
to carry the
water away. Bach tube is equipped at the top with a distributor fitting which imparts a rotating
avail-
motion
adequate wetting
6.
scale factor.
of the lube.
The hot
Then proceed
1
the condenser
and the
The height of vertical shell-and-tube condensers ranges from 12 ft to IE ft. The tubes are
mechanically clcanabk.
temperature
2.
Rating
rise
and
The
is
reprinted directly
from the manufacturer's catalog, the only alter* ation being the. table designations. Courtesy of
gpm may
R-14.
Knowing
be obtained by reference to Fig. 3, Table Use corrected tons to determine the total
required.
Acme
Industries, Inc.
gpm
258
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration load
the temperature differences 3. Determine between the condensing temperature and the "water in" and "water out" temperatures and find the METD by referring to Table 11-1. 4. Make preliminary selection of condenser shell diameter by reference to Table R-14, basing the selection on the corrected tons found
in step
1
.
30 tons
100
30
Condensing temperature
Suction temperature
F F
78F
12
ft
7.5 psi
the
gpm
per
From
Fig.
2,
5. Select the desired scale factor by reference to Table 14-1 which suggests scale factors for
used factor
is
0.0005 and
mind when
tion
is
selecting
temperature and 100 F condensing temperature is 1.013. 30 x 1.013 = 30.4 tons Corrected tons 2. From Fig. 3, for 2 gpm/ton the water temperature rise is found to be 14.4. Total gpm 30.4 x 2 = 60.8 78 plus 14.4 Water "out" temperature
30
suction
being
will
92.4
which
be required.
GTD
LTD
6. Referring to Fig. 1, Table R-14, determine the rate of heat transfer "/" for the gpm per
100 100
11-1,
78
22
92.4
7.6
From Table
4.
METD =
13.55
tube in step 4 and the scale factor in step 5. 7. Calculate the surface required by use of the
following formula.
Square
feet
of surface
=
8.
Refer to Table R-14. Use of four passes will usually give an economical selection for 75 F water in and 95 F water out which approximates the required water conditions. Note that a lOf shell will probably be needed. This shell has sixty tubes.
per tube gpm or r
METD
Be
sure to
Select
_ =
5.
60.8
x 4
60
4.05
Make
a.
final
checks on selection.
Using the gpm per tube from step 4 and the nominal tube length shown in Table R-14 for the model selected in step 8, refer to Fig. 4 of Table R-14 to obtain water pressure drop through condenser. b. Obtain nominal operating charge from the last column of Table R-14. This is the maximum weight of liquid refrigerant which can be allowed in the shell during the operating period covering
Referring to Table 14-1, for clean river water and over 3 fpm velocity, the suggested
scale factor
6.
is
0.001.
1, the V factor for 4.05 gpm per tube and 0.001 scale factor is 121.5 Btu per hour per square foot of extended surface per F
From Fig.
METD.
7.
Square
feet required
U factor
METD
30.4 x 14,400
121.5 x 13.55
some of
_ ~
266 sq
ft
Larger
shell
needed during operation. the pump down capacity c. Determine from Table R-14. If less than the total weight of refrigerant to be used in the system and provision for complete pump-down are required, an additional receiver should be used.
8. Referring to Table R-14, a Model STF1010 has 289 sq ft external tube surface and should be selected. When installed the water connection should be made for four-pass
operation.
9. (a).
refer to Fig.
Example
14-9.
Select
an R-12 condenser
4 and note that the pressure drop for 4.05 gpm per tube in an STF-1010 condenser connected for four passes is 7.1 psi. (b). Table R-14 shows a nominal operating charge of 38 lb of R-12, which will normally be sufficient for a 30-ton
259
storage
is
essentially
a function of the wet bulb temperature of the entering air. In general, the lower the entering wet bulb temperature, the greater the vapor
pressure differential
capacity.
com-
provides a reasonable
all
operating
wetted surfaces in the tower, and (3) the combined surface of the water droplets falling
the
lowest
temperature
to
a typical simplified condenser rating table. 14-14. Cooling Towers. Cooling towers are
essentially
vices.
water conservation or recovery dewater from the condenser is pumped over the top of the cooling tower from where it falls or is sprayed down to the tower
Warm
basin.
as
it
gives
The temperature of the water is reduced up heat to the air circulating through
the tower.
Although there is some sensible heat transfer from the water to the air, the cooling effect in a cooling tower results almost entirely from the evaporation of a portion of the water as the
water
falls
The heat
to
is
which the water can be cooled in a cooling tower is the wet bulb temperature of the entering air, in which case the water vapor in the leaving air will be saturated. In actual practice, it is not possible to cool the water to the wet bulb temperature of the air. In most cases, the temperature of the water leaving the tower will be 7 to 10 F above the wet bulb temperature of the entering air. Too, the air leaving the tower will always be somewhat less than saturated. The temperature difference between the temperature of the water leaving the tower and the wet bulb temperature of the entering air is called the tower "approach." As a general rule,
all
drawn from the remaining mass of the water so that the temperature of the mass is reduced. The vapor resulting from the evaporating process is carried away by the air circulating
through the tower. Since both the temperature and the moisture content of the air are increased as the air passes through the tower, it is evident that the effectiveness of the cooling tower depends to a large degree on the wet bulb temperature of the entering air. The lower the wet bulb temperature of the entering air, the more
effective is the cooling tower.
air.
However,
water in passing through the tower (the difference between the entering and leaving water
temperatures)
is
influenced
water
4-8).
Some of
rise of the water in the condenser.* The load on a cooling tower can be approximated by measuring the water flow rate over the
the
mean
*
and amount of
is
used. See
Section 14-17.
260
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
depends on the design of the tower and the wind
velocity.
tower and the entering and leaving water temperatures. The following equation is applied
flow rate(gpm) Tower load(Btu/min) x 8.33 x (entering water temperature
(14-12)
"Bleed-off" is the continuous or intermittent wasting of a certain percentage of the circulated water in order to avoid a build-up in the concentration of dissolved mineral solids and other
impurities in the condenser water.
solids in the condenser will build
Example 14-10. Determine the approximate load on a cooling tower if the entering and leaving water temperatures are 96 F and 88 F, respectively, and the flow rate of the water over the tower is 30 gpm.
Solution.
Without
up quite rapidly
is
propor-
Applying
(Btu/min)
= =
30 x 8.33
x (96
88)
to maintain
2000 Btu/min
Since the load on the tower is equal to the load on the condenser, the approximate refrigerating capacity of the system can be computed by dividing the tower load by the condenser load in Btu/min/ton corresponding to the operating
conditions of the system.
the refrigerating capacity of an R-13 system operating on the cooling tower of Example 14-10, if the evaporating and condensing temperatures are 20 F and
14-1
1.
the concentration of dissolved mineral solids at a reasonable level depends upon the cooling
range, the water flow rate,
and the
initial
water
cooling ranges are given in Table 14-2. To determine the quantity of water loss by bleedoff,
Example
Compute
Example 14-12. Determine the quantity of water lost by bleed-off if the water flow rate over the tower is 30 gpm and the range is 10 F.
Solution.
110 F, respectively.
Solution.
From
From
Fig. 14-1,
the load
on the condenser
= = =
0.33
247 Btu/min/ton
The quantity of
water lost by bleed-off 30
0.099
system
=
evaporated
The bleed-off line should be located in the hot water return line near the top of the tower so that water is wasted only when the pump is running (Fig. 14-8). Make-up water, to replace that lost by evaporation,
drift,
8.1
tons
and
bleed-off,
is
piped to the
pound of water
is approximately 1000 Btu, assuming condenser load of 250 Btu/min/ton, the quantity of water evaporated per ton of refrigeration (evaporator) is approximately 0.25 lb
per minute or 2 gal per hour. In addition to the water lost by evaporation, water is lost from the cooling tower by "drift" small amount of water in and by "bleed-off."
is entrained and away by the air passing through the tower. Water lost in this manner is called the drift loss. The amount of drift loss from a tower
tower basin through a float valve which tends to maintain a constant water level in the basin. 14-15. Cooling Tower Design. According to the method of air circulation, cooling towers are classified as either natural draft or mechanical draft. When air circulation through the tower is by natural convection, the tower is called a natural draft or atmospheric tower. When air circulation through the tower is by action of a fan or blower, the tower is called a mechanical draft tower. Mechanical draft towers may be further classified as either induced draft or forced draft, depending on whether the fan or
261
to
its
Hot water
to the bottom of the tower. Atmospheric towers containing decking are called "splashdeck." Often, in splash-deck towers, no spray
fall
is broken up into by the "splash-impact" method. The quantity and velocity of the air passing
through a natural draft cooling tower depend on the wind velocity. Hence, the capacity of a natural draft tower varies with the wind velocity, as does the amount of "drift" experienced. Too,
Make-up water
from
city
main
freely
common.
air
through.
schematic diagram of a
is
shown
in Fig.
through mechanical draft towers is by action of a fan or blower, small mechanical draft towers can be installed indoors as well as out-of-doors, provided that
air
Since
circulation
shown in
Figs. 14-14
and and
an adequate amount of outside air is ducted into and out of the indoor location. Too, since larger air quantities and higher velocities can be
used, the capacity of a mechanical draft tower
In the spray-type atmospheric tower, the water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the tower where it is sprayed down
warm
per unit of physical size is considerably greater than that of the natural draft tower. In addition,
through the tower through a series of spray nozzles. Since the amount of exposed water
surface depends primarily
most mechanical
of decking or
ciency.
some sort
effi-
fill
on the spray
pattern,
a good spray pattern is essential to high effiThe type of spray pattern obtained ciency.
depends on the design of the nozzles. For most nozzle designs, a water pressure drop of 7 to 101b per square inch will produce a suitable
spray pattern.
Some natural
filling
(usually of
14-16. Cooling Tower Rating and Selection. Table R.-16 contains rating data for the spraytype, natural draft cooling tower illustrated in Fig. 14-13 and is a typical cooling tower rating table. Notice that the tower ratings are given in tons, based on a heat transfer capacity of 250
in
Water
distributor
"Air out
Fig.
14-14.
Small
Induced
draft-cooling tower.
262
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Air out
f,
I
Spray
>Teliminators
Wood
fill
cooling tower.
Air in
Water out
Btu/min/ton. Nominal tower ratings are based on a 3 mi per hour wind velocity, and 80 F
design wet bulb temperature, and a water flow
rate over the tower of
from 96
78 F.
Exam pie 4- 4. It is desired to cool 90 gpm F to 86 F when the design wet bulb is
1 1
R-16.
performance at conditions other than those listed in the table can be determined by using the rating correction chart that accompanies the
table.
Solution
= = =
96 86
86 78
= =
10
8
proper tower from the rating table, the following data must be known:
select the
1
To
From
tion
rating correc-
chart,
range-ap1.1
proach factor
Desired tower capacity in tons (compressor
capacity)
From wet
Design wet bulb temperature Desired leaving water temperature (condenser entering water temperature or tower approach)
2.
3.
Nominal gpm
= = =
R-16, for
1.04
90 x
103
1.1
x 1.04
From Table
select tower,
103
or
1.
Model #SA-68
14-15.
It is
2.
3.
Desired flow rate over the tower (gpm) Design wet bulb temperature Desired entering and leaving water tem(tower
cooling
Example
peratures
range
and tower
for 30 tons at 5 gpm/ton to a 5 F approach of an 80 F wet bulb. Select the proper tower from
approach)
Table R-16.
Solution
Example 14-13. From Table R-16, select a cooling tower to meet the following conditions: =20 tons 1. Required tower capacity
2.
Total
gpm required
gpm/
30 x 5
rating cor-
for 30 tons at 5
= =
78
86
ton
150
gpm
3.
From
R-16, select tower, Model #CSA-66, which has a capacity of 20.7 tons at the desired conditions when the flow rate over the tower is 3 gpm per ton. Hence, for 20-tons capacity, a total of 60 gpm (20 x 3) must be circulated over the tower. As shown in the table, the entering water temperature will be approximately 96 F.
Solution.
From Table
proach
=
bulb
1.15
From wet
1.0
Nominal gpm
gpm
263
From Table
select
gpm
nominal,
Tower gpm x tower range x 500 = condenser gpm x condenser rise x 500
Eliminating the constant,
14-17.
Condenser By-Pass.
tower range and approach, the entering and leaving water temperatures will depend only on the wet bulb temperature of the air. Hence, in
regions (particularly coastal areas) where the
(14-13)
Example
14-16.
outdoor wet bulb temperature is relatively high, a closer approach to the wet bulb temperature is required in order to maintain a reasonable condensing temperature with an economical condenser size than in areas where the wet-bulb temperature is lower. It has already been shown that, in general, the greater the quantity of water circulated over the tower per unit of capacity the closer the leaving water temperature will approach the wet bulb temperature. Therefore, in regions having a high wet bulb temperature,
it
desired condenser water entering temperature is 87 F and the desired temperature rise through
the condenser
is
10 F.
2.
The total gpm circulated over the tower The temperature of the water entering the The tower cooling range The temperature of the water
tower
3.
4.
leaving the
is
condenser
5. 6.
The gpm circulated through the condenser The gpm circulated through the by-pass
#SA-58 has a
R-16, tower, Model capacity of 25 tons at an 80 F wet bulb temperature and a 7 approach. This capacity is based on a water flow rate of 4
Solution.
From Table
7.5
permitted to by-pass
87).
Total
gpm
pumping head. The advantage of the condenser by-pass is that it makes possible the maintenance of reasonable condensing temperatures with moderate condenser and tower sizes without greatly increasing the pumping head. The quantity of
water flowing through the by-pass
is
for 25 tons
= =
regulated
= 94.5 F
Tower range
by the hand valve in the by-pass line. Once the hand valve has been adjusted for the proper flow
rate through the by-pass, the handle should be
=
condenser
94.5
87
7.5
removed from the valve so that the valve adjustment cannot be changed indiscriminately. An excessive amount of water flowing through the
by-pass will not only tend to starve the con-
=
gpm
87
10
97
it
_ Tower gpm x
tower range
rise
may
pump motor
to
become
Condenser
_ =
100 x 7.5
10
The desired flow rate through the determined by subtracting the flow rate through the condenser from the flow rate over the tower. This will be illustrated presently. Since the cooling tower capacity must of
inoperative.
is
by-pass
75
gpm
through
condenser
Gpm
by-pass
circulated
necessity
follows that:
gpm
364
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
of the condenser into fhe
in the
air,
the source
of the
condenser
coil.
\^J|/ / Eliminators
Spray
Refrigerant
The cooling produced is approximately 1000 titu per pound of water evaporated. All the heat
given up by the refrigerant in the condenser
eventually leaves the condenser as either sensible
vapor
in
i c
,,
air.
>:
1
Refrigerant
liquid Out
3
Condensing
coil
of the condenser depends, in part, on the wet bulb temperature of the entering air. The lower the wet bulb temperature of the entering air the
Air in
more
To
M-thL'-ut:
.'iL.'.'J
condensing
!;-~.-I Water tank
-_-_-_-_-:
coil
usually
Ti
con-
manufacturer and depends to a large extent on the amount of air and water circulated. Generally, the capacity of the evaporative condenser increases as the quantity of air circulated through the condenser increases. As a
practical matter, the
denser.
maximum
quantity of air
14-18.
Evaporative Condeneers.
is
An
evapo-
rative condenser
essentially
a water Conser-
and is, in effect, a condenser and a cooling tower combined into a single unit. A
vation device
diagram of
a typical evaporative
condenser
is
air
The pumped from the sump up to the spray header, sprays down over the refrigerant coils and returns to the sump. The air is drawn in
in the evaporative condenser. at the bottom of the condenser by action of the blower and is discharged back to the outside at the top of the condenser. In
some cases, both pump and biower are driven by the same motor. In others, separate motors are used. The eliminators installed in the air
Stream above the spray header arc to prevent entrained water from being carried over into the blower. Art alternate arrangement, with the blower iocated on the entering air side oF the condenser, is shown in Fig. 14-17. Although the actual thermodynamic processes taking place in the evaporative condenser are somewhat complex., the fundamental process
is
Fig. 14-17.
Cutaway view
of "Dri-Fan" evaporative
condenser.
Bering, Inc.
au (ornate bleed-off.
Water
is
evapo-
Engineering, Inc.)
265
is
The
condenser should be sufficient to keep the tube surface thoroughly wetted in order to obtain maximum efficiency from the tube surface and to minimize the rate of scale formation. However, a water flow rate in excess of the amount
required for adequate wetting of the tubes will
pump
denser capacity.
Assuming a condenser load of 15,000 Btu per hour per ton, the water lost by evaporation is approximately 15 lb (2 gal) per hour per ton (15,000/1000). In addition to the water lost by evaporation, a certain amount of water is lost by drift and by bleed-off. The amount of water lost by drift and by bleed-off is approximately l.S to 2.5 gal per hour per ton, depending upon the design of the condenser and the quality of water used. Hence, total water consumption for an evaporative condenser is between 3 and 4 gal per hour per ton.
Solution. Since the rating table is in terms of evaporator load at 40 F, it is necessary to correct for other evaporator temperatures by using a correction factor from R-17B as follows: Tons x evaporator correction factor = Rating table tons Therefore, 6 x 1.05 = 6.3 tons. Referring to Table R-17A, the E-135F has a capacity of only 5.6 tons at 78 F entering wet bulb and 105 F condensing temperature. It does, however, have the required capacity of 6.3 tons at between 105 F and 110 F condensing temperature. The compressor ratings should then be checked to see if the compressor originally selected has the required capacity at between 105 F and 110 F condensing temperature. If not, it will be necessary to select the next larger size evaporative condenser or compressor to do
the job.
The next larger size evaporative condenser, the E-270F, has a capacity of 11.2 tons at the given conditions; however, the required capacity of 6.3 tons will be obtained at a condensing temperature between 90 and 95 F. The compressor selection should then be
conditions.
14-20.
Some evaporative condensers are available equipped with desuperheating coils, which are
usually installed in the leaving air stream.
made
for these
The
Water
hot gas leaving the compressor passes first through the desuperheating coils where its temperature is reduced before it enters the condensing
coils.
automatically controlled
The desuperheating
scaling rate
coils tend to
(Fig. 14-18). The on the water line at the inlet of the condenser and is actuated by the compressor
by lowering the
When
the compressor
modulate the
sump of
the
An
amount of liquid subcooling. 14-19. Rating and Selection of Evaporative Condensers. Table.R-17 is a typical evaporative condenser rating table.
on the temperature
between the condensing temperature and the design wet bulb temperature. The following sample selection is reprinted directly from the
manufacturer's catalog data:*
condenser
is
reduced accordingly.
Example
*
Select
an evaporative con-
limits, the
condensing pressure
will usually
be
McQuay
Products.
Hi
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Exterior view,
Inc.)-
When
valve remains
la flow
which time the valve closes off completely and shuts o FT the water flow. When the compressor cycles on again, ihc water valve
at
minimum,
mum
at
ambient temperature
in the
summertime
remains closed
until
Too, the shut-off pressure of the valve must be high enough so that the minimum condensing temperature in
the condenser location. the wintertime
is sufficiently
denser builds up to the valve opening pressure, at which time the valve opens and permits water
to flow Lh rough the condenser.
high to provide a
pressure differential across the refrigerant conlarge enough to assure its proper operation. The capacity of water regu Sating valves varies with the size of the valve and the pressure drop
trol
The opening
is
approximately 7 psi
pressure.
is set
orifice.
The
available pressure
is
orifice
determined by
The minimum operating pressure for the valve, that is, the shut-off pressure, must be set high enough so that the valve will not remain open and permit water to flow through the condenser when the compressor is on the off cycle.
Since the saturation temperature of the refrig-
drop available
Water regulating
from flow charts (Table fl-lS), In order to select the proper valve from the flow chart, the
267
(2)
the
maximum
ambient temperature in the summertime; (3) the desired condensing temperature; and (4) the available water pressure drop across the
valve.
is 40 psig and manufacturer's table drop through condenser and accompanying piping and valves as 15 psi. Drop through
gives
piping approximately 4 psi. Select proper size of water regulating valve from Table R-18.
installed
Solution
1.
from the
litera-
Draw
the required
Draw a line through 27 gpm see dotted upper half of Flow Chart (Table R-18). 2. Closing point of valve is pressure of R-12 corresponding to 86 F ambient = 93 psig. 3. Opening point of valve is 93 + 7 = 100
line,
psig.
4.
Determine refrigerant condensing pressure rise above valve opening point. a. Valve closing point (to assure closure under all conditions) must be the refrigerant condensing pressure equivalent to the highest ambient air temperature expected at time of maximum load. Read this in psig from "Saturated Vapor Table" for refrigerant selected.
b.
Condensing pressure
rise
125
100
25
psi.
Read from
the
same
5. Draw line through 25 psisee dotted line, lower half of Flow Chart. 6. Available water pressure drop through valve = 40 - 19 = 21 psi. 7. Interpolate just over the 20 psi curve circle on lower half of Flow Chart. 8. Draw vertical line upward from this point to flow line circle on Flow Chart marks this
intersection.
9.
This intersection
falls
be about 7 psi
1 in.
and \\
in. valves.
The
valve
is re-
above closing point. d. Subtract opening pressure from operating pressure. This gives the condensing
pressure
3.
rise.
quired.
14-21. Condenser Controls. For reasons of economy, the condensing medium is circulated
Draw
the valve
through the condenser only when the compressor is operating. Hence, common practice is to cycle the condenser fan and/or pump on and off with the compressor. This is usually
accomplished by electrically interlocking the fan and/or pump circuit with the compressor driver circuit. Method of interlocking electrical circuits are discussed in Chapter 21. Whereas high pressure controls are always desirable as safety devices on any type of system, they are absolutely essential on all equipment
available
Determine the minimum water pressure from city mains or other source. b. From condensing unit manufacturer's tables read pressure drop through condenser
a.
between water valve and condenser, and from condenser to drain (or
through piping,
etc.,
sump
d.
of cooling tower).
Subtract total condenser and piping drop from available water pressure. This is the
available pressure drop through the valve.
employing water as the condensing medium in order to protect the equipment against damage from high condensing pressures and temperatures in the event that the water supply becomes restricted or is shut-off completely. The high
pressure control has already been discussed in
Section 13-13.
Example. 14-18. The required flow for an R-12 system is found to be 27 gpm. Condensing pressure is 125 psig and the maximum ambient temperature estimated at 86 F. City water
a refrigerating system is to function proand efficiently, the condensing temperature must be maintained within certain limits. As previously described, high condensing temperaIf
perly
By permission of Penn
Indiana.
268
in
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
damage
of the compressor to the compressor
capacity of the condenser during periods
some
cases, overloading
when
light.
abnormally low condensing temperature, on the other hand, will cause an insufficient pressure differential across the refrigerant con(condensing pressure to vaporizing pressure), which reduces the capacity of the control
trol
An
employed to control the capacity of the condenser vary somewhat with the type of condenser used,
the
all
quantity of condensing
medium
amount of
effective
and
results in starving
As a
Condenser capacity control devices are usually actuated by pressure or temperature controls which respond to condensing pressure or
temperature.
tures result
from
either
With regard
and (2) light refrigerating loads. Naturally, the problem of low condensing temperatures is more
acute in the wintertime apt to be low.
when
the
ambient
condensing temperature is maintained within the desired limits by varying the air quantity through the condenser or by causing a portion
of the condenser to become
as to reduce the
surface.
filled
with liquid so
To
sufficiently
The
air quantity
some provision
(open on drop
in
pressure)
of air-cooled condensers,
(a)
available
condenser.
inlet
Constant pressure
throttling valve
Air-cooled
condenser
2,869,330.)
From
condenser
outlet
To
receiver
(b)
269
of dampers placed in the air stream. Because it tends to cause large fluctuations in the condensing temperature, cycling of the fan cannot
is
controlled by the regulating valve installed between the condenser and the receiver. This
valve
is
be recommended as a means of controlling the capacity of air-cooled condensers. Modulating dampers installed in the air stream provide satisfactory control of the air quantity in many
cases, although
throttles
some
difficulty is
experienced
is
exposed to
controlling
The up the liquid in the condenser, thus reducing the amount of effective The subcooled liquid condensing surface. coming from the condenser is forced through
position as the condensing pressure drops.
throttling action backs
more
satisfactory
method of
the heat exchanger portion of the pressure stabilizer and receives enough heat from the hot
the capacity of air-cooled condensers is to vary the amount of effective condensing surface by
gas
to
satisfactorily
establish
the
balanced
causing the liquid refrigerant to back up into the lower portion of the condenser whenever the
pressure temperature relationship in the receiver. This assures satisfactory condensing pressure
and a
solid
column of
condensing pressure drops below the desired minimum. To accomplish this, one design of capacity control employs a modulating valve
installed in
control.
The pressure
stabilizer is designed
with a pre-
a by-pass
line
between the
inlet
and
the
As
determined pressure drop to insure against liquid refrigerant reheating during warm weather operations. During high ambient air tempera-
where the condensing temperature is above the setting of the regulating valve, the liquid flows through the valve, which is fully open, and
tures,
thereby by-passes the heat exchanger section (Fig. 14-21a). In Fig. 14-216, as the ambient
temperature drops to 50
perature drops below the setting of the regulating valve. The valve then modulates toward
the closed position,
retained in the lower portion of the condenser, is automatically controlled by the modulating
valve
and
receiver
tank
pressure.
flow of liquid through the regulating valve. Consequently, the liquid backs up in the condenser until the condensing surface is reduced
restrict the
amount of
descrip-
approximately 60%. The liquid which is forced to pass through the heat exchanger section is
then heated up to the saturation temperature. When the ambient temperature drops to 0 F
(Fig. 14-2 lc), the regulating valve throttles to
The following
tion of the operation of the pressure stabilizer is reprinted directly from the manufacturer's
engineering data.*
The pressure stabilizer is a heat transfer surface which transfers the heat from the hot gas discharge of the compressor to the subcooled liquid leaving the condenser. This heat exchange
* Courtesy
hold 120 psi in the condenser. The liquid logs in the condenser so that approximately 10% of the surface is utilized to condense the hot gas. With regard to evaporative condensers, capacity control is best obtained
through regulation
Dunham-Bush,
Inc.
of the air quantity through the condenser, which can be accomplished either by cycling the blower
270
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Cycling of the pump as a means of controlling the capacity of an evaporative condenser cannot
r'
*'
136
g^
be recommended.
'
'
)
PTTX. ........
....'.j
efficiency of the condenser and greatly increases maintenance costs. With reference to water-cooled condensers,
recall
and condensing
the quantity
used,
is
^T"f J
l..."..'.'..-"l^J,l
,II'I.H'..I|
of the waterregulating valve controls the water flow rate through the condenser and maintains the condensing temperature above the desired minimum so that low condensing temperatures are not
usually a problem with waste water systems. On the other hand, since the flow rate of the water
modulating action
through the condenser on a recirculating water is maintained constant, the condensing temperature decreases as the temperature of the water leaving the tower decreases. Therefore,
system
when the ambient air temperature is low, the condensing temperature will also be low unless
some means
0* Amb., R-12 102* Cond. temp.
is
ffi'A'.",;.',..',-.'.'M
temperature of the water leaving the tower. One method of controlling the condensing temperature in a recirculating water system is to
a water-regulating valve in the water line The modulating action of the water valve will restrict the water flow rate through the condenser in response to a drop in the condensing pressure. When a waterinstall
regulating valve
is used in a recirculating water system, the pressure drop through the valve must be taken into account in computing the
total
draft cooling towers are used, the condensing temperature can be main-
tained at the desired level through regulation of the tower leaving water temperature. As in the
pressure stabilizer.
(Courtesy Dunham-Bush,
Inc.)
case of the evaporative condenser, this can be accomplished by cycling the tower fan or by
installing
dampers
or by installing dampers in the air stream. Of the two methods, the latter is usually the most
satisfactory, especially
and the
air quantity
function, water-regulating valves should never be used in recirculating water systems, since they tend to restrict the water flow and increase the pumping
head unnecessarily.
271
the com-
pressor and/or condenser are so located that they are exposed to low ambient temperatures, the
pressure in these parts
may
fall
considerably
below that in the evaporator during the compressor off-cycle. In such cases, the liquid
refrigerant,
4
^Modulating dampers
fa
in
the evaporator, very often tends to migrate to the area of lower pressure in the compressor and
Water bleeds
condenser.
With no
Drain-
not reflected by a corresponding increase pressure, and, where the sysevaporator in the tem is controlled by a low pressure motor control, the rise in evaporator pressure may not
is
Float valve
be sufficient to actuate the control and cycle the system on in response to an increase in the evaporator temperature. Corrective measures are several. One is to
install
Overflow
1
Fig.
14-23. Evaporative
rm\k
Sump
tank
Pump
a thermostatic motor control in series with the low pressure control. The thermostat is adjusted to cycle the system on and off,
whereas the low pressure control serves only as a safety device. Another, and usually more practical, solution is to isolate the condenser during the off-cycle. One method of isolating the condenser during the off-cycle is illustrated in Fig. 14-22. The check valve (Q in the condenser
liquid line prevents the refrigerant off in the receiver
modulating dampers for capacity control. Protected pump is designed to prevent freezing during winter operation. (Courtesy Refrigeration Engineerauxiliary
ing Inc.)
denser during the off-cycle. The (R) valve, which closes on drop of pressure at the valve
inlet, closes
the compressor stops, preventing the flow of refrigerant from the evaporator, through the compressor valves and
when
discharge line, into the condenser. With the condenser isolated, the evaporator pressure can build up and start the compressor regardless of
the ambient temperature at the condenser. Another and rather obvious problem con-
Air-cooled
condenser
pressure)
cerning the operation of evaporative condensers and cooling towers in the wintertime is the
ggB%g
Check valve To
liquid_
danger of freezing when the equipment is exposed to freezing temperatures. In general, the measures employed to prevent freezing are similar to those used to prevent low condensing
temperatures, that is, controlling the air quantity through the tower by the use of dampers or by
From
receiver
_y
In addition, an auxiliary
sump
discharge
must be
and the piping arranged so that the water drains by gravity into the auxiliary sump and does not
installed in
warm
location
head and receiver pressures when the compressor starts by allowing the compressor to impose its full discharge pressure on the liquid through the open (W) valve. When the receiver pressure is up to
normal, the (R) valve opens and allows the discharge gas to flow to the condenser. (Courtesy Kramer
and
14-24).
As a general
little
condensers require
Trenton Company.)
maintenance other than regular lubrication of the fan and motor bearings. However, the
272
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
j
**
^^^^^^
tubes by applying an approved inhibited acid compound, many of which are available in either liquid or powder form. After the tower
Tower
static
or condenser
drained, cleaned,
head
I
Additional
static
and filled with fresh water, the cleaning compound can be added directly to the sump water. The pump is then started and the cleaner is
circulated through the system until the system
clean, at
is
head
Indoor
tank
which time the sump is again drained, flushed, and filled with clean water before the system is placed in normal operation. It should be pointed out that descaling compounds have an acid base and should not be
allowed to contact grass, shrubs, or painted
surfaces.
Therefore,
it is
usually advisable to
nozzles, if any,
When
is
required,
muriatic acid
on the condenser tubes. The system pump should not be used to circuacid should be used only
late the acid.
Fig. 14-24. Protected indoor tank.
small
fan blades and condensing surface should be inspected occasionally for the accumulation of dust and other foreign materials. These parts
for this purpose (see Fig. 14-25). After the condenser is clean, it should be flushed with clean water or with an acid neutralizer as
Any
subject to scaling of the condenser tubes, corrosion, and the growth of algae and bacterial
Condenser
slime
on
all
is
con-
by frequent cleaning of the infected parts and by the use of various algaecides which are
trolled
available commercially.
As
primarily
previously stated, the scaling rate depends upon the condensing temperature and
the quality of water used. The scaling rate will be relatively low where the condenser leaving water temperature is below 100 F. Too, the importance of providing for the recommended
amount of bleed-off cannot be overemphasized with regard to keeping the scaling rate at a
minimum. In
the
addition, a
number of chemical
the scaling
rate.
Scale can be
273
From Table R-12, select an air-cooled condenser for a compressor having a capacity of 42,000 Btu/hr if the design suction and discharge temperatures are 40 F and 130 F, respectively, and the outdoor design dry bulb temperature for the region is 95 F.
9.
PROBLEMS
1.
temperature of 0 F and a condensing temperature of 100 F. From Chart 14-1, determine the heat load on the condenser in Btu per minute per ton of refrigeration. Ans. 257 Btu/min/ton
porator
10
R-22 system operating with a 40 F evaporator and a 110 F condenser has an evaporator load of 10 tons. Determine the heat load on the condenser in Btu/hr.
2.
An
Water quantity
2.5
gpm/ton
Rework Problem
10 using a condensing
temperature of 120 F.
12. cooling tower and a water-cooled condenser (with by-pass) are operating with a condenser load of 240,000 Btu/hr. Forty-eight gpm are circulated through the condenser and 32 gpm are by-passed. The ambient wet bulb temperature is 78 F and the tower approach is
rejected to a water-cooled con120,000 Btu/hr. How many square feet of effective tube surface must this condenser have if the factor of the condenser is 100 Btu/hr/sq ft/ F and the is 5 F at the desired gpm? Ans. 240 sq ft
The heat
is
denser
METD
4. The heat load on the evaporator of an air conditioning system is 60,000 Btu/hr. If the coefficient of performance of the system is 4 : 1, what is the heat load on the condenser in Btu/hr ?
7 F.
(a)
Determine:
condenser.
(6)
condenser.
densing temperature has an evaporator load of 5 tons. If the condenser is selected for a 12 F water temperature rise, how many gpm must be circulated through the condenser? Ans. 11.5 gpm
(c) The temperature of the water entering the cooling tower. Ans. 91 F (</) The tower range. Ans. 6 F
Seventy-two gallons of water per minute are circulated through a water-cooled condenser. If the temperature rise of the water in the condenser is 14 F, what is the heat load on the
6.
condenser?
7.
R-12 air conditioning system operating with an evaporator temperature of 40 F and a condensing temperature of 120 F has an evaporator load of 60,000 Btu/hr. 4500 cfm of
air are circulated
An
over the condenser. If the temperature of the air entering the condenser is 90 F, compute: (a) the leaving air temperature
13. compressor on a Refrigerant- 12 system has a capacity of 50 tons. The design wet bulb temperature is 78 F. The desired condenser water entering temperature is 85 F and the desired temperature rise through the condenser is 12 F. Select a cooling tower from Table R-15 and determine: (a) The total gpm circulated over the tower (b) The temperature of the water entering the tower (c) The temperature of the water leaving the condenser (d) The tower range (e) The gpm circulated through the condenser (/) The gpm by-passed
14. Select an evaporative condenser for the following conditions: Refrigerant- 12 system Evaporator load 10 tons Evaporator temperature 40 F Wet bulb temperature of entering air 78 F Condensing temperature 105 F
and
(b) the
METD.
Ans. (a) 104.6
(b) 21.89
8. If the air-cooled
a free face area of 5.5 sq ft, what is the velocity of the air through the condenser? Ans. 818 fpm
is
exerted in a
downward direction
only.
However, because of
the loose molecular structure of fluids, the gravitation force or pressure exerted at any point in a
15
Fluid Flow,
body of fluid acts equally in all directions up, down, and sideways, and always at right angles to any containing surfaces. When no force other than the force of gravity is acting on the fluid, the pressure at any depth in a body of fluid
is
depth.
When an
proportional
Centrifugal Liquid
the pressure caused by the external force. For example, assume that a flat-bottomed
container
is filled to
sq
ft
in cross section
and 10
ft
high
60
the top with water at a temperature of (Fig. 15-1). Since water at 60 F has a
is
on
the
bottom
15-1.
Fluid
Pressure.
is
the
The sum
total
pressure
static
of the
and
of the tank due to the weight of the water alone is 624 lb (10 x 62.4). Since the base area of the tank is 1 sq ft, the pressure exerted on the bottom of the tank is 624 psf or 4.33 psi
(624/144). Since this pressure acts equally in all
Pt
=P* +Pv
(15-1)
where p t
= p, = pv =
fluid
on the sides of the tank on the bottom of the tank. Assume now that level A in the water column is exactly 1 ft below the surface of the water. The volume and weight of water above this level are 1 cu ft and 62.4 lb, respectively. Since this weight of water is also evenly distributed over an
directions,
it is
exerted
which
is
area of
sq
ft,
all
directions
is
62.4 psf
a fluid which
not the
called
or 0.433
psi.
Similarly, the
motion or
velocity, regardis
located 5
ft
For
is
fluids at rest
below the surface of the water, are 5 cu ft and 3121b (5 x 62.4), respectively, and the fluid
pressure at this level
If the force exerted
is
equal to zero
312
fsf
or 2.165
psi.
and the
pressure.
on
Whereas
taken into
equally in
all directions.
This
is easily
demon-
example employing
1
on any body causes the body to exert a force which is commonly referred to as the weight of the body. For a solid material,
because of the rigid molecular structure, the
274
Assuming normal sea level pressure, the fluid pressures at levels A and B are 15.129 psi (0.433 + 14.696) and 16.861 (2.165 + 14.696), respectively, while
to the pressure of the atmosphere.
is
19.026 psi
14.696).
However,
it
should be recog-
FLUID FLOW, CENTRIFUGAL LIQUID PUMPS,
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
275
on the outside of the tank the pressure tending to burst the tank is still only that resulting from the gravitational effect on
is
exerted also
P=
For any noncompressible fluid (liquid), the pressure exerted by the fluid at any level in a
fluid
column
is
depth of the fluid at that level.* Hence, the pressure of a liquid at any level in a column of liquid can be determined by multiplying the depth at that level times the density of the fluid,
viz:
Pressure (psf)
depth
(ft)
density (lb/cu
ft)
(15-2)
depth
Pressure (psi)
(ft)
density (lb/cu
ft)
144
(15-3)
15-2.
column of
between any two levels in a "head" of the liquid at the lower level with respect to the upper level. For example, with respect to level B in Fig. 1 5- 1 , the head of the water at the base of the
vertical distance
is
With respect to the top of the column, the head of the water at the base of the column is 10 ft. Similarly, with respect to the top, the water heads at levels A and are 1 ft and 5 ft, respectively. Since the depth of the liquid at any level in a liquid column is equal to the head of the liquid
5
ft.
column
For mercury, the head-pressure ratio 1 psi. This means that a pressure of 1 psi is equivalent, to head of 2.31 ft of water column or 2.04 in. of mercury column. Conversely, a 1 ft column of water (1 ft water head) is equivalent to 0.433 psi, whereas a 1 ft column of mercury (1 ft mercury head) is equivalent to
to
is
1
psi.
2.04 in. to
24.48 psi.
of the column, head can be substituted for depth in Equation 15-3 and the following relationship between head and pressure is established:
the
made:
For any
liquid
Pressure (psi)
Head (ft) x
density (3/cu
ft)
2.
by the liquid is head of the liquid. At any given head, the pressure exerted by
144
(15-4)
T
Head
It is
,.
,, . (ft)
any liquid is directly proportional to the density of the liquid. Liquids having different densities
will exert different pressures at the
same head.
Density (lb/cu
(15-5) K
'
ft)
15-3.
is
Static
head of any
fluid is the
and fixed relationship between the head and the pressure of any liquid, the head-pressure ratio for any given liquid being dependent upon the density of the liquid. For example, in the
definite
=h + h v
s
(15-6)
where, h t
h,
is
2.31 ft
hv
= = =
not true of a compressible fluid because the density of a compressible fluid varies with the
depth.
head of any liquid is expressed as the height in feet (or inches) of a gravitational
static
The
column of that
liquid
276
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
To
V=
y/2g x h v
(15-10)
Static pr ure
f\
|-t
To
fa
/.
* 144
(15-11)
V
15-4.
independent of
Fig.
15-2. Illustrating
relationship
between
fluid
should be recognized that the head of any fluid is numerically equal to the energy per pound of fluid. For this reason, head is often used to express energy per pound of
weight or density,
the
fluid.
static, velocity,
flowing
in
a circuit.
The basic relationship of head to energy or work is shown in the following equation
:
Energy or work
(ft-lb)
mass
(lb)
x head
(ft)
is,
(15-12)
of liquid column equivalent to the static pressure of the liquid is called the static head of the
liquid.
column equivalent
liquid
is
Since velocity head (h v) is equal to V*l7g (Equation 15-7), it follows that the total velocity (kinetic) energy (E) of any given mass (Af) of fluid flowing at any given velocity (V) can be
head of the
liquid.
expressed as
The fundamental relationship between velocity and velocity head is established by Galileo's
law, which states in effect that
all falling
Ek
The
tical
=Mx
bodies,
fact that the preceding equation is iden-
final velocity
head of a
body falls. Hence, the height in feet from which a body must fall in order to attain a given velocity is the velocity head corresponding to that velocity. The velocity head corresponding to any given velocity can be determined by applying the following equation:
from which the
h
where, h v
an expression of the kinetic fluid. Similarly, it can be shown also that the static head of a fluid is an
pound of
-*"
(15-7)
the
= the velocity head in feet V = the velocity in feet per second (fps) g = the acceleration due to gravity (32.2
ft/sec/sec)
divided between the energy of position and the energy of pressure (head) depending upon the elevation. For example, in Fig. 15-1, 1 lb of water at the uppermost level in the tank has a
potential energy of position with relation to the
By combining and/or
15-7
rearranging Equations
base of 10
ft-lb (1 lb
x 10
ft)
in
accordance with
is
and
Equation
also zero.
1-8.
established:
On
lb of water at
*
To
Pv
JLxi - "14T
V* x P
no
potential energy of
10
convert velocity to velocity pressure,
ft-lb (1 lb
x 10 ft), according
1
15-12. Likewise,
lb
of water at a
midway
in the water
(15-9)
potential energy in
Ig x 144
the
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
277
For any given flow rate (quantity of flow), the a conduit varies
This relationship
is
Head
Relationthat the
all
The
fact,
conduit.
expressed by the
of a fluid
is
exerted equally in
basic equation
whereas the velocity pressure of the only in the direction of flow, makes it relatively simple to measure the static and velocity pressures (or heads) of a fluid flowing in a conduit. This is illustrated in Fig. 15-2. Notice that tube A is so connected to the conduit that the opening of the tube is exactly perpendicular to the line of flow. Since only the static pressure of the fluid will act in this direcdirections,
fluid is exerted
*-\
where
(15-13)
V= Q= A =
the velocity in feet per second the flow rate in cubic feet per second
the cross-sectional area of the conduit in square feet
is
Note. When Q is in cubic feet per minute, V will be in feet per minute. In accordance with Equation 15-13, the fluid velocity (and velocity head) in section B of the
conduit in Fig. 15-3
sections
is
a measure of the
or
static
head of
On
tube B is so arranged in the conduit that the opening of the tube is directly in the line of flow.
Since both the static pressure and the velocity
A and C, since the cross-sectional area of section B is less than that of sections A and C.
Assuming that the total head of the fluid is the same at all points in the conduit, it follows then that the static head-velocity head ratio in section B is different from that in sections A and C. As
the fluid flows through the reducer between
sections
velocity
on the opening of tube B, the height of the liquid column in tube B is a measure of the total pressure or total head
pressure of the flowing fluid act
of the fluid. Since the total pressure or head of a fluid is the sum of the static and velocity
pressures or heads,
it
Conversely,
through the
velocity
(velocity
two
fluid
columns
is
head
is
is
it is
same
at
all
How-
head may be differently divided between static head and velocity head at the several points, depending upon the velocity of
the fluid at these points.
head is in fact a conversion of potential energy (pressure) into kinetic energy (velocity).
Likewise, the conversion of velocity head to
static head represents a conversion of kinetic energy (velocity) to potential energy (pressure).
from changes
in
conduit area.
278
15-6.
PRINCIPLES
Friction
OF REFRIGERATION
It
Head.
This value
piping.
is then applied in Equation 15-14 to determine the total friction loss through the
work of overcoming friction. These energy losses are frequently expressed in terms of pressure drop or head loss. The pressure drop in psi or the head loss in feet experienced by a
result of the
fluid flowing
duit
is
between these two points. The amount of pressure drop or head loss suffered by a fluid due to friction in flowing through a conduit varies with a number of factors: (1) the viscosity and specific gravity of the fluid, (2) the velocity of the fluid, (3) the hydraulic radius (ratio of perimeter to diameter) of the conduit, (4) the roughness of the internal surface of the conduit, and (5) the length of the
conduit.
15-1. water piping system conof 128 ft of 2 in. straight pipe, 6 standard elbows, and 2 gate valves (full open). Using fairly rough pipe, if the flow rate thrdugh the system is 40 gpm, determine: (a) The total equivalent length of straight pipe (b) The total friction loss through the piping in psi and in feet of water column.
sists
Example
Solution. From Table 15-1, the equivalent lengths of 2 in. standard elbows and 2 in. gate valves (full open) are 5 ft and 1 .2 ft, respectively. From Chart 15-2, for a flow rate of 40 gpm, the
friction loss per
hundred
feet
of 2
in.
nominal
pipe
1
is
psi is
(a)
Straight pipe
Six 2 in. elbows
1.2 ft
@5
ft
= =
128.0
30.0
2.4
ft
@
160.4
ft
(b)
Applying Equation
through the piping
Chart 15-1 applies to smooth copper tube, whereas Chart 15-2 applies to fairly rough pipe. Since the pressure loss for a given pipe size and flow rate is proportional to the length of the
pipe.
XJ
loo
Converting to
ft
H4
loss
of straight pipe
equation:
is
(ft) (ft)
"
Pipe
offer
100
pressure loss/100
ft (psi)
(15-14)
15-7.
fittings,
such as elbows,
a greater resistance to flow than does and therefore must be taken into account in determining the total friction loss through the piping. For convenience, this is done by considering the fittings as having a resistance equal to a certain length of straight pipe called the "equivalent length." Table 15-1
straight pipe
lists
A
is
centrifugal
pump
consists
mainly of a
is
enclosed
the equivalent length of straight pipe for and valves. Notice that
drawn in through the "eye" of the impeller and is thrown to the outer edge or periphery of the impeller by centrifugal force. Considerable velocity and pressure are imparted to the liquid in the process. The liquid leaving the periphery of the impeller is collected in die casing and
directed through the discharge opening (Fig.
15-4).
When
is
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
279
impeller
of the
pump
is
pumpare
5-5).
connected together by
flexible coupling.
pump
depends on the design and size of the pump and on the speed of the motor. For a pump of
specific size, design,
Typical
centrifugal
Bell
asig m bl y
(Gourteiy
&
Getsttt
pump
more
pump can
it
facturer's ratings,
necessary to
know
the
required
gpm and
the total
pumping head
pump must operate. Total Pumping Head. The total pumping head is the sum of the static head and the
against which the
15-8.
friction head.
The static head is the vertical distance between the "free liquid level' and the highest
1
lifted by the pump. For the condenser-water circulating system in Fig. 15-7, the static bead, measured in
water column. Is the vertical distance in between the free water level in the tower basin and the tower spray header. Because of the water head in the tower basin, the water in
feet of feet
flow
through
centrifugal
pump.
fugal
the
pump is shown in Fig. 5-6. Notice that pumping head is maximum when the valve
is
closed, at
which
is
pump
delivery
is
zero.
As
the valve
pumps are rated in gpm of pumping heads, that is, centrifugal pumps are rated to deliver a certain gpm against a certain pumping head. Although
Centrifugal
delivery
at various
Gpm
Fig.
15-4. Centrifugal
pump
dalivery
apacity in-
erewei
{CourtMy
280
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
and cooling towers, are found
facturers' rating tables.
in the
manu-
Static
than one condenser (or chiller, used in the system, the condensers are piped in parallel and only the condenser with the
etc.) is
When more
head
largest pressure
the
the total
static
and
Total length of
straight pipe
tower should not be considered separately in determining the total pumping head. When the tower static head is the only static head in the system, the static head should be disregarded
entirely.
80
ft
However,
an auxiliary
/^valve
Condenser
Pump-^
Fig. 15-7. Condenser-water circulating system.
employed, as shown in Fig. 14-24, the vertical distance between the level of the water in the tank and the normal water level in the tower basin must be treated as a separate static head. Since pump manufacturers always express the pumping head in "feet of water column," it is necessary to compute the pumping head in these units. When the pressure loss through the several system components is given in psi or in other units of pressure, it must be converted to feet of water column before it can be used in computing the pumping head. The required conversion factors are found in Table 1-1.
indoor storage tank
*
water in the tower basin of
lifted
its
own
is
accord.
actually
by the pump
is
water level in the tower basin up to the spray header. Contrast this with the pumping system
shown
in Fig.
in Fig. 15-8.
Static
as
head
5-9, there is
no static head on the pump, on one side of the piping system balance the fluid on the other side.
which
gpm
*
|
[|Purnp|
head
is
shown
in Fig.
15-10.
Lower
tank Fig. 15-8
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
281
Example
tem shown
40 gpm
15-2.
sys-
in Fig. 15-7
erating system.
The
The flow rate through the condenser is 30 gpm (3 gpm/ton), with 10 gpm (1 gpm/ton) flowing through the condenser bypass. From the manufacturers' rating tables, the tower head based on 4 gpm/ton is 24 ft of water column, whereas toe pressure drop through the condenser for 30 gpm is 11.2 psi or 25.9 ft of water column (11.2 x 2.31). If the size of the piping is 2 in. nominal, determine the total pumping head and select the proper pump from Chart R-19.
(4 gpm/ton).
Friction loss
s
Static
head
(or elevation)
Gpm
Fig. 15-10. Friction head of piping system increases
as flow rate
Solution.
Total equiva80.0
15.0
ft
(Courtesy
Ingersoll-Rand Company.)
bows at 5 22
let)
ft
Converting to
ft
HaO
= = = = = =
3.71
x
ft
2.31
8.58
at 12 ft
24.0
valves
4.8
42
Condenser
ft
123.8
Tower
ft
From Chart
15-2,
the
57.58
ft
H2
pressure loss per 100 ft of pipe (40 gpm and 2 in. pipe)
3 psi
123.8
x 3
R-19, select pump Model #1531-28, which has a delivery capacity of 40 gpm at a 57-ft head.
From Chart
100
3.71 psi
Example 15-3. At the required flow rate of 100 gpm, a certain water system has a pumping head of 60 ft of water column. Select the proper pump from Chart R-19.
Solution. Reference to
Open balance
tank
""
Chilled water air-cooling
coil
the smallest
this
pump pump
gpm at a 60-ft head, to obtain the desired flow rate of 100 gpm, the pumping head must be increased to 73 ft of water. This is accomplished by throttling the pump with a globe valve installed on the discharge side of the
pump. (The pump should never be
the suction side.)
15-10.
throttled
on
delivery rate in pounds per minute, the total pumping head, and the efficiency of the pump,
viz:
"
total
head in
feet
pump
efficiency
is
usually in
gpm, a more
system.
use
circuit
Bhp
There
is
no
static head.
8.33 lb/gal
efficiency
282
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
lines
Combining constants,
Bhp "
Gpm
minimum amount
x
total
head in
feet
3960 x
(15 - 15)
efficiency
When
Standard weight steel pipe or Type "L" copper tubing are usually employed for condenser water piping. Pipe sizes which will provide water velocities in the neighborhood of
5 to 8 fps at the required flow rate will usually
Bhp =
Gpm
total
3960 x efficiency
(15-16)
From Equation
15-16,
it is
prove to be the most economical. For example, assume that 150 gpm of water are to be circulated through 100 equivalent feet of piping. The following approximate values of velocity and friction loss are shown in Chart 15-2 for a flow rate of 150 gpm through various sizes of pipe:
Pipe Size
(inches)
Velocity
(fps)
ft
or specific gravity
and decreases as the pump increases. pump horsepower and efficiency curves are shown in Fig. 15-11. Notice that pump horsepower is lowest at no delivery and
Typical
increases
increases.
(ftHaO)
72.8
15.5
31.5
10.5
2\
3
10.0
7.1
24.3
11.1
4.8
progressively
as
the
delivery
rate
Hence, any decrease in the pumping head will cause an increase in both the delivery rate and the power requirements of the pump.
3| 4
5.2 3.9
2.0
1.1
4.6
2.5
Pump
no
delivery,
is
is
from 2 to
increases to a
maximum
The pump
efficiency curve in
is
from 3 to 4 in. reduces the friction loss by only an additional 9.4 ft of water column (11.1 to 2.54 ft), which
further increase in the pipe size
will
obtained
when
the
pump
its
is
selected to deliver
the desired
15-11.
gpm when
operating at
some point
head-capacity curve.
of the pipe. Depending upon the characteristics of the available pump, either 3 in. or 3 J in. pipe
should be used.
clusive of
tiie
Piping Design. In general, the water piping should be designed for the mini-
Water
For
instance,
assume two
ex-
pumping heads,
ft
mum
initial
of 55 ft of water column,
for either of the
pump
systems
is
rate of 150
gpm
at a 70-ft head.
Therefore, for
15 ft (70
55),
whereas for the system having the 65-ft head, the permissible friction loss in the piping is only 5 ft (70 65). For the latter system, 3J in. pipe must be used, since the use of 3 in. pipe would result in a total pumping head in excess of the allowable 70 ft and necessitate the use of the
next larger size pump.
On
in.
Gpm
Fig. 15-1
efficiency
1.
the
most prac-
Variations
in
The use of 3 J
with delivery
(Courtesy Ingersoll-
Rand Company.)
would result in a total pumping head of only 61 ft and would necessitate throttling of the
WATER AND
BRINE PIPING
283
pump
pumping
rate of
and fittings necessary and maintenance of the water circulating system. It is good practice to install a globe valve on the discharge side of the
valves
for the proper operation
flow rate through the pipe is 60 gpm, determine: (a) The total equivalent length of straight pipe. Ans. 297.5 equivalent ft (b) The total friction loss through the pipe is feet of water column. Ans. 9.28 ft 2
If the
2.
Rework Problem
pump
when
the
3.
sists
Too, where the piping is long and/or the quantity of water in the system is
latter is critical.
90 elbows.
At the desired flow rate the pressure drop through the condenser is 7.5 psi and the
pressure drop over the tower
is
on the
inlet
and
10
ft
of water
pump and
column.
If
60
gpm
drain connection should be installed at the lowest point in the piping and the piping should
system, determine: (a) The total equivalent length of pipe. Ans. 1 30 equivalent
(b)
ft
be pitched downward so as to assure complete drainage during winter shut down. The pump must always be located at some point below the level of the water in the tower basin in order to assure positive and continuous
priming of the pump.
required, the
4.
From the manufacturer's rating curves, select a pump to fit the conditions of Problem 3.
For a Refrigerant- 12 system, select a water regulating valve to meet the following con5.
ditions:
(a)
purpose.
PROBLEMS
water piping system consists of 13S ft of nominal Type L smooth copper tube, 5 standard elbows, and 2 globe valves (full open).
1.
2.5 in.
90 to 105. Maximum entering water temperature 85 F. (c) Desired water quantity through condenser at maximum loading 9 gpm. (d) Pressure available at city main during period of peak loading 50 psi. (e) Pressure loss through condenser and water piping 12 psi.
(6)
Others,
of the refrigerants in common use at the present time. The use of these tables has already been,
16
Refrigerants
Safe Properties.
properties of the refrigerant are the prime consideration in the selection of a refrigerant. It
is
these are
hydrocarbons.
16-1.
Generally speak-
ing,
To be suitable for use as a refrigerant, a fluid should be chemically inert to the extent that it is nonflammable, nonexplosive, and nontoxic both in the pure state and when mixed in any proportion with air. Too, the fluid should not react unfavorably with the lubricating oil or with any material normally used in the construction of
refrigerating equipment.
another body or substance. With regard to the vapor-compression cycle, the refrigerant is the working fluid of the cycle which alternately vaporizes and condenses as it absorbs and gives
off heat, respectively.
Nor should
it
react
strin-
should possess certain chemical, physical, and thermodynamic properties that make it both
safe
It
some degree
thermore,
it is
Fur-
and economical
to use.
nature that
it
is
should be recognized at the onset that there no "ideal" refrigerant and that, because of the
wide differences in the conditions and requirements of the various applications, there is no one
refrigerant that
is
Toxicity.
Since
all fluids
all
applications.
properties
meet the conditions and requirements of the application for which it is to be used. Table 16-1 lists a number of fluids having properties which render them suitable for use as refrigerants.* However, it will be shown presently that only a few of the more desirable ones are actually employed as such. Some, used
* Since
first
a relative term which becomes meaningful only when the degree of concentration and the time of exposure required to produce
harmful
The
toxicity
As a
some of
introduced to the industry under the trade name "Freon," are now produced under several different trade marks, the ASRE, in order to avoid
the confusion inherent in the use of either proprietary or chemical names, has adopted a numbering system for the identification of the various
refrigerants.
of Table 16-7).
Those
falling into
Group
and
exposure periods.
classified in
On
Table 16-1 lists the ASRE number designation, along with the chemical name and formula for each of the compounds listed.
284
REFRIGERANTS
the latter group
deficiency than
is
285
by any harmful
odor of the refrigerant, and whether or not experienced personnel are on duty to attend the
equipment.
Group 6
it
However,
normal
even a highly toxic refrigerant presents little hazard when used in relatively large spaces in that it is not possible in the event of a leak for the concentration to reach a harmful level. Too, the danger inherent in the use of toxic
refrigerants
is
flame or an electrical heating element. The products of decomposition thus formed are
highly toxic and capable of causing harmful
effects
fact
in small concentrations
and on short
exposure.
16-4.
This
is
true of
all
the fluorocarbon
refrigerants (see
Column
3 of Table 16-7).
With regard to flammability and explosiveness, most of the refrigerants in common use are nonexplosive nonflammable and entirely (Column 2 of Table 16-7). Notable exceptions to this are ammonia and the straight hydrocarbons. Ammonia is slightly flammable and explosive when mixed in rather exact proporHowever with reasonable tions with air.
precautions,
and others who, by reason of infirmity or confinement, are unable to escape the fumes. At the present time, ammonia is the only toxic
infants
refrigerant that
its
is
use
is
ice plants,
and
where
Naturally,
operation,
is
the
hazard
is
involved
negligible.
in
using
ammonia
as a refrigerant
minimum power
requirements
on the other hand, are highly flammable and explosive, and their
Straight hydrocarbons,
per unit of refrigerating capacity, that is, a high coefficient of performance. For the most part,
the properties of the refrigerant which influence
use as refrigerants except in special applications and under the surveillance of experienced not usually permissible. Because of their excellent thermal properties, are frequently the straight hydrocarbons
operating personnel
is
(1)
the
of vaporization, (2) the specific volume of the vapor, (3) the compression ratio, and (4) the specific heat of the refrigerant in
employed
In such installations, the hazard incurred by their use is minimized by the fact that the
is constantly attended by operating personnel experienced in the use and handling
both the liquid and vapor states. Except in very small systems, a high latent heat value is desirable in that the weight of
refrigerant circulated per unit of capacity
less.
is
equipment
When
of flammable and explosive materials. The "American Standard Safety Code for
Mechanical Refrigeration"
the conditions and circumstances under which the various refrigerants can be safely used. the use of refrigerating equipment are based
panied by a low specific volume in state, the efficiency and capacity of the compressor are greatly increased. This tends not only to decrease the power consumption but also to reduce the compressor displacement
accomthe vapor
is
and ordinances governing on this code, which is sponsored jointly by the ASRE and ASA. The degree of hazard incurred by the use of toxic refrigerants depends upon a number of
local codes
Most
which permits the use of smaller, more compact equipment. However, in small systems,
required,
if
is
too
high, the
amount of
be
of the liquid.
such as the quantity of refrigerant used with relation to the size of the space into which the refrigerant may leak, the type of occupancy, whether or not open flames are present, the
factors,
286
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerent-50
Methane
(CH4)
-259F
Refrigerant-40
Refrigerant-30
Refrigerant-20
Refrigerant-10
Carbontetrach loride
Methyl Chloride
Methylene Chloride
Chloroform
(CH3CI)
-11*F
(CH2CI2)
104"F
(CHCI3)
142-F
(CCI4)
169F
Refrigerant-21
Refrigerant-22
Dichloromonofluoromethane
Monochlorodifluoromethane
(CHCI2F)
48'F
(CHCIF2)
-41F
Refrigerant-11
Refrigerant- 12
Refrigerant- 13
Refrigerant- 14
Carbontetrafluoride
Trichloromonofluoromethane
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Monochlorotrifluoromethane
(CClaF)
75'F
(CCI2F2)
-22F
(CCIF3)
115*F
(CF4)
-198F
Fig. 16-1.
Methane
series refrigerants.
REFRIGERANTS
superheating
effect.
287
When
initial
which
16-6.
permit
automatic
operation
and and a
heat exchanger
is
much improved.
and,
consequently,
minimum of maintenance.
on the
all
The
effect
of compression
coefficient
other factors being equal, the refrigerant giving the lowest compression ratio is the most
Early Refrigerants. In earlier days, when was limited to a few large applications, ammonia and carbon dioxide were practically the only refrigerants Later, with the development of available. small, automatic domestic and commercial
mechanical refrigeration
units, refrigerants
Low compression ratios result in low power consumption and high volumetric
desirable.
efficiency, the latter
such as sulfur dioxide and methyl chloride came into use, along with methylene chloride, which was developed for
use with centrifugal compressors. Methylene chloride and carbon dioxide, because of their
safe properties,
small compressors.
Too,
it is
of the refrigerant is such that the pressure in the evaporator is always above atmospheric. In the event of a leak on the
ture relationship
these
have
fallen
into disuse
and are
low pressure side of the system, if the pressure in the low side is below atmospheric, considerable amounts of air and moisture may be drawn
into
found only in some of the older installations, having been discarded in favor of the more
suitable fluorocarbon refrigerants as the latter
the
is
system,
whereas
if
the
vaporizing
were developed. The fluorocarbons are practically the only refrigerants in extensive use at the
above atmospheric, the possibility of drawing in air and moisture in the event of a
pressure
present time.
is
leak
is
minimized.
Reasonably low condensing pressures under normal atmospheric conditions are also desirable
of lightweight in that they materials in the construction of the condensing equipment, thereby reducing the size, weight,
allow
the
few
use
and
Naturally, the critical temperature and pressure of the refrigerant must be above the
temperature and pressure which will be encountered in the system. Likewise, the freezing point of the refrigerant must be safely below the minimum temperature to be obtained in the cycle. These factors are particularly important in selecting a refrigerant for a low
maximum
known
carbons).
is
given of the
performance of the various refrigerants at standard ton conditions (5 F evaporator and 86 F condensing). Notice particularly that, with the exception of air, carbon dioxide, and ethane, the horsepower required per ton of
refrigeration is very nearly the same for all the refrigerants listed. For this reason, efficiency
hydrogen atoms in methane (CH*) or ethane (CgHg) molecules, both of which are pure hydrocarbons, with atoms of chlorine, fluorine, and/or bromine, the latter group comprising the halogen family. Halocarbons developed from the methane molecule are known as "methane series halocarbons." Likewise, those developed
deciding factors in the selection of the refrigMore important are those properties
size,
weight,
and
288
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerant- 170
Ethane
(CH3CH3)
-127.5-F
-113
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
114
Dichlortetrafluofoethane
(CCI2FCCIF2)
117.6'F
(CClFjjCClFii)
38.4F
with chlorine (CI) atoms, the resulting compounds are methyl chloride (CH3 C1), methylene chloride (CHaClg), chloroform (CHCI3), and
carbontetrachloride
last
series in
common
use.
identifies
(CC1 4),
respectively,
the
the basic molecule as ethane, rather than methane, which has only one carbon atom.
two being the base molecules for the more popular fiuorocarbons of the methane series.
The individual characteristics of these and other refrigerants are discussed in the following
sections.
16-8.
If the chlorine atoms in the carbontetrachloride molecule are now replaced progressively with fluorine atoms, the resulting compounds
The
Effect of Moisture.
It is
a wellcombine in
are
trichloromonofluoromethane
(CC1 S F),
dichlorodifluoromethane
tetrafiuoride
(CCl a F2),
mono-
varying degrees with most of the commonly used refrigerants, causing the formation of
highly corrosive
will react
compounds
(usually
acids)
(CF^,
order, the
ASRE
which
oil
and
compounds
are Refrig-
with other materials in the system, including metals. This chemical action often results in
and
numbers being an indication of the number of fluorine atoms in the molecule. The molecular structure of Refrigerants-21 and 22, which are also fiuorocarbons of the methane series, is shown in Fig. 16-1. Notice the presence of the hydrogen atom in each of these two compounds, an indication that they
are
derivatives
and other damage to valves, seals, bearing journals, cylinder walls, and other polished surfaces. It may also cause deteriorapitting
and the formation of and other sludges which tend to clog valves and oil passages, score bearing surfaces, and otherwise reduce the life of the equipment.
metallic
rather than the carbontetrachloride molecule. Figure 16-2 shows the molecular structure of
Moisture corrosion also contributes to compressor valve failure and, in hermetic motorcompressors, often causes breakdown of the
motor winding
insulation,
which
results
in
Refrigerants-113
and
two
fiuoro-
REFRIGERANTS
Although a completely moisture-free
erating system erating practice
is
289
refrigrefrig-
temperature
decreases,
it
follows
that
the
demands
moisture
content of the system be maintained below the level which will produce harmful effects in the system. The minimum moisture level which
moisture content in low temperature systems must be maintained at a very low level in order to avoid freeze-ups. Hence, moisture corrosion in
produce harmful effects in a refrigerating system is not clearly defined and will vary considerably, depending upon the nature of the refrigerant, the quality of the lubricating oil, and the operating temperatures of the system, particularly the compressor discharge temperature. Moisture in a refrigerating system may exist as "free water" or it may be in solution with the
will
The various refrigerants differ greatly both as amount of moisture they will hold in solution and as to the effect that the moisture has upon them. For example, the straight
to the
etc.,
hydrocarbons, such as propane, butane, ethane, absorb little if any moisture. Therefore,
When moisture is present in the system in the form of free water, it will freeze
refrigerant.
any moisture contained in such systems will be form of free water and will make its presence known by freezing out in the refrigerant control. Since this moisture must be removed immediately in order to keep the system
in the operative, moisture corrosion will not usually
maintained below the freezing point of the water. Naturally, the formation of
the evaporator
is
Ammonia and
sulfur dioxide,
on
the other
and render the system inoperative until such time that the ice melts and flow through the
control
is is
hand, have an affinity for water and therefore are capable of absorbing moisture in such large quantities that free water is seldom found in systems employing these two refrigerants.
restored.
However, the
different
started
and stopped by
alternate melting
and
produced by the combinaand the refrigerant are entirely for the two refrigerants.
effects
In
water and
when
the
exceeds the
hold in solution, freeze-ups are nearly always an indication that the moisture content of the
system
is
such as copper and brass, but has little if any effect on iron or steel or any other materials in
the system.
For
this reason,
ammonia systems
produce corrosion. On the other hand, the mere absence of freeze-ups cannot be taken to mean that the moisture content of the system is necessarily below the level which will cause corrosion, since corrosion can occur with some refrigerants at levels well below those which will result in free water. Too, it must be recognized that freeze-ups do not occur in air conditioning systems or in any other system where the evaporator temperature is above the freezing point of water. For this reason,
high temperature systems are often more subject to moisture corrosion
can be operated successfully even when relatively large amounts of moisture are present in
the system.
and
sulfur dioxide
highly corrosive.
In
view of the high solubility of water in S02 , the amount of acid formed can be quite large. Hence, corrosion in sulfur dioxide systems can
As a
than are systems operating at lower evaporator temperatures, since relatively large quantities of moisture can go unnoticed in such systems for relatively long periods of time.
Since the ability of an individual refrigerant
employing halocarbon refrigerants when the moisture content is maintained below the level which will cause freeze-ups, provided that high quality lubricating oils are used and that discharge temperatures are reasonably low.
290
16-9.
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
copper plating is not found in ammonia systems. However, neither is it found in sulfur dioxide systems, although copper has been employed extensively with this refrigerant. In any event, regardless of the nature of
and/or
the
few exceptions, the oil required for lubrication of the compressor is contained in the crankcase of the compressor where it is subject to contact with the refrigerant. Hence, as already stated, the refrigerant must be chemically and physically
stable in the presence of oil, so that neither the
cause
of unfavorable
reactions
refrigerant
nor the
oil is
adversely affected by
the relationship.
fur dioxide
Although some refrigerants, particularly suland the halocarbons, react with the lubricating oil to some extent, under normal
operating conditions the reaction is usually slight and therefore of little consequence,
between the refrigerant and the lubricating oil, these disadvantages can be greatly minimized or eliminated by the use of high quality lubricating oils, having low "pour" and/or "floe" points (see Section 18-16), by maintaining the system relatively free of contaminants, such as air and moisture, and by designing the system so
that discharge temperatures are reasonably low.
16-10.
provided that a high quality lubricating oil is used and that the system is relatively clean and
dry. However, when contaminants, such as air and moisture, are present in the system in any appreciable amount, chemical reactions involving the contaminants, the refrigerant, and the lubricating oil often occur which can result in
Oil Miscibility.
With regard
one
for
is,
to the
refrigerant-oil
relationship,
important
the
characteristic
which
differs
various
the ability
oil
and
With reference
decomposition of the
corrosive acids
oil,
the formation of
may be
those
and
and/or serious corrosion of polished metal surfaces. High discharge temperatures greatly
accelerate these processes, particularly oil de-
carbonaceous deposits on discharge valves and pistons and in the compressor head and discharge line. This condition is aggravated by the
use of poorly refined lubricating oils containing a high percentage of unsaturated hydrocarbons, the latter being very unstable chemically.
which are miscible with oil in all proportions under conditions found in the refrigerating system, (2) those which are miscible under conditions normally found in the condensing section, but separate from the oil under the conditions normally found in the evaporator section, and (3) those which are not miscible with oil at all (or only very slightly so) under conditions found in the system. As to whether or not oil miscibility is a
desirable property in a refrigerant there
is
some
oil
Because of the naturally high discharge temperature of Refrigerant-22 (see Table 16-8), breakdown of the lubricating oil, accompanied by motor burnouts, is a common problem with hermetic motor-compressor units employing this refrigerant, particularly when used in conjunction with air-cooled condensers and long
suction lines.
disagreement.
significance
of
it,
has
little if
any
insofar
is
as
the
selection
of the
refrigerant
However, since it greatly influences the design of the compressor and other system components, including the
concerned.
is
an important
refrigerant characteristic
and
is
Copper plating of various compressor parts often found in systems employing halocarbon
some
detail.
refrigerants.
The
effects
With regard to the oil, one of the principal of an oil miscible refrigerant is to dilute
such as seals, pistons, cylinder walls, bearing surfaces, and valves. The exact cause of copper plating has not been definitely determined, but considerable evidence does exist that
heat,
the oil in the crankcase of the compressor, thereby lowering the viscosity (thinning) of the
oil
and reducing
its
lubricating qualities.
To
lubricating
oils
compensate for refrigerant dilution, the compressor lubricating oil used in conjunction with oil-miscible refrigerants should have a higher
initial viscosity
Because copper
is
REFRIGERANTS
Viscosity
291
may be
fluid friction or as
ing about the return of oil to the crankcase depends primarily on three factors: (1) the
oil miscibility of the refrigerant, (2) the type of evaporator used, and (3) the evaporator tem-
Hence,
thin,
low
than
flow
more
readily
more viscous fluids. To provide adequate lubrication for the compressor, the viscosity of the lubricating oil must be mainIf the viscosity of not have sufficient body to form a protective film between the various rubbing surfaces and keep them
perature.
When an
by the
carried
oil-miscible refrigerant
oil
is
employed,
the problem of
return
is
greatly simplified
oil will
the refrigerant.
along
separated.
On
if
the viscosity
of the
oil is
oil will
sufficient
fluidity
penetrate
and the
refrigerant piping
Unfortunately,
when nonmiscible
refriger-
not be adequate. through the system with the refrigerant will have an adverse affect on the efficiency and capacity of the system, the
compressor
Any
oil circulating
oil to the crankcase not so easily accomplished. The reason for this is that, except for a small amount of mechanical mixing, the refrigerant and the oil
will
adhere to and to form a film on the surface of the condenser and evaporator tubes, thereby lowering the heat transfer capacity of these two
units.
portion of the
the refrigerant.
For example,
is
ammonia, which
percentage of the
liquid
lighter
will
than
out at
this
a large
Since the
oil
oil
separate
reduced,
ammonia and
settle
For
lowered.
oil
to lubricate the
oil will
visions should be
made
compressor,
serve
its
it is
best
from these
periodically,
points,
either
it
or
function
when confined
to the
com-
and returning
to the crankcase.
This
may be
matically.
However,
since,
When
comes into contact with the oil in the compressor, a certain amount of oil in the form of small particles will be entrained in the refrigerant vapor and carried over
refrigerant unavoidably
through the discharge valves into the discharge line. If the oil is not removed from the vapor at this point, it will pass into the condenser and liquid receiver from where it will be carried to the evaporator by the liquid refrigerant. Obviously, in the interest of system efficiency and in order to maintain the oil in the crankcase at a constant level, some provision must be made for removing this oil from the system and returning it to the crankcase where it can per-
make
The
methods used to insure the continuous return of the oil from the evaporator to the crankcase in such cases is described in Chapter 19.
Since the oil acts to lubricate the refrigerant
may be
in
amount of
is
form
its
lubricating function.
difficulty
tionable.
effect
The degree of
experienced in bring-
on system
amount of
oil
292
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Too,
depending on whether the pressure in the system at the point of leakage is above or below atmospheric pressure. When the pressure in the system is above atmospheric at the point of
leakage,
may
fall
cause the
oil level in
the
below the minimum level required for adequate lubrication of the comcrankcase to
pressor parts.
the
refrigerant
will
leak
from the
is
On
the
when
oil,
the pressure
is
in
system
below
an
atmospheric, there
to the outside,
separator or trap
As a general rule, discharge line oil separators should be employed in any system where oil return is likely to be inadequate and/or where
the
amount of
and
oil in circulation is
apt to be
excessive or to cause
an undue
loss in system
capacity
line
oil
efficiency.
Specifically, discharge
separators are
recommended
for
all
employing nonmiscible refrigerants (or refrigerants which are not oil miscible at the
systems
drawn into the system. In either case, the system will usually become inoperative in a very short time. However, as a general rule, outward leaks are less serious than inward ones, usually requiring only that the leak be found and repaired and that the system be recharged with the proper amount of refrigerant. In the case of inward leaks, the air and moisture drawn into the system increase the discharge pressure and temperature and accelerates the rate of corrosion. The presence of moisture in the system
evaporator conditions), not only because of the difficulty experienced in returning the oil from
the evaporator to the crankcase but also because the presence of even small amounts of oil in the
may
of the refrigerant Furthermore, after the leak has been located and repaired, the system must be completely evacuated and dehydrated before it
control.
can be placed in operation. A refrigerant drier should also be installed in the system. The necessity of maintaining the system free
of leaks demands some convenient means for
The same
employing
separators
return
thing
is
miscible
when
for
the
Oil
all
checking a
evaporator temperature
are
below 0 F.
also
detecting leaks
leaks
and for
they
recommended
oil
from
this type
be
inadequate
and
pressure.
One method of
velocities.
Although oil separators are very effective in removing oil from the refrigerant vapor, they are not 100% efficient. Therefore, even though an oil separator is used, some means must still be provided for returning to the crankcase the small amount of oil which will always pass through the separator and find its way into other parts of the system. Too, since oil separators can often cause serious problems in the system if they are not properly installed, the use of oil separators should ordinarily be limited to those systems where the nature of the refrigerant or the particular design of the
system requires their use.
discussed in
Oil separators are
used with all refrigerants employs a relatively viscous soap solution which is relatively free of
bubbles.
The soap
solution
is first
applied to
light.
The
formation of bubbles in the soap solution indicates the presence of a leak. For adequate testing with a soap solution, the pressure in the system should be 50 psig or higher.
The
sulfite)
produce
another
when
dense white smoke (ammonia they come into contact with one
Chapter 19. 16-11. Leak Detection. Leaks in a refrigerating system may be either inward or outward,
detail in
more
provides a convenient means of checking for leaks in both sulfur dioxide and ammonia systems. To check for leaks in a sulfur dioxide system, a cloth swab saturated
with stronger
available in
any drug
but
REFRIGERANTS
not in contact with,
suspected areas.
all
293
leak
ammonia
systems.
is
ammonia swab
non-
Ammonia
way the ammonia swab. Dampened phenophthalein paper, which turns red on contact with ammonia vapor, may also be used to detect ammonia leaks.
systems are checked in the same except that a sulfur candle is substituted for
ammonia becomes
corrosive
to
nonferrous
Ammonia
will
is not oil miscible and therefore not dilute the oil in the compressor crank-
case.
the removal of
oil
However, provisions must be made for oil from the evaporator and an
support combustion is drawn in through a rubber tube, one end of which is attached to the
of
all
The free end of the tube is passed around The presence of a halocarbon vapor is indicated when the flame changes from its normal color to a bright green or purple. The halide torch should be used only
torch.
all
Ammonia
systems
may be
suspected areas.
with sulfur candles, which give off a dense white smoke in the presence of ammonia vapor, or by applying a thick soap solution around the pipe
joints, in
in well-ventilated spaces.
For carbon dioxide and the straight hydrocarbons, the only method of leak detection is the soap solution previously mentioned.
16-12.
which case a leak is indicated by the appearance of bubbles in the solution. 16-13. Sulfur Dioxide. Sulfur dioxide (SO s) is produced from the combustion of sulfur. It
is
highly
toxic,
but
nonflammable
and
nonexplosive.
In the 1920s and 1930s, sulfur dioxide was widely used in domestic refrigerators
Although ammonia is toxic and also somewhat flammable and explosive under certain conditions, its excellent thermal properties
make
it
an
plants,
and in small commercial fixtures. Today, it is found only in a few of the older commercial units, having been replaced first by methyl chloride and later by the more desirable fluorocarbon refrigerants.
packing plants, skating rinks, large cold storage facilities, etc., where experienced operating personnel are usually on duty and where its
toxic nature
is
The
pheric pressure
of
little
consequence.
effect
ation pressures at standard ton conditions of 5F and 86 F are 5.9 in. Hg and 51.8 psig,
respectively.
Ammonia
per
pound of any
This, together
Sulfur dioxide
is
not
oil miscible.
However,
with a moderately low specific volume in the vapor state, makes possible a high refrigerating capacity with a relatively small piston displacement.
unlike
fur dioxide
floats
heavier than
simplifies
on top of the
it
refrigerant.
characteristic
the
problem of
The
boiling point of
atmospheric pressure is tor and condenser pressures at standard ton conditions of 5 F and 86 F are 19.6 psig and
154.5 psig, respectively, which are moderate, so that lightweight materials can be used in the
return,
accounts for the popularity enjoyed by sulfur dioxide in the past for small automatic
metals
Howform
acid
(H2SOg)
and
sulfuric
at standard ton
conditions, which makes water cooling of the compressor head and cylinders desirable. Too,
(HgSO^, both of which are highly corrosive. 16-14. Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide (COj) is one of the first refrigerants used in mechanical
294
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
It is odorless,
refrigerating systems.
nontoxic,
refrigerant,
its
wide use in
nonflammable, nonexplosive, and noncorrosive. Because of its safe properties, it has been widely used in the past for marine service and for air
conditioning in hospitals, theaters, hotels, and
in other places
sideration.
the past in both domestic and commercial appliat atmospheric Evaporator and condenser pressures at standard ton conditions are 6.5 psig and 80 psig, respectively. Although methyl chloride is considered nontoxic, in large concentrations it has an anesthetic effect similar to that of chloroform, a compound to which it is closely related. Methyl chloride is moderately flammable and is explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between 8.1 and 17.2% by volume. The hazard resulting from these properties is the principal reason for the discarding of methyl chloride in favor of the
cations.
Its
point
pressure
is
10.65 F.
installations are
time the use of carbon dioxide as a refrigerant is limited for the most part to extremely low
temperature applications, particularly in the production of solid C02 (dry ice). One of the chief disadvantages of carbon dioxide is its high operating pressures, which
F and 86 F
respectively.
and
1031 psig,
COa the volume of vapor handled by the compressor is only 0.96 cu ft per minute per ton at 5 F, so that compressor sizes
high vapor density of
,
are small.
is
approxi-
mately twice that of any of the commonly used refrigerants. For carbon dioxide, the theoretical
Methyl chloride is corrosive to aluminum, and magnesium, and the compounds formed in combination with these materials are both flammable and explosive. Hence, these metals should not be used in methyl chloride systems. In the presence of moisture, methyl chloride forms a weak hydrochloric acid, which is corrosive to both ferrous and nonferrous metals. Too, since natural rubber and the synthetic, Neoprene, are dissolved by methyl
zinc,
horsepower required per ton at standard conditions is 1.84, whereas for ammonia, the horsepower required per ton is only 0.989, the latter
value being typical for most refrigerants.
Since
pressure
its
(
chloride, neither
is
return
in
is
109.3 F)
below
its
freezing tem-
by the fact that methyl chloride is oil miscible. However, in selecting the compressor lubricating oil, crankcase dilution must be taken
simplified
perature
( 69.9 F)
into account.
dioxide cannot exist in the liquid state at atmospheric pressure nor at any pressure below
triple
its
applied
point
pressure
of 75.1 psia.
At any
chloride vapor
may be
sublimes directly into the vapor state and therefore below this pressure is found only in the
solid
leak detector.
However,
method
is
not
recommended because of
methyl chloride.
the flammability of
and vapor
states.
critical
temperature of
COa
Carbon dioxide is nonmiscible in and therefore will not dilute the oil in the crankcase of the compressor. Like ammonia,
liquefaction.
oil
it is
lighter
than
oil.
Hence,
oil
return problems
16-16. Methylene Chloride (Carrene I). Methylene chloride (CH2 C1 2 ), another halocarbon of the methane series, has a boiling point of 103.5 F at atmospheric pressure, a characteristic which permits the refrigerant to be stored in sealed cans rather than in compressed gas
ammonia
Leak detection is by soap solution only. Methyl Chloride. Methyl chloride (CH 3C1) is a halocarbon of the methane series.
16-15.
It
Under standard ton conditions, the evaporator and condenser pressures are both below atmospheric pressure, being 27.6 in. Hg
cylinders.
and
9.5 in.
Hg,
respectively.
has
many of
of the vapor handled per ton of refrigerating capacity is quite large (74.3 cu ft/min/ton at
REFRIGERANTS
5 F), centrifugal compressors,
ticularly suited to
295
Along with
its
Although
of moisture.
it
methy-
has been
under normal atmospheric conditions and has a boiling temperature of 21 F at atmospheric pressure makes it a suitable refrigerant for use in high, medium, and low temperature applications and with all three types of compressors. When employed in conjunction with multistage
centrifugal
and refrigerant do not ordinarily one another. A halide torch or soap solution may be used to detect leaks. However, the pressure in the system must be built up above atmospheric in
pressors the oil
low as -110 F.
come
The
under
plifies
the problem of
system in that the solvant action of the refrigerant maintains the evaporator and condenser
tubes relatively free of oil films which otherwise
in. Hg and 3.6 psig, respecwhich is very similar to those of methylene chloride. Although the theoretical horsepower
conditions are 24
tively,
would tend to reduce the heat transfer capacity of these two units. Although the refrigerating effect per pound for Refrigerant-12 is relatively small as compared to
is
some of the other popular refrigerants, not necessarily a serious disadvantage. In fact, in small systems, the greater weight of Refrigerant-12 which must be circulated is a
that of
this is
it
permits closer
lene chloride.
that
However,
relatively
much
greater
than that
and the
The
horsepower required per ton of capacity compares favorably with that required for other
Refrigerant-ll
is
air
commonly used
16-19.
refrigerants.
may be
department stores, theaters, etc. halide torch used for leak detection. 16-18. Refrigerant- 1 2. Although its supremacy is being seriously challenged in some areas by Refrigerant-22, Refrigerant- 12 (CCl 8 Fg) is by far the most widely used refrigerant at the present time. It is a completely safe refrigerant in that it is nontoxic, nonflammable, and nonexplosive.
is
Furthermore,
it
is
compound which
is difficult
to break
under extreme operating conditions. However, if brought into contact with an open flame or with an electrical heating element, Refrigerant12 will decompose into products which are
highly toxic (see Section 16-3).
suitable
for
use with
is
all
three
types of
compressors.
Refrigerant-13
a safe refrigerant.
It is
not
296
PRINCIPLES
oil.
OF REFRIGERATION
miscible with
halide torch
may be
used
evaporator
temperatures
40 F,
still
another
is
16-20. Refrigerant-22. Refrigerant-22 (CHClFj) has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of 41.4 F. Developed primarily as a low temperature refrigerant, it is used extensively in domestic and farm freezers and in commercial and industrial low temperature
systems
Refrigerant-22
above atmospheric, whereas for Refrigerant-12 the evaporator pressures will be below atmospheric. However, all this should not be taken to
mean
that Refrigerant-22
all
is
superior to Refrig-
down
to evaporator temperatures as
erant-12 in
applications.
As
a matter of fact,
low as 125F. It also finds wide use in packaged air conditioners, where, because of space limitations, the relatively small compressor displacement required is a decided advantage. Both the operating pressures and the adiabatic
discharge temperature are higher for Refrigerant-22 than for Refrigerant-12.
except in those applications where space limitations necessitate the use of the smallest possible
equipment and/or where the evaporator temperature is between -20 F and -40 F,
Refrigerant-12, because of
its
lower discharge
oil, is
Horsepower
probably
the
more
desirable
of
the
two
refrigerants.
The
ture
is
ability
minimum,
particularly
erant-12
and therefore
trouble
is
experi-
where hermetic motor-compressors are employed. In low temperature applications, where compression ratios are likely to be high, water cooling of the compressor head and cylinders is
enced with freeze-ups in Refrigerant-22 systems. Although some consider this to be an advantage, the advantage gained is questionable, since any amount of moisture in a refrigerating system is
undesirable.
recommended
the compressor.
is
a safe
with Refrigerant-22 should be generously sized. Although miscible with oil at temperatures found in the condensing section, Refrigerant-22
will often separate from the oil in the evaporator.
detection.
16-21.
Refrigerant-1
Refrigerant-113
The
exact
and the amount of oil mixed with the refrigerant. However, no difficulty is usually experienced with oil return from the evaporator when a
properly designed serpentine evaporator
is
respectively.
used
oil
When
necessitate
the
use
of
centrifugal
type
made
compressor.
from the evaporator. Oil separators should always be used on low temperature applications.
The
to 0 F.
Hence,
greater
Refrigerant-1 13 is a safe refrigerant. halide torch may be used for leak detection. 16-22. Refrigerant-1 14. Refrigerant- 114
approximately
60%
with Refrigerant-22
man
with Refrigerant-12.
(CClgCClFj) has a boiling point of 38.4 F under atmospheric pressure. Evaporating and condensing pressures at standard ton conditions are 16.1 in. Hg and 22 psig, respectively. The compressor displacement required
is relatively
For
low
REFRIGERANTS
for a low pressure refrigerant (19.59 cu ft/min/
297
weight)
It
has a
F.
ton at standard conditions) and the horsepower required compares favorably with that required
28
by other
common
refrigerants.
is
Refrigerant- 1 14
and
to
industrial air
Evaporator and condenser pressures at standard ton conditions are 16.4 psig and 113.4 psig, respectively. Although the horsepower requirements of Refrigerant-500 are approximately the
22, the
down
70
F.
It is
domestic refrigerators and in small drinking water coolers. Like Refrigerant-22, Refrigerant- 1 14 is oil miscible under conditions found in the condensing section, but separates from oil in the
compressor displacement required is greater than that required for Refrigerant-22, but somewhat less than that required for Refrigerant- 12.
The
lies in
its
However, because of the type of equipment used with Refrigerant- 1 14 and the conditions under which it is used, oil return is
evaporator.
an increase in compressor capacity of approximately 18%. This makes it possible to use the same direct connected comerant- 12 results in
torch
may
A halide
16-23. Straight Hydrocarbons. The straight hydrocarbons are a group of fluids composed in
on either 50 or 60 cycle power with little or no change in the refrigerating capacity or in the power requirements. It will be shown in Chapter 21 that the speed of an alternating current motor varies in direct
unit)
Therefore,
an
electric
will
com-
all
act as
Although none of these absorb moisture to any appreciable extent, all are extremely miscible with oil under all conditions.
compounds
reduced approximately 18% when a change is made from 60 to 50 cycle power. Since the increase in capacity per unit of displacement accruing from the substitution of
Refrigerant-500 for Refrigerant- 12
is
almost
(butane, propane,
when changing for 60 to 50 cycle power, the same motor-compressor assembly is made
suitable for use with both frequencies
used in small quantities for domestic refrigeration, their use is ordinarily limited to special
is
by the simple expedient of changing refrigerants. 16-25. Refrigerant Drying Agents. Refrigerant drying agents, called desiccants are frequently employed in refrigerating systems to
on duty. Ethane, methane, and ethylene are employed to some extent in ultra-low temperature applications, usually in the lower stage of
remove moisture from the refrigerant. Some of the most commonly used desiccants are silica
gel
(silicon dioxide),
and
granular form.
desiccant
Drierite
is
and
is
available in granular
commonly known
*
as Carrene 7*,
is
an azeo(73.8% by
in cast sticks.
more
ation.
f
when mixed in precise proform a compound having a boiling temperature which is independent of the boiling
liquids, which,
portions,
a mixture of two or
or overfeeding of the evaporator, depending upon the direction of the load shift. Too, the valve must be opened and closed manually each time the compressor is cycled on
starving
and
off.
17
Refrigerant Flow
Obviously the hand expansion valve is suitable for use only on large systems where an operator is on duty and where the load on the system is
relatively constant.
When
automatic control
is
is
desired and/or
when
the system
subject to
required.
Controls
At the present time, the principal use of the hand expansion valve is as an auxiliary refrigerant control installed in a by-pass line (Fig.
17-29).
It is also
Automatic
is
Expansion
Valves.
17-1.
There are
six
shown
in Fig. 17-2.
seat,
The
valve consists
hand expansion
a pressure bellows
low pressure
float,
and
(6) the
high pressure
is
float.
screen or strainer
is
usually installed
may
from the liquid line into the evaporator at a rate commensurate with the rate at which vaporization of the liquid is occurring in the latter unit, and (2) to maintain a pressure differential between the high and low pressure
sides
of a typical
in Fig. 17-3.
refrig-
erant to vaporize under the desired low pressure in the evaporator while at the same time condensing at a high pressure in the condenser. 17-2. Hand Expansion Valves. Hand ex-
pansion
valves
are
hand-operated
needle
spring
exerted
acts to
pressure.
17-1). The rate of liquid flow through the valve depends on the pressure
valves (Fig.
on one
diaphragm,
move
and on the
adjustable.
whereas the spring pressure, acting on the opposite side of the bellows or diaphragm, acts to move the valve in an opening direction. When
the compressor
is
remain constant at
either
for
the
librium with the spring pressure. As the name implies, the operation of the
evaporator loading.
valve
The
principal
disadvantage
expansion valve is that it is changes in the system load and therefore must be manually readjusted each time the load on the system changes in order to prevent either
automatic and, once the tension of the adjusted for the desired evaporator pressure, the valve will operate automatically to regulate the flow of liquid refrigerant into the
is
spring
is
evaporator
pressure
is
so
that
the
desired
evaporator
298
REFRIGERANT
loading.
FLOW CONTROLS
299
Adjusting
of the spring
after,
fall
screw
ThereBellows or diaphragm""?"^.
any time the evaporator pressure tends to below lOpsig, the spring pressure will
in
move
the
Needle
Evaporator pressure
and flooding more of the evaporator surface. As more of the evaporator surface becomes effective, the rate of vaporization increases and
Strainer
It is
are such that the valve will close off tightly the compressor cycles off
until
i" Flare
when
evaporator for a short time after the compressor cycles off and, since the resulting vapor
is
not removed by the compressor, the pressure Hence, during the off
When
below the spring pressure, at which time the valve will open and admit sufficient liquid to the
evaporator to establish operating equilibrium
f Flare
Fig.
17-1.
Small
capacity
hand-expansion
valve.
Should
immediately override the and cause the valve to move in the closing direction, thereby throttling the flow of liquid into the evaporator and reducing the amount of effective evaporator surface. Naturally, this decreases the rate of vaporization and lowers the evaporator pressure until equilibrium is again established with the
it
will
spring pressure.
tesy Controls
Company
of America.)
300
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Automatic expansion
valve
fact, if the
fall
below a certain level, the automatic expansion valve, in an attempt to keep the evaporator
and
here
Liquid
be carried to the compressor where it may cause serious damage. However, in a properly designed system, overfeeding is not likely to
occur, since the thermostat will usually cycle the
from
receiver
Vapor! compressor
(a)
compressor off before the space or product temperature is reduced to a level such that the load on the evaporator will fall below the
critical point.
Obviously,
Automatic -expansion
valve
since
it
permits only a
filled
small
with liquid
is
during periods
when
automatic expansion valve severely limits the capacity and efficiency of the refrigerating system at a time when high capacity and high
efficiency are
receiver
most
desired.
is
evaporator
pressor,
pressure
maintained constant
here
the
valve
(b)
and
efficiency,
Operating characteristics of the automatic expansion valve under varying load conditions.
Fig.
17-4.
(a)
would ordinarily
Heavy
load
conditions,
(b)
Minimum
load
conditions.
The
as
chief disadvantage
of the automatic
Another disadvantage of the automatic expansion valve, which can also be attributed to its constant pressure characteristic, is that it
cannot be used in conjunction with a low pressure motor control, since proper operation of the latter part depends on a rather substantial change in the evaporator pressure during the running cycle, a condition which obviously
30
expansion valve
is its relatively
poor
efficiency
compared
controls.
relationship,
is
kept constant.
the
To accomplish
this necessitates
the load
amount of effective evaporator surface when on the evaporator is heavy and the heat
&|15
LU
>
^
-0ff
5
->fr
(A
0)
o.
-0n->j.^0ff
0n-f
Off
tor decreases
reduced,
surface
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time
in
minutes
301
evaporator pressure.
the condenser by-pass does not unload the compressor in any way. Hence, with the conis no reduction in the work of compression or in the power requirements of the compressor. For this reason, the condenser by-pass is not generally recommended as a
and small, retail ice-cream However, even in these applications the automatic expansion valve is seldom and
freezers
storage cabinets.
used at the present time, having given way to other types of refrigerant flow controls which are more efficient and sometimes lower in
cost.
means of
compressor.
line to the
controlling
the
capacity
of
the
valves are
now
Care should be taken to connect the by-pass condenser at a point low enough on the condenser to insure that slightly "wet"
Thermostatic
^^"""expansion valve
C
Fig. 17-6.
Automatic expansion
by-pass valve.
Automatic expansion valve adjusted for minimum desired evaporator pressure
_ Condenser
"by-pass
line
^>
r\
c c
As such thay
are installed in a by-pass line
")
is
by-
between the condenser and the suction line (Fig. 17-6) where they serve to regulate the flow of hot gas which is by-passed from the condenser
directly into the suction line in
passed to the suction line. Superheated vapor directly from the discharge of the compressor, if
order to prevent
by-passed to the suction line, will cause excessive discharge temperatures and result in overheating of the compressor and possible carbonization of the lubricating oil. On the other hand, wet
is, vapor containing small particles of liquid, will tend to reduce the operating temperature of the compressor through the cooling effect produced by vaporization of the
for the
porator pressure.
vapor, that
evaporator remains above the desired minimum, the valve will remain closed and no gas is bypassed from the condenser into the suction line. However, any time the evaporator tends to fall below the desired minimum, the by-pass valve opens and permits hot gas from the condenser
to pass directly into the suction line in
* The use of the condenser by-pass is common on some types of automobile air conditioning units.
an
In such cases, the condenser by-pass serves to offset the high compressor capacity which accrues as a result of the increased piston displacement at high
speeds.
amount just
sufficient to
maintain the
minimum
302
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
A ^- Evap,
pres.
20 , -21.05psig
liquid-charged
thermostatic
expansion valve.
20 , -21.05psig
Remote bulb
30"-21.05psig*
f 20-21 05 psig
Too,
vaporization of the liquid particles in the compressor reduces the volumetric efficiency of the compressor, which, under the circumstances, is
also beneficial since it will reduce the amount of vapor which must be by-passed from the condenser in order to maintain the minimum
diaphragm through a capillary tube, and (4) a spring, the tension of which is usually adjustable by an adjusting screw. As in the case of the automatic expansion valve and all other
refrigerant
controls,
a screen or strainer
is
of foreign material
evaporator pressure.
17-4.
which
may
Thermostatic
its
Expansion
Valves.
its
Because of
cation,
ready
is
characteristic operation of the thermoexpansion valve results from the interaction of three independent forces, viz: (1) the
static
The
most widely used refrigerant control at the present time. Whereas the operation of the automatic expansion valve is based on mainthe
taining a constant pressure in the evaporator,
based on maintaining a constant degree of suction superheat at the evaporator outlet, a circumstance which permits the latter control to
valve
is
where
it is
keep the evaporator completely filled with refrigerant under all conditions of system loading, without the danger of liquid slopover into the suction line. Because of its ability to provide full and effective use of all the evaporator surface under all load conditions, the thermostatic expansion valve is a particularly suitable refrigerant control for systems which are subject to wide and frequent variations in loading.
is a schematic diagram of a expansion valve showing the principal parts of the valve, which are: (1) a
Although there is a slight temperature differential between the temperature of the refrigerant vapor in the suction line and the temperature
of the saturated liquid-vapor mixture in the
remote bulb, for all practical purposes the temperature of the two are the same and
be assumed that the pressure is always the saturation pressure of the liquid-vapor mixture in the bulb corresponding to the temperature
therefore
it
may
Figure 17-7
thermostatic
needle and seat, (2) a pressure bellows or diaphragm, (3) a fluid-charged remote bulb
the fluid in the remote bulb is the refrigerant used in the system. Hence, the remote bulb of a thermostatic expansion valve employed on a Refrigerant-12 system would ordinarily be charged with
later,
which
is
open to one
Refrigerant-12.
303
bulb contact.
Notice that the pressure of the fluid in the remote bulb acts on one side of the bellows or diaphragm through the capillary tube and tends
tending to open the valve is exactly equal to the force tending to close the valve (P x + P2 Ps) and the valve will be in equilibrium. The valve
move the valve in the opening direction, whereas the evaporator pressure and the spring pressure act together on the other side of the
to
remain in equilibrium until such time that a change in the degree of suction superheat unbalances the forces and causes the valve to
will
example
move
the
The operating
can be seen that for the conditions described the valve will be in equilibrium when and only
the degree of superheat of the suction vapor at the remote bulb location is 10 F, which is exactly the amount required to offset the pressure exerted by the spring. Any change in the degree of suction superheat will cause the valve to move in a compensating direction in order to restore the required amount of supers
when
are
best
described
example.
With reference
Refrigerant- 12
to
17-7,
assume that
vaporizing in the evaporator at a temperature of 20 F so that the evaporator pressure (PJ is 21.05 psig, the
liquid
saturation pressure of
Refrigerant- 12
corre-
sponding to a temperature of 20 F. Assume further that the tension of the spring is adjusted
to exert a pressure (Pj) of 7.41 psi, so that the total pressure tending to move the valve in the
closing direction
is
heat and reestablish equilibrium. For instance, if the degree of suction superheat becomes less
than 10 F, the pressure in the remote bulb will be less than the combined evaporator and
spring pressures
will
move toward
28.46
psi,
the
sum
of Pj and
P%
(21.05
7.41).
If the pressure
drop in the
evaporator is ignored, it can be assumed that the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant are the same throughout all parts of the evaporator where a liquid-vapor mixture of the
refrigerant is present.
of liquid into the evaporator until the superheat is increased to the required 10 F. On the other hand, if the superheat becomes greater than
10 F,
near the evaporator outlet all the liquid will have vaporized from the mixture and the refrigerant at this point will be in the form of a saturated vapor at the vaporizing temperature
exceed the combined evaporator and spring pressures and the valve will move toward the open position, thereby increasing the flow of
liquid into the evaporator until the superheat reduced to the required 10 F.
is
and pressure. As the refrigerant vapor travels from point B through the remaining portion of
the evaporator,
it
In all cases, the amount of superheat required to bring a thermostatic expansion valve into equilibrium depends upon the pressure setting
will
from
while
the
surroundings,
its
becoming
increased
In this
superheated so that
its
temperature
of the spring. It is for this reason that the spring adjustment is called the "superheat adjustment." Increasing the tension of the spring increases the amount of superheat
required to offset the spring pressure and bring high degree of the valve into equilibrium.
instance,
assume that the refrigerant vapor is superheated 10 from 20 to 30 F during its travel from point B to the remote bulb location
at point C. in the
superheat
surface.
is
it
tends
The
to reduce the
amount of
effective
evaporator
remote bulb, being at the same temperature as the superheated vapor in the line, will then have a pressure (Ps) of 28.46 psig, the saturation pressure of Refrigerant- 12 at 30 F, which is exerted on the diaphragm through the capillary tube and which constitutes the total force tending to move the valve in the opening
direction.
On the other hand, decreasing the spring tension reduces the amount of superheat required to maintain the valve in a condition of equilibrium and therefore tends to increase the
amount of
effective surface.
is set
However,
if the
valve superheat
Under
304
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
and pressure
again established, the evaporator temperature will be higher than before because
of the increased rate of vaporization. Furthermore, since the valve will maintain a constant superheat of approximately 10 F, the temperature of the vapor at point C will also be higher because of the increase in the evaporator tem-
and pressure of the fluid in the remote bulb. Obviously, then, unlike the automatic expansion valve, the thermostatic expansion valve cannot be set to maintain a certain evaporator temperature and pressure, only a constant
When a thermostatic expansion used as a refrigerant control, the evaporator temperature and pressure will vary with the loading of the system, as described in Chapter
superheat.
is
valve
13.
Fig.
17-8.
Conventional
liquid-charged,
(Courtesy
General Controls.)
because of friction as it flows through the evaporator, the saturation temperature of the refrigerant is always lower at the evaporator
outlet than at the evaporator inlet.
As a general rule,
thermostatic expansion valves are adjusted for a superheat of 7 to 10 by the manufacturer. Since this superheat setting is
ordinarily satisfactory for necessary.
When
the
refrigerant pressure
is relatively
most
applications,
it
Once the valve is adjusted for a certain superheat, the valve will maintain approximately that superheat under all load conditions, regardless of the evaporator temperature and
pressure,
and therefore of little However, when the pressure drop experienced by the refrigerant in the evaporator is of appreciable size, the saturation
is
perature
also small
consequence.
temperature of the refrigerant at the evaporator be considerably lower than that at the evaporator inlet, a circumstance which
outlet will
provided that the capacity and operating range of the valve are not exceeded. For instance, in the preceding example, assume
rate
valve in that
that because of
the
it necessitates a higher degree of suction superheat in order to bring the valve into equilibrium. Since more of the evaporator surface will be needed to satisfy the higher
the liquid
is
vaporized by the time the refrigerant leaves point B', rather than point Bm Fig. 17-7. The
greater travel
superheat requirement, the net effect of the evaporator pressure drop, unless compensated for through the use of an external equalizer,
point
in
be to reduce seriously the amount of evaporator surface which can be used for
will
which case the increased bulb pressure from the higher vapor temperature at point C will cause the valve to open wider and increase the flow of liquid to the evaporator, whereupon more of the evaporator surface will be filled with liquid so that the superheat is
resulting
effective cooling.
again reduced to the required 10 F. However, it is important to notice that when equilibrium
REFRIGERANT
the diaphragm of the valve. If the valve spring is adjusted for a pressure (iy of 7.41 psi, a bulb
pressure (P3) of 28.46 psig (21.05
FLOW CONTROLS
305
7.41) will
be required for valve equilibrium. If it is assumed that the refrigerant pressure drop in the evaporator is negligible, as in the
previous example, the saturation pressure and temperature of the refrigerant at the evaporator
outlet will be approximately the
at the evaporator inlet,
Although an external equalizer does not reduce the evaporator pressure drop in any way, it does compensate for it so that full and
effective
use of all the evaporator surface can be obtained. Notice in Fig. 17-9 that the
is
so constructed that
the evaporator pressure (Px ) which acts valve diaphragm is the evaporator
on the
outlet
pressure
pressure.
rather
than
This
is
the
the evaporator, the refrigerant experiences a drop in pressure of 10 psi, in which case the
saturation pressure at the evaporator outlet
mitting the evaporator outlet pressure to be exerted on the diaphragm through a small
diameter
be approximately 11 psig (21 10), 10 psi less than the inlet pressure. Since the saturation temperature corresponding to 1 1 psig is approximately 4 F, it is evident that a suction superheat of approximately 26 F will be required to provide the 30 F suction vapor temperature which is necessary at the point of bulb contact in
will
tube which is connected to the evaporator outlet or to the suction line 6 to 8 in. beyond the remote bulb location on the compressor
side,
as
shown
in
Fig.
17-9.
An
expansion valve equipped with an external equalizer connection is shown in Fig. 17-10.
Since the evaporator pressure (Pa ) exerted on the diaphragm of the externally equalized valve is the evaporator outlet pressure rather than
the evaporator inlet pressure, the effect of the evaporator pressure drop is nullified to the extent that the degree of suction superheat required to operate the valve is approximately
order to bring the valve into equilibrium. In order to satisfy the greater superheat
requirement, vaporization of the liquid must be completed prematurely in the evaporator
(point B' in Fig. 17-7) so that a considerable
portion
relatively
effective
the
is
Naturally,
surface
will
the loss of
materially
evaporator
Notice in Fig. 17-9 that the evaporator (outlet) pressure (Pj) exerted on the
18.38 psig
|A
16psjg-15*F (sat)
temp 11*F)
1*C
Super heat
306
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig.
ized
17-10. Externally
equal-
thermostatic
expansion
Company.)
diaphragm
is
11
psig, which,
when added
to
tendency to
move
the
Hence, a bulb
open wide and overfeed the evaporator when the compressor cycles on, which in many cases
permits liquid to enter the suction line with Overpossible damage to the compressor. feeding at start-up
is
pressure of
18.41
psig,
corresponding to a
temperature
when
the
4F, a suction
4) is necessary
(16
The
pro-
pensity
liquid
charged
compressor is started and the bulb pressure remains high until the temperature of the bulb is cooled to the normal operating temperature by the suction vapor. Naturally, because of the high bulb pressure, the valve will be unbalanced
in the
this
period and
evaporator completely
with refrigerant,
without regard for the evaporator temperature and pressure, has some disadvantages as well as
advantages.
reduced.
Although
it
this
characteristic
is
desirable in that
insures full
and
efficient
all
use
be overcome through the use of thermostatic expansion valves which have built-in pressure
limiting devices.
of
all
condi-
The
tions of loading,
sirable in that
it
at the
same
time, unde-
act to throttle the flow of liquid to the evaporator by taking control of the valve away from the
Not
307
pressure, called
compressor because of overfeeding at start-up. The maximum operating pressure (MOP) of the expansion valve can be limited either by mechanical means or by the use of a gas charged remote bulb. The former is accomplished by placing a spring or a collapsible cartridge between the diaphragm and the valve stem or push-rods which actuate the valve pin. In the
collapsible
cartridge,
(MOP) of the depends on the pressure of the gas in the cartridge and can be changed simply by changoperating pressure
valve,
maximum
ing the valve cartridge. Cartridges are available for almost* any desired maximum operating
pressure.
The operation of
cartridge-type
is filled
(Fig.
17-11),
the
with a noncondensible gas, acts as a solid link between the diaphragm and the valve stem as long as the evaporator
than the pressure of the gas in Hence, control of the valve is vested in the remote bulb and the valve operates as a conventional thermostatic expansion valve as long as the evaporator pressure is less than the pressure of the gas in the cartridge. Howpressure
is less
which
is
less
than the
spring tension.
rises to
When
the cartridge.
a point where it exceeds the tension for which the spring is adjusted, the spring collapses
refrigerant to the evaporator is
is
again
Obviously,
maximum
cases
ever,
when
the
some
In
is
field.
thereby taking control of the valve away from the bulb and allowing the superheat spring to
throttle the valve until the evaporator pressure
is
addition
to
the the
overload
possibility
protection
tend
fact
eliminate
of liquid
reduced below the cartridge pressure, at which time the cartridge will again act as a solid link,
thereby returning control of the valve to the
The
the evaporator
pressure
must be
remote bulb.
Pressure
charged mechanical
cartridge
Fig.
17-11.
Cartridge-type
308
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
sufficiently to
However, whereas
in the liquid
is
charged valve,
liquid
is
sufficiently large to
Hence, the valve does not open wide and overfeed the evaporator urtien the compressor is started. The "pull-down" characteristics of a pressure limiting expansion valve as compared to those of a conventional expansion valve is shown in
before the valve opens.
Fig. 17-13.
17-7.
amount of
is
always
that
all
limited
so
at
the
Once
in the
form of
a saturated
gas-charged
limiting
characteristic
its
function of
on the bulb pressure. Hence, by limiting the amount of charge in the remote bulb, the maximum pressure wiiich can be exerted by the
remote bulb is also limited. As in the case of mechanical pressure limiting devices, limiting
the pressure exerted by the remote bulb also
refrigerant.
309
the
evaporator
is is
pressure,
since
valve
equilibrium
pressure (P3)
established only
when
the bulb
equal to the
Since
indirectly
the
evaporator
pressure
is
limited
any time the evaporator pressure exceeds the maximum operating pressure of the valve, the
by limiting the bulb pressure (charge), any change in the superheat setting (spring
pressure) will cause the
sum of
will
the evaporator
pressure (the
in Fig.
For example, suppose the system illustrated 17-7 is equipped with a gas charged
maximum evaporator of the valve) to change. Since the bulb pressure (P3) is always equal to the evaporator pressure (Px) plus the spring pressure (Pa), increasing the superheat setting
MOP
MOP
(Pa) will
decrease the
MOP
(Px ).
Likewise,
of 25 psig with a superheat setting of 10 F, in which case the bulb charge will be so limited that it will become 100% saturated vapor when the bulb temperature reaches the saturation temperature corresponding to 32.41 psig, the latter being the sum of the maximum evaporator
pressure
(25
psig)
maximum
equivalent to
10
Once
the
bulb
must be in a warmer location than the remote bulb and the tube connecting the remote bulb to the power head must not be allowed to touch a surface colder than the remote bulb;
otherwise the bulb charge will condense at the
coldest point
tive
have very
on the bulb pressure and therefore will not cause the valve to open wider.
little effect
exceeds
25
psig,
the
sum of
the
evaporator and spring pressures will exceed the maximum bulb pressure of 32.41 psig and the
valve will be closed.
the
Limiting
On
time the evaporator pressure is below 25 psig, sum of the evaporator and spring pressures
The importance of pressure limiting valves is readily understood when it is recognized that many refrigeration systems are subject to
Valves.
occasional "pull-down" loads which are substantially greater
will
be
less
than the
maximum
bulb pressure
and the bulb will be in control of the valve. The valve will then respond normally to any
changes in the suction superheat.
under normal
pressures
operation.
high
,
during
pull-down
periods,
the
Low
long shut
down
period
comparative
- Liquid
Motor
overloaded
charged valve
"pull-
down."
Controls
(Courtesy
Division,
Detroit
American
/
Corporation.)
/
A
,''
Gas char
jed v alve
w \6 ^pW
<Y
!\
310
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
is
not required,
it is
usually
Remote bulb
control
if
loses
liquid
condenses at
these points
under normal operating conditions and then motor the compressor accordingly. This will ordinarily result in the use of a smaller size motor, thereby effecting a saving in both the
initial
and operating
For
time,
expansion
conditioning appli-
thermo
expansion
cations.
valve.
As a
expansion valve is selected to have a MOP approximately 5 to 10 psi above the average evaporator pressure encountered at normal
loading of the system. In ordering such a valve,
the desired
17-9.
compressor are greatly increased, which often results in overloading of the compressor driver. Obviously, two solutions to the problem are possible. One is to increase the size of the compressor driver so that it has sufficient power to carry the load during the overload
period.
Valves. Although expansion valves having a bulb charged with the system refrigerant are suitable for most medium and high temperature
applications, they are not ordinarily satisfactory
The other
is
to limit the
maximum
compressor loading. Which is the better solution depends upon the requirements of the
particular installation.
common
12
is
refrigerant.
In applications where
former solution is the one recommended. However, since motoring the compressor for an occasional peak load condition unnecessarily increases both the initial and operating costs of the system, in applications where rapid reduction of the load
perature
is
desirable, the
change in pressure per degree of temperature change decreases considerably as the temperature of the refrigerant decreases.
Therefore,
to cause a
is
the
much
high
low temperatures
than
at
/o
1
/
/
65
-5.5
60
55
r*
{5 psi
i
50
S
Fig. 17-15.
45 40
35
5
1
<%
$\
ys
heat.
lao a 25
20
15
t*-13*-l3
I
'
&f\
5
psi
%if\
10
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (*F)
311
in
Fig.
Curve
C in
if
Fig. 17-16
the superheat
psi,
whereas
at
20
mately 13
pressure.
is
Obviously, then,
when
the expansion
high evaporator temperatures, the cross-charged valve has a pressure limiting effect which affords
amount of
a certain amount of protection against motor overload and compressor flood-back at start-up.
Cross-charged expansion valves are by no means limited to low temperature applications. They are also used extensively in commercial
applications where pressure limiting
is
much of
the
desired
and where
is
than the
70
65 60
55
y
A
s/
1>
50
ST
9;
45
40
30 25 20
15
/fl"
i&rtx &)>&*
cut
S 35
m ^0 / Apc ^ Pr^^6'
btt
xgi
rl <*
8
S >f\r
10'
*~2*
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (*F)
system refrigerant, usually one which has a boiling point somewhat below that of the system
refrigerant, so that the pressure
change in the
is
more
of the valve. This will permit operation of the valve with a normal amount of suction superheat.
optimum performance.
a cross-charged valve will perform a given temperature range, several different types of cross charges
Since
satisfactorily only within
Expansion valves whose bulbs are charged with fluids other than the system refrigerant
are called "cross-charged" valves because the
Notice in Fig. 17-16 that the pressure-temperature curve of the bulb fluid (curve B) is somewhat flatter than that of the system refrigerant (curve A), so that as the evaporator pressure increases, a greater amount of suction superheat is required to bring the
be stated so that a valve with the proper cross charge can be selected.
17-10.
Distributors. When an evaporator has more than one refrigerant circuit, the refrigerant
is
delivered to the
312
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
distributor
In others,
either case,
it is
I
Pressure datum line
important that the design of the such that the liquid-vapor mixture leaving the valve be evenly distributed to all of the evaporator circuits, if peak evaporator performance is to be expected.
it is
distributor
is
a refrigerant distributor
shown
in Fig. 17-17.
Since expansion and distribution of the refrigerant occur simultaneously within the valve
itself, this,
even distribution of a homogeneous mixture of liquid and vapor to each of the several evaporator circuits.
common
venturi type, (2) the pressure drop type, (3) the centrifugal type, and (4) the manifold type.
Any
A
)
Smooth contoured
approech
Divergent section
of these distributors can be used with any standard, single-outlet expansion valve.
A
Gradual reduction
in
venturi-type distributor,
is
along with
in Fig.
its
flow characteristics,
shown
17-18.
velocity-contour flow
Little
turbulence
This type of distributor utilizes the venturi principle of a large percentage of pressure
and depends on contour flow for equal distribution of the liquid-vapor mixture
recovery,
313
Retainer
ring
Nozzle
Body
Exploded View
(a)
Tubing
Valve Company.)
(b)
butor provides a
minimum
It
drop prevents separation of flash gas from the causing a homogeneous mixture of liquid and vapor to pass through the distributor.
liquid,
A centrifugal-type distributor
Fig. 17-20.
is
illustrated in
shown
in Fig. 17-19.
The following
catalog data.*
to receive the
The
inlet
end
is
recessed to receive
is
an
held in place by
a snap ring. The refrigerant, after leaving the expansion valve, enters the distributor inlet and passes through the nozzle. The nozzle orifice is sized to produce a pressure drop which increases the velocity of the liquid, thereby homogeneously mixing the liquid and vapor and eliminating the effect of gravity.
The nozzle
it
orifice
impinges
squarely
holes are accurately spaced around the base of the conical button so that the mixture coming
off the button divides evenly as
holes.
it
enters these
Fig.
17-20.
The
orifice size
Single outlet
thermostatic expansion
valve and
centrifugal-type distributor.
(Courtesy
* Sporlan Valve
Company.
314
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Since there is enough liquid in a liquid charged expansion valve to insure that control of the valve will remain with the bulb under all conditions, a liquid charged thermostatic
o a o o
expansion valve can be installed in any position (power head up, down, or sideways), either inside or outside of the refrigerated space, without particular concern for the relative temperatures of the valve body and remote bulb. On the other hand, gas charged valves must be installed so that the valve body is always warmer
W. t=d/
Fig.
17-21.
when a
refrigerant distributor
is
Single
outlet thermostatic
expansion
(Courtesy Alco
Valve Company.)
swirling effect
mixture of the liquid and flash gas and which distributes the mixture evenly to each of the
evaporator tubes.
manifold
or
Weir type
17-21.
distributor
is
illustrated in Fig.
This type of
distri-
butor depends upon level mounting and low entrance velocities to insure even distribution of the refrigerant to the evaporator circuits. baffle is often installed in the header in order
to minimize the tendency to overfeed the evaporator circuits directly in front of the heater inlet connection. Too, an elbow installed between the expansion valve and the header
inlet will usually
Some
shown
17-1
1.
typical
distributor
applications
are
in Fig. 17-22.
best
performance, the thermostatic expansion valve should be installed as close to the evaporator as possible. With the exception of a refrigerant distributor, where one is used, there should be
no
restrictions
porator and the expension valve. When it is necessary to locate a hand valve on the outlet
side of the valve, the
full sized port.
Fig.
17-22. Illustrating
applications
of refrigerant
distributors.
315
Remote Bulb
Location.
To a
large
extent,
expansion valve
location
the proper remote bulu. When an external remote bulb is used (mounted on the outside, rather than the inside of the refrigerant piping) as is normally the case, the bulb should be clamped firmly (with metal clamps) to a horizontal section of the suction line near the evaporator outlet, preferably
depends upon
and
installation of the
temperature
expansion valve operation. However, when it is necessary to locate the bulb outside the refrigerated space, both the bulb and the suction
line
ings.
Since the remote bulb must respond to the temperature of the refrigerant vapor in the
suction line,
it is
must be well insulated from the surroundThe insulation must be nonhydroscapoic and must extend at least 1 ft or more beyond the bulb location on both sides of the bulb. Care must be taken also to locate the thermal bulb at least 1$ ft from the point where an
"E=
External bulb on small suction line
Fig. 17-23. Usual location of expansion valve remote bulb. (Courtesy Alco Valve Com-
pany.)
External bulb
on
line.
When an
iron pipe or
should
When
the
bulb
is
located
on the
be cleaned thoroughly at the point of bulb location and painted with aluminum paint in order to minimize corrosion. On suction lines under f in. OD, the remote bulb is usually installed on top of the line. For suction lines f in. OD and above, a remote bulb located in
a position of 4 or 8 o'clock (Fig. 17-23) will normally give satisfactory control of the valve. However, since this is not true in all cases, the optimum bulb location is often best determined
may
cause the bulb pressure to increase to the extent that the valve will open and permit
liquid to
fill
On
when
suit-
remote bulb
air stream.
may
by
trial
and
error.
On
important also that the remote bulb be so located that it is not unduly influenced by temperatures other than the suction line temperature, particularly during the compressor off
It is
is
cycle.
If the temperature of the bulb is permitted to rise substantially above that of the evaporator during the off cycle, the valve will
filled
a possibility that the valve may open on the off cycle, a solenoid valve should be installed in the liquid line directly in front of the expansion valve so that positive shut-off of the liquid during the off cycle is assured. The system then
operates
on a pump-down
cycle.
316
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the remote bulb must be located
on the evapora-
Several of the more common incorrect remote bulb applications are shown in Figs. 17-24 through 17-26, along with recommended
corrections for piping
due to alternate drying and filling of the trap. If valve operation becomes too irregular, liquid may be blown back to the compressor by the gas which forms in the evaporator behind the trap.
Evaporator
Multi-outlet
thermo
expansion
valve
Figure 17-25 illustrates the proper remote bulb location to avoid trapped oil or liquid from affecting the operation of the expansion valve
bulb and can evaporate without "slugging" to the compressor when the compressor is started. This piping arrangement is often used deliberately
large installations to avoid the possiof liquid slugging to the compressor. Figure 17-26 illustrates the incorrect application of the remote bulb on the suction header of an evaporator. With poor air circulation
bility
on
through the evaporator, liquid refrigerant can some of the evaporator circuits without being evaporated and without affecting the remote bulb, a condition which can cause flood back to the compressor. The correct remote bulb location is shown by the dotted
pass through
lines.
Multi-outlet
thermo
expansion
valve
Correct
(b)
Remote bulb location shown trapped, Remote bulb location shown free draining. (Cour-
Under no circumstances should a remote bulb ever be located where the suction line is trapped.
accumulation of liquid in the suction line at the point where the remote bulb is located will cause irregular operation (hunting) of the expansion valve. Except in a few special cases,
Evaporator
Liquid trap-
Any
Recommended remote
(Courtesy
317
will
cause poor
expansion
performance,
care
should
always be taken to arrange the suction piping from the evaporator so that oil and liquid will
be drained away from the remote bulb location by gravity. Location of the remote bulb on a vertical section of suction line should be avoided whenever possible. However, in the event that no other location is possible, the bulb should be installed well above the liquid trap on a suction
riser.
Fig. 17-27.
Remote bulb
In some instances,
to
necessary or desirable
bulb is in effect installed inside of the suction line (see Fig. 1 7-27). As a general rule, a remote bulb
well should be used
of the refrigerant, the maximum permissible pressure drop will vary with the individual refrigerant and with the operating temperature range. For example, with regard to Refrigerant12, the permissible pressure
when low
superheats are
is likely
drop
is
approxi-
required or
when
to be
down
the suction
mately 2.5 psi when the evaporator temperature is about 40 F, whereas for evaporator temperatures
from a warm space. It is desirable also in installations where the suction line is very short or where the size of the suction line exceeds
2\
in.
pressure drop
psi.
OD.
External Equalizer Location. In general, an external equalizer should be used in any case where the pressure drop through the evaporator is sufficient to cause a drop in the
17-13.
not the pressure drop through the evaporator is excessive. In such installations, the external
equalizer
is
0F
or in excess of approximately
1F
at
Equalizer line
of the system, provided that the expansion valve has been properly selected (see Section 17-14).
In any system, with or without a distributor, the
refrigerant
Faulty remote
bulb location
Evaporator
must undergo a drop in pressure between the high and low pressure side of the system. On systems without distributors, all of this pressure drop is taken across the valve. When a distributor is employed, a portion of the pressure drop occurs in the distributor and the remainder across the valve. The total pressure drop and refrigerating effect are the same in
either case.
This
is
not
true,
As
described in
318
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
the
first
evaporator tends to reduce the capacity and efficiency of the system. Hence, evaporators
two
having excessive pressure drops should be avoided whenever possible. As a general rule, the external equalizer connection is made on the suction line 6 to 8 in.
pressor side.
deliver
through the
The pressure difference across the valve can never be taken as the difference between the
suction
the compressor.
drop through a refrigerant distributor and the pressure drop through the evaporator is not
excessive, the external equalizer
may
be con-
nected either to one of the feeder tubes or to one of the evaporator return bends at approximately
the midpoint of the evaporator.
external equalizer
line, it
is
used as a basis for determining the pressure difference across the expansion valve, an allowance must always be made for the pressure losses which accrue between the expansion valve and
the compressor
When
the
on both
the low
and high
when one
used.
or liquid into
When
Expansion Valve Rating and SelecBefore the proper size valve can be
tion.
a decision must be made as to the exact type of valve desired with respect to bulb charge, pressure limiting, the possible need for an
selected,
and the size of the valve inlet and outlet connections. Obviously, the nature and conditions of the application will determine the type of bulb charge and also whether or not a
external equalizer,
is
needed.
An externally
is
Example 17-1. From Table R-20, select the proper size expansion valve for a Refrigerant- 1 system, if the desired capacity is 8 tons at a 20 F eviporator temperature and the available pressure drop across the expansion valve is approximately 65 psi.
Solution.
sub-
From Table
a 20
and/or when a refrigerant distributor is employed. The size of the inlet and outlet
connections of the valve should be equal to those of the liquid line and evaporator, respectively.
valve
of
8.1 tons at
evaporator temperature
when
psi.
the pressure drop across the valve is 60 The letters in the model number indicate
valve type
and
refrigerant.
tor inlet
permissible.
Thermostatic
expansion
valves
will
not
Once a
made on
all
of the
50%
of their
when
the load
on the
from the manufacturer's catalog ratings. Table R-20 is a typical thermostatic expansion valve
rating table.
system
is
likely to fall
below
50%
of the design
The expansion
two or more separate circuits, with each circuit being fed by an individual expansion valve. With this
load, the evaporator should be split into
Normally, valve
on a condensing temperature
of 100 F with zero degrees of subcooling, but with solid liquid approaching the valve.
In order to select the proper size valve from
the rating table, the following data should be
arrangement it is possible to cycle out portions of the evaporator as the load on the system fall off so that the load on any one expansion valve never drops below 50 of the design capacity of
the valve.
17-15.
is
Capillary Tubes.
all
The
capillary tube
known:
(1) the
evaporator temperature,
(2) the
the simplest of
319
ft!
D
small bore, the capillary tube acts to restrict or to meter the flow of liquid from the condenser
to the evaporator
c
C
Capillary tube
and
J
bonded
two units. For any given tube length and bore, the
the liquid flow rate through the tube at any one time is always proportional to the pressure
differential across the tube, said pressure differ-
heat exchange
and condensing pressures of the system. Likewise, the greater the frictional resistance of the tube (the longer the tube and/or the smaller the
is
Since the capillary tube and the compressor are connected in series in the system, it is evident that the flow capacity of the tube must of necessity be equal to the pumping capacity of
the compressor
Strainer
when
if
the latter
is is
in operation.
Consequently,
efficiently
the
system
to
perform
perature.
effect
of too
much
lower the
must be such that the flow capacity of the tube at the design vaporizing and condensing pressures is exactly equal to the pumping capacity of the compressor at these same conditions.
In the event that the resistance of the tube is such that the flow capacity of the tube is either
greater than or less than the
suction
pressure.
and
raise
the
condensing
Since both these conditions tend to increase the flow capacity of the tube and, at the same time, decrease the pumping capacity of the
compressor,
it is
some operat-
pumping capacity
of the compressor at the design conditions, a balance will be established between these two
ing conditions where the capacity of the tube and the capacity of the compressor are exactly
the same. In this instance, the point of balance will be at a lower suction pressure and a higher
components
at
some
than the system design conditions. For example, if the resistance of the tube is too great (tube too long and/or bore too small), the capacity of the tube to pass liquid refrigerant from the con-
condensing pressure than the system design pressures. Too, since the capacity of the compressor
all
is reduced at these conditions, the oversystem capacity will be less than the design
pumping capacity of
denser to the evaporator will be less than the the compressor at the
design conditions, in which case the evaporator will become starved while the excess liquid will
capacity.
On the other hand, when the tube does not have enough resistance (tube too short and/or bore too large), the flow capacity of the tube will be greater than the pumping capacity of the compressor at the design conditions, in which
case overfeeding of the evaporator will result with the danger of possible liquid flood-back to
Also, there will be no liquid condenser at the entrance tc the tube and, therefore, uncondensed gas will be allowed
the suction pressure, whereas the build-up of liquid in the condenser will result in a reduction
the compressor.
seal in the
an increase
320
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Obthe compressor driver
ever, of
may
is
also result.
Howall
more importance
of
evaporator in the form of uncondensed gas will have the effect of reducing the system capacity.
the excess liquid in the condenser will pass to the evaporator during the off cycle. Being at the
Furthermore, because of the excessive flow rate through the tube, the compressor will not be
able to reduce the evaporator pressure to the desired low level.
condensing temperature, a substantial amount of such liquid will cause the evaporator to warm
up rapidly, thereby causing defrosting of the evaporator and/or short cycling of the compressor.
From the foregoing it is evident that the design of the capillary tube must be such that the flow capacity of the tube is identical to the
pumping capacity of the compressor
at the
Moreover,
where
considerable
amount of
likely to
system design conditions. It is evident also that a system employing a capillary tube will operate
at
occur when the compressor cycles on. Other than its simple construction and low
cost,
the capillary tube has the additional advantage of permitting certain simplifications
ing conditions.
what less than maximum. However, it should be pointed out that the capillary tube is selfcompensating to some extent and, if properly designed and applied, will give satisfactory
service over a reasonable range of operating
in the refrigerating system which further reduces manufacturing costs. Because the high and low pressure equalize through the capillary tube during the off cycle, the compressor starts in an
"unloaded" condition. This allows the use of a low starting torque motor to drive the compressor; otherwise a more expensive type of motor would be required. Furthermore, the small and critical refrigerant charge required by
on the system
the capillary tube system results not only in reducing the cost of the refrigerant but also in
eliminating the need for a receiver tank. Naturally,
all
The
savings in
the
manufacturing
costs.
Thus,
off and stop the flow of liquid to the evaporator during the off cycle. When the compressor
on all
room
coolers.
cycles off,
equalize through the open capillary tube and any residual liquid in the condenser passes to
the
used also on small commercial packaged units, particularly packaged air conare
ditioners.
Many
it
remains
compressor cycles on again. For this reason, the refrigerant charge in a capillary tube system is critical and no receiver tank is employed between the condenser and the capillary tube. In all cases, the refrigerant charge should be the minimum which will satisfy the requirements of the evaporator and at die same time maintain a liquid seal in the condenser at the entrance to the capillary tube during the latter part of the operating cycle. Any refrigerant in excess of this amount will only back up in the
until the
Capillary tubes should be employed only on those systems which are especially designed for
their use.
packaged systems having relatively constant loads and employing hermetic motor-compressors. Specifically, a capillary tube should not be used in conjunction with an open type compressor. Because of the critical refrigerant
charge,
cient refrigerant
an open type compressor may lose suffiby seepage around the shaft
condenser, thereby increasing the condensing pressure which, in turn, reduces the system
efficiency
The use of capillary tubes on remote systems (compressor located some distance from the evaporator) should also be avoided as a general
rule.
overcharge
overloading of
accurately.
321
and suction
is
lines,
erant
gradual expansion of the liquid as its pressure is reduced, seriously reduces the flow capacity of
the tube.
the evaporator during the off cycle. Serious flood-back to the compressor is likely to occur at start-up unless an adequate designed accumulator is installed in the suction line.
When
the tube
of the vapor
Condensers designed for use with capillary tubes should be so constructed that liquid drains
from the condenser into the capillary tube in order to prevent the trapping of liquid in the
freely
Flooded Evaporator Control. Reemployed with flooded evaporators are usually of the float type. The
17-16.
condenser during the off cycle. Any liquid trapped in the condenser during the off cycle will evaporate and pass through the tube to the evaporator in the vapor state rather than in the
liquid state.
this
add latent heat to the evaporator, thereby reducing the capacity of the system. Too, the diameter of the condenser tubes should be kept as small as is practical so that a
of a buoyant member or pan) which is responsive to refrigerant liquid level and which acts to open and close a valve assembly to admit more or less refrigerant into the evaporator in accordance with changes in the liquid level in the float chamber. The float chamber may be located on either the low pressure side or high pressure side of the system. When the float is located on the low pressure side of the system,
float control consists
(hollow metal
ball, cylinder
is
called a
is
minimum amount of
condenser at the tube
When
the float
located
cause a maxi-
mum
and
flow
pressure side of the system, the float control known as a high pressure float control.
therefore a
maximum
increase
in
the
The
orator
Evaporators intended for use with capillary tubes should provide for liquid accumulation at
the evaporator outlet in order to prevent liquid flood-back to the compressor at start-up (Fig.
17-28). The function of the accumulator is to absorb the initial surge of liquid from the evaporator as the compressor starts. The liquid then vaporizes in the accumulator and returns
and efficiency which is obtained therefrom. With flooded operation, the refrigerant in all
parts of the evaporator
liquid state
coefficient is
is
predominately in the
refrigerant side tube
and a high
to the compressor as a vapor. To expedite the return of oil to the compressor crankcase, liquid from the evaporator usually enters at the bottom
wherein the refrigerant in the evaporator is predominately in the vapor state, especially in the latter part of the evaporator. For this
reason, float controls (flooded evaporators) are used extensively in large liquid chilling installations
of the accumulator, whereas the suction to the compressor is taken from the top. In most cases, best performance is obtained when the capillary tube is connected directly between the condenser and the evaporator without an intervening liquid line. When the condenser and evaporator are too far apart to
On the
other hand, because of their bulk and the relatively large refrigerant
on small
appli-
been discarded in
this area in
make
used.
some other
Low
The
Bonding
low pressure
some distance in order to provide a heat transfer relationship between the two is usually desirable in that it tends to minimize the formation of flash gas in the tube. Flash gas, formed in the tube because of the
suction line for
rate at
is
being
depleted by vaporization.
responsive only
322
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Vapor to compressor
Fig.
17-29.
Low
side float
pump
through evaporator.
Hand expansion
valve
and
will
filled
conditions
ponse to minor changes in the evaporator liquid level. For intermittent operation, the valve is so
it responds only to minimum and maximum liquid levels, at which points the valve
designed that
Operation of the low pressure float valve may be either continuous or intermittent. With continuous operation, the low pressure float valve
is either fully
open or
it
modulates
Point
should be above
chamber
rof suction
oil
to
of interchanger
i
Metering valve
Strainer
and solenoid
~*y
Primary flow
closed except
when
operating
compressor
is
Do
(Courtesy General
Electric.)
323
float
may be
installed
accumulator in
(Fig. 11-1),
valve is a liquid level actuated refrigerant flow control which regulates the flow of liquid to the
evaporator in accordance with the rate at which the liquid is being vaporized. However, whereas
the low pressure float valve controls the evaporator liquid level directly, the high pressure float
is located on the high pressure side of the system and controls the amount of liquid in the evaporator indirectly by maintaining a constant liquid level in the high pressure float chamber
separate float
On
equipped with a hand expansion valve is usually installed around the float valve in order to provide refrigeration in the event of float valve failure. Too, hand stop valves are usually installed on both sides of the float valve so that the latter can be isolated for servicing without the necessity for evacuating the large refrigerant
valve
(Fig. 17-31).
The operating
The
refrigerant
pump employed
to
vapor from the evaporator condenses into the liquid state in the condenser and passes into the
Weighted
valve pin
c
c
Fig. 17-31. High pressure float
valve.
provide forced circulation of the refrigerant through the evaporator tubes. It is of interest
compare this method of recirculation to the method of recirculation shown in Fig. 17-30, and with the gravity recirculation method shown in Fig. 11-1. The hand expansion valve in the by-pass line around the liquid pump in
to
injection
Fig. 17-29
is
chamber and raises the liquid level in that component, thereby causing the float ball to rise and open the valve port so that a proportional amount of liquid is released from the float chamber to replenish the supply of liquid in the evaporator. Since vapor is always condensed in the condenser at the same rate that the liquid is
float
of
vaporized in the evaporator, the high pressure float valve will continuously and automatically
feed the liquid back to the evaporator at a rate
float valves
may be used
in
rate of vaporization,
sion valves.
many
instances, a single
low
When
the
com-
remain closed
again.
until the
compressor
is
started
low pressure
324
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
'Service valve
Service valve
Bunker
type coil^
sure
pany.)
float
valve
application.
Com-
Liquid
header"
Oil drain
Since the high pressure float valve permits only a small and fixed amount of refrigerant to
it
remain in the high pressure side of the system, follows that the bulk of the refrigerant charge
always in the evaporator, and that the refrigerant charge is critical. An overcharge of refrigerant will cause the float valve to overfeed
the evaporator with the result that liquid refrigerant will flood back to the compressor. Moreover, if the system is seriously overcharged,
evaporator through the drop leg pipe attached to the bottom of the surge drum. The suction vapor is drawn off at the top of the surge drum, as is the flash gas resulting from the expansion
it passes through the float valve. prevent liquid flood-back during changes in loading, the surge drum should have a volume
is
of the liquid as
To
equal
to
at
least
25%
of
the
evaporator
volume.
The
Notice
on a
evaporator pressure to the desired low level. On the other hand, if the system is undercharged, operation of the float will be erratic and
the evaporator will be starved.
and
float
and
arm
move
float valve
may be
used
float
with a dry-expansion type evaporator as shown in Fig. 17-31, or with a flooded-type evaporator
as
always sub-
merged in the
shown
in Fig. 17-32.
is
With the
latter, liquid
refrigerant
pressure receiver)
expanded into the surge drum (low from where it flows into the
and
float
assembly
Body^.
Float
arm
Head
Pivots
Fig. 17-33.
valve.
Company.)
Valve seat
Outlet
'
Inlet
325
a vent tube to prevent the float chamber from becoming gas bound by noncondensible gases which may otherwise collect
is
ordinarily
employed for
chamber and build up a pressure, thereby preventing liquid refrigerant from entering the
in the
The use of the vent tube makes possible the installation of the high pressure float valve at a point above or below the conchamber.
denser without the danger of gas binding. Unlike the low pressure float control, the high pressure float control, being independent of the evaporator liquid level, may be installed either
float switch
level
Float Switch. As shown in Fig. 17-34, can be employed to control the of liquid in the evaporator. The float
(1)
unit.
However, the
float
chamber equipped with a ball float which rises and falls with the liquid level in the evaporator and float chamber and (2) a mercury
Line
Fuse
-\=rEvaporator pressure
Solenoid
pilot valve
regulator Strainer
Heat exchanger
a
fc
Start-stop
switch
Surge drum-
^Strainer
Refrigerant cooled
section
Globe valve
Fig. 17-34. Baudelot cooler with float switch, solenoid liquid valve, evaporator pressure regulator, and solenoid pilot valve. (Courtesy Alco Valve Company.)
valve should be located as close to the evaporator as possible and always in a horizontal line in
switch which
is
and close a
level
when
the
order to insure free action of the float ball and valve assembly. When the float is located some
a high liquid pressure in the line between the valve and the evaporator in order to prevent premature expansion of the liquid before it reaches the evaporator. In small systems, this is accomplished by installing an "intermediate"
float
of liquid in the evaporator falls and rises, respectively. hand expansion valve is installed in the liquid line between the solenoid valve and the evaporator to throttle the liquid refrigerant and prevent surging in the evaporator from the sudden inrush of liquid when the
many
applications for
In larger
operating electrical devices associated with the refrigerating system. They may be arranged for
326
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Suction line
Return from
Insert bulb
of level
master element
ooooo
mm""
Fig.
17-35. Thermostatic
ex-
Electrical
connections
(Courtesy Spor-
Company.)
on
rise)
by employing a
The
an
low wattage
electric
for
the
thermostatic
charge.
The
expansion
valve
with
specially
designed
thermal element can also be used to control the liquid level in flooded-type evaporators. Figure 17-35 illustrates a typical installation on a
vertical surge
heating element of the thermal bulb is a means of providing an artificial superheat to the
thermostatic charge, which increases the bulb pressure and results in opening the port of the
drum.
Pilot line
Com-
Main port
327
As
evaporator
tact
rises
and more
comes
in con-
with the bulb the effect of the heater is overcome, thereby decreasing the superheat and allowing the thermostatic expan-
top of the piston in response to changes in the temperature and pressure of the suction vapor. When the superheat in the suction vapor
increases, indicating the need of greater refrigerant flow, the pilot thermo valve moves in an
element
liquid directly into the evaporator or accumulator (surge tank), into an accumulator drop leg,
opening direction and, supplies a greater pressure to the top of the piston thereby moving the piston in an opening direction and providing a greater flow of refrigerant. Conversely, when the suction vapor superheat decreases, indicating the need of a reduction in refrigerant flow, the
pilot valve moves in a closing direction. This provides less pressure on top of the piston, permitting the piston to move in a closing direction
Pilot operated
employed on large
External
Remote
bulb well
equalizer line
Pilot
thermo
expansion valve
Pilot solenoid
liquid valve
.Main line
strainer
Note:
When
tubes.
thermo expansion valve on shell-and-tube-water cooler with refrigerant (Courtesy Alco Valve Company.)
in
the
tonnage
installations.
The
is
usually a thermostatic
pilot valve
and provide a smaller flow. In operation, the and the main piston assume inter-
expansion valve, a low pressure float valve, or a high pressure float valve. A liquid control valve
designed for use with a thermostatic expansion valve pilot is illustrated in Fig. 17-36. The
liquid control valve
A liquid control valve designed for use with a high pressure float valve as a pilot is illustrated
in Fig. 17-38.
is
"A" from
the pilot
The small bleeder port "B" in the top of the piston vents this pressure to the outlet (evaporator) side of the liquid control valve.
Operation of the high pressure float pilot is thermo expansion valve pilot. On a rise in the level in the pilot receiver,
similar to that of the
When
the pressure supply to the top of the cut off, the cage spring "C" closes the liquid control valve.
piston
is
the float opens and admits high pressure liquid through the pilot line to the liquid control valve piston. This pressure acts against a spring and opens the valve stem to admit liquid to the
and tube
chiller.
on a The
externally
equalized
As the level in the pilot receiver descends, the pilot valve closes and the high pressure in the pilot line is bled off to the low
evaporator.
328
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
adjusting the pressure
Pilot line^
control piston.
A gage is
connection-J'fpt
Strainer screen
17-22.
widely used in refrigerant, water, and brine lines in place of manual stop valves in order to
few of their provide automatic operation. many functions in the refrigerating system are
described at appropriate places in this book.
solenoid valve is simply an electrically operated valve which consists essentially of a coil of insulated copper wire and an iron core
is
or armature (sometimes called a plunger) which drawn into the center of the coil magnetic
field
when
the coil
is
energized.
By
attaching a
Hand operating
stem
Caution-for normal
and pin to the coil armature, a valve port can be opened and closed as the coil is energized and de-energized, respectively. Although there are a number of mechanical variations, solenoid valves are of two principal types: (1) direct acting and (2) pilot operated.
valve stem
(Fig. 17-42),
valve
Small solenoid valves are usually direct acting whereas the larger valves are pilot
Fig.
17-38.
Liquid
control
high
pressure.
operated (Fig. 17-43). In the direct acting valve, the valve stem attached to the coil armature
controls the
directly.
In the
side through
an adjustable
pressure gage
armature controls only the pilot port rather than the main valve port. When the coil is energized, the armature is drawn into the coil magnetic field and the
pilot
should be installed in the pilot line to facilitate adjusting the control valve during the initial
start-up.
port
is
opened.
pressure
on top of
the floating
main piston
A A
shown in
Fig. 17-40.
float
typical application of a
low pressure
through the open pilot port, thereby causing a The pressure unbalance across the piston. higher pressure under the piston forces the piston to move upward, opening the main
valve port C.
shown
in Fig. 17-41.
As the
liquid level
float pilot
de-energized, the
low pressure
coil
magnetic
field
opens and allows the pressure in the pilot line to be relieved to the cooler so that the high
pressure liquid acting
on
the
lift
and closes the pilot port. The pressure immediately builds up on top of the main piston, causing the piston to drop and close off the main valve port.
Except where the solenoid valve
is
As
the
specially
liquid
is
designed for horizontal installation, the solenoid valve must always be mounted in a vertical
position with the coil
above the control piston through an internal bleeder in the bottom of the piston. The
resulting high pressure
on
top.
In selecting a solenoid valve, the size of the valve is determined by the desired flow rate through the valve and never by the size of the
line
main valve
port.
The
in
Consideration
is
to
be
installed.
be
given
to the
REFRIGERANT
FLOW CONTROLS
329*
C
L.
j2
>s
I
C s
s
8
a
o
c
I Q. <
330
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
o
>-
f>
a.
'I
IL
a.
*o"
e u o
a.
o
>-
MO
331
maximum
regulators.
The function
regulator
is
ot
tne
evaporator pressure
and therefore the evaporator temperature, from dropping below a certain predetermined minimum, regardless of how low the pressure in the
f\\\\
\W
!S^^-
LW\\\^
Fig.
17-43. Pilot-operated
solenoid
valve
of the
floating
piston
type.
(Courtesy
Sporlan
Valve
Company.)
Fig.
17-42. Small,
direct-acting
solenoid
valve.
The
throttling-type
(Fig. 17-44)
is is
evaporator
never
fully
pressure
regulator
operating.
As
may drop
It is
on
the compressor.
important to recognize
maintain a constant pressure in the evaporator but merely limits the minimum evaporator pressure. Evaporator pressure regulators are
available with either throttling action
lating)
(moduor fully
The differential between the closing and opening points of the snap-action control
closed).
not only gives close control of the product temperature but also provides for automatic defrosting of air-cooling evaporators when the temperatures in the space are sufficiently high
to permit off-cycle defrosting.
Fig.
17-44. Throttling-type
evaporator
pressure
Company of America.)
332
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
External
pilot circuit
connection
Fig.
17-45.
Pilot-operated
Alco Valve
Com-
''Main port
.Is
^W^sgp
regulator.
(Courtesy Sporlan
Valve Company.)
333
pressure,
is
similar to that of
toward the closed position to throttle the suction vapor to the compressor, thereby maintaining the evaporator pressure above the
desired minimum.
increases
With
control
valve
described
in
and the evaporator pressure rises above the regulator setting, the regulator modulates toward the open position so that at full load the regulator is in the full open
position.
pilot
shown
Evaporator pressure regulators can be used any installation when the evaporator pressure or temperature must be maintained above a certain minimum. They are widely used with
in
pressure
regulator"
water and brine chillers in order to prevent freeze-ups during periods of minimum loading.
hold-back valve," is to limit the suction pressure at the compressor inlet to a predetermined
They are
maximum,
regardless of
how
humidity control
an increase
the
minimum
all
evaporator temperature.
systems
single
The purpose of
is
In
the
multiple
evaporator
where the
evaporator
in
all
to protect the
evaporators are
pressure
suction
operated at approximately
same temperature, a
regulator
can be
the
installed
the the
main
compressor driver from overload during periods when the evaporator pressure is above the normal operating pressure for which the Suction compressor driver was selected.
pressure
regulators
where a multiple of evaporators connected to a single compressor are operated at different temperaevaporators.
On
other hand,
are
recommended
for
use
tion
to:
1.
on any
is
a separate evaporator pressure regulator must be installed in the suction line of each of the higher temperature evaporators (see Section
tures,
High
starting loads.
2.
20-16). This
in
warmer evaporators from dropping below the desired minimum while the comthe
pressor continues to
coldest evaporator.
pump)
operation.
4.
operate
to satisfy
the
In large
17-45
pilot
is
sizes,
The
valve
shown
pilot
in Fig.
large
sizes
are pilot
With
internal
control,
operated.
7),
and 717
(ammonia).
As a
areas,
employed
refrigerants
economically
18
Compressor
Construction and Lubrication
applied
systems
having
evaporator
relatively
and
high condensing pressures, reciprocating compressors have also been used very successfully
in both
perature installations.
sizes
units
industrial installations.
and
18-1.
of compressors are
eration duty:
(1)
its
rotary,
field.
and
(3)
centrifugal.
The
reciprocating
and
compression of the vapor being accomplished mechanically by means of a compressing member. In the reciprocating compressor, the compressing member is a
pressors,
single-acting, vertical, (1) enclosed compressors and (2) double-acting, horizontal compressors employing crossheads and piston
types:
whereas in the rotary compressor, the compressing member takes the form of a blade, vane, or roller. The centrifugal compressor, on the other hand, has no com-
reciprocating piston,
of the vapor occurs only on one side of the piston and only once during each revolution of the crankshaft, whereas in double-acting
compressors, compression of the vapor occurs
alternately on both sides of the piston so that compression occurs twice during each revolution of the crankshaft.
member, compression of the vapor being accomplished primarily by action of the centrifugal force which is developed as the vapor is rotated by a high speed impeller.
pressing
All three compressor types have certain advantages in their own field of use. For th^ most part, the type of compressor employed in
Vertical compressors are usually of the enclosed type wherein the piston is driven
any individual application depends on the size and nature of the installation and on the
refrigerant used.
by a connecting rod working off the and crankshaft being enclosed in a crankcase which is pressure tight to the outside, but open to contact with
directly
Reciprocating Compressors. The reis by far the most widely used type, being employed in all fields
18-2.
the system refrigerant (Fig. 18-1). Horizontal compressors, on the other hand, usually employ crankcases which are open (vented) to the
outside, but isolated in
ciprocating compressor
of refrigeration. It is especially adaptable for use with refrigerants requiring relatively small displacement and condensing at relatively
high pressures.
which case the piston is driven by a piston rod connected to a crosshead, which in turn, is actuated by a connecting rod working off the
crankshaft (Fig. 18-2).
Among
Because of
pressor
is
its
com-
334
US
Bg-
IE.
I.
Large
capacity,
reciprocating
compressor
Vik*r
showing
t/lttm.
details of lubrication
{Courtesy
Manufacturing Company.}
and therefore
applications.
is
crankcase
erant.
As compared
more
floor
it
Also, while
is
not exposed to the system refrigprincipal disadvantage of the horizontal compressor is that the packing or seal around the piston rod is subject to both
is
The
more expensive than ihe vertical type, it is more accessible for maintenance since
Oil
also
the suction
and discharge
pressures, whereas in
the
KKkel-IKWJ luhicaLcn
Hew
oil
|ig.lu
(rama
crasshfrf nin
Md
GUite
wlw
Flirt
piste
jket
dHflllM
IK
pockets
mi
hens
Frame
bwt
full
langjh
Law *
discharge
reducing OirtHutfiS
hvc
Fig. 18-2, Donblt-aeting. horizontal sOmpr40r, Cinder clearance Can bi adjusted msmJally to obtain capacity control. {Courtesy WorthlngtOn Corporation .)
33S
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a.
"5
COMPRESSOR
seal
CONDUCTION AND
LUBRICATION
337
suction pressure.
most part, the type of piston used depends on the method of suction gas intake and on the
location of the suction valves. Automotive-type.
more
usually
more
difficult
to maintain
sea)
around the
horizontal
the
compressor than
Vertical,
it is
when the suction gas enters the cylinder through suction valves located in the cylinder head (valve plate) as shown in Fig, 8-3.
pistons are used
1
com-
Double-trunk pistons arc ordinarily used in medium and large compressors, in which case
the suction
pressors differ considerably in design according to the type of duly for which they are intended.
cylinder wall
and
in the side
Numerous
combinations
of
the
following
design Features are used in order to obtain the desired flexibility: (I) the number and arrange-
passes into the cylinder through suction valves located in the top of the piston (Fig. 18-1),
ment of the cylinders, (2) type of pistons, (3) type and arrangement of valves, (4) crank and
piston speeds, (5) bore and stroke, (6) type of crankshaft, (7) method of lubrication, etc. ISO. Cylinders. The number of cylinders
Notice that the bottom of the piston contains a bulkhead that seals off the hollow portion of the piston from the crankcasc. Because of small piston clearances (approximately 0.003 in. per inch of cylinder diameter),
few as one to as many as sixteen. In multicylinder compressors, the cylinders may be arranged in line, radially, or at an angle to
varies
as
from
on the cylinder wall is usually to prevent gas blow-by around the pistons in small compressors. For this reason,
the
oi!
film
sufficient
rings are
in
each other to form a V or pattern. For two and three cylinder compressors the cylinders
are usually arranged in
line.
diameter,
seldom used on pistons less than 2 in. However, these pistons arc
oil
provided with
grooves to
facilitate lubri-
Where four or
W, or
radial
In-line
Automotive- type
more
arrangements
are
ordinarily
used.
arrangements have the advantage of requiring only a single valve plate, whereas F, IF, and
pistons having diameters above 2 in. arc usually equipped with two compression rings and one oil ring, the latter sometimes being located at
the
bottom
of
the
arrangements provide better running balance and permit the cylinders to be staggered so that the over-all compressor length is
radial
less.
compression rings at oil rings at !hc bottom. As a general rule, pistons are manufactured
Double- trunk from one to three the top and one or two
piston.
Compressor cylinders are usually constructed cast iron which [5 easily machined and not subject to warping. For small compressors, the cylinders and crankcasc housing are often cast in one piece, a practice which permits very close alignment of the working parts. For larger compressors, the cylinders and crankcasc housing are usually cast separately and flanged and bolted together.
of close-grained
from close-grained cast iron, as are the rings, However, a number of aluminum pistons are in
use.
The
ances.
pistons are used, they are usually equipped with at least one compression ring,
18-S.
it
When aluminum
As a general rule, the cylinders of the larger compressors are usually equipped with replaceable liners or sleeves. Small compressors often have fins cast
integral with the cylinders
which determine both the volumetric and compression efficiencies of the compressor, the design of the compressor suction and discharge valves is one of the most important considerations in compressor design. Furthermore, it will be shown later that valve
the
factors
castings
for
larger
contain water jackets far this purpose. ItM, Pistons. Pistons employed in refrigeration compressors are of
(1)
two
common
.
types:
automotive and
(2)
double-trunk
For the
The friction loss (wiredrawing effect) suffered by the vapor in flowing through the compressor valves and passages is primarily a function of vapor velocity and increases as the velocity of
339
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
increases.
the vapor
Therefore, in order to
losses,
ptale,
the the
valves
largest
Q) the flexing or reed. All three types operate automatically, opening and closing in
to
designed
to
provide
response
pressure
differentials
caused by
facilitate
with the least possible effort. practical the valves should be so located as to provide Tor straight-line flow (unifiow) of the
changes
valves
loaded.
18-6.
To
rapid closing
of the
valve,
most discharge
vapor
through
In
all
passages-
Poppet Valves.
The poppel
valve
is
similar to the automotive valve, except that the The valve is valve stem is much shorter.
maximum
wiredrawing
enclosed in a cage which serves both as a valve seat and valve stem guide and also as a retainer A spring, dasbpot, or for the valve spring.
bleeder arrangement
is
also
included in the
travel-
reduction in the volumetric efficiency of the compressor and/or p material increase in the
To minimize back, leakage of the vapor through the valves, the valves should be designed to close quickly and tightly. Id order
to
Except for minor differences, the design of the suction and discharge poppet valves is essentially the same, the principal difference being
that the suction poppet valve is beveled on the stem side of the valve face, whereas the discharge poppet valve is beveled on the opposite
side.
open
easily
should be constructed of lightweight material and be designed for a low lift. They should be strong and durable and they should operate
quietly
The poppet
in
valve,
one of the
first
is
types used
refrigeration compressors,
essentially
and automatically.
Furthermore, they
should be so designed and placed that they do not increase the clearance volume of the
compressor.
slow speed valve and as such present time to a few types of slow speed Jn high speed machines, the compressors. poppet valve has been discarded in favor of
is
limited at the
Although there are numerous modifications within any one type, valves employed in refrigeration compressors can be grouped into
three basic types:
(I)
both of which are more adaptable to high speed The operation than is the poppet valve. principal advantage of the poppet valve is that
ring pflte
ring! ccmstitut*
COMPfcE&SOft
339
18-5. Fig Discharge valve assembly (diie valve), (from the ASRE &ota Book, Design
Refrigerating
Shoulder screw
anrf
AirCoil spring,
^Sy_
Conditioning Engineers)
screws
Discharge vatae
retainer
it
increase
pressor,
car be mounted flush and therefore does not the clearance volume of the com-
a series of ribbon steel strips, and a valve guard or retainer, The flexible metal strips fit
seat,
over slots
in the
Plate Valves. The ring plate valve (Fig. 18-4) consists of a valve seat, one or more ring plates, one or more valve springs, and a
retainer.
J-7- fting
by the valve guard. The operation of the Feather valve is illustrated in Fig. 18-7. It is
important to notice that in order to aliow the
valve reeds to flex under pressure, they are riot
tightly
The
the valve seat by the valve springs, which also help to provide rapid closure of the valves. The
The
principal
is
to
advantage of the Feather valve is that the reeds are Ugh t weight and easily opened and are so
designed that they provide a large restricted area, ail of which tend to reduce the wiredrawing effect to a minimum.
and
The
slow speed and high speed compressors and it may be used as cither the suction or the discharge ^alve. In fact, when both suction and
discharge valves are located in the head, ihey are usual ty contained in the same ring plate
One
disadvantage of
is
and
that
one that
vaj ve.
they cannot be
mounted
assembly.
For example, in
outer
spaces,
clearance
all
volume
is
necessarily
two smaller
increased in
One modification of
metal disc held in
retainer,
18-8.
is
compressors
is
a thin
steel reed,
which
usually fastened
Flexing Valves,
individual design to a
much
do
either the
One
popular type of flexing valve suitable for use in medium and large compressors is the Feather valve* (Fig. 18-6), which consists of a valve
*
one end while the opposite unfastened end rests on the valve seat over the valve port. The free end of the reed flexes or "flaps" to cover and uncover the valve port (Fig, 8-8), A dapper valve design frequently employed
securely at
1
shown
in Fig, 18-9.
is
in
340
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
consists of
down
a flexible metal disc which is held on the valve seat by a screw or bolt
through the center of the disc. The disc flexes up and down to uncover and cover the valve
port.
mounted
18-*.
crown of
a piston
is
illustrated
in Fig. 18-10.
Valve
Location.
As
previously
de-
scribed, the discharge valves are usually located in the cylinder head, whereas the suction valves
may be
crown of the piston, in which case the suction vapor enters through
the side of the cylinder.
As a
general rule,
With small
Valve
Fig.
tB-4.
One
popular
design
of flexing
vaNe.
beam which
is
upward
at this point.
The ends
of the reed are slotted and are held down by only the tension of the coil springs in order to
allow ibc ends of the reed (o
flexes
move
as the reed
up and down
at the center.
act.';
The
spring-
as a safety device to
damage
in the
oil
the
valve
port.
not usually
of liquid of any bind. However, with the arrangement in Fig. 18-9, the whole valve assembly will lift to pass liquid slugs. Under ordinary discharge
sufficient clearance to pass a slug
is
ample
to
down
firmly
on
Worth
nj-
is
Another type of flexing valve in common use the diaphragm valve. The diaphragm valve
COMPHESSOft CONSTRUCTION
AND LUBRICATION
341
When
in the cylinder
head, ihe
head must be partitioned to permit separation of the suction and discharge vapors.
Most large compressors are equipped with secondary safely heads which are located al the end of the cylinder and held in place bv heavy coil springs (Fig. 18-1), Under normal
discharge pressures, the safety head
(irmly in place
is
held
in
by the
slug
springs.
However,
the
Flf.
event that a
nety
noncompressible material enters the cylinder, the safety head will rise under the increased pressure and permit the material to pass into
the cylinder head, thereby preventing
up
to
damage
to
3500 rpm.
the
to the compressor.
the
In smaller compressors.,
is
rotational speed of
less limited
by the
piston
discharge
valve
usually
designed
maximum
speeds.
Theoretically,
no
limit
to
However, as a
compressors, the suction and discharge valves are usually incorporated into a valve plate
assembly, which
IB-IO.
is
Since considerable
valve arrangements,
difficulty is
experienced in
an effort
the
trend
somewhat
ties
limited.
a function of
are increased beyond 900 fpm. the velocity of the vapor through the valves will usually become excessive, with the result that the
and rpm,
it
volumetric
efficiency
of
the
rpm
is
compressor is by the
compressor
is
increased.
is
Piston velocity
a function of compressor
rpm and
The
rpm
rpm a
stroke
(ft)
For example, a compressor ha ving a 4 in. stroke and rotating at 1200 rpm will have a piston
speed of
1200 x
4 in.
x 2
800 fpm
is
If the rotational
will
have to be reduced to
12
x S00 fpm
Pon d*d.
tttz
3600 rpm x 2
~-
1.33 in.
3*2
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
u i discharge vike,
of vtlve
If
often
mounted
In
Obviously, then, the maximum speed at which an individual compressor can be rotated without
in order to Too, since the piston stroke and the compressor rpm are both
large
bore
is
usually
required
upon
[pax
The
the
shorter the
the
maximum
a
permissible
that
piston velocity,
This
accounts
efficiency
for
fact
the
will
volumetric
of
compressor
of increasing single-cylinder piston displacement is to increase the size of the bore. The increase in piston displacement accruing
means
is
increased up to a
if
from an increase
in the size
point
beyond which,
the speed
is
further increased,
[he efficiency
will
However, since the amount of blow-by around the piston increases as the size of the
bore
is
M-ll, Bore and Stroke, The relationship of somewhat with the individual compressor. Although the bore
bore dimension
125% of
dimension may be either less than or greater than that of the stroke, the general trend in high speed compressors is toward a large bore and a short stroke. When the suction and discharge valves are both located in the head, a
the bore
is
ture
M3
18-2).
The
is
stuffing
box
is
a cylindrical
vapor pet ton of capacity, they are usually designed with a large bore and a short stroke in
order to obtain the
housing which
cast as
maximum
piston displace-
ment per
in.
cylinder.
1
series
smalt
domestic
18
in.
approximately
industrial types,
18-12.
in
the space in
the stuffing
stuffing
box housing.
The packing
is
held in
Cranks, Rods, and Bearings. Crankshafts employed in large compressors are of the crank-throw type and are usually constructed
of forged
stccf
place by a
tightened,
when
and press
two.
and housing,
All bearing-
ease-hardened,
the crankshaft
where
brass
or
aluminum bearings
are used.
As
a general rule,
wear and permit refrigerant to seep around the shaft, whereupon the packing gland nut must be tightened again to reestablish a Although the stuffing hex seal is tight sealtually
and
locknut
arrangement.
or
the
Crankshaft
bearings
are
satisfactory
for
large
is
ammonia
on duty
installations
where an operator
to tighten the
bad)
sometimes
babbit.
used
for
mains.
Common
compressors
designed
for
automatic
operation.
eccentric-type shaft, which consists of
The
mounted on a
is
straight
compressors.
The
eccentric
counterbalanced
equipment must be self-adjusting to compensate for wear and for varying crankcase pressures. It must not leak under pressure or
matic
and
is
vacuum when
must be
long
life,
the shaft
is
rotating or idle.
It
screw arrangement.
tric,
self-lubricating,
have
reasonably
connecting rod completely encircles the eccenthe entire eccentric acts as a bearing sur-
and be
face.
aluminum, forged
are
usually
steel,
Although there are a number of different seal designs which meet these qualifications and which are in use at the present time, one relatively simple design of crankshaft sjeal, which is
rapidly gaining in popularity.
13-11.
Is
case-hardened
Wrist-pins
shown
in Fig-
made
The
Bronze,
of a springnose which
aluminum, and cast iron arc often used without bearings, in which case the shaft is usually
case-hardened.
IB- 1 3.
sealed to the crankshaft with a synthetic rubber gasket. The spring holds the scat nose firmly against a highly polished steel seal face
to prevent
which
is
An
oil
film
the
from the
crankcasc
(or [be leakage of air into the crankcase in the event that the pressure in
is below atmospheric), a seal or packing must be provided at the point where the crankshaft passes through the crankcase. One
the crankcase
between these two smooth surfaces form an effective vapor-tight seal. Notice that sealing occurs in three places: (I) at the rubber gasket between the seal nose and the crankshaft, (2) between the seal nyse and seal face, and
(3) at the
crankcase housing.
employed on some
is
large
ammonia coma
employs
the seal
pressors,
Notice
that
344
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Mitel
retaining
rinj
Oil
--*
Sea!
ulult-
Crankshaft
tMarifiE
Gasket
Seal spring
remains completely submerged in oil during both the running and off cycles. 18-14. Compressor Lubricating Oils. The fact that the compressor lubricating oil usually comes n o contact \w ith, a nd often mi xes w th he system refrigerant make it necessary that the oil
i ! i , i
especially
cating
oil for
part, the chemical stability of an oil is closely related to the amount of unsaturated hydrocarbons present in the oil.
Same of
which
the
more important
lubricating
The smaller the percentage of unsaturated hydrocarbons contained in (he oil, the more stable is the oil. For refrigeration service, a high quality oil with a very low percentage of
unsaturated
oils
com-
hydrocarbons
is
desired.
These
chemical
stability, (2)
(3) dielectric
from
1
strength,
oil
and
in evaluating these
an individual
compressor,
all the following factors should be taken into account: (1) the type and design of th* compressor, (2) the nature of the refrigerant
Pour, Cloud, and Floe Points. The pour point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil will flow, or "pour," when tested under certain specified conditions. Of two oils having the same viscosity, one may have a
IB* 4.
(4) the
(3) the evaporator temperature, and compressor discharge temperature. IB- 5. Chemical Stability. The importance of chemical stability is emphasized by the fact
to
be used,
wa *
content.
consideration in selecting an
perature systems. of the
Pour point
oil for
that
it
is
cating
oil
perform
its
lubricating function
oil should be well above the lowest temperature to be obtained in the evaporator.
continuously
and
in a
effectively
without
underSince
pour point of the oil is loo high, the oil tends to congeal on the surface of the evaporator
If the
hermetic motor-compressor
oil
frequently
remains in these units throughout the life of the unit, which is often ten years or more. Because of the high discharge temperatures encountered
in
Since this oil is not returned to the compressor, inadequate lubrication of the compressor may
also result.
Since
all
amount of
any
oil if
wax
will precipitate
oil is
from
oil
where
condensers
are
used,
the
reduced
Because the
becomes cloudy
345
which the wax begins to precipitate from the cloud point of the oil, Jf the
oil
is
cating
oil, viscosity
may
also be defined as a
oil
its
too high,
wax
will
or of the
lubricating
from the
oil in
the evaporator
and
Although a small
moving
amount of wax in the evaporator does little harm, a small amount of wax in ihe refrigerant
control will cause stoppage of thai part, with
will
become Inoperatemperature at
of the
oil
reasonable limits.
oil is the
must be maintained within of the oil is wilt not have sufficient body to
oil
If the viscosity
from a mixture of 90% Refrigerant- 12 and 16% oil by volume. Since [he use of an oil soluble refrigerant lowers the viscosity of the oil and affects both the pour and cloud points, where oil
to
precipitate
keep the moving parts separated and thin film lubrication will result, accompanied by excessive
si
nee,
in addition to
employed, the floe point of the oil is a more important property than the pour or cloud points. The use of 10%
refrigerants
miscible
are
must serve as a sealing agent between and high pressures in the compressor, excessive blow-by of vapor around the pistons
frequently
the low
(in
(in
mixture to determine
rotary
may
low.
occur
when
the
the floe point seems quite realistic, since the tendency of an oil-refrigerant mixture to
On
is
when
wax increases as the amount of oil in the mixture increases and since the amount of oil circulating with the refrigerant seldom exceeds 10% and is usually much less.
separate
be excessive and ihc power consumption of the compressor will be increased. Furthermore, in extreme case, a high viscosity oil may not have sufficient fluidity to penetrate
friction will
Because
floe point
of the
oil
oil is
a measure of
wax
it
when
soluble refrigerant,
compressor parts
an important consideration when selecting an oil for use with an oil miscible refrigerant at
evaporator temperatures below 0 F. However, hoc point has no significance when a nonmiscihte refrigerant
ra-17. Dielectric
is
The viscosity of a lubricating oil is usually measured in Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU)T which is an index of the time in seconds required
for a given quantity of oil (60 mm) at a controlled temperature (usually 100 F) to flow by
gravity
used,
Strength.
is
The
dielectric
strength of an oil
from a
capillary
to cause
an
a gap
cm) and length (1.225 cm). An oil having a temperature of 100" F and requiring 300 sec to pass through the tube is said to have
(0.1765
immersed
in
in
the
oil.
Since
any
moislure,
oil
changes of tem-
the
oil will
lower
its
The
effect
contaminants.
especi-
ally important in oils used with hermetic motorcompressor units, since an oil of low dielectric strength may contribute to grounding or shorting of the motor windings, 1 0-1 A. Viscosity, Viscosity has already been
shown graphically
line
oil
0% refrigerant
dilution).
F of approximately
I
175
to approximately
is
SSU when
to 40" P.
reduced
effect
With regard
to the lubri-
Shown
also in Fig,
18-12
is
the
of
H*
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
2000f
Fig.
18-12.
ViKWlty
of
in
temo\\.
perature
of
curves
solution
Refrigerant- ( 2
Volume, f957-iS Edition. Reprod ut*d by p*cm)Hipfl of the Amerldll Soviet/ of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.)
-20
refrigerant
20
dilution
oil-
40
60 SO 100 TemparatUfa F
viscosity
ffiD
210
on the
of
the
Imbricating
oil
Notice, for example, that pure having a viscosity of 175 SSU at 100 F
With each revolution of the crankshaft, the connecting rod and crankshaft (or eccentric)
dip into the
oil
SSU
1
at this
same
causing the
oil to
be splashed
temperature
12.
It is
when diluted
with
% Refrigerant-
case
must be taken
into
account
housing immediately over the main bearings. These cavities collect oil which feed
gravity
seal
proper viscosity oil. In all cases, the compressor manufacturer's recommendations should be followed when Ihcy are
available.
by
down
(Fi.
into the
1S-3),
shaft
In
rifle-drilled to
When
may
be used as a
guide.
18-19.
of
scoops or dippers arc sometimes installed on the end of the connecting rods to increase splashing and/or to aid in forcing oil through rifle-drilled oil
bearings. passages.
Too,
lubricating
compressor
vary
somewhat
depending upon the type and size of the compressor and upon the individual manufacturer. However, for the most part, lubrication, methods can be grouped into two general types (1) splash and (2) forced feed. Although forced feed lubrication can be found even in
i
times
flooded
lubrication,
employs
enclosed
15
approximately
is
small,
speed
splash
compressors
where
the
conventional
excessive
oil
feed lubrication. Often, a combination of the splash and forced feed methods is found in a single compressor,
splashing of the
crankcasc.
lubrication, the
oil
method of
Jn the
splash
method of
lubrication,
the
tubes
compressor crankcasc acts as an oil sump and is filled with oil to a level approximately even
and/or rifle-drilled passages in the crankshaft and connecting rods to the various rubbing
U7
After
performing
its
lubricating
sump
com-
pressor.
The
oil
is
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide
Reciprocating
Reciprocating Reciprocating
developed by a small oil sump located in the crankcase of the compressor, usually at the end of the crankshaft (Fig. 18-1). Since most oil
Rotary
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
pumps
Methyl chloride
Refrigerant-30 Refrigerant-30
Refrigerant1
not usually
critical
How-
Rotary
Centrifugal Centrifugal and
reciprocating
not true or
all
larly those
employing
oil dippers
Refrigerant- 12
Refrigerant- 21
Refrigerant-] 13
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
housing.
Oil strainers are always placed at the suction
inlet of the oil
Refrigerant- 1 14
Rotary
pump
B. Industrial Refrigeration
of
dioxide compressors
foreign
material
info the
pump
or bearings.
oil filters
are worthwhile
SU
Type of Compressor
Viscosity
Range
An
oil
compressor cylinders
junction with
all
50-300 at 100 F
Where oil
is
prevented from
are
entering system or
cylinders:
which are located external to the compressor crankshaft. In such cases, the cylinder lubrication system is entirely separate from the internal pressure lubricating system (Fig. 18-14). The bearings and cross-heads of horizontal, open crankcase compressors are usually splash
lubricated (Fig. 18-2),
is
systems
In splash systems
506-600
Steam-driven compressor
cylinders
sate
is
when conden140-165
at
Oil
making
C. Miscellaneous
210 F
carried
to
the
cross-head
troughs.
Cylinders
Equipment
Type of Requirement
Bearings
SU Viscosity at 00 F Range
1
king
oiled,
normal
280-300 100-115 280-300 280-300
temperature
place,
excessive
dilution
of the
Ring oiled, low temperature Chain oiled Sail and roller bearings:
Oil lubricated
by liquid refrigerant can result in inadequate lubrication of the compressor parts. More important, however, is that fad that the liquid refrigerant will vaporize in the crankcase and cause foaming of the oil, with the result that the amount of oil carried over into the
crankcase
oil
Grease lubricated
Wick
Fig.
oilers
IB- 1 3.
280-600
Lubrication
recommendation:. {From
ASKE
Ou<rt took,
discharge line
is
materially increased.
Under
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
g,
a- 1 *- Sifigle-aKifig, verti-
cal
erankctse.
Manufacturing Company. )
severe that
all
more
likely to occur
other lime.
In
any event,
crankcase.
Mot
com-
the pressor without lubrication but there is also liquid of slugs noncompressible possibility thai
refrigerant
and adjustor corrected by proper application ment of the refrigerant control and/or by
properly designed suction piping, drain by gravity 2, Liquid refrigerant may
and
cause serious damage 10 the compressor in the form of broken valves and pistons and bent or
broken rods and shafts. Too, where considerable oil foaming occurs in compressors employing
crankcase from the evaporator and/or suction piping during the off faulty cycle. This condition is also caused by
into
the
compressor
forced
feed
lubrication,
lubrication
will
evaporator
and suction
piping.
leaking
often be inadequate because the oil pump is unable to develop sufficient pressure to deliver
the oil to the various rubbing surfaces. Furthermore, vaporization of liquid refrig-
also be a contributing condition is readily the again, factor- Here, corrected or prevented by proper design.
refrigerant control
may
3.
Any
erant in the crankcase tends to reduce the capacity and efficiency or the compressor in that the resulting vapor is drawn into the
cylinder
pressor
the evaporator, liquid refrigerant will boil off in evaporator and condense in the compressor
and
displaces
vapor
which
would
crankcase.
Naturally,
this
can
occur
only
otherwise be taken from the suction line. Liquid refrigerant may gain entrance into the
crankcase
in
a number of ways:
evaporator. It
I .
refrigerant
often
cause
located installations where the compressor is cold outside or in a basement or some other
location.
The
is
to
maintain tbe temperature of the crankcase above the saturation lemperaturt of the by refrigerant vapor. This can be accomplished
installing
As
is
an
electrical
heating element
in
tbe
3
lower
and
in the
crankcase
this
warmer
location.
pressure,
maximum
percentage of refrigoil
-refrigerant
absorb
oil
mixture
in a
is
only approximately
%. Therefore,
certain
amount of
always
be dissolved into the lubricating oil in any system employing an oil miscible refrigerant,
0%
must of
in
necessity vaporize
assuming that the refrigerant vapor and the oil are permitted to come in contact with one
another, as
is
new
much
oil
can be depends on
amount of
oil
(I)
drawn
foaming
centage refrigerant that will be dissolved into the oil depends only on the pressure of the
refrigerant vapor, the temperature of the oil,
and the length of time that the two are under steady conditions.
in contact
and the loss of oil from the crankcase during compressor start-up. One common method is to equip the compressor with an oil check valve, which is installed in the oil passage between the suction inlet of the compressor and the crankcase (Fig. 8-16). With oil miscible refrigerants,
i
the
oil
pumped
of Refrigerant- 1 in oil under various conditions of tempera tu re and pressure is shown graphically in Fig. 13-15. Notice that
The
solubility
returns
vapor.
On
inlet,
the oil
is
The
separated oil
dissolved in the
oil
increases considerably as
pressure
of the refrigerant
vapor increases.
140
For example, when the temperature of the oi! is 100" and the refrigerant vapor pressure is
20
psi, the
120
fl 7
f
j*
maximum
percentage of Rcfrigeram-
mixture
in the
crankcase
is
only approximately
the oil
is
h
1
8%
SO
by weight. However,
if
cooled to
is
V X^
i
^qV
increased to 60
in
as
42%.
In
other
words, under
lubricating
the
oil
latter
/) / /
20
si-
conditions, the
soiled
in the
The
be
il
practical significance
y'
w//
10
compressor off cycle, the pressure on the low side of a Refrigerant- 2 system rises to 38 psig, whereas the crankcase cools to
that during the
1
20
30
by weight
40
of
SO
60
faunt
Flf.
I6-)S.
R-12
Assuming
trie
that the
off cycle
Temperature-pTeMure
oi!
relationship
I
of
librium
in the
to
be established,
percentage pf
by weight, as determined from Fig. 18-15. Suppose now that the compressor cycles on and that the
crankcase
will
be approximately
20%
mixture! (pressure it fi()- (From ASRE Data book, Design Volume, 19S7-5B Ed linn. Reproduced by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Refrigerant- 12
i
Engineers.)
iSO
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
pressure produced by the throttling action of
the refrigerant control will supply the pressure
differential necessary to
Suction
BCTM4
cause the oil to flow through the check valve into the crankcase. However, the suction inlet chamber of the
the oil
that
returns
to
the
is
oil
drainage into
Bleed pert
Another method of reducing the amount of foaming at start-up, and one which is rapidly growing in popularity, is to install a
oil
The crankcase heater is wired to come on when the compressor cycles off and
crankcase.
serves to keep the oil in the crankcase
warm
during
the
officycle
so
that
the
amount of
Ffg,
ft-
16.
Illustrating oil
which can be dissolved into the oil However, care should be taken to wire the heater to the secondary of Ihe main disconnect so that It cannot be turned off unless the main disconnect is pulled. Still another method of reducing oii foaming
refrigerant
is
relatively small.
chamber
oil
at start-up
is
on
pumpis
through
purpose.
an
oil
passage
provided
down
cycle, in
Since this
com-
completely evacuated and the crankcase pressure reduced to a low level before the compressor
cycles
off.
The
limits
resulting
low pressure
in
the
passage
will
crankcase
the
from venting to the suction, thereby eliminating the sudden reduction in crankcase pressure which produces oil foaming at start-up. However, since no oil can drain through the
passage to the crankcase until the crankcase
absorbed by the oil. used alone or in conjunction with either the oil check valve or (he crankcase heater is very
effective In
reducing
oil
foaming.
18-21.
Rotary Compressors.
Rotary com-
reduced 10 the suction pressure, a smalt bleed port must be provided around the
pressure
is
pressors in
designs.
roller latter
common
it)
mounted
18-17).
The
cylinder (Fig.
eccentric,
bleed port
is
cylindrical
eccentric
blow-by gases
compressor.
minimum
clearance.
As
the
around
the
the cylinder
up
this
Not
only would
to
prevent
it
the
oil
from returning
the
maintaining contact
with
cylinder
wail.
crankcase,
increase
in
With
compressor.
manner of
crank-
crankpin
bearing.
in a
spring-loaded
blade,
mounted
bears
suction
times.
The blade
351
low pressure vapor will be in the cylinder. The manner in which the vapor is compressed
by the roller
is
illustrated
I
by the sequence of
Cylinder heads or end-plates are used to close the cylinder at each end and to serve as supports
for the camshaft-
drawings in Fig.
S-1T.
The whole cylinder assembly is enclosed in a housing and operates submerged in a bath of
oil.
extend the
full
is
working
clearance
allowed
between
oil level in
Suction and
sides.
passes
into
the
discharge
Ail
slol,
but on opposite
continuous
The
discharge ports
is
compressor including the end-plates are highly Although no polished and closely fitted. suction valves are needed, a check of flapper valve is installed in the discharge passage to eliminate back-feeding of the discharge vapor into the cylinder. When the compressor is operating, an oil film forms a seal between the
high and low pressure areas. high and
the compressor stops, the oil seal
roller
on
the
compressor.
At one point
the suction line (or discharge line) to prevent the high pressure discharge gas from backing
during each compression cycle the roller will cover the discharge ports, at which time only
line
Dnch*rE
Shift
Hg-
compressor.
to
3S1
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
To
r.on fiercer
when
are-
the
com-
Hscl
.;.::.
positive
port
Discharge
reed
ROtor
slot
motion and the smoother, more constant flow of the suction and discharge gases, they are much less subject to mechanical vibration and to the pronounced discharge pulsations associated with the reciprocating compressor.
Howrotary
Cjhnder
ever,
like
reciprocating compressors,
compressors experience volumetric and compression losses resulting from blow-by around
Suction/
and
wire-
row?
ee-mprewor.
drawing.
As
rotary compressors
relatively
high,
being
into
!he
evaporator
when
the
compressor
cycles off.
Another design of rotary compressor employs a series of rotating vanes or blades which are installed equidistant around the periphery of a
slotted rotor (Fig.
18-18).
about 65 to 80%, depending on the individual design and the operating conditions. Rotary compressors are particularly suitable for applications requiring a relatively large compressor displacement at moderate operating
pressures.
The
rolor shaft
is
mounted
one
oil
compressors
on
of comparable
size.
For
this
reason, large
employed
maximum. Heads or
end-plates
seal
The
two- and three-stage cascade systems. Small rotary compressors have been used
successfully in domestic units for a
years.
vanes
wall
number of
when the
is
The vanes
are
Although a few rotary compressors have been utilized in commercial installations, the difficulty encountered in the manufacture of the
larger sizes tends to limit their use in this area.
I(>11.
In
some
and
The
suction vapor
18-20),
through suction ports in the cylinder wall is entrapped between adjacent rotating vanes, The vapor is compressed as the vanes rotate from the point of maximum rotor clearance to the
point of
The number of
impeller
wheels
employed
depends primarily on the magnitude of the thermodynamic head which the compressor must develop during the compression process.
minimum
is
rotor clearance.
The comnear
pressed vapor
the point of
Compressors employing two. three, and four wheels (stages of compression) are common. More wheels may be used when the required increase in head is sufficiently large to demand it, As many as twelve wheels have been used
in
back
through
the
compressor
and
353
and
at increased temperature
high-pressure,
high-velocity vapor
To
steel
resist
which
or,
or of high carbon
steel
typical
two-stage rotor
shown
in
Fig.
vapor to the
in the case
inlet
18-32,
The operating principles of the centrifugal compressor arc similar to those of the centrifugal fan or pump. Low-pressure, tow-velocity vapor from the suction line is drawn in the inter cavity or *'eye'* of the impeller wheel
along the axis of the rotor shaft.
the impeller wheel, the vapor
is
of the last stage impeller, to a discharge chamber, from where the vapor passes through the discharge
line
to the condenser.
The
centrifugal compressor
cally in Fig.
shown diagrammatic
On
entering
forced radially
|23, The routing impeller wheels are essentially the only moving parts of ihe centrifugal compressor
outward between the impeller blades by action of the centrifugal force developed by the rotating wheel; and; is discharged from the blade
tips into the
all
the
compressor housing
at high velocity
Equalize*
check valve
Cyllnd*f-)tttt
nil
ll*SI
Capacity unlove?
by-pass
line
Capacity unloaded
Capacity unKMtter
expander poduet
Fig.
ft-
9.
Large capacity, rotating vana-type rotary compressor. (Courtesy Freezing Equipment Sales, Inc.}
PRINCIPLES
REfFtlGE RATION
compressor
wuh upper
half of housing
of
vapor are increased by the energy so imparted to the vapor. The centrifugal forte exerted on the vapor confined between, and
the
rotated with, the blades of the impeller wheels
much
head which is head is also developed within the impeller wheel because of
to
In
addition
the
static
produced
cenlrifiigaliy, a velocity
column
As
head produced cenlrifugally within the impeller wheels is equal to the static head which would
through, and
rotated
it
of the wheel.
velocity
static
hend is subsequently converted to head within the casing surrounding the wheels, the total increase in pressure developed by a single wheel is the sunt of the increases in both the static and velocity pressures of the
vapor,
Hy assuming radial blades, the total head developed by a single impeller wheel is directly proportional to the square of the peripheral velocity of the wheel, viz;
Fly, 14-21.
Cutaway view
of centrifugal COmfsrfcHOr
Impeller wheel.
N=
i
y%
355
H=
Vg =
small.
As a
The
total
is
wheel
H
fi
x P
V* x p
144
"
144
where p
p
=
=
mean
ft
vapor passes from one wheel to the next. Assuming equal vapor velocities at the inlet and outlet of the compressor, the total Increase it) pressure in the compressor is the sum of the pressure increases produced by the individual wheels. Notice that in any series of wheels the
wheels are
Ib'cu
made
From
the foregoing
it
is
com-
from
only
on
ceding wheel or wheels (Fig. IB -20). Since the head of a fluid is an expression of
the rotational speed of the rotor shaft the diameter of the impel let wheel.
since the
and to However,
maximum
it
tip velocity
is
limited by the
strength or materials
the refrigerant,
maximum
For
single impeller
wheel
is
also limited.
compressors,
pound of flu id, it follows that the head developed by the compressor during the compression process is numerically equal to the work done in foot-pounds per pound of vapor compressed, and that the magnitude of the head which must be produced by the compressor depends on the refrigerant used and on the difference between the saturated suction and
the energy per
such as the one shown in Fig. S-24, can be used only in those few applications where, because of a small temperature head (difference between vaporizing and condensing temperatures), the
increase in pressure (head) required
is
discharge temperatures.
that, for
1 herefote,
it is
evident
any given set of operating conditions, the head which must be produced by the
compressor, that is, the diameter, speed, and number of wheels required, will be the same
relatively
Pj.
18-22.
3S*
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. It'll* Diagram of jas flow thfoujh centrifugal eempreijor. {Court y York Corporation.)
for
small
capacity compressors.
discharges to the condenser approximately 500 cu ft of vapor per minute. The exact tonnage
represents depends upon the refrigerant used and on the operating conditions. At the compressors are centrifugal present time,
this
the impeller
wheel
limits.
from approximately
must be maintained within certain ratio Since the width of the impeller
must be reduced as the volume of vapor handled is reduced in order
to Insure stable operation at low-
gas volumes, the wheel width could become very narrow, resulting in
high
friction
losses
and
poor
becomes necessary
to reduce the
At the same
rotation
and/or
the
number of
manufacturers
fugal
agree
that
the
compressor
is
one which
oompnatsor.
{Ceurteiy
York CorpnsrKion,)
COMPRESSOR. CONSTRUCTION
Centrifugal compressors sure essentially high speed machines. Rotative speeds of between
AND LUBRICATION
3S7
much
dual
in
some
indivi-
Because
of
their
high
rotative
handling large volumes of vapor in relatively small sizes. Although especially suited for use
with low pressure refrigeranls requiring a large
accompanying increase in static pressure take place gradually and smoothly and with a mini-
compressor displacement at moderate compression ratios, they have been applied successfully in all temperature ranges with both low and high pressure refrigerants.
mum
loss of energy. When diffuser vanes are not employed, gradual velocity reduction is obtained by discharging the vapor directly into scroll- or volute-shaped passages which guide the
Some
employed
of
the
more common
centrifugal
refrigerants
A com-
with
compressors
arc
shown
in Fig. 13-25,
high displacement required per ton of refrigeration with Refrigerants- 1 and 113 make
these refrigerants idea) for use with centrifugal
compressors
capacity
is
in
In some instances, diffuser vanes and volutes are used together in a single compressor. The back leakage of refrigerant between the several wheels or stages is limited to a practical minimum by the use of labyrinth- type seals which are arranged between the rotor and the
Their use
in
such
stationary partitions,
sists essentially
The labyrinth
series
seal
con-
of a
of thin
steel strips
and wheel
the
On
large and/or
is
evaporator
design
temperature
low,
which require a relatively small displacement per ton capacity, such as Refrigerants- 1 1 and ammonia, will ordinarily allow
refrigerants
which are fastened to the rotor and which match lands and grooves in the stationary partitions (Fig. S-26), The labyrinth of passages provided by this type of seal causes a drop in the pressure of the refrigerant gas as it passes through each
1
formed by the shaft sealing strips and housing. As the pressure drops, the velocity of the gas increases. However, on entering
restricted area
same tonnage.
difference
in
the next
operating
pressures,
head
the compressor
must be
designed to
application.
the labyrinth
high in
all sizes
and the compressor housing and is also a function of the number of restrictions
shaft sealing strips
80% 30%
or pockets provided.
many instances.
Efficiency losses
The fact that the vapor pressure on the discharge side of the impeller wheels is always
greater than the pressure
side
in
irreversible
on
and
Centrifugal Compressor Construction and Lubrication. For maximumpressor efficiency, the conversion of velocity
18-23.
of the compressor.
balance disc
shaft
is
To
offset this
thrust,
To
is
with a labyrinth seal, acts as a floating partition at the end of the discharge space. The pressure
accomplish
this,
on the outboard
side
is
358
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Fif.
18-lSd.
VoltitE-type
t&mpreHQr.
equalized to the suction inlet impeller through an equalizer line (Fig. I&-23),
The
at
rotor assembly
is
supported radially in
subject
pressure
each end of the rotor shaft (Fig. (S-2G). A Kingsbury-type thrust bearing mounted on the
discharge end of the shaft positions the rotor assembly axially in the casing. Since the axial
is usually neutralised by one means or another, the load on the thrust bearing
wheel.
the
When
properly sized,
the
disc will
pressure
across
on
the shaft that the axial thrust developed by the third-stage impeller opposes the thrust developed
ordinarily very light. As in the case of the open-type reciprocating and rotary compressors, a shaft seal is employed between Ihe compressor housing and the rotor shaft in order to prevent
is
by the
first-
and second-stage
is
impellers.
Since
inward or oulward leakage at ihe point where the shaft protrudes from the compressor
housing
cating cither by a
produced by
sufficient
359
c o
I
o O
a.
t_
t
o
t)
Q.
M
s
</>
o E
W^: o
ifl
360
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
Second-stage
impeller at
cond. press.
Fig.
18-26.
Labyrinth
seal
Labyrinth seal
a relatively high efficiency over a wide range of load conditions, and its high volumetric dis-
pump
with an external
oil reservoir.
The
prin-
and the
Since these
of a centrifugal compressor. these is its relatively flat headcapacity characteristic as compared to that of positive displacement compressors. This, along
in
the
design
Principal
among
simplified in
or no contamination of the
oil.
with an extreme sensitivity to changes in speed, greatly simplifies the problem of capacity control
and tends
compressor
The leakage of oil along the rotor shaft from the main bearings into the refrigerant spaces is
minimized by the use of oil seal labyrinth glands which are installed on the shaft on the inboard side of each of the main bearings (Fig. 18-20). Oil coolers are employed to maintain oil temperature during normal operation. Oil heaters
are usually installed in the
oil
a decided advantage over the reciprocating type in any large tonnage installation where the
wide variations in
evaporator loading.
reservoir to
Discharge
oil
outlet
Oil
filters
are
Suction
inlet
centrifugal
com-
pump must also be equipped with an auxiliary oil pump to supply oil pressure during
start-ups
and
at other times
when
the shaft
driven
18-24.
on
rotor
assembly
:.")
a..^>-:-.
-*
pressors. In addition to
to maintain
361
pump
or blower, the
will
com-
reduced the head produced by the compressor must increase. Therefore, since the
pressor
is
limited.
50
1
100* F
45
.,40
condensing temperature
A
|35
E
^
"
*&\
r>5
y\
100
120
220
30
Cons tent
rp
~2
reciprocating type in Figs. 18-28 through 18-31.
& 25 ^20
15
V
10
Some of the more important differences in the performance of the two compressors become apparent on careful examination of these data. Notice in Fig. 18-28 that a reduction in refrigerating capacity
140 160 Tons
180
100 120
200 220
240
plished
108
refrigeration
Ih
1
104
can produce.
When
102
^
Centrifugal
o
/
'
_\
compressor
on a
A
98
/
reduced to as little as 10% of the design load without exceeding the pumping limit of the compressor.
94
'
i
{
and con-
F
190
densing temperatures of the cycle and with the speed of the compressor. With reference to these variables, the performance of the centrifugal compressor is compared to that of the
9? 130
Gl
140
150 160 180 170 Brake horsepower
362
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Horsepower characteristics
Constant evaporating temperature Constant condensing temperature
Varying speed
Capacity characteristics
100
90
V
\
\
i
\\ s
80
\
V
\
> ^Reciprocating
\ \
N
Reciprocating
Worth-
ington Corporation.)
|eo
50 40
\
Identrif ugal
\
k
\
\
.
\ \
30
\ \
Centrifugal
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
A-B
compressor
same tonnage reduction. This means in effect that a centrifugal compressor will maineffect the
by
tain a
over a
The
an impor-
maintenance of a constant evaporator temperature under varying load conditions. Too, the fact that a rather substantial change in capacity is brought about by only a small change in the suction temperature makes practical
can be reduced by this means until point A is reached, beyond which a further increase in the condensing temperature will cause the required thermodynamic head to exceed the developed head of the compressor for the given speed and tons capacity, with the result that hunting will
occur.
The reduction
temperature
is
means of
compared
to
recommended
It is
Regardless of the increase in condensing temperature, the reciprocating compressor will continue
and produce
the centrifugal evaporator temperature cannot fall below 35 F regardless of the reduction of
the evaporator loading.
further decrease in
By comparison,
the
and pressure as the evaporator load is reduced until a capacity balance is obtained between the evaporator loading and the comture
ments of the centrifugal and reciprocating compressors under conditions of varying condensing temperature. Whereas the centrifugal shows a reduction in power requirements with an increase in the condensing temperature to correspond with the rapid fall off in capacity shown in Fig. 18-31, the reciprocating compressor shows a small increase in power requirements to correspond with the small change in refrigeration tonnage shown in Fig. 18-29 for that
machine. Figure 18-30 also
pressor.
illustrates
pressor capacity.
the nonover-
between centrifugal compressors operating at constant speed and evaporator temperature but with varying condensing temperature. Curve
363
power required per ton increases. With regard to compressor speed, the
fugal compressor
is
centri-
much more
is
sensitive to
reciprocating compressor
the
approximately prochange,
Fig.
speed
according
sensitivity to changes compressor is ideally suited for capacity regulation by means of variable speed drives, such as steam turbines and wound-rotor induction motors. When constant speed drives, such as synchronous or squirrel cage motors, are employed, speed control can be obtained through the use of a hydraulic or magnetic clutch installed between
its
Because of
extreme
18-31, a speed change of only 12% will cause a 50% reduction in the capacity of the centrifugal compressor.
18-25.
the drive
18-26.
gear.
Capacity Control.
Capacity control
is
Centrifugal Refrigeration Machines. Centrifugal compressors are available for refrigeration duty only as an integral part of a centrifugal refrigerating machine. Because of
the relatively
flat
of centrifugal compressors
(1)
usually accom-
head-capacity characteristic of
varying the suction pressure by means of a suction throttling damper, or (3) varying the
must
condensing temperature through control of the condenser water. Often, some combination of
these
methods
is
used.
be very carefully balanced. Too, since very marked changes in capacity accrue with only minor changes in the suction or condensing temperatures, the centrifugal refrigerating system
364
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Condenser
water
in
JSp
*
" i Condenser
'
-\\
)j
CondensenP^^^^
water out
Carrier
centrifugal
Economizer
compressor
Fig. 18-33.
machine.
Corporation.)
Chilled
brine in
B
EH
Fig.
must be close-coupled,
as
shown
in
mediate chamber.
minimum.
Except
A
for
reduced
is
erating system
shown
in Fig. 18-33.
by additional
the
introduction
20-12)
(Section
pound and
chamber
bottom of the condenser into the high pressure chamber of the intercooler, from where it passes
through a high pressure float valve into the intermediate chamber of the intercooler. In passing through the float valve, a portion of the liquid flashes into the vapor state, thereby cooling the balance of the liquid to the temperature corresponding to the pressure in the inter-
above the evaporator pressure and therefore the to compress it to the condensing pressure will be less. Too, the cool vapor from
power required
Steel pipe should be of either the seamless or lap-welded types, except that butt-welded pipe
may be used
1
in.
heavy). Above this size, Schedule-40 (standard weight) pipe may be used, except that liquid lines
19
Refrigerant Piping and Accessories
up to 1 J in. should be Schedule-80. Copper tubing is available in either hard or soft temper. The hard drawn tubing comes in
20 ft straight lengths, whereas the soft temper is usually packaged in 25 and 50 ft coils. Only
types
lines.
and
up
to J in.
Piping Materials. In general, the type of piping material employed for refrigeration piping depends upon the size and nature of the
19-1.
installation, the refrigerant used,
used for
sizes
all sizes
when
rigidity is desired.
19-2.
size
materials and labor. Specific minimum requirements for refrigerant piping, with regard to type and weight of piping materials, methods of joining, etc., are set forth in the American Standard Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration (ASA Standard B9.1). Since the specifications in this standard represent good, safe,
of the piping, joints for refrigerant piping may be screwed, flanged, flared, welded, brazed, or soldered. When refrigerant pressures are
below 250
psi,
screwed joints
in.
may be used on
pressures,
1
pipe sizes up to 3
For higher
sizes
in.
and smaller. Above these sizes, flanged joints of the tongue and groove type should be used.
listed
Too, in all cases, local codes and ordinances must be taken into account. The materials most frequently used for refrigerant piping are black steel, wrought iron,
copper, and brass. All these are suitable for use with all the common refrigerants, except that
Screwed-on flanges are limited to the pipe sizes above. For larger sizes, welded-neck
A joint
compound,
all
suit-
screw
copper and brass may not be used with ammonia, since, in the presence of moisture, ammonia attacks nonferrous metals. Copper tubing has the advantage of being
lighter in weight,
Welding is probably the most commonly used method of joining iron and steel piping. Pipes 2 in. and over are usually butt-welded, whereas those lin. and smaller are generally socketwelded. Branch connections should be reinforced.
more
With
resistant to corrosion,
and
wrought iron
except
Flared compression
fittings
may
be used for
or black
refrigerants
refrigerant lines up to 4& in. OD may be either copper or steel. All lines above this size should be steel. However, general practice is to use all steel pipe in any installation where a considerable amount of piping exceeds 2 in. in size. Wrought iron pipe, although more expensive than black steel, is sometimes used in place of the latter because of its greater resistance
ammonia,
f in. OD. Above this size and for hard temper copper tubing, joints should be made with sweat fittings using a hard solder. Hard solders
are silver brazing alloys with melting temperatures
tin
and
5%
500 F,
smaller.
may
to corrosion.
366
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
usually
Flare fittings should be forged brass, and sweat fittings may be either wrought copper or forged brass. Cast sweat fittings #re not suitable
for refrigeration duty.
fitting joints will result
hundred
serious
of piping. This
since
is
not ordinarily a
piping
is
problem,
refrigerant
and therefore
suffi-
19-3. Location. In general, refrigerant piping should be located so that it does not present a
absorb the small changes in However, care should be taken not to anchor rigidly both ends of a long straight
length.
length of pipe.
19-4.
normal operation
restrict
In most cases,
When
the require-
ments of refrigerant flow will permit, piping would be at least 7 ft above the floor, unless
installed against the wall or ceiling.
connected equipment.
However, regardless of
The piping
hall-
the source, vibration, and the objectional noise associated with it, is greatly reduced by proper
ways, lobbies, stairways, elevator shafts, etc., except that it may be placed across a hallway
provided that there are no joints in the hallway and that nonferrous pipe 1 in. and smaller is
damage
to
encased in rigid metal conduit. The arrangement of the piping should be such
that
it is
easily installed
and
readily accessible
all cases,
for inspection
and maintenance. In
the piping should present a neat appearance. All lines should be run plumb and straight, and
parallel to walls, except that horizontal suction
lines,
and by turbulence
velocity.
due to high
When
centrifugal
lines
flow.
is not usually a serious problem, being caused only by the latter of the
The supports should be close enough together to prevent the pipe from sagging between the supports. As a general rule, supports should not be more than 8 to 10 ft apart. support should be placed not more than 2 ft away from each change in
ceiling hangers or wall brackets.
above three factors. The reason lies in the rotary motion of the centrifugal and rotary
compressors and in the smooth flow of the gas into and out of these units, as compared to the
pulsating flow through the reciprocating-type
compressor.
Since a small
direction, preferably
on
amount of vibration
it is
is
inherent
run.
position whenever possible. All valves in copper tubing smaller than 1 in. should be sup-
OD
ported independently of the piping. Risers may be supported either from the floor or from the
ceiling.
When piping must pass through floors, walls, or ceilings, sleeves made of pipe or formed
galvanized steel should be placed in the openings.
side of the openings
not possible However, if the piping immediately adjacent to such equipment is designed with sufficient flexibility, the vibration will be absorbed and dampened by the piping rather than transmitted and amplified by it. On small units piped with soft temper copper
to eliminate vibration completely. tubing, the desired flexibility
is
as reciprocating compressors,
obtained by
The pipe sleeves should extend 1 in. beyond each and curbs should be used
forming vibration loops in the suction and discharge lines near the point where these lines are connected to the compressor. If properly
designed and placed, these loops will act as
springs
to
around pipe sleeves installed in floors. Provisions must be made also for the thermal expansion and contraction of the piping which
vibration
REFRIGERANT PIPING
the piping to other parts of the system. the compressor
is
AND
ACCESSORIES
367
Where
suction
and discharge
Vibration
lines
dampening compressor
eliminators
should
be
SEAMLESS
FLEXIBLE
On larger systems, adequate flexibility is ordinobtained by running the suction and discharge piping approximately 30 pipe diameters
arily
TIN BRONZE
(MHXCOPHt,
114% TM)
in
before
TUBING
isolation type
hangers and brackets should be used when piping is supported by or anchored to building construction which may act as a sounding board
to amplify
HIGH TENSILE
the piping.
KONZE
WIRE
discharge
much more frequent and more intense in the line. As a general rule, these gas
do not cause
sufficient vibration
pulsations
and
COPPER
FERRULE
Occasionally,
however, the frequency of the pulsations and the design of the piping are such that resonance is
established, with the result that the pulsations
COPPER
TUBE END
a tuning fork)
the piping
is
is set
up
in the piping.
In some
supports.
instances, vibration
changing the speed of the compressor, by installing a discharge muffler, and/or by changing the size of length of the discharge line. Since changing the speed of the compressor is not
usually
practical,
The American
Brass
Anaconda Company.)
the
latter
two
methods
and
1.
installed as to:
particularly
when used
Assure an adequate supply of refrigerant
to all evaporators
2.
and noise are caused by gas turbulence resulting from high velocity, the usual remedy is to reduce the gas velocity by increasing the size of the pipe. Sometimes this can be accomplished by installing a supplementary pipe. 19-5. General Design Considerations. Since
vibration
When
oil to the
3.
Avoid
many of the
in
directly to
of the system Prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor during either the running or off
or during compressor start-up
refrigeration
cycles,
5.
of the refrigerant piping and accessories, the importance of proper design and installation In procedures cannot be overemphasized.
Avoid thetrapping of oil in the evaporator or suction line which may subsequently return to the compressor in the form of a large "slug" with possible damage to the compressor.
368
19-6.
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Size.
Suction
Line
Because
of
its
of the suction piping is usually more critical than that of the other refrigerant lines. Undersizing of the suction piping will cause an excessive refrigerant pressure drop in the suction line and result in a considerable loss in system capacity and efficiency. On the other hand, oversizing of
relative location in the system, the size
The refrigerant flow rate in pounds per minute per ton at various operating conditions can be determined from Charts 19-2A, B, and C for Refrigerant-12, 22, and ammonia, respectively. Internal areas for
in square feet.
Example
19-1.
Refrigerant-12 system,
which are too low to permit adequate oil return from the evaporator to the compressor
velocities
optimum
will
with a capacity of 40 tons, is operating at a 20 F evaporator temperature and a 1 10 F condensing temperature. Compute the refrigerant
velocity in the suction line,
if
the line
is
one that
in.
mum practical refrigerant pressure drop commensurate with maintaining sufficient vapor velocity to insure adequate oil return. Most systems employing oil miscible refrigerants are so designed that oil return
OD copper tube.
Solution.
From
Chart 19-2A, the flow rate in pounds per minute per ton
from the
4.26
through the suction line, either by gravity flow or by entrainment in the suction vapor. When the evaporator is located above the compressor and the suction line can be installed without risers or traps, the oil will drain by gravity from the evaporator to the compressor crankcase, provided that all
is
R-12
satu-
rated vapor at 20
1.097 cu ft/lb
=
=
4.26 x 1.097
x 40
187 cfm
horizontal piping
is
pitched
downward
From Table
19-1, the
in the
OD copper tube
Applying
15-13,
6.81 sqin.
of
Equation
187 cfm x 144
6.81 sq in.
the refrigerant
drop without regard for the velocity of the vapor. This holds true also for any system employing a nonmiscible refrigerant and for any other system where special provisions are made for oil
return.
pipe
3850 fpm
In the interest of high system efficiency, good
design requires that the suction piping be sized
On
when
must be
resulting
under mini-
of
all
refrigerants
and carry
it
to the compressor.
city required for oil
changes with the temperature range, the maximum permissible pressure drop in the suction piping varies with the evaporator temperature,
decreasing as the evaporator temperature decreases.
and pipe
sizes
For
vapor
and
at 40 F, the
be increased by 25
maximum
In accordance with Equation IS- 13, for any given flow rate and pipe
velocity in the pipe
the refrigerant
drop in saturation temperature) is 1.8 psi, whereas for Refrigerant-12 vapor at 40 F, the maximum permissible pressure drop in the
suction line
is
only 0.4
psi.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
Tonnage capacities of various sizes of iron pipe and type L copper tubing at various suction
temperatures are listed in Tables 19-2, 19-3,
Suction line pressure loss in F
AND
ACCESSORIES
369
50
Refrigerants-12, 22,
and ammonia,
The values
based on a suction line pressure loss equivalent to 2 F per 100 ft of pipe for Refrigerants-12 and
22,
_ 52J
50
/ 40 \
18
The condensing
\30.6/
temperature
is taken as 100 F for Refrigerant12 and as 105 F for Refrigerant-22 and am-
monia. In all cases, tonnage capacities at other condensing temperatures can be determined by
applying the correction factors given at the bottom of each table. Equations are also given at the bottom of the tables for correcting
From the chart at the pressure loss in psi corresponding to 1 .88 F at a 20 F suction temperature is approximately
1.3 psi.
= =
When
is
sized
on the
basis
will serve to
illustrate the
Example
19-2.
40-ton,
Refrigerant- 12
system has an evaporator temperature of 20 F and a condensing temperature of 1 10 F. If a suction pipe 30 ft long containing six standard elbows is required, determine: (a) the size of type L copper tubing required and (b) the over-all pressure drop in the suction line
in psi.
any system where the evaporator is low, where the suction line is excessively long, and/or where the minimum system loading is less than 50% of the design load. When any of the above conditions exist, the vapor velocity should be checked for the minimum load condition to be sure that it will be above the minimum required for successful
to occur in
temperature
Solution.
Adding
fitting
50%
oil
entrainment in
risers.
allowance establishes a trial equivalent length of 45 ft (30 ft x 1.5). From Table 19-2, 3| in. copper tubing has a capacity of 34 tons based on a condensing temperature of 100 F and a suction line pressure loss equivalent to 2 F per 100 ft of pipe. Since the pressure loss is proportional to the length of pipe and since the equivalent length of pipe is only 45 ft in this instance, this pipe size may be sufficient and a trial calculation should be made. From Table 15-1, 3 J in. (3 in. nominal) standard elbows have an equivalent length of 3.8 ft. Actual equivalent length of suction piping: Straight pipe = 30 ft length = 22.8 ft 6 ells at 3.8 ft
of pipe as a
OD
The widespread use of automatic capacity control on modern compressors, in order to vary
the capacity of the compressor to conform to changes in the system load, tends to complicate the design of all of the refrigerant piping.
control,
capacity.
OD
down to as little as 25 % of the maximum design When two or more such compressors
are connected in parallel, the system can be designed to unload down to as little as 10% of the combined
maximum
compressors.
capacity
is
Obviously,
when
the
system
varied over such a wide range, any suction piping sized small enough to insure
52.8
ft
Correction factor
from Table
vapor velocities sufficiently high to carry oil up a riser during periods of minimum loading will cause a prohibitively high refrigerant pressure drop during periods of maximum loading. On the other hand, sizing the pipe for a low pressure drop at maximum loading will result
in riser velocities too
tunately, the
= =
34 x 0.9
30.6 tons
370
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
yTo compressor
minimum
up
oil
return
the riser.
Pitch
Therefore, the size of the riser must be reduced. Try the next smaller pipe size, which is 2| in. OD. From Chart 19-1 A, the minimum velocity for oil entrainment with 20 F vapor
for
minimum
loading
suction riser is 1300 fpm. By in a 2 in. increasing the table value by 25 %, the minimum
OD
design velocity is 1625 fpm. From Table 19-1, copper tubing is the internal area of 2f in. 4.76 sq in. At the minimum load of 10 tons, the vapor velocity in the riser will be
OD
46.8
Eccentric
x 144
1415
fpm
reducer
4776
Pitch
From
evaporator
method
is
not
critical
is
mainly one of
Since this is still too low for adequate oil entrainment, try the next smaller pipe size, which is 2J in. OD. Using the same procedure, it is found that the minimum design velocity for oil entrainment with 20 F vapor in a 2\ in. suction riser is 1500 fpm, and that the vapor velocity at the minimum load of 10 tons is 2180 copper tube for fpm. Therefore, use 2\ in. the riser and 3| in. copper tube for the balance of the suction piping.
OD
OD
OD
riser design.
minimum
of the design not less than 25 load, the problem can be solved by reducing the size of the riser only, with the balance of the
system load
suction piping being sized for a low pressure
The
19-2)
degrees
(see
Note
/
3 at the
bottom of Table
10
40 y- a
X
50
drop at
maximum
19-3.
((i2T))
=- 248 F
loading.
Example
Assume
that the
minimum
When
this is
added
will
load for the system described in Example 19-2 is 25 of the design load, or 10 tons. Compute the velocity of the vapor in the suction piping under the minimum load condition and check in Table 19-1 to determine if it is sufficiently high to carry oil of the 10 ft riser.
balance
pressure
the
over-all
be
well
within
the
acceptable limits.
riser.
An
side
down should
Solution.
in
From Example
specific
pounds per minute per ton is 4.26 and the volume of the vapor is 1.097 cu ft/lb, so
cfm
that the flow rate through the suction piping in for 10 tons is 46.8 (4.26 x 1.097 x 10). From Table 19-1, the internal area of 3 J in.
OD
copper tubing is 6.81 sq in. Therefore, the velocity of the vapor in the suction piping is
46.8
be used at the bottom connection before entry to the elbow. This is done to prevent forming an area of low gas velocity which could trap a layer of oil extending the length of the horizontal line. At the top of the riser, the line size is increased beyond the elbow with a standard reducer, so that any oil reaching this point cannot drain back into the riser.
19-7.
x 144
rule,
993 fpm
for
6.81
when
the
From Chart
oil
19-1 A, the
minimum velocity
minimum
entrainment with 20
F vapor in a 3| in.
OD
25
suction riser is approximately 1430 fpm. Increasing the table value by 25 %, the minimum design velocity is found to be 1775 fpm (1430 x
1.25).
It is
of the riser to provide adequate vapor velocity during periods of minimum loading will not cause a significant increase in the over-all suction
line pressure drop, particularly if the horizontal
REFRIGERANT PIPING
portion of the piping
other hand,
is liberally sized.
AND
ACCESSORIES
371
On
the
when the suction riser is quite long and/or when the minimum system loading is
less than 25 of the design loading, undersizing of the riser to conform to the requirements of
minimum
during periods of
in
maximum loading,
installations.
especially
low temperature
In such cases,
shown in Fig. 19-3, should be employed. The small diameter riser is sized for the minimum load condition, whereas the combined capacity of the two pipes is designed for the
the double-pipe riser,
maximum
load condition.
The
larger riser is
compressor start-up. Generally, is operated on a pump-down cycle, it is good practice to install a liquidsuction heat exchanger in the suction line of all systems employing dry-expansion evaporators. The reason for this is that thermostatic expansion valves frequently do not close off tightly during the compressor off cycle, thereby permitting off cycle leakage of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator from the liquid line. When the compressor starts, the excess liquid often slops over into the suction line and is carried to the compressor unless a liquid-suction heat exchanger is employed to trap the liquid and
unless the system
or
during
trapped slightly below the horizontal line at the bottom. During periods of minimum loading,
oil will settle in the trap and block the flow of vapor through the larger riser, thereby increasing
vaporize
it
before
it
The
trap and vaporize any liquid which may carry over into the suction line because of overfeeding
the
flow
rate
level
and
velocity
in
the
smaller
riser to
oil
return
of the expansion valve during start-up or during sudden changes in the evaporator loading.
Ordinarily, the liquid-suction heat exchanger can be safely omitted if the system is operated on a pump-down cycle, in which case the liquid refrigerant will be pumped out of the evaporator before the compressor cycles off, and the liquid line solenoid installed ahead of the refrigerant
up the
riser.
As
is
sufficient to
through both pipes. Notice that the trap at the bottom of the large riser is made up of two 45 elbows and one 90 elbow. This is done to keep the volume of the trapped oil as small as possible. Notice also
that inverted loops are used to connect both
risers to the
control
will
from the
liquid line,
itself
may
not
line,
When
the evaporator
is
so that oil reaching the upper line cannot drain back into the risers.
19-8. General Design of Suction Piping. The suction piping should always be so arranged
pump-down
trapped
immediately
valve bulb, as
shown
oil)
entering the
com-
Fig.
19-3.
Double
suction
riser construction.
(Courtesy
Carrier Corporation.)
U-bend or
2
ells
Method
Method
'
372
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
below
50%
50%
rate.
pump-down
'
control
.
With
minimum
pump-down
control
loading.
some of
multiple evaporators
common
suction
main when
risers.
it is
The
be brought
cycle. If the
above the
level
of the compressor
pumped from
off.
the
When the evaporator is located below the compressor and the suction riser is installed immediately adjacent to the evaporator, the riser should be trapped as shown in Fig. 19-5 to
prevent liquid refrigerant from trapping at the
of the line
in.
When a multiple of evaporators is to be connected to a common suction main, each evaporator (or separately fed evaporator segment) should be connected to the main with an
individual riser, as
Fig.
lines.
individual suction
shown
in Fig. 19-6.
Since
properly
when
the load
on the evaporator
falls
Preferred
suction inlet. The piping should be designed without liquid traps and so arranged that the oil
will drain
line into
return to
as nearly equal as
The lines to the individual compressors should always be connected to the side of the header. Some typical piping arrangements for multiple compressors are shown in Figs. 19-10
and
19-11.
19-9.
Discharge Piping.
is
charge piping
Fig. 19-5. Evaporator
below compressor.
piping.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
the discharge piping tends to increase the compressor discharge pressure and reduce the capa-
AND
ACCESSORIES
373
and efficiency of the system, the discharge piping should be sized to provide the minimum
city
Tonnage
and
to a
common
suction riser.
riser
is sufficiently
and carry
cities
it up the riser. Minimum vapor velofor oil entrainment in discharge risers are given in Charts 19-1C and for Refrigerants- 12
and
22, respectively.
increased by
25%
to determine the
minimum
design velocity.
When
the
be necessary, unless a discharge line oil separator is used. When an oil separator is installed
Fig.
line.
19-7. Multiple
evaporators,
common
suction
and for a 1 F loss in saturation temperature ammonia. The procedure for sizing the discharge piping is the same as that used for the
22,
for
suction piping.
pitched
All horizontal discharge piping should be downward in the direction of the refrigoil
the compressor into the discharge line will drain toward the condenser and not back into the com-
pressor head.
velocity in horizontal discharge piping is not ordinarily critical, special attention must be
given to the vapor velocity in discharge line As in the case of a suction riser, the discharge line riser must be designed so that the
risers.
levels
connected
374
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
draining from the vertical riser during the off
cycle will drain into the oil separator.
Alternate
How-
approaches
ever,
certain
eliminate the possibility of liquid refrigerant passing from the oil separator to the com-
pressor crankcase
Section 19-12).
condensible gases from the system, should be installed at the highest point in the discharge
piping or condenser.
pumped
pressor does not drain into an idle one. Under no circumstances should the piping be arranged
so that the compressors discharge directly into one another. As a general rule, it is good practice to carry the discharge from each compressor nearly to the floor before connecting to a
19-14).
With this
vapor velocity in the discharge riser is not critical and the riser should be sized for a low pressure drop, since any oil
piping arrangement, a discharge line trap is not required at the riser, since the lower horizontal
header serves
this purpose.
which is not carried up the riser during periods of minimum loading will drain back into the
separator (Fig. 19-12).
Alternate
approach~N i
1
When the compressor is adhering to the inside surface of a discharge riser tends to drain by gravity to the bottom of
not operating, the oil
the riser. If the riser the
is more than 8 to 10 ft long, amount of oil draining from the riser may be quite large. Therefore, the discharge line from
the compressor should be looped to the floor to form a trap so that oil cannot drain from the
pressor.
discharge piping into the head of the comSince this trap will also collect any
liquid refrigerant
discharge riser during the compressor off cycle, it is especially important when the discharge
piping
is
Additional traps,
one for 25
ft
of vertical
rise,
should be installed
Oil equalizer
in the discharge riser when the vertical rise exceeds 25 ft, as shown in Fig. 19-13. The horizontal width of the traps should be held to a
line
Crankcase
equalizer
dard 90 elbows. The depth of the traps should be approximately 18 in. The traps may be omitted if an oil separator
is
pressure /
used,
since
any
oil
or liquid refrigerant
REFRIGERANT PIPING
AND
ACCESSORIES
375
Fig.
19-12.
Pitch
down
to
separator
N
r.
3__r
Oil
separator
^Sight^Oil return
Solenoid J *
glass
line
down-comer, as shown in
riser.
never in a
19-10.
Liquid
is
Lines.
The function of
the
liquid line
is
in the liquid
is
state,
any
readily
carried along
by the
no problem with oil return in For this reason, the design of the liquid piping is somewhat less critical than that of the other refrigerant lines, the problem encountered being mainly one of preventing the liquid from flashing before it reaches the refrigtor, so that there is
liquid lines.
erant control.
from the individual compressors should be connected to the top of the header, as shown in
Fig. 19-15, so that oil cannot drain
from the
header into the head of an idle compressor. In order to reduce the noise and vibration created by the compressor discharge pulsations,
Pitch
down
compressor installation where the noise of the discharge pulsations may become objectionable.
connected
in parallel.
376
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
19-2, 19-3,
and
19-4.
of vertical
lift is
found in Table
Example 19-4. Refrigerant- 12 system has a capacity of 35 tons. The equivalent length of liquid line including fittings and accessories is 60 ft. If the line contains a 20 ft riser, determine: (a) the size of the liquid line required
(b) the over-all pressure
(c) the
drop
in the line
amount of subcooling
(F) required to
From Table 19-2, If in. copper tubing has a capacity of 3S.1 tons based on a 1.8 psi pressure drop per 100 equivalent feet of pipe.
For 60
ft
OD
(6)
equivalent
= =
ft
1.8 psi
x 0.6
1.00 psi
connected
in parallel.
= = = =
0.55 psi
x 20
11.00 psi
1
+11.0
12.0 psi
(c)
and
seat,
and often
results in
Assuming the condensing temperature to be 100 F, the pressure at the condenser is 131.6 psia. The pressure at the refrigerant control
is
evaporator.
To
tion
(100
93).
the liquid.
the
Since the liquid leaving the condenser is usually subcooled 5 to 10 F, flashing of the
liquid will not ordinarily occur if the over-all
condenser varies with the loading of the system, a liquid receiver tank is required on all systems employing hand expansion valves, automatic
How-
drop
is
much
in excess of
10 psi, it is very likely that some form of liquid subcooling will be required if flashing of the
liquid
is
to be prevented.
In most cases, a
subcooler
may be
any by
computing the liquid line pressure drop. Pressure drop in the liquid line results not only from friction losses but also from the loss of head due to vertical lift. Tonnage capacities of
various sizes of liquid pipes are listed in Tables
Fig. 19-16.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
expansion valves, thermostatic expansion valves, or low pressure float valves. Some exceptions to
this are installations using
Inlet
AND
ACCESSORIES
Outlet
377
Equalizer
connection
water-cooled con-
accommodating fluctuations in the refrigerant charge, the receiver tends to keep the condenser
drained of liquid, thereby preventing the liquid level from building up in the condenser and
Equalizer
Outlet
storage
tank
for
the
liquid
connection
"
must be so designed and sized as to allow free draining of the liquid from the condenser at all
times. If the pressure in the receiver
is
permitted
to rise above that in the condenser, vapor binding of the receiver will occur and the liquid
from the conVapor binding of the receiver is likely to occur in any installation where the receiver is so located that it can become warmer than the condenser. The problem of vapor binding is more acute in the wintertime and during
refrigerant will not drain freely
Equalizer
denser.
connection
_Q_
and
Although the exact preventative measures which can be taken to eliminate vapor binding of the receiver depends somewhat on the type of
condenser, in every instance it involves proper equalization of the receiver pressure to the condenser.
Basically, receivers:
19-17).
outlet
Bottom
inlet
receiver.
there
are
the through-flow
The through-flow type may be either bottom inlet or top inlet. With the through-flow type receiver, all the liquid from the condenser
liquid line.
drains into the receiver before passing into the The surge type differs from the
from the condenser, that part not required in the evaporator, enters the receiver. With the
surge-type receiver, the refrigerant liquid enters and leaves the receiver through the same
19-18). All horizontal piping should be pitched toward the receiver at least \ in. per foot. When a stop valve is placed in the line, it should be located a minimum distance of 8 in. below the liquid outlet of the condenser and should be installed so that the valve stem is in a horizontal position. In the event that a trap in the line is unavoidable, a separate equalizing line must be installed from the top of the receiver to the con-
denser,
as
shown
is
in
Fig.
19-19.
When an
equalizing line
opening.
piping
a top-inlet, through-flow type receiver is used, equalization of the receiver pressure to the condenser can be accomplished directly through the condenser to receiver piping, provided that the piping is sized so that the refrigerant velocity does not exceed 100
that the line
is
When
150 fpm.
All bottom inlet receivers of both the throughflow and surge types must be equipped with
equalizing lines.
distance
fpm and
maximum
378
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
^Purge
valve
Fig. 19-18.
Top
inlet
through
This line sized so that at full load, the velocity does not exceed 100 ft/min. slope horizontal line toward receiver H" per ft. or more.
Purge
\\/~ valve
-Gas
inlet
^Equalizer
Highest expected
/operating
liquid level
H
jr
^/condenser
k
s^ %!
Surge type
s"
receiver
^X^H. P.
liquid
to exp. valve
*^'B"
\y$i&mBr%'
hookup.
(Courtesy
York
Corporation.)
^3\
Maximum
Drain
Velocity of
Ibs/min
line,
h%
Required
inches
14 16
150 150
150 100
None
Angle Globe None, Angl e, or Globe
28
14
maximum
a valve
is
may
REFRIGERANT PIPING
condenser
is listed
AND
Gas
ACCESSORIES
379
at the
bottom of
Fig. 19-19.
inlet
This value increases as the pressure loss in the condenser to receiver line increases, but should never be less than 12 in.
Figure 19-20 illustrates a satisfactory piping arrangement for multiple condensers connected
in parallel to a top inlet receiver.
(I I
3*
Condenser
"A"
inlet
^-Equalizer
Detail
piping
-
Gas
bottom
inlet receiver is
shown
is
in Fig. 19-21.
The
vertical distance
h2
As a
return
general rule,
to be
Equalizer
Relief valve
inadequate or
difficult
to accomplish and/or
High pressure
.
an undue
\ "quid
i
level
receiver
recommended
systems employing
To evaporator
nonmiscible refrigerants, (2) low temperature systems, (3) all systems employing nonoilreturning evaporators, such as flooded liquid
chillers,
-be below
in
liquid level
the receiver
when
oil
bottom
inlet receiver.
provisions must be
made for
oil return,
and
(4)
On
design problems.
Discharge line
types:
oil
(1) impingement and (2) chiller. The impingement-type separator (Fig. 19-22) consists of a series of screens or baffles through which the oil laden refrigerant vapor must pass.
vapor is considerably reduced because of the larger area of the separator with relation to that of the discharge line, whereupon
refrigerant
momentum
than that of the refrigerant vapor, are caused to impinge on the surface of the screens or baffling.
The
Gas
inlet
oil
where it is returned through a float valve to the compressor crankcase or, preferably, to the suction inlet of the compressor (Fig. 19-12).
The
water-cooled,
chiller-type
oil
separator,
similar in
sometimes called an
construction to
Size for lOO'/min
velocity at
chiller,
is
Water
oil is
is
max
The
flow through
each condenser
on
into a drop-leg
J* per
ft
or more.
design flow
rate.
top
inlet receiver.
manually from the sump or returned automatically to the compressor through a float valve. (Fig. 19-23.) The water flow rate through the separator must be carefully controlled so that the refrigerant vapor is not cooled below its condensing temperature, in which case liquid
380
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
of accomplishing
following sections.
are
described
in
the
a
in-
The
of a discharge
of liquid refrigerant passing from the oil separator to the compressor crankcase when the
compressor
piping or
it
is idle.
The
liquid refrigerant
may
The
may condense
below the pour point of the oil, thereby causing the o" to congeal on the chiller tubes. The oil is drained from the separator periodically by taking the separator out of service and allowing it to warm up to a temperature above the pour point of the oil. Although properly applied oil separators are usually very effective in removing oil from the
chilled to a temperature
is
separator
relatively high
and the
of liquid refrigerant condensing in the oil separator is rather remote, particularly if the separator is located reasonably
possibility
However,
after the
100%
efficient.
is
Therefore, even
when an
oil
separator
used,
some means should be provided for removing the small amount of oil which will always pass through the separator and find its way into other
compressor cycles off, the separator tends to cool to the condensing temperature, at which time some of the high pressure refrigerant vapor This is likely to condense in the separator.
raises the liquid level in the separator
-*-
To
Fig.
19-23.
Application
oil
of
chiller-type
separator.
a
<
_
Trap'
Oil sight
condenser
Water Her,connections
glass-
I
^Manual
drain valve
Oil return
compressor crankcase
High pressure
float
REFRIGERANT PIPING
liquid refrigerant to the compressor crankcase.
AND
ACCESSORIES
381
in the separator
oil
from the compressor is not readily carried along through the system by
into the discharge line the refrigerant.
separator
is
Therefore,
an
oil
separator
which case the liquid will boil off in the condenser and condense in the separator. To eliminate the possibility of liquid refrigerant draining from the oil separator into the
in
should be installed in the discharge line of all ammonia systems to reduce to a minimum the amount of oil that passes into the system. Provisions
compressor crankcase during the off cycle, the oil drain line from the separator should be connected to the suction inlet of the compressor, rather than to the crankcase, and the line should be equipped with a solenoid valve, a sight glass, a hand expansion valve, and a manual shut-off
valve (see Fig. 19-12).
sight glass, the
system and return to the crankcase the small amount of oil that gets by the separator.
than liquid ammonia, tends from the ammonia and settle out at various low points in the system. For this reason, oil sumps are provided at the bottom of all receivers, evaporators, accumulators, and
to separate
hand
can be
and
refrigerant)
from the separator is bled slowly into the suction inlet of the compressor. The solenoid valve is interlocked with the compressor motor starter so that it is energized (open) only when the compressor
is
ammonia, and provisions are made for draining the oil from these points either continuously or periodically. Since the amount of oil involved is small, when an operator is on duty the draining is usually done manually and the oil discarded.
Of
be replenished periodically.
Since the lubricating oil is not returned to the compressor through the refrigerant piping, the minimum vapor velocity in ammonia piping is of no consequence and the piping is sized for a low
pressure drop without regard for the
the liquid refrigerant and oil in the separator from draining to the compressor during the off
cycle,
inlet
but permits slow draining into the suction of the compressor when the compressor is
the condensation of refrigerant
operating.
minimum
To minimize
vapor
oil
vapor velocity.
19-14.
pressor in as
warm
a location as
compossible. The
porators.
evaporators
erant vapor
line
is such that the oil reaching the evaporator cannot be entrained by the refrig-
compressor cycles
and carried over into the suction and back to the compressor. The more
of these evaporators are flooded liquid
oil
drained into an
oil receiver
common
chillers
needed in the compressor crankcase (Fig. The oil receiver contains a heating element which boils off the liquid refrigerant to
until
17-39).
the suction
line.
Oil
from the
oil receiver is
admitted to the compressor crankcase as needed through a float valve located in the compressor
crankcase.
Oil receivers cannot be used with compressors
and certain types of air-cooling evaporators that are operated semiflooded by bottomfeeding with a thermostatic expansion valve. In both cases, the problem with oil return results from the lack of sufficient refrigerant velocity and turbulence in the evaporator to permit entraining the oil and carrying it over into the
suction line.
oil
the oil receiver is at the suction pressure, the higher crankcase pressure could force all the oil out of the crankcase into the oil receiver. When
oil receivers
With the semiflooded evaporator, oil return from the evaporator is usually accompanied by adjusting the expansion valve for a low superheat and slightly overfeeding the evaporator so
that a
small
amount of the
oil-rich
is
liquid
must
continuously
concentration
installed.
Ammonia
Piping.
Since
a nonmiscible
ment
will ordinarily
keep the
oil
As
382
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
directly to the suction line, a liquid-suction heat
shown
in Fig. 19-24, a liquid-suction heat exchanger is installed in the suction line to evaporate the liquid refrigerant from the oilrefrigerant mixture before the latter reaches the
exchanger
is
liquid refrigerant
it
compressor.
17-41
chillers are usually
piping
arrangements'
equipped with oil bleeder lines which permit a measured amount of the oil-rich liquid in the chiller to be
Flooded liquid
when
19-15.
bleed off
is
to an oil receiver.
pressors.
line, it is
bled
valve
off into
the
in
some
common
oil
suction
instances, into
is
an
receiver.
throttling
returning
is
through the suction line will be evenly distributed to the several compressors. Too, it is very unlikely that the amount of oil pumped over by any two compressors will be exactly the
does not occur when the compressor is idle. Since Refrigerant- 12 is completely oil miscible
at all temperatures
oil,
same even when the compressors are alike in both design and size. For these reasons, when
compressors are piped for parallel operation, it is necessary to interconnect the crankcases of the several compressors both above and below
the crankcase
oil level,
the
oil
bleeder connection
on
Refrigerant- 12
chillers
may
as
shown
in Fig. 19-11.
on the
other hand,
is partially oil
miscible at evaporator
temperatures.
Therefore,
when
is
refrigerant tur-
all at
a tendency for the oil-refrigerant mixture in the evaporator to separate into two layers, with
the upper layer containing the greater concentration of oil.
equalizing line
For
level. The crankcase oil be installed either level with or, preferably, below the level of the crankcase Under no circumstances should oil tappings. the oil equalizing line be allowed to rise above the level of the crankcase tappings. Since any small difference in the crankcase
same
may
As shown
in Fig. 17-30,
off
is
oil levels,
it
is
Liquid-suction
interchanger
T
Hand
-expansion
valve
^
Fan
T
Fig. 19-24. Forced circulation
air cooler
Strainer-*'
Thermal \ expansion'
valve
Size suction riser for oil return at lowest
possible loading
(Courtesy
tion.)
Corpora-
S
.
Coil
Base pan
3*3
power
require-
Because of
suited
it*
ments of
power required per ton increases. With regard to compressor speed, the centrifugal compressor is much more sensitive 10
speed changes than
is
for capacity
by
means of
When
con-
Whereas
portional
to
the
change
the
reciprocating compressor
to
approximately prochange,
Fig.
speed
according
such as synchronous or squirrel cage motors, are employed, speed control can be obtained through the use of a hydraulic or magnetic clutch installed between
speed
drives,
IB-3J, a speed change of only 12% will cause a 50% reduction in he capacity of the centrifugal compressor. 18-25. Capacity Control, Capacity control
I
Centrifugal compressors arc available for refrigeration duly only as an integral part of a centrifugal refrigerating machine.
Because of
the resulting
the relatively
flat
head-capacity characteristic of
and
0)
component must
he condensing temperature through control of the condenser water. Often, some combination of
I
these methods
used.
be very carefully balanced. Too, since very marked change* in capacity accrue with only minor changed in the suction or condensing temperatures, the centrifugal refrigerating system
(Courteiy
Wonhinpofl CorppraUon)
REFRIGERANT PIPING
the piping Co other parts of the system. the
AND
ACCESSORIES
Where
piping,
compressor
is
piped
with
rigid
suction
and discharge
compressor
WELHD
are usually effective in dampening compressor Vi bra lion eliminators should be vibration.
.
placed
I
SiiMUSS
HEIItLI
TIN
ord in-
obtained by running
WWII
each of two or three directions before anchoring the pipe. In all cases, Isolation type hangers and brackets should he used when piping is supported by or anchored to building construction which may act as a sounding board
in to amplify
TDIlMi
and transmit
vibrations
and noise
In
men husks
the piping.
mm
Wilt
Although vibration and noise resulting from gas pulsations can occur in both the suction and
discharge lines of reciprocating compressors, it is much more Frequent and more intense in the discharge
pulsations
tine.
mi mwl
however, the frequency of the pulsations and tile design or the piping are such that resonance is
established, with the result that the pulsation*
FttMl
a tuning fork
and sympathetic vibration (as with is set up in the piping, In tome instances, vibration can become so severe that the piping is torn loose from its supports. Fortunately, the condition can be remedied by
arc amplified
I
MM
M
Flj. If- 1. Vibnttoneilmiftlior.
M*tii
changing the speed of the compressor, by installing a discharge mulTler and/or by changing
,
Hoh
Diliien,
Since
general, refrigerant piping should be so designed
changing the speed of the compressor is not usually practical, (he latier two tnelhods
are better solutions,
together.
particularly
and
1,
installed as to:
when used
Assure an adequate supply of refrigerant
Assure positive and continuous return of the compressor crankcase
to ail evaporators
2,
and noise are caused by gas turbulence resulting from high velocity, the usual remedy is to reduce the gas velocity by increasing the sire of (he pipe, Sometimes Ihts
vibration
When
oil to
3,
Avoid
can be accomplished by installing n supplementary pipe. 19-5. General Design Consideration*. Since
many
in
refrigeration
directly to
of the refrigerant piping and accessories, the importance of proper design and installation In procedures cannot be overemphastied.
which unnecessarily reduce the capacity and efficiency of the system 4, Prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor during either the running or off cycles, or during compressor start-up !. Avoid the trapping of oil in the evaporator or suction line which may subsequendy return to the compressor in the form, of a large "slug"
with possible
damage
to the compressor.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
AND
ACCESSORIES
3S3
may be
case
The crankbe
equalizing
line
must not
allowed lo drop below the level of the crankcase tappings and it must nol contain any liquid
any kind. Both the oil equalizing line and the crankcase pressure equalizing line should be the same size
traps of
Manual shut-off
the compressors so that individual compressors can be valvcd oil for maintenance or repairs
Liquid
liquid line
means of determining
the system has a sufficient charge of refrigerant. Jf the system is short of refrigerant, the vapor
The
sight glass
Wnen
is
liquid hoes
frequently
when one
is
used) to deter-
a solid stream of liquid is reaching the refrigerant control. Bubbles appearing in the
mine
if
pressure drop, in which case the bubbles can be eliminated only by reducing the liquid line
pressure
liquid
the
refrigerant.
in Fig. 19-15.
are
shown
19-17.
Refriger-
ant driers (Fig. 19-26) are recommended for refrigerating systems employing a haloall
Notice moisture indicator IrKOrpprited In iln|le pert sight gla. Th coler of tka molllur* mdlMtor
danotf* the reinlve maistuft concent otthn syitom..
(a)
carbon
is
refrigerant.
In
systems
the
by-pass
arrangement
Double pore
Shown in Fig. 19-27 is employed. With the latter method of installation, the drier cartridge
can be removed and reinstalled without interrupting he operation of the system. Too, the drier can beusedintcrmittenily as needed. When the drier is not being used valves A and B are
I
necessary
pressures.
also
lo
is
equali/e
the
crankcase
with B
line
This
This
valves
iW
PRINCIPLES Of REFRIGERATION
valves,
may be
used.
In
all cases,
the strainer
shouM be imply
of foreign material in the strainer will not cause an excessive refrigerant pressure drop.
Most
refrigerant compressor!
come equipped
inlet
chamber-
When
installing
the
refrigerant
piping,
cue
should be taken to arrange the suction piping at the compressor to at lo permit servicing of this
strainer.
If -If.
relief
Pressure
Relief
Valve*.
Pressure
event that the pressure in the system rises to an unsafe level for any reason. Most refrigerating
relief
valve
mounted on
or water-cooled condenser.
points in the system.
In
many
instances,
The exact number, locaand type of relief devices required ire set forth in the American Standard Safety Code for Mcchanical Refrigeration, and depends for the most part on the type and size of the system.
tion,
somewhat
in this respect,
when designing
is
an
installation.
fusible
plug
A fusi ble plug is limply plug which has been drilled and DIM with a mctat alloy designed to melt at some predetermined fixed temperature (Fig. \%29}. The
the pressure re! ief val ve.
a pipe
dosed Under no circu msiances should valves closed at the same lime, except when the drier cartridge is being changed With valves B and C both closed, cold liquid could be (rapped in the drier, which, upon warming, could create tremendous hydra u Ik pressures, and
is
.
A and C ever be
automatic valves in or more automatic valves arc installed close together, a single strainer, placed immediately upstream of the
all refrigerant lines.
immediately in front of
When two
outl
fli-nr
Flf.
It>2t,
Typltil
prmura
filli(h(t. (C6unaa>Mual!T
Brut Compin^)
I.
Valve body
3 Otsehoktor
4.
67.
tint*
5 Sprint
itWw wi
Spnng
Oudt) conwMA Laid h*I and locking (pnnwrti ilmtion of factory
(o) An(f* typ* with pranura r*4lf outlst (nontnckaaatinf). with dip lutu (noftbackitadng). (Court**? Mutlhv Brw Company.)
(b)
An(ta tvpa
Ml
1U
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
How between
pressor,
i
live
refrigerant lines
and
ihe
com-
and he "hack
When
is
erant line
it
open
to the compressor.
When
is
the
valve
open lo
the compressor
to the compressor
and the refrigerant line ti closed and gage port- With the
the watt, both the refrigerant tine and the gage port are open lo the compressor and, of course,
to each other,
19-22.
for refrigeration
on
Gate vn Ives have a very low pressure drop, but do not permit throttling and therefore can be employed only where fullflow or no-flow conditions are desired. Both globe and angle valves are suitable for thro tiling.
brine ines.
wa ler and
use
is
recommended whenever
practical,
m
Fl|. It-Jt.
(*)
Comprwr
lni*rmdit
mud.
poilflort.
on
(Fig. 19-30.)
When
designed for installation on top of ihe receiver tank, the valves must be provided with dip
tubes so that Ihe liquid refrigerant can be drawn
from
or
ihe
19-21.
shown
ininuil
nlvi.
(Country
The
Vlltar Mtftubcturlng
Company.)
REFRIGERANT PIPING
reduce the possibility of leakage through the packing in the full-open position (Fig. 19-32.) Many packed valves are equipped with cap seals which completely cover and seal the
valve stem, thereby eliminating the possibility
(c)
AND
ACCESSORIES
387
is
not in use.
The refrigerant velocity in the suction pipe Ans. 4200 fpm (d) The refrigerant velocity in the suction pipe at 50% of design capacity. Ans. 2100 fpm (e) The discharge pipe size. Ans. 2f in. OD (/) The refrigerant velocity in the discharge pipe at 50% of design capacity. Ans. 1 100 fpm
at design capacity.
PROBLEMS
1.
Ans. If in. (g) Liquid line size. (h) The over-all pressure drop in the liquid line at design capacity. Ans. 4 psi
(i)
OD
of 65 tons is operating with a suction temperature of 40 F and a condensing temperature of 1 10 F. The suction line is 40 ft long and contains 2 elbows and a 10 ft riser. The discharge line is 60 ft long and has 5 elbows and a IS ft riser. The condenser to receiver liquid line is 50 ft long with 3 elbows. The liquid line is 50 ft long with 4 elbows and a 30 ft riser. Using Type L copper tube for the refrigerant piping, determine: (a) The suction pipe size. Ans. 3 in.
city
The condenser
Ans. 2| in:
2.
OD
Determine the
size suction
and discharge
is
adequate
1
when
25
3.
OD
F
(b)
2\
in.
OD
Rework Problem
in.
using Refrigerant-22.
(b) 1.23
(c)
Ans. (a) 2f
OD
4000
fpm
OD
(b)
The
over-all pressure
(c)2iin. (/) 2000 fpm ig) If in. (A) 7 psi (/) 2f in, 4. Rework Problem 2 using Refrigerant 22. Ans. (a) 2i in. (b) 1 \ in.
(d)
2000 fpm
OD
OD
OD
OD
OD
As a
more
frequently the
is
evaporator
the frost
the defrost
20
Defrost Methods, Low-Tern perat u re Systems, and Multiple
Defrosting of accomplished in a number of different ways, all of which can be classified as either "natural defrosting" or "supplementarythe evaporator
is
Methods of Defrosting.
the-
source of the
heat used to
melt
off
the
Natural "shut-down" or
frost.
accomplished
with
heat
air.
Some common
Temperature
Installations
20-1.
Defrosting
Intervals.
The
necessity
which operate at temperatures low enough on the evaporator surface has already been established. How often the evaporator should be defrosted depends on the type of evaporator, the nature of the installation, and the method of defrosting.
tors
hot gas from the discharge of the compressor. All methods of natural defrosting require that the system (or evaporator) be shut down for a period of time long enough to permit the evaporator temperature to rise to a level well above the melting point of the frost. The exact temperature rise required and the exact length of time the evaporator must remain shut down in order to complete the defrosting vary with the individual installation and with the frequency of defrosting. However, in every case, since the heat to melt the frost comes from the space air, the temperature in the space must be allowed to rise to whatever level is necessary to melt off the evaporator frost, which is usually about 37 to 40 F. For this reason, natural defrosting is not ordinarily practical in any installation when the design space temperature is below 34 F.
employed
month.
The
simplest
method of
defrosting
until the
is
to shut
the system
down manually
evaporator
On
warms up enough to melt off the frost, after which the system is started up again manually.
When
several evaporators
connected to the
in different
is
determined by the degree of frost accumulation on the evaporator and by the rate at which heat can be applied to melt off the frost. For the most part, the degree of frost accumulation will
out of service and defrosted one at a time by manually closing a shut-off valve located in the liquid line of the evaporator being defrosted. When defrosting is completed, the evaporator is put back into service by opening the shut-off
valve.
If automatic defrosting is desired,
depend on the type of installation, the season of the year, and the frequency of defrosting.
a clock
down for a
DEFROST METHODS
fixed period of time at regular intervals.
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
is
SYSTEMS
389
Both
in
natural de-
the
number and
defrost
As
described
is
an
earlier chapter,
defrosting
As a
accomplished by adjusting the cycling control so that the evaporator temperature rises to
37 F or 38 F during every off cycle. If the system has been properly designed, the evaporator will be maintained relatively free of frost
it will be completely defrosted during each off cycle. 20-3. Water Defrosting. For evaporator temperatures down to approximately minus 40 F, defrosting can be accomplished by spray-
is
usually
hours.
On
be defrosted
it is
placed back in
soon as possible
after defrosting.
In one variation of the time defrost, the defrost cycle is initiated by the defrost timer and terminated by a temperature or pressure
is actuated by the evaporator temperature or pressure. With this method, the defrost period is automatically adjusted to
For evaporator temperatures below minus 40 F, brine or some antifreeze solution should be substitued for the water. A typical
coils.
control that
is illustrated
in Fig. 20-1.
Although water defrosting can be made automatic, it is often designed for manual
operation.
is
the
required length, since the evaporator temperature (or pressure) will rise to the cut-in setting of the control as soon as defrosting is
completed.
Defrost position
Normal position
mmsfiaavsssssa
Drain-off position
'/mmmmssmm
normal position
Defrost valve cut-away detail defrost position
Inc.)
390
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
the tubes.
Inset
shows
Heater elements are installed through the center of the heater elements. (Courtesy Dunham-Bush, Inc.)
after
is
evaporator fans are turned off so that the water spray is not blown out into the refrigerated
space.
If the
than wasted.
is
large
evaporator
is
equippped with
enough so that the addition of heat is not required, some means of reheating the solution
in the reservoir
may be necessary. Since the water from the melting frost will weaken the solution, the defrost system is equipped with a
"concentrator" to boil off the excess water and
return the solution to
its initial
are turned
on
until the
evaporator
defrosted,
concentration.
mately 4 to 5 minutes. After the sprays are turned off, several minutes are allowed for
draining of the water from the evaporator coils
One manufacturer
evaporator
gained
is
The
principal
is
and drain pan before the evaporator fans are started and the system put back in operation.
melting frost.
To
KM.
in the
drain
line,
heaters are frequently employed for the defrosting of finned blower coils.
An
is
evaporator
in Fig.
line
should be amply sized and so arranged that the water is. drained from the space as
rapidly as possible.
shown
trap
is
installed in the
prevent
being drawn into the space through the drain line during normal operation.
air
warm
In some instances, a float valve is employed in the drain pan to shut off the water spray and
prevent overflowing into the space in the event that the drain line becomes plugged with ice.
of the melted frost in these parts. The electric defrost cycle can be started and stopped manually or a defrost timer may be used to make defrosting completely automatic. In either case, the defrosting procedure is the
same. The defrost cycle
is
initiated
by closing
When brine or an
the
a solenoid valve in the liquid line causing the evaporator to be evacuated, after which the compressor cycles off on low pressure control.
DEFROST METHODS
the same time, the heating elements in the evaporator are energized and the evaporator fans turned off so that the heat is not blown
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
391
At
y
)
out into the refrigerated space. After the evaporator is defrosted, the heaters are deenergized and the system put back in operation
/
LHot gas /solenoid
line solenoid
and
starting
Hot Gas
many
utilize the
ing has
variations, all of
which
in
some
By-pass
line
hot gas discharged from the compressor as a source of heat to defrost the evaporator. One of the simplest methods of hot gas defrosting is illustrated in Fig. 20-3. by-pass equipped with a solenoid valve is installed between the compressor discharge and
the evaporator.
way
A
C
is
->
r
-J
-i
When
tt
(
hot gas from the compressor discharge by-passes the condenser and enters the evaporator at a point just beyond the refrigerant control. Defrosting is accomplished as the hot gas gives up its heat to the cold opened,
the
state.
20-6. Re-evaporator Coils. One common method of hot gas defrosting employs a re-
Some of the condensed refrigerant stays in the evaporator while the remainder returns to the compressor where it is evaporated by the compressor heat and recirculated to the evaporator.
Since
no
liquid
is
vaporized in
pressure loss.
At
available
As defrosting progresses,
6 hr) the defrost timer starts the defrost cycle by opening the solenoid in the hot gas line and
closing the solenoid in the suction by-pass line.
refrigerant
At
the same time, the evaporator fans are stopped and the re-evaporator fan is started. The liquid condensed in the evaporator is
completely defrosted.
Another, and more serious, disadvantage of this method is the possibility that a large slug
of liquid refrigerant will return to the compressor and cause damage to that unit. This is most likely to occur either at the beginning of
the defrost cycle or immediately after defrosting
is
When defrosting is completed, the defrost cycle may be terminated by the defrost timer or by an
evaporator-temperature actuated temperature
control.
is
placed
completed.
Fortunately, both these weaknesses can be overcome by providing some means of reevaporating the liquid which condenses in the evaporator before it is returned to the comThe particular means used to repressor.
back in operation by closing the hot gas solenoid, opening the suction solenoid, stopping the re-evaporator fan and starting the evaporator fans.
is
from another.
392
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Suction line
Thermostatic
exp. valve
Liquid
solenoid
Liquid line to
other evaporators
(if
required)
Fig. 20-4.
Hot
cycle.
An automatic expansion
valve
is
used to
A flow diagram
of this arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 20-5. Reverse Cycle Defrosting. By employing the reverse cycle (heat pump) principle, the condenser can be utilized as a re-evaporator
condenses in the evaporator during the defrost
meter the liquid refrigerant into the condenser for re-evaporation. Flow diagrams for normal
operation and defrosting are shown in Figs.
20-6(a)
and
20-6(fc),
respectively,
Modern
and
D of Fig.
Normal Operation
Open: B-2-3-6-7
Close:
A-l-4-5-8
Defrost
"X"
Open: A-l-3-5-7
Close:
B-2-4-6-8
Defrost
"Y"
Open: A-2-4-6-8
Close:
B-l-3-5-7
Crankcase
pressure'
regulator
Fig. 20-5.
Hot
gas defrost
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
393
Heat Bank Defrosting. The Thermobank* method of hot gas defrosting employs a water bank to store a portion of the heat
20-9.
order to avoid unnecessary suction line pressure loss and superheating of the suction vapor by
the
when
the
evaporator
is
being refrigerated.
water bank temperature, a by-pass is built into the water bank heating coil. The by-pass is so
sized that a greater portion of the discharge gas
Fig.
20-6. (a)
Reverse cycle
hot gas defrost system (defrost cycle), (b) Reverse cycle hot
gas
defrost
system
(normal
operation).
is
by-passes the heater coil and flows directly to the condenser as the temperature of the bank
During normal operation (Fig. 20-8a), the gas from the compressor passes through the heating coil in the water bank first and then goes to the condenser, so that a portion
discharge
water increases.
When
thickness,
initiated
the the
frost
reaches
cycle
a predetermined
(Fig.
defrost
20-86)
is
by an
electric timer
of the heat ordinarily discarded at the condenser is stored in the bank water. Notice that the suction vapor by-passes the holdback valve and bank during the refrigerating cycle in
hot
gas solenoid valve, closes the suction solenoid valve, and stops the evaporator fans.
it
Hot gas is discharged into the evaporator where condenses and defrosts the coil. The con-
Company.
densed refrigerant flows to the holdback valve which acts as a constant pressure expansion
"
394
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
liquid refrigerant in the coil
and suction
line is
immersed in the bank water. In this process, the bank water actually freezes on the outside of
the re-evaporator coil.
re-evaporated.
returns
the
The heat
stored in the
bank
is
system to normal operation. When normal operation is resumed, the bank water is promptly restored to its original temperature by the hot
gas passing through the heating
coil.
Expansion
valve
Evaporator
Compressor
Fig. 20-7. (a)
Reverse cycle
hot gas defrost normal operation, (b) Reverse cycle hot gas
Receiver
defrost
defrost
cycle.
Expansion-,
valve
Evaporator
Check valve
Four way
valve
Expansion
valve,"
Condenser
Check valve
Thus both sensible and latent heat are abstracted from the bank water, making available vast heat quantities for fast defrost and the refrigerant returns
to
20-10.
Vapot Defrosting.
schematic dia-
gram of the Vapomatic defrosting system is shown in Fig. 20-9, along with an enlarged view
of the Vapot,* which
defrost system.
specially
is
the
suction
inlet
of
the
compressor completely evaporated. Defrost is completed in approximately 6 to 8 min. This is followed by a post-defrost period lasting a few minutes after the closing of the hot gas solenoid valve. During post-defrost any
actually a
accumulator,
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
395
Re-evaporator
coil'
Re-evaporator
coil
Thermobank
Thermobank
Receiver-
Compressor
Receiver'
"Compressor
Normal operation
(a)
Defrost
(b)
Fig. 20-8.
Thermobank hot
gas defrosting.
evaporator and, by means of a carefully sized bleed tube, continuously feeds a measured
The
defrost cycle
is
initiated
by a defrost
evaporator
defrost
amount of
liquid
fans.
An
terminates
the
compressor is vaporized by the heat of compression and returned to the evaporator. In this way, the Vapot provides a continuous source of latent
back
to
and
It
and
heat for defrosting the evaporator and at the same time eliminates the possibility of large
slugs of liquid returning to the compressor.
efficiency of any refrigerating system diminish rapidly as the difference between the
by a reduction
in
the
Vapot has no
The
rarification
Defrost limit
from
Suction line
coil
compressor
thermostat tat~*p
continuously
in.
per foot
minimum
Liquid line
connections'
fl
mQ
(Right)
Fig. 20-9.
(Left)
Typical
application
of
Vapot.
Enlarged
view of Vapot.
(Courtesy Recold
Corporation.)
396
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
.
f
[C
<
1
^-
)
Fig. 20-10. Three-stage, direct
evaporator temperatures and partially to the increase in the compression ratio. Since any increase in the ratio of compression is accompanied by a rise in the discharge temperature,
discharge temperatures also tend to
excessive
become
is
The compressed refrigerant vapor from the lower stage is condensed in a heat exchanger, usually called a cascade condenser, which is also the evaporator of the
points (Fig. 20-1 1).
as
the
evaporator
temperature
reduced.
Whereas conventional
will
single-stage
systems
Both methods of multistaging have relative advantages and disadvantages. The particular
usually
give
satisfactory
results
with
method which
evaporator
temperatures
down
to
-40 F,
provided
that condensing temperatures are reasonably low, for evaporator temperatures below minus 40 F, some form of multistage
will produce the best results in a given installation depends for the most part on the size of the installation and on the degree of low temperature which must be attained. In
some instances, a combination of the cascade and direct staging methods can be used to an advantage. In these cases, the compound
compression (direct staging) is usually applied to the lower stage of the cascade. 20-12. Intercoolers. With direct staging, cooling of the refrigerant vapor between the several stages of compression (desuperheating) is necessary in order to avoid overheating of
the higher stage compressors.
erant gas
is
In
types:
(1)
staging.
sion process,
the gas
is
it
compress a single refrigerant in successive stages. A flow diagram of a simple, three-stage, direct staged multicompression system is shown in Fig. 20-10. Notice that the pressure of the refrigerant vapor is raised from the evaporator pressure to the condenser pressure in three increments, the discharge vapor from the lower stage compressors being piped to the suction of
to
charge temperatures will result with subsequent overheating of the higher stage machines. Because of the large temperature differential between the condenser and the evaporator, cooling of the liquid refrigerant is also desirable in order to avoid heavy losses in refrigerating effect because of excessive flashing of the liquid
Cascade staging involves the use of two or more separate refrigerant circuits which employ
and the accompanying volume of vapor which must be handled by the low stage compressor.
in the refrigerant control,
increase in the
DEFROST METHODS
Three common methods of gas desuperheating and liquid cooling for direct staged systems are illustrated in Fig. 20-12. The
intercooler
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
397
pressure of the liquid going to the evaporator is reduced to the intermediate pressure in the
intercooler.
shown
or "flash" type intercooler. the condenser is expanded into the intercooler where its temperature is reduced by flashing to
the saturation temperature corresponding^to the intercooler pressure. Since suction from the
intercooler
is
and necessitates oversizing of the valve, which often results in sluggish operation. Too, since the lowtemperature, low-pressure liquid leaving the
intercooler
is saturated, there is a tendency for the liquid to flash in the liquid line between the intercooler and the evaporator. For this
the intercooler to go to the low temperature evaporator is the saturation temperature corre-
reason, the liquid line should be designed for the minimum possible pressure drop.
sponding to the intermediate pressure (pressure between stages). Since the refrigeration expended
in cooling the liquid to the intermediate temperature is accomplished much more economically at the level of the high stage suction than at that of the low stage suction, cooling of the liquid
in the intercooler has the effect of reducing the
illustrated in
This type of intercooler differs from the flash type in that only a portion of the
liquid
is
submerged
Therefore,
the
horsepower per ton as well as the displacement required for the low stage compressor.
type
is
intercooler,
com-
intermediate pressure, that is, the -liquid cooling occurs in the form of subcooling rather than as
which the discharge gas passes to the suction of the high stage compressor along with the flash gas from the intercooler.
a reduction in the saturation temperature. The advantages gained by this method, of course,
are the higher liquid pressures made available at the expansion valve and the elimination of flash
line. With good intercooler design the liquid can be cooled to within 10 to 20 degrees of the saturation temperature
The
intercooler are in
simplicity
and low
cost,
and the
fact
that
is
liquid refrigerant
Vapor
velocities in
The
chief disadvantage
is
that the
intercoolers should
Evaporator
Low stage
condenser
(refrig.
cooled)
Low stage
(booster)
comp.
High stage
oomp.
398
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Open type
intercooler
(a)
(b)
re staged system
(c)
open,
flash-type intercooler.
Direct staged
systemclosed,
dry-expansion
intercooler.
DEFROST METHODS
200 fpm and ample separation area should be allowed above the liquid level in the intercoolers in order to prevent liquid carryover into
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
To evaporator
SYSTEMS
399
Another arrangement, employing a dryexpansion intercooler, is shown in Fig. 20- 12c. This type of intercooler is not suitable for ammonia systems, but is widely used with
Refrigerants-12
and
22.
The
it
liquid
from the
\i
^- _--- T
condenser
coil
is
subcooled as
intercooler.
in
the
accomplished by overfeeding of the intercooler so that a small amount of liquid is carried over into the desuperheating area where it is vaporized by the hot gas from the discharge of the
low stage compressor. The gas is cooled by vaporizing the liquid and by mixing with the cold vapor from the intercooler.
Since
ammonia has a
is
ammonia systems
fluorocarbon
liquid
as
in
refrigerants.
is
For
this
reason,
sometimes neglected in ammonia systems, in which case the discharge vapor from the low stage compressor is usually desuperheated by injecting a small amount of
cooling
liquid
be attained by the direct staging method. The low limit is approximately 125 F with either Refrigerants-12 or 22 and -90 F with ammonia. Below these temperatures cascade staging is ordinarily required, with some high-pressure, low boiling point refrigerant, such as ethane, ethylene, R-13, R-13B1, or R-14, being used in the lower stage. Because of their extremely high pressures at normal condensing temperatures and/or their relatively low critical temperatures, these high pressure refrigerants must be condensed at rather low temperatures and therefore are cascaded with R-12, R-22, or propane. A three-stage cascade
practical
ammonia
system employing ethylene, methane, and propane in the low, intermediate, and high stages
respectively
is illustrated
The vaporization of
In some
is
the liquid
ammonia
in this
in Fig. 20-14.
is
The
is
ammonia
The
effec-
thermal efficiency of the system somewhat below that of the direct staged system. On the other
on and
hand, cascade staging makes possible the use of high density, high pressure refrigerants in the
lower stages, which will usually result in a considerable reduction in the displacement
required for the low stage compressor.
As a
general
rule,
water-cooled
lower the power requirements, but will usually provide sufficient cooling to keep the discharge temperature within the maximum
to
limit
The use of high pressure refrigerants also simplifies the design of the low stage evaporator in that higher
refrigerant pressure losses through the evapora-
and
efficiency.
Too,
Cascade Staging.
enough
to provide
do not
intermingle,
and each stage is a separate system within itself, the problem of oil return to the compressors is somewhat less critical than
in the direct staged system.
and which,
at the same time, are condensable under reasonable pressures with air or water at normal temperatures. This requirement tends to limit the degree of low temperature that can
and a
400
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
DEFROST METHODS
are compared
efficiencies
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
401
on pressure-enthalpy coordinates
method of
oil equalization requires that the crankcase pressures in the several compressors be exactly the same (Section 19*15) and therefore
is not practical when the compressors are connected in series, since the higher pressures
and multistage
20-14. Oil
Return
in
Multistage Systems.
compressors would force the oil through the equalizing lines into the lower pressures existing in the crankcases of the low stage compressors.
Since the several stages of the cascade system are actually separate and independent systems,
oil
of compressors con-
return
is
stages in the
stage
tions.
same manner as in any other single system operating under the same condiThis
is
is shown in Fig. 20-12. An oil separator installed in the discharge line of the high stage compressor separates the oil from
nected in series
and returns
it
to the suction
system.
are interconnected, either in parallel or in series, there is no assurance that oil return to the
individual compressors will be in equal amounts.
of that machine. High side float valves maintain the desired oil level in the high stage compressors by continuously draining the
excess oil returning to these compressors to the next lower stage compressor through the oil
Therefore,
some means of
insuring
equal
distribution of the oil among the several compressors must be provided. When the compressors are connected in parallel, the oil
can be maintained at the same level in all the compressors by interconnecting the crankcases as shown in Fig. 19-11. However, this simple
For manual operation, hand stop valves (normally closed) can be substituted for the float drainers, in which case the hand valves are opened periodically to adjust the oil
transfer lines.
levels
by bleeding
oil
Desuperheattng of
disclutje vapor from
first-stage compressor
131.6
M0*F
Condenser pressure
Line of single
stage compression
30.56
Interstage pressure
(0.43 lb of
R-12 evaporated
in
intercooier per
pound of R-12
circulated)
First-
compression
7.125
Evaporator pressure
Enthalpy (Btu/lb) Fig. 20-15. Mi diagram of two-stage direct-staged R-12 system with flash intercooier. First-stage compressor 16.19 cfm/ton. Second-stage compressor displacement 6.24 cfm/ton including vapor from
displacement
intercooier.
I.
Compression
is
approximately 4.3 to
402
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Electric
power
Evaporator
Check j_
valve
|
Low pressure
motor control
Condenser
in
20-15. Multiple
Temperature System.
is
one wherein
high
two or more evaporators operating at different temperatures and located in different spaces or fixtures (or sometimes in the same space or fixture) are connected to the same compressor or
condensing
unit.
A check valve
is
line
of the lowest temperature evaporator to prevent the higher pressure from the warmer evaporators from backing up into the cold
evaporator
The
when
by this type of operation are a savings in space and a reduction in the initial cost of the equipment. However, since higher operating costs
will usually
Since the check valve will remain closed as long as the pressure in the suction main is above the pressure in the low temperarefrigeration.
more than
ture evaporator,
it
is
temperature evaporator
demands of
One obvious
disadvantage
is
For
system
this reason, if
is
a multiple temperature
that in
on
all
spaces
served
by the compressor
will
be without
60%, and
When
of product which otherwise would not occur. typical three-evaporator multiple tempera-
evaporator(s) constitute
total load,
ture system
is
illustrated in Fig.
20-16.
An
evaporator pressure regulator valve is installed in the suction line of each of the warmer evaporators in order to maintain the pressure,
high temperature evaporator(s) will cause the compressor to operate a greater portion of the time at suction pressures too high to permit
DEFROST METHODS
evaporator, with the result that temperature
control in that unit will be erratic.
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
403
The evaporator
warmer evaporators
whenever
may be
types,
and the compressor will cycle on. The fact that the pressure in the high temperature evaporators
setting
is always above the cut-in of the low pressure control poses somewhat of a problem when throttling-type evaporator pressure regulators are employed on the high temperature evaporators. Since this type of regulator is open any time the evaporator pressure is above the pressure setting of the regulator, it will often cause the compressor to cycle on when the evaporator it is controlling
the
being employed
evaporator
In
is
multiple
temperature
is
systems,
low
ordinarily used to
on and off, the cut-in and cut-out pressures of the control being
adjusted to suit the conditions required in the
When
will
the
compressor
at
is
operating,
the
which vapor
is
being
does not actually require refrigeration. As soon as the compressor starts, the pressure in the evaporator is immediately reduced below
the regulator setting and the regulator closes, causing the compressor to cycle off again on the
generated in
the evaporators.
If the
is
comhigh,
the suction pressure will also be high. When the refrigeration demands of one of the higher
low pressure
control.
To
on
temperature evaporators
so that
little
is
satisfied,
the eva-
when
throttling
from that
As
previously mentioned,
whether or not the low temperature evaporator is being refrigerated at any given time depends on whether the suction pressure is below or above the pressure in that evaporator. However, the low temperature evaporator will always be open to the compressor (refrigerated) at any time that the demands of the high temperature
evaporators
are
satisfied
With
pilot operated
evaporator pressure regulators, positive closeoff of the regulator during the compressor off
cycle can be obtained by controlling the regulator with a temperature or solenoid pilot.
suction
In small systems, a surge tank installed in the main will usually prevent short cycling
When
the
of the compressor.
large
absorbing reasonable pressure increases occurring in the high temperature evaporator and
thereby preventing the suction pressure from rising prematurely to the cut-in pressure of the
of the evaporators is capable of cycling the compressor on again. For the low temperature evaporator, a gradual rise in pressure in that unit to the cut-in pressure of the low pressure control will start the compressor, whether or not
either of the high temperature evaporators also
low pressure control. The size of the surge tank required depends on the ratio of the high temperature load to the low temperature load and on the temperature differential between the high and low temperature, the size of the tank
required increasing as each of these factors increases. Obviously, this method of preventing
short cycling
is
requires refrigeration.
Since the pressure maintained in the high temperature evaporators, even at the lower limit, is always above the cut-in setting of the low pressure control, if either of the evaporator
pressure
regulators
only a small
portion of the total load and/or where the difference in temperature between the high and
is
relatively small.
404
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
lines
Fig. 20-17. Multiple unit installation employing thermostat-solenoid control. permit Isolation of individual evaporators for maintenance.
in
suction
Low
JJuction from high
side
float
Low
side
float
stage evaporator
compressor
Fig.
20-18.
multiple
DEFROST METHODS
AND LOW-TEMPERATURE
SYSTEMS
405
obtain
multiple
temperature
is
operation.
A
The
typical installation
shown
in Fig. 20-17.
operation of this type of system is similar to that of systems employing snap-action regulators in the suction line, except that there is no control of the evaporator pressure and temperature. space-temperature actuated thermo-
When the the thermostat contacts close, energizing the solenoid coil and opening the liquid line to the evaporator. The pressure
space temperature
rises,
in the evaporator rises as the liquid enters the evaporator, causing the low pressure control to
cycle the compressor on, if the latter is not already running. If the compressor is already running, the entrance of liquid into the evaporator will cause a rise in the operating suction pressure.
When
is
re-
the thermostat
contacts open, de-energizing the solenoid coil and closing the liquid line, whereupon the evaporator pumps down to the operating suction pressure, or to the cut-out pressure in
calling for refrigeration.
the event that none of the other evaporators is Since all the evapo-
pump-down as they are cycled out, the system receiver tank must be large enough to hold the entire system refrigerant charge. This
rators
not true, however, if the solenoids are installed in the suction line rather than in the liquid line. Placing the solenoid valves in the suction
is
has the disadvantage of requiring larger, valves. Too, in the event of a leaky refrigerant control, there is always the danger that liquid will accumulate in the
line
more expensive
is
closed
to the compressor
when
the
opened.
tem
When solenoids are employed to obtain multiple temperature operation, there is no direct control of the evaporator pressure and
temperature, since the pressure in the evaporator
406
at
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
will
of evaporators Obviously, with this type of operation it is very difficult to maintain a balanced relationship between the space and evaporator temperatures,
With
suction lines
porators to avoid excessive pressures and temperatures in these units when the warmer
and
this
line.
refrigerated
space
it is
becomes
very
indefinite.
Temperature Operation
For
reason,
when humidity
control
is
Staged Systems.
multiple temperature
important,
throttling-type
evaporator pressure regulator in the suction lines of the high temperature evaporators in order to maintain the pressure
system employing direct staged compression is illustrated in Fig. 20-18. Notice that the high temperature evaporator serves also as the gas
and
The high
and temperature
necessary
stage compressor
must be
high
However,
evaporator
pressure regulators should be used only with suction line solenoids. Short cycling of the compressor may result if they are employed junction with liquid line solenoids.
in con-
high temperature load in addition to the load passed along by the low stage compressor.
three stages
is
shown
in Fig. 20-19.
and 230 V single-phase and 230 V three-phase. With the open delta arrangement shown in Fig. 21-lc, three-phase power for isolated users can be supplied with only two
are 115
21
Motors and Control
Electric
transformers.
Power
industrial
special
is
establishments at 460
users at
much
Circuits
arrangement with the power company. Naturally, all motors must be selected to conform to the characteristics of the available power supply. Power companies guarantee to maintain voltages within plus or minus 10% of the design voltage. Most motors will operate
satisfactorily within these voltage limits.
Many
motors are designed so that they can be operated on either low or high voltage by reconnecting
external
21-1. Electric
motor
leads.
Motors.
Single-phase
and
of
available,
three-phase
alternating
current
motors
factors
that
order to
1.
some of the other more important must be taken into account in select the proper type motor are:
conditions prevailing at the point of
few two-phase and direct current motors are also used on occasion. Single-phase motors range in size from approximately hp up through 10 hp, whereas three-phase motors are available in
fans.
The
ambient tem-
or explosive materials.
2. Starting
sizes
although the
sizes
unloaded
3.
starting).
below
hp.
When
three-phase power
is
4. Single
is
or multispeed operation.
available,
usually
5. 6.
city
its
greater simpli-
power
All motors generate a certain amount of heat due to power losses in the windings. If this heat is not dissipated to the surroundings, motor temperature will become excessive and break-
and/or
three-phase
alternating
will
result.
depend somewhat on the type of transformer connection. In areas where power consumption is predominantly single-phase low voltage,
transformers are "1"' connected so that the
load, whereas totally enclosed motors are designed for a 55 temperature rise at full
low voltage load can be distributed evenly among the three transformers. As shown in Fig. 21-la, voltages supplied from a "Y" connected transformer bank are 120 V and 208 V single-phase and 208 V three-phase. When the power load is predominantly three-phase, the
407
Both types are guaranteed by the manufacturer to operate continuously under full
load.
load conditions without overheating when the ambient temperature does not exceed 40 C.
is
408
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Motors may be
classified
(1)
according to the
open, (2) totally
(4) explosion-
and
Open-type motors are designed so that air is circulated directly over the windings to carry away the motor heat. This type of motor can be used in any application where the air is relatively free of dust and moisture, the motor is not subject to wetting, and the hazards of fire or explosion do not exist. Splash-proof motors are designed for installation out-ofdoors or in any other location where the motor may be subject to wetting. Totally enclosed motors are designed for use where dust and moisture conditions are severe. These motors
are unventilated and must dissipate their heat
to
the
housing.
when
part,
motor
starting
torque
requirements depend on the load characteristics of the driven machine. Low starting torque
motors
starts
may be used
unloaded.
On
starting torque
driven
motors must be used when the machine starts under load. Since
often
motor
exceed
230 V
load current
of the motor, where large motors are employed, a low starting current characteristic is desirable in order to reduce the starting load on the
wiring,
transformers,
ment.
Alternating current motors may be classified according to their principle of operation as either induction motors or synchronous motors.
Fig. 21-1.
(a)
(6)
"Y"
connected
Transformers
of the rotor
is
at a proportionally lower temperature rise. Most motors can be operated with small overloads for reasonable periods of time
A synchronous motor one wherein the rotor magnetic field is produced by energizing the rotor directly from an external source. 21-2. Three-Phase Induction Motors. Threephase induction motors are of two general
types:
(1) squirrel cage,
without
damage. However, since the heat generated in the motor increases as the load on the motor increases, continuous operation of the motor under overload conditions will cause
excessive winding temperatures
and
(2)
wound
rotor
in
(slip ring).
The two
each
As shown
and materially
has three separate stator windings, one for each phase, which are evenly
shorten the
life
of the insulation.
and
alternately distributed
ELECTRIC
cote to establish the desired
409
number of
poles.
rotates at a speed
The rotor of an induction motor always somewhat less than that of the
rotating stator
When
currents,
the stator
is
each 120
electrical
degrees out-of-
field. If the speed of the rotor were the same as that of the field, the conductors of the rotor winding would be standing still
phase with the other two, flow in the stator windings and produce a rotating magnetic field
in the stator.
field rather
At
than cutting across it, in which case no voltage would be induced in the rotor and the rotor
induced in the rotor windings establish a magnetic field in the rotor. The magnetic poles
polarity.
Therefore,
of the rotor
field
slightly less
field
so that
the conductors of the rotor winding continuously cut the flux of the stator field as the latter
Line
Squirrel
cage
rotor
Fig.
21-2. (a)
Squirrel
(b)
cage
polyphase motor,
Wound
rotor
(slip
ring)
polyphase
motor.
Wound
rotor
(6)
410
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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ELECTRIC
411
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412
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a laminated iron core and connected together heavy endrings, giving the winding the appearance of a
in
slips by.
called the
"magnetic slip" or "rotor slip." The greater on the motor, the greater is the amount of rotor slip. However, since the amount of slip changes only slightly as the load increases or
the load
decreases,
squirrel cage,
its
name.
The
is
motor
is
by
far
and
is
full load,
three-phase
induction
motors
the
is
are
usually
number of
Neglecting rotor
alternating current
slip,
motor
Two
designs
em-
ployed with refrigerating equipment are designs B and C. Design B motors develop a locked
rotor or starting torque between
125% and
torque-low
275%
of
full
starting
currents.
= -
Frequency x 120
t
Number
' of poles
The
normal
of this design
(21-1)
makes it ideal for use as a drive for blowers, fans, and pumps, and for compressors which
are started unloaded. Design
motors have a
For a four-pole alternating current motor operating on 60-cycle power, the synchronous
speed
is
high-starting torque-low starting current characteristic which makes them suitable as drives for compressors which must start under load. Design C motors develop a starting torque between 225% to 275% of full load torque, but
60 x 120
1800
rpm
Rotor slip is usually expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed. For instance, for a motor having a synchronous speed of 1800 rpm and operating at 17S0 rpm, the percentage slip
is
motor.
Multispeed operation of squirrel cage induction motors can be obtained by proper design
1800
1750
decreases as the
2/78 /o
number of
1800
number of
stator
a measure of the power losses in the motor. In this instance, 2.78 of the total power input to the motor is converted
slip is also
Rotor
is
a definite
amount of slip and the of the motor. The higher the slip,
the efficiency of the motor.
motor can be reduced by For a single-winding motor, the number of poles can be changed in a two to one ratio by bringing extra leads outside of the motor. When more than two speeds are desired, the motor is wound with two or more separate
one-half.
Two
speeds
are
the lower
is
effort or
motor is the turning torque that the motor develops at the instant of starting when full voltage is applied
starting torque of a
The
Wound
Rotor
(Slip
Ring) Motors.
Wound
to the
motor
terminals.
Starting
torque
is
torque and depends to some extent on the resistance of the rotor winding. An increase in rotor resistance increases the starting torque, but also increases the amount of rotor slip and
21-3.
and/or where a number of operating speeds are desired in the range between one-half and
maximum
speed.
A
in
slip ring
or
wound
rotor
motor induction
motor
the
differs
from the
winding.
motor efficiency. Three-Phase Squirrel Cage Motors. The rotor winding of a squirrel cage motor consists of bar-type copper conductors embedded
decreases
The rotor winding grouped to form definite pole areas so that the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator. The terminal
rotor
consists of insulated coils,
ELECTRIC
connections of the rotor windings are brought
CIRCUITS
413
out to
slip rings.
slip
The
leads
on the
slightly
be
After
resistors, as
shown in Fig.
21-26.
motor
is
the motor
comes up
This produces
when
starting
high-starting
torque
can
be
is
which lock the rotor into synchronization with the rotating armature field.
By
field
As
full
the
motor
accelerates,
the resistance
the
speed the rotor windings are short-circuited. With the rotor winding short-circuited, the
slip
and high
effi-
The speed of
varied from
the
wound
synchronous motors can be applied to an advantage in any large installation where constant speed and high efficiency are desired. However, the big advantage of the synchronous motor is that it can be used to correct the low
power factor
loads.
that results
By
The
starting resistors
can be used
through the field winding (overexerting the field), the synchronous motor is operated with a leading power factor which can be adjusted to
offset exactly the lagging
At
reduced speeds, the wound rotor tends to lose its constant speed characteristic and the speed of the motor will vary somewhat with the load.
21-5.
by inductive loads.
will in
no way
nous motor
poles
armature (stator) windings. Therefore, the speed of the synchronous motor depends only on the frequency of the power supply and the number of poles, and is independent of motor load. The armature winding of the synchronous motor is similar to those of the squirrel cage and wound rotor motors. The field (rotor) winding consists of a series of coils which make up the field poles. The field coils are connected through slip rings to a direct current power source and are so connected together that alternate north and south poles are formed when the field winding is energized with
direct current.
phase, (2) capacitor start, (3) capacitor start and run, (4) permanent capacitor, and (5)
shaded pole. AH these motors are induction motors and all employ a squirrel cage rotor. The principal factor which distinguishes one type from another is the particular method used to produce a starting torque. When a single-phase stator winding is
energized, current flow
is
simultaneous in
all
is
no
The
Furthermore, the current induced in the squirrel cage rotor winding is such that the magnetic field set up in the rotor is exactly in line with the magnetic field of the stator. The
produced.
condition occurring can be compared to the "dead center" condition of a single piston
engine.
mounted on the motor shaft. The rotor is also equipped with a squirrel cage winding, called the "damper"
exciter,
an
which
is
Therefore, there
to
rotate.
is
no tendency
for the
winding, which
is
used to
start the
motor.
The
However, if the rotor is started to rotate by some means, the current induced in the rotor winding will lag slightly
rotor
polyphase power is applied to the armature winding, the rotating magnetic field
acts
When
behind the current in the stator winding. This causes the rotor field to lag the stator field and
produces a torque that keeps the rotor turning. Hence, once the rotor of a single-phase motor is
on the
squirrel cage
414
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
alone.
Centrifugal
is
wound
switch
will
by overheating.
Since the
maximum
phase
split that
is
can be
approxi-
motor
Fig. 21-4. Split-phase motor.
mately 30 electrical degrees, the split-phase motor has a relatively low starting torque and
started, a rotating field is produced and the motor operates in a manner similar to that of the
can be used only with machines which start unloaded. These motors are generally available in sizes ranging from ii> to a n p for both 115 V and 230 V operation. They are used primarily as drives for small fans, blowers, and pumps. 21-8. Capacitor Start Motors. The capacitor start
Motors.
In
order
to
motor
in
produce a starting torque in the single-phase motor and make the motor self-starting, a second stator winding, called the "starting" or "auxiliary" winding, is employed in addition to the phase winding, the latter winding being referred to as the "main" or "running" winding. The relative position of the two windings in the stator of a four-pole, single-phase motor is shown in Fig. 21-4. Notice that the starting and
running windings are connected in parallel
directly across the single-phase line.
shown
motor is usually wound with larger wire than that used for the starting winding of the split-phase motor. The use of a capacitor in series with the starting winding causes the
start
In the
is
wound
a high resistance and low inductance, whereas is wound with large wire
and a high inductance. Both windings are energized at the instant of starting. However, because of the higher
to have a low resistance
current in this winding to lead the voltage, whereas the current in the running winding lags the voltage by virtue of the high inductance of that winding. With this arrangement, the phase displacement between the two windings can be made to approach 90 electrical degrees so that true two-phase starting is achieved. For this reason, the starting torque of the capacitor start motor is very high, a circumstance which makes it an ideal drive for small compressors that must be started under full load. As in the case of the split-phase motor, the starting winding of the capacitor start motor is taken out of the circuit when the rotor
the
starting
winding
by
approximately
30
Capacitor
electrical degrees.
in the
Centrifugal
two phases and a rotating field is set up in the stator which produces a starting torque and causes the rotor to rotate.
switch
When
mately
70% of maximum speed, which is a matter of a second or two, a centrifugal mechanism mounted on the rotor shaft opens a
switch
starting
Squirrel
cage
in
the
starting
winding.
winding
disconnected,
rotor
ELECTRIC
approaches approximately
speed,
415
70%
of
maximum
motor operates on the running winding alone. Capacitor start motors are generally available in sizes ranging from through f hp for both 1 15V and 230V operation. 21-9. Capacitor Start and Run Motors. Construction of the capacitor start and run motor is identical to that of the capacitor start motor with the exception that a second capaciand
thereafter the
tor, called
series
Fig. 21-7.
shown
of the capacitor start-and-split-phase motors is that the starting or auxiliary winding remains
in the circuit at all times.
starting,
in
At
the instant of
capacitors
the
starting-and-running
remains
capacitor
the
circuit
The
sized for
power
factor correction
Running capacitor
Starting capacitor
Centrifugal switch
used also as a starting capacitor. Howtoo small to provide a large degree of phase displacement, the starting torque of the permanent capacitor is very low. These motors are available only in small fractional horsepower sizes. They are used mainly as drives for small fans which are
but
is
mounted
directly
down
to
cage
SO
% of rated speed.
Also,
it
rotor
starting switch.
21-11.
are both in the circuit in series with the auxiliary winding so that the capacity of both capacitors As the is utilized during the starting period. rotor approaches 70% of rated speed, the centrifugal mechanism opens the starting switch and removes the starting capacitor from the
circuit,
somewhat from that of the other single-phase motors in that the main stator winding is arranged to form salient poles, as shown in Fig. 21-8. The auxiliary winding consists of a shading coil, which surrounds a portion of one side of each stator
of the shaded pole motor
differs
pole.
single
The shading
of a
is
and the motor continues to operate with both main and auxiliary windings in the circuit. The function of the running capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding is to correct power
Shading
coil
(starting winding)
As a result, the capacitor start-and run-motor not only has a high starting torque but also an excellent running efficiency. These motors are generally available in sizes ranging from approximately f through 10 hp, and are widely used as drives for refrigeration comfactor.
Squirrel
cage
rotor
struction of the
Fig.
416
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
currents heats the wire
sufficiently
short-circuited
to
pull
remove the
the
starting
and causes it to expand "S" open and winding from the circuit.
contacts
is
out of the
circuit,
Shaded pole motors are widely used as drives for small fans which are mounted directly on the motor shaft. They are available in sizes ranging from j%j through
small starting torque.
approximately > hp. In addition to its ready adaptability to speed control, the main advantages of the shaded pole
motor are
its
simple
frequently
normal running current through the running winding will generate enough heat to maintain the "S" contacts in the open position, but not enough to cause additional expansion of the wire and open contacts "M" (Fig. 21-96). However, if for any reason the motor draws a sustained overcurrent, the wire will expand further and pull open contacts "M," removing the running winding from the circuit (Fig.
21 -9c).
employed
Contacts
"M"
the motor.
run single-phase motors. Whereas the splitphase and capacitor start motors are limited to small fractional horsepower units, the capacitor
start-and-run
motor
on
the
the current
Although air, water, oil, and liquid refrigerant are sometimes used as cooling mediums
to carry
The current
is
coil relay is
vapor cooled. For this reason, hermetic motorcompressor units should never be operated for any appreciable length of time without a continuous flow of suction vapor through the
unit.
motors.
made up of a
is
relatively
The
as
mounted
mechanism as a means of
shown
in Fig. 21-10.
is
from the circuit after the motor Three types of starting relays have been
When
rotor
the motor
and
coil
or potential relay.
through the running winding and through the relay coil produces a relatively strong magnet around the coil and causes the relay armature to "pull-in" and close
current
passing
21-13.
Hot Wire
relay depends
winding.
With the
starting
winding energized,
emf is
open the
starting contacts
starting winding
from the
circuit.
Fig. 21-9, the hot wire relay of contacts, "S" and "M," which are in series with the starting and running windings, respectively. Both sets of contacts are closed at the instant of starting so that both windings are con-
and reduces the current through the windings and relay coil. As the current flow through the relay coil diminishes, the coil field
becomes too weak to hold the armature, whereupon the armature falls out of the coil field by gravity (or by spring action) and opens the starting contacts. The motor then runs on
the running winding alone.
The high-starting
ELECTRIC
417
Line
Thermal element
Thermal element
Thermal element
Fig. 21-9.
Hot wire
starting relay,
(b)
Run
position,
(c)
Overload position.
Potential or voltage
start
the motor is energized, both the starting and running windings are in the circuit. As the
and
capacitor
motors.
The
motor
starts
coil type
turns of
small wire and is connected in parallel with (across) the starting winding, rather than in
series
(approximately 150%), as a result of the action of the capacitor(s) in series with this winding.*
*
Fig. 21-11.
The
and are
equal
to
the
line
closed
when
the motor
is
not running.
When
418
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
lays
Relay (starting)
contacts
motor over-
w Relay
coil
and do not provide protection against overheating from other causes. 21-17. Motor Starting Devices. For fractional horsepower motors the motor starting equipment sometimes consists only of a direct acting (line voltage) manual switch, thermostat, or low pressure control installed in the motor circuit between the motor and the power source (Fig. 21-12a). The control acts to open and close the motor circuit to stop and start
current
The high voltage generated in the winding produces a relatively high flow through the relay coil and causes armature to pull in and open the
contacts.
starting
current
the coil
starting
115
volt
power
motor, opening the relay contacts disconnects both the starting winding and starting capacitor from
start
-Neutral
the circuit.
motor, only the starting capacitor is disengaged. With either type or motor, the starting winding
voltage decreases
starting
L.
Operating
control
I
contacts
open
until
stopped.
21-16.
Thermal Overload Protection for Hermetic Motors. All hermetic motor-comsome type of
thermal device which will protect the motor against overheating regardless of the cause. Thermal overload devices of this type are usually designed to be fastened directly to, and in
(Motor)
good thermal contact with, the motor-compressor housing, so that they are sensitive not
15
single-phase motor.
only to motor overcurrent but also to overheating resulting from high discharge temperatures
starting re-
shown in Fig.
The
Running
capacitor
normally closed and do not open to break the circuit unless called on to perform their protective function.
With low
line,
"hot"
never in the neutral (Fig. 21-12a). With high voltage, single-phase power, the controls
may be
-Relay
coil
installed in either
Fig. 21-1
1.
power
ELECTRIC
lines
CIRCUITS
419
must be opened to disconnect the motor from the power source. This requires the use
of double-pole controls, as illustrated in Fig.
21-12c.
However,
"hot"
lines
must be
motor exceeds 15 or
general
practice
is
20 amperes.
Therefore,
is
an electrical relay which in its simplest form consists of a coil of insulated wire, called a holding coil, and an armature to which
Hi-Lo
pressure
control
230
volt single-phase
power
Overcurrent
protectors
Fused
disconnect or circuit breaker
r
Operating
control
I
with 230
three-phase power.
the electrical contacts are attached (Fig. 21-13). The operation of the magnetic contactor is
Hi-Lo
pressure
(safety
control)
similar to that of the solenoid valve described in Chapter 17. When the holding coil is
is pulled into the coil thereby closing the electrical contacts and connecting the motor to the power
magnetic
source.
When
is
de-energized,
Overcurrent
protector
indirectly
coil.
Therefore,
operating
control
is
with 230
single-phase power.
motor
circuit.
420
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Fig. 21-13.
indirectly
Motor controlled
through
magnetic
Magnetic^
contactor
contactor.
Armature
(insulated
from
contactors)
ir---
^Operating or
"cycling" control
section
is
is
called
an "across-the-line"
it
starter,
and
so
named because
immedi-
small,
can be of relatively light construction, which results in a reduction in both the size and the cost of the controls. Second, since the holding coil circuit is electrically independent of the
when the holding coil is energized. This type of motor starter is suitable for motors up to 20 or 25 hp and is more widely used than any
ately
other
type.
excessive
current surges
motor
circuit, the
during the starting period, general practice is to start squirrel cage motors above 25 hp under
may be
different
from
motor
circuit.
This permits the use of low voltage (usually 24 V) control circuits, which are safer and generally less expensive to buy and install. A magnetic contactor employing a low voltage
control circuit
is
reduced voltage. Reduced voltage starting is accomplished through the use of reduced voltage starters which introduce resistors or auto-transformers into the motor circuit during
the starting period.
voltage starter
shown
in Fig. 21-14.
is illustrated
When
Holding coils for magnetic contactors are manufactured for all standard voltages and frequencies and are readily interchangeable in The holding coil voltages most the field. commonly used are 24, 115, 230, and 460. 21-18. Reduced Voltage Starters. The magnetic
#1 holding
close,
and the main contacts (#1) thereby connecting the motor to the power source through the resistors. This allows the motor to start under reduced voltage
and, at the same time, energizes the timing relay. After a predetermined time interval, the
contactor
described
in
the
preceding
ELECTRIC
421
Transformer
with
circuit.
low
voltage
control
24
volts
coil
holding
Operating
control
Relay heater
)_
Relay contacts j
0verload rela *
Timing
relay
Fig. '21-15.
Resistance
type
contacts
422
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
motor
is subjected to a sustained overcurrent, the temperature of the heater element increases above normal and the excess heat given off by
the heater causes warping of a bimetal element (or melting of a special alloy metal) which opens
the
overload
contacts
in
the
holding
coil coil
circuit.
This
de-energizes
the
holding
which in turn disengages the motor from the time delay action built into power source. the overload relay prevents tripping of the
Another safety control frequently encountered in the control circuits of refrigeration equipment
is
of this control
the oil pressure failure control. The function is to cycle the compressor off
the
useful
oil
when
the
pressure
developed by
predetermined
oil
pump
falls
below
minimum, or
fails to
build up to the minimum safe level within a predetermined time interval after the compressor is started. An external view of
the
oil
is
shown
in Fig.
21-16.
In studying the operating characteristics of the oil pressure failure control it is important to
oil pressure,
is
as measured
by an
case
oil
pressure gage,
the
(suction)
pressure
pressure
is
therefore
not
oil
To determine
timing relay closes and energizes the #2 holding coil, which in turn closes the #2 contactors and shunts the resistors out of the motor
circuit.
the useful oil pressure, the suction pressure must be subtracted from the total oil presthe difference between the two being the useful oil pressure developed by the oil
sure,
pump.
21-19.
is
Motor Overcurrent
Protection.
It
To
be
important to recognize that line fuses circuit breakers are designed to protect the circuit only and do not provide overcurrent protection for the motor.
and
pressure
pressure.
This
is
Therefore, unless the motor is equipped with a built-in thermal overload, separate overcurrent protection must be
in Fig. 21-17.
One
provided in the circuit of each motor. To satisfy the need for overcurrent protection, many magnetic motor starters come equipped
with overload relays. The "overload relay" consists essentially of two parts: (1) a heater element installed in the
connected to the crankcase and reflects crankcase pressure, whereas the other bellows is connected to the discharge of the oil
bellows
is
pump and
reflects
total
oil
pressure.
The
pressure differential between the two bellows pressures is equal to the useful oil pressure
and
trol.
is
motor
circuit
and
(2)
set
of contacts installed
In the event that the
ELECTRIC
pressure failure control allows the compressor
to operate 90 to 120 sec with the oil pressure
423
will
level.
be exactly equal to the crankcase pressure during the compressor off cycle, and both the timing relay heater and the holding coil are
energized.
useful
oil
If,
after the
compressor
starts,
the
prevents unnecessary shut-down of the compressor in the event that the oil pressure momen-
pressure builds
oil
up
to
the cut-in
pressure of the
below the minimum safe limit. However, if the oil pressure does not rise
tarily
falls
operation.
oil pressure
On
compressor.
be control must
the other hand, if the useful does not build up to the cut-in
be reset manually.
Referring to Fig. 21-17, notice that the timing
relay consists of a timing switch
is left
in the circuit.
Continued
and a heater
element.
series
The timing switch is connected in with the holding coil of the magnetic
and the heater
coil.
is is
starter,
connected in parallel
pressure differential
The
The
resistor
oil
IS
circuits.
pump
operates only
when
the
compressor
is
To
motor
To discharge
of
oil
pump
424
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
a
3
O
ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
As indicated
both a cut-in pressure and a cut-out pressure. These should be set in accordance with the compressor manufacturer's
failure control has
instructions
In this
In the absence of these data, general practice is to set the cut-in point of the control for a pressure approximately 5 psi below the useful
oil
continuously and
off-on
switch.
is
controlled with a
this
manual
control
With
particular
The
cut-out point is usually set for a pressure approximately 5 psi below the cut-in pressure.
arrangement, the fan control is the lead control and as such may be used to start and stop the
entire system.
coil of the condenser starter is through an auxiliary contact in the evaporator blower starter. Since the auxiliary
For example, assume that the crankcase pressure is 37 psig and the total oil pressure is 72 psig, so
that the useful oil pressure
The holding
wired
The
mately 30 psi (35 - 5) and the cut-out pressure at approximately 25 psi (30 5). 21-21. Interlocking Controls. As a general
contact will be closed only when the holding coil of the blower starter is energized, the condenser
fan or
pump
first
Likewise, the
a refrigerating system employs at least motors: the compressor motor, the evaporator blower motor, and the condenser
rule,
three
holding coil of the compressor starter is connected through an auxiliary contact in the condenser starter so that the compressor starts
unless the condenser
energized.
pump) motor. Good design practice requires that the controls of these motors be so
fan (or
and evaporator starters are Notice also that the cycling control
contactor.
V V
Overcurrent
protection for
\j
\<*MH
condenser fan
230 v 3 phase
Compressor
Condenser fan
426
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
8K
1
01
*
*
.2
t.
c * - t
<2
.
>
S-
>
ELECTRIC
the condenser starter This compressor starter. arrangement permits the condenser fan or pump (thermostat)
rather controls
is
427
than
the
ment and
to cycle off
Another
common method
of accomplishing
the same result is to operate the compressor and condenser motors through the same magnetic contactor, as shown in Fig. 21-19. This method
wiring diagram- for a simple pump-down system with interlocking control is illustrated in Notice particularly the method Fig. 21-20. of interlocking low voltage and high voltage
control circuits.
Tables
and Charts
430
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Multiply
l-l.
By
29.92
33.93 14.70
1.058
To Obtain
Inches of mercury
Feet of water
0.881
62.37
0.4335
0.02950
13.57
1.131
70.73
0.4912
0.07355 0.03613
5.202
0.002458
TABLE
Gas
Air
3-1.
Properties of Gases
C
0.2375
0.508 0.207
0.243
3.41
C
0.169
k
1.406
1.273
i
53.3
Ammonia
Carbon
dioxide
0.399 0.162
0.173
2.42
90.5
1.28
35.1
1.403
1.41 1,41
55.1
765.9
55.1
0.244
0.218
0.173
Oxygen
Sulfur
0.156
0.123
1.40
48.3
dioxide
0.154
1.26
24.1
TABLES
431
TABLE
Absolute Pressure
4-1.
Specific
Properties of Saturated
Volume
Sat.
Sat.
liquid,
Steam
Entropy
Sat.
Enthalpy
Evap., hfll
(8)
Temp.,
F,
t
Psi,
In.
Hg,
Sat.
liquid,
Of
Evap.,
Sat.
liquid,
Evap.,
St.
(11)
Sat.
P
(2)
P
(3)
vapor,
"t
vapor,
h,
(7)
K
(9)
s,
vapor, s,
(12)
(1)
(4)
(5)
(6)
00)
0.0000 0.0020 0.0041
0.0061 0.0081 0.0102 0.0122 0.0142
32
33
34
35 36 37 38 39
3306 3180
3061
0.00
1.01
2.02
3.02 4.03 5.04 6.04 7.04 8.05 9.05 10.05 11.06 12.06 13.06 14.06 15.07 16.07 17.07
18.07 19.07
0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01602 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603
0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01603 0.01604 0.01604
40
41
42
43 44 45
0.2478 0.2576 0.2677 0.2782 0.2891 0.3004 0.3120 0.3240 0.3364 0.3493 0.3626 0.3764 0.3906 0.4052 0.4203
0.4359 0.4520 0.4686 0.4858 0.5035
2444 2356
2271 2190 2112
2036.4
1964.3 1895.1 1828.6 1764.7
C.0162 0.0182 0.0202 0.0222 0.0242 0.0262 0.0282 0.0302 0.0321 0.0341
0.0361 0.0380 0.0400 0.0420 0.0439
46
47 48 49
50
51
52
53
54 55 56 57 58 59
1703.2 1644.2 1587.6 1533.3 1481.0 1430.7 1382.4 1335.9 1291.1 1248.1
Reproduced with permission from Thermodynamic Properties of Steam by Keenan and Keyes, published by John Wiley and Sons.
432
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
435
3232.
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436
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
all
S52
I:
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TABLES
437
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lOWTtjoeeo
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438
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
a Is ~
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TABLES
439
TABLE
7-1.
after
Saturated
80
90
100
Suction
Temperature
h
91.6
90.5
h
92.3
h
93.9 93.2 92.6
91.9 91.5
121.0
132.0
127.5
116.0
112.5 108.5
90.2
89.5
97.5
95.0
89.2
106.0 103.5
92.0
90.0 88.0 86.0 84.0
88.7
89.9
89.6
89.1
90.9
90.6
20
30
88.4
88.1
102.0
99.0
90.4
90.2
89.8
40
50
87.7
97.0
95.5
88.8
87.4
88.6
107.0
Condensing Temperature
Saturated
110 120
130
Suction
Temperature
h
95.1
h
96.3 95.5
94.8
h
97.3
143.0
138.0 135.5 131.6
155.0
94.3 93.7
93.1
150.5
147.0 143.0 141.0 137.5 136.0 133.5 132.5 131.0
96.6
95.8
94.2 93.7
93.2 92.8
95.2
94.8 94.3
128.5
126.5 124.0 122.0 120.0
92.6
92.1
20
30
91.7
93.9
91.4
91.1
92.5 92.2
146.0
143.5 142.0
93.6
93.2
92.9
40
50
118.0
90.8
92.0
440
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-1.
Heat Transmission
Wind
Rooms
sides.
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between
velocity 15
on the two
mph.
Thickness of Insulation,
V Inches
Wall Thickness
-Corkboard
X Inches
Concrete block 8 Concrete block 12
0.12 0.12
0.040 0.039
0.035 0.035
0.11 0.11
0.039 0.039
0.034 0.034
(Vapor seal on
warm
side
Corkboard
Common
brick
0.11
0.081
0.064 0.053
0.045
0.039
0,034
Common
brick
12
0.10
0.076
0.061
0.050 0.043
0.038
0.034
tile
tile tile
4 6 8
,Vapor seal on
warm
side
Corkboard
..
.
J:'<E-*!?I
:Sv.*4*l^v.fl
8
10 12
0.056 0.047 0.041 0.055 0.047 0.040 0.055 0.046 0.040 0.054 0.046 0.040
From
TABLES
441
TABLE
10-2.
Heat Transmission
Rooms
sides.
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between the Outside wind velocity 15 mph.
on the two
Type of Construction
Insulating
Material
3%
5%
Granulated cork
0.079
0.055
Rock or
palco wool
0.072 0.097
0.050 0.069
-----
Sawdust
1* board on both sides of studs*
Corkboard
0.11
0.084
0.055
Sheet
steel
on
"
Thickness of Insulation
Insulating
Material
(Inches)
8
Insulation
10
12
Granulated cork
.040
0.033
0.027
0.036
0.029
0.025
Sawdust
0.051
0.042
0.035
NOTES:
'Coefficients corrected
for2x4or2x6 studs, on
2 x 4 studs
in.
16
in.
centers.
* Actual thickness
*%
From
TABLE
10-3.
Heat Transmission
Wind
Rooms
sides.
Btu per hour per square foot per degree F difference between
velocity 15
on the two
mph.
Thickness of Insulation,
Y Inches
X (Inches)
Self-supporting partition*
I
Corkboard
Cork
partition
0.13
0.089
0.069
0.056
0.047
0.041
0.036
Cement
plaster/
on both sides
Floor'
Corkboard*
2 Finish 2
Slab Slab
Insulation Finish concrete
0.12 0.12
0.11
0.067
0.055
0.040
0.035
Finish 3
0.066
0.065
a
0.054
0.054
Slab
Finish
6 4
Foamglas
Floors
2 Finish 2
Slab
Slab
Finish
'
0.15
0.11
0.087
0.071
0.053 0.052
0.051
0.046 0.046
0.045
3 6 4
0.15 0.14
0.11
0.084
0.083
0.070
0.069
Slab
Finish
0.10
Ceiling*
, Vapor seal
on warm side
'Concrete slab
Concrete 4 Concrete 8
0.12 0.12
0.089
0.069 0.067
0.086
0.056 0.055
0.048 0.047
0.042
0.041
0.036 0.036
sleeper
Corkboard
Ceiling*
>Ceiling joists or wall studs
/Sheathing
Wood
0.11
0.082
0.064 0.053
0.045
0.039
0.035
(actual)
Ceiling*
0.13
,Tee iron construction
0.092
0.072 0.059
0.050
0.043
0.038
Corkboard
These values may also be used for floors on ground. * Surface conductance for soil air, 1.65, used on both sides
From
TABLES
443
TABLE
10-4.
in
Thermal Conductance
Thermal
Conductivity
(*)
(Q
Authority
for
perF
per inch
Material
Brick,
thickness)
5.0
per
per test
thickness)
per inch
thickness)
common
plaster
Cement
8.0
12.0
Concrete Cinder aggregate block 8* Cinder aggregate block 12* Gravel aggregate block 8*
0.60
0.53
1.0
1 1
1 1 1 1
0.80
Corkboard
Cork, granulated coarse
0.28
0.31
Foamglas
Glass wool, density
1
0.40
.5
lb per
cu ft
0.27 0.33
0.26
0.27
0.41
hollow clay 4*
hollow clay 8*
yellow pine, or
fir
0.30 0.34
2 2
4
1
0.40
0.30
0.36 0.29
3
1
0.30 0.45
2
1 1
1.0
0.64
0.60
Wood,
0.80
1
1
Data Book, Vol. 11943. (I) Guide 1945. {2) AS Authorities: (X) Vol. 2 1942. (4) Pittsburgh Corning Corporation.
ASHVE
RE
These conductivities were used for insulating materials in calculation of heat transmission Most of these values have been increased 10 above laboratory test values to allow for the effect of moisture gain in the insulating material and for imperfect workmanship. This also assumes adequate vapor sealing. When no vapor sealing is applied or where the workmanship is poor the value of the insulation is largely destroyed. It is extremely difficult to get a good vapor seal
*
coefficients.
with loose
fill
type insulation.
Foamglas. If a combination of corkboard and Foamglas is used, 1 in. of Foamglas is equivalent to | in. of corkboard. Mineral Wool Board. For estimating purposes use heat transmission coefficients for corkboard increased by 15%. From Carrier Design Data. Reproduced by permission of Carrier Corporation.
TABLE TABLE
10-5.
10-5 A.
Surface Conductance
(f)
Surface Conductance
Number of
Panes
1
F
Surface
Ceilings
F)
Exposure
Inside
Winter
1.65
Summer
1.20
2
3
0.46 0.29
0.21
Roofs
Walls Walls
*
Outside
Inside
6.00*
1.65
4.00f
1.65
Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers.
Outside
6.00*
4.00t
TABLE
10-6.
Refrigeration Design
Average
Location
Maximum
Ambient Temp.
Maximum
Ambient Temp.
Ambient Temp.
Ambient Temp.
Alabama Birmingham
Mobile
Arizona
Flagstaff
Delaware
88 88
99 97
Dover
Milford
87 87 87
Wilmington
75
100
96 98 94
90
113
District of
Phoenix
Tucson
Arkansas Fort Smith
Little
84
91
98
Columbia Washington
89
98
Florida
103
Jacksonville
88
88 88 88 88
Rock
90
96 94
83
100
Miami
Orlando
Tallahassee
California
Bakersfield
114
111
96 90 97 100
95
Tampa
Georgia
Atlanta
94
89
108
75
90 75
75
87 89
80
83
Savannah
Idaho
Boise
95 99
89
83
105
83 83
94
98 102 100
Pocatello
Illinois
100
Grand Junction
Pueblo
Connecticut
88
83
Hartford
83
94
95 93 96
89 87 88
101
98 100
103
101
83 83 83
Quincy Rockford
Springfield
90
-87
90
102
TABLE
Average
Location
Indiana
Evansville
10-6 (Continued)
Maximum
Ambient Temp.
Location
Average
Maximum
Ambient Temp.
Ambient Temp.
Ambient Temp.
90
87 89 87 90
100 100 99
101
Fort
Wayne
79
92
102
101
90
88
Indianapolis
Cloud
100
Mississippi
Iowa
Burlington
Jackson Vicksburg
90 9P
90 90 90 90 90 86 90
93
99 96
101
100
102
Missouri
99
101
90 92 92 92 88
102
103 103 103
97 102
108
Joseph Louis
Springfield
98
Kansas Concordia
Montana
Billings
Dodge
Salina
85
104
City
92 92 95
106
108
111
Butte
Hutchinson
Havre Helena
Nebraska
Lincoln
75 82 82
96 99
102
Topeka
Wichita
92
91
105 104
Kentucky
Lexington
Louisville
86 88
88
98
North
Platte
99
Omaha
Nevada Reno Tonopah
94 89 92
106
103
104
Louisiana
Baton Rouge
98
98 102
New
Maine
Orleans
89
84 84
101
96
Shreveport
92
New Hampshire
Concord
81
92
Eastport
70
81
81
Portland
93
New Jersey
Atlantic City
Maryland
Baltimore
83 85 85
Cumberland
Massachusetts
89 87
Paterson
99
102
Trenton
92 95 96
New
84
81
81
Boston
Fall River
Lawrence
Worcester
81
94 90 94 92
95 99 98 99
Mexico Albuquerque
Santa Fe
83
81
99 90
New York
Albany Binghamton
Buffalo
83 83
Michigan Alpena
Detroit
Grand Rapids
Jackson Lansing Marquette Saginaw
82 86 86 86 86
81
80
83
Elmira
New York
Poughkeepsie Rochester Syracuse
85 83 83 83 83
96 94 89 97 93 95
95
96 96
101
445
96
93
88
Watertown
446
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Average
Location
10-6 (Continued)
Maximum
Ambient Temp.
Location Tennessee
Ambient Temp.
North Carolina
Asheville
81
93 98 98
Chattanooga
Knoxville
87 87
98
Charlotte
86
98
Raleigh
Wilmington Winston-Salem
86 86 86
Memphis
Nashville
89 87
99
98
95 97
Texas
Dallas
92
92
102 102
87 84
103
El Paso
100
Fort Worth
Akron
Canton
Cincinnati
86 86
88 83 88 88
98 97
100
95 98
92 92 92
104 99 102
Utah
Modena
Salt
80
88
97
101
Cleveland
Lake City
Columbus Dayton
Toledo
Vermont
Burlington
Virginia
87
99 99 97
80
91
Youngstown
86
Oklahoma Oklahoma
Tulsa
Lynchburg Norfolk
City
87 87
87
92 92
104
105
Richmond
Washington Olympia
99 95 98
Oregon
Portland Pennsylvania
81
75
95
Seattle
75 75 87
Altoona
Erie
82
83 85
Harrisburg
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
87 85
Scranton
82
96 92 97 97 96 95
90 86 102
105
West
Virginia
Charleston
87 84 87
102
Clarksburg
97
100
98
101
Rhode
Island
86 86
Providence
83
94
South Carolina
Charleston
88 88
Green Bay
98
85
97
99 96 99
La Crosse
Madison Milwaukee
87
87
Columbia
South Dakota
99
87
Huron
Pierre
93
94
87
88.
107 110
103
Wyoming
Cheyenne Lander
Sheridan
79 80 86
Rapid City
Sioux Falls
*
102
94 98 102
Do
1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
TABLES
447
TABLE
Location
10-6 A.
Ground
Temperature
Idaho
70
Ground
Location
Temperature
Alabama Birmingham
Mobile
Arizona
Flagstaff
Boise
Pocatello
Illinois
60
75
60
60
60 60 60 60 60
Phoenix
Tucson
Arkansas Fort Smith
Little
60 80 80
Cairo
Chicago
Peoria
Rock
70 70
Quincy Rockford
Springfield
California
Indiana
75
Evansville
Bakersfield
65
Fresno
80
75 65
Fort
Wayne
Indianapolis
South Bend
Terre Haute
80 65
65
60 60 60 65
Iowa
Burlington
Grand Junction
Pueblo
Connecticut
60 60 60
55
Bubuque Keokuk
Mason
City
Sioux City
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Hartford
65 65 65 65
Kansas Concordia
Dodge
Salina
City
Hutchinson
Topeka
65 65 65
Dover
Milford
Wichita
60 60 60 60 60 60
Wilmington
District of
Kentucky
Lexington
65 65
Louisville
Columbia Washington
65
Louisiana
Florida
Jacksonville
Baton Rouge
80 80 80 80 80
75 75
New Orleans
Shreveport
Miami
Orlando
Tallahassee
70
Maine
Eastport Portland
Tampa
Georgia
Atlanta
60 60
65 65
Maryland
70 75
Baltimore
Savannah
Cumberland
448
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Ground
Location
Massachusetts
I0-6A (Continued)
Ground
Location
Temperature
Temperature
New
65
Boston
Fall River
Mexico Albuquerque
Santa Fe
70
Lawrence
Worcester
60 60 60
65
New York
Albany Binghamton
Buffalo
Michigan Alpena
Detroit
60 60
65 60
65
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Elmira
New York
Poughkeepsie
Rochester
Syracuse
60 60 60 60
50
55 55
Charlotte
Raleigh
70 70 70
75 75
Jackson Vicksburg
Missouri
Wilmington Winston-Salem
75 75
60 60 60 60 60
50 50
Ohio
Akron Canton
Cincinnati
65 65 65 65
Cleveland
Montana
Billings
55 55
Columbus Dayton
Toledo
60
65 60
Butte
Havre Helena
Nebraska
Lincoln
50
55
Youngstown
60
Tulsa
65 65
North
Platte
Omaha
Nevada Reno Tonopah
60
Oregon
Portland
70
65
Pennsylvania
70
Altoona
Erie
65 65
New
Hampshire Qoncord
Harrisburg
55
Philadelphia
70 70
65 65
New Jersey
Atlantic City
Pittsburgh
Paterson
70 70
Scranton
Rhode
Island
Trenton
70
Providence
65
TABLES
449
TABLE
Location
I0-6A (Continued)
Ground
Temperature
Location
Virginia
Ground
Temperature
South Carolina
Charleston
75
Columbia
South Dakota
75
Lynchburg Norfork
75'
Richmond
55 55 55
55
75 70
Huron
Pierre
Washington Olympia
Seattle
60
75
Rapid City
Sioux Falls
Tennessee
60 60
Chattanooga
Knoxville
Memphis
Nashville
70 70 70 70
West Virginia
Charleston
Clarksburg Huntington
Parkersburg
65 65 65 65
65
Texas
Dallas
El Paso
Fort Worth
70 70 70
75 75
Wheeling
Wisconsin
Green Bay
La Crosse
Madison Milwaukee
55 55 55
55
Utah
Modena
Salt
Lake City
60 60
Wyoming
Cheyenne Lander
Sheridan
55 55 55
Vermont
Burlington
60
450
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-7.
(Degrees Fahrenheit to be added to the normal temperature difference for heat leakage calculations to compensate for sun effect not to be
Type of Surface
Dark-colored surfaces such as
Slate roofing
Wall
Flat
Roof
Tar roofing
Black paints
20
Medium-colored
faces,
sui
such as:
Unpainted wood
Brick
15
such as:
White stone
Light-colored
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1957-1958 Edition, by permission of the American-Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirCoriditioning Engineers.
TABLES
451
TABLE
0-8 A.
in
Cooling to
Air Temperature,
F
95
Storage
85
Inter.
90
Air Relative Humidity,
100
Temp.,
%
60
1.17
F
65
50
0.65 0.85
1.12 1.32
60
0.85
1.03
70
1.12
1.26
50
0.93
1.13
1.41
70
1.44
50
1.24 1.44
1.72 1.93
60
1.54 1.74
2.01
50
1.58 1.78
60
1.95
60
55
1.37 1.66
1.87
1.64
1.93
2.15
1.34
1.54
1.73
1.57
1.78 1.97
2.06
2.28 2.47
2.44
2.65
50 45
1.62
2.15
2.22
.2.42
1.50
1.69 1.86
1.80
2.06
2.26
2.43 2.53
2.34 2.54
2.72 2.82
2.12
2.31
2.85 3.06
40
35
1.92
2.00 2.17
2.67
2.85 2.95
2.09 2.24
2.49
2.64
3.24
3.35
30
2.00
2.26
TABLE
I0-8B.
in
Cooling to
Air Temperature,
80
F
90
100
Storage
40
50
Inter.
Temp.,
F
30
25.
70
0.24
0.41
80
0.29 0.45
0.61
70
0.58
0.75
0.91
80
0.66
0.83
50
2.95
60
3.35
1.69
1.86
2.26
2.53
2.71
2.44
2.62
3.14
3.33
3.51
3.54
3.73
20
15
0.56
0.71
0.99
1.14
1.27 1.42
2.04
2.90
3.07 3.20
0.75 0.89
1.03
1.06
1.19 1.34
1.48
2.20
2.38
2.51
2.80
2.93 3.12 3.28
3.41
3.92
10
5
0.85
0.98
1.12
3.64
3.84
4.01
4.04 4.27
4.43
3.40
1.17
1.28
1.41
1.56
1.67
1.81
2.68 2.79
2.93 3.05
2.86
2.98
3.13
3.56
3.69
3.85
-5
-10 -15 -20 -25 -30
1.23
1.59
1.73
4.15
4.31
4.57
1.35
3.56
3.67
3.88
4.74 4.86
5.10
5.21
1.50
1.63
1.53
1.85
2.01
1.93
3.25
3.96
4.18
4.42 4.66
4.78 5.00
1.68
2.09
2.21
3.24
3.38
3.55
1.77
1.80
1.95
2.12
4.00
4.21
4.30
4.51
1.90
2.29
2.38
5.44
452
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
0-9 A.
Average Air Changes per 24 Hours for Storage Rooms above due to Door Opening and Infiltration
(Does not apply to rooms using ventilating ducts or
grilles)
32 F
Air
Air
Air
Air
Volume
cuft
Changes
per 24 hr
38.0
34.5
Volume
cuft
1,000 1,500
Changes per 24 hr
17.5
Volume
cuft
6,000 8,000 10,000 15,000
Changes
per 24 hr
6.5 5.5
Volume
cuft
30,000
Changes per 24 hr
2.7
2.3
14.0
12.0
9.5
40,000
50,000
75,000
100,000
29.5
2,000
3,000
4.9
3.9
3.5
2.0
1.6
4,000
5,000
8.2
7.2
20,000
25,000
1.4
3,0
Note: For storage room with anterooms, reduce air changes to 50% of values in table. For heavy duty usage, add 50% to values given in table. From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating,. Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
TABLE
I0-9B.
Average Air Changes per 24 Hours for Storage RoOms below due to Door Opening and Infiltration
(Does not apply to rooms using ventilating ducts or
grilles)
32 F
Air
Air
Air
Air
Volume
cuft 250 300 400 500 600 800
Changes per 24 hr
29.0 26.2
22.5
Volume
cuft
1,000
Changes
per 24 hr
13.5
Volume
cuft
5,000 6,000 8,000
10,000 15,000
Changes per 24 hr
5.6
Volume
cuft
25,000
30,000
Changes per 24 hr
2.3
2.1 1.8
1,500
11.0
9.3
8.1
5.0
4.3
3.8
2,000
2,500
3,000
40,000
50,000
20.0
18.0
15.3
(1)
1.6
1.3
1.1
7.4
6.3
3.0 2.6
75,000
100,000
4,000
20,000
For storage rooms with anterooms, reduce air changes to 50% of values in table. For heavy duty usage, add 50% to values given in table. (2) For locker plant rooms, double the above table values. From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Note:
TABLES
453
TABLE
DtSISN
Tamparatara
10-10.
CONDITIONS
Ralatlva
OOM
rod
MailProduct
lataut
SPECIFIC
HEAT
Otu/lb/
Lataat
HtUITS
TYPE
OF
Rac-
HamMhV
Rac-
STORA6E
mum
Storaga Fartad
Tamp.
D<
F
la.
RacomCondition
TTma
Haat
Factor
DagF
aaAftor fora Fraac Fraai- lag lag
Haat
at Fiavoa Ola/lb
Air
Hr
SUrt In
IElm
Natal)
Otu/lb 24 Hr
t
0
tloa
dS"f
la
DagF DagF
Applai
Skart
%
0540 0540
Ft./Mln
122
Sk
lot
Start
3S-40
10-32
07
Loag
CMII CMII
07b
OS 03
44
40
041
0.41
Mo,
09 32 24
a.i
9 to
0.2
49
047
ROM
35
2441
IM
04
4M
0.12
Aprlcoh
3M0
31-32
40k
03 03a
OS 05
oms 0M0
44
7-14 Dayi
0.1
040
122
a.i
10
33
W N
ia
047
2041
0.3
Md
0.11
Avocados
Skort
Kk
CUII
Start
4041 1741
40
CMUFhtt
OOMPH
2044)
1
SI
70
It
12-70
05b 05b 05 OS
05-10
44
lODayl
00
11 22
0.3
041
IM
274
os-a
W a
2H
Old
047
2241
214
10-05
104.7
04
HaaHag Sf-70*
40
10
Mpaahg
CMII Start CMII HMaai Holdlag Oraoi Haldtagklpa
K
15 10 12 07
05
24
II4F
0.10
101
75
(SaaDac-
2440
a
no
104.7
Si
It
0.1
Si
to
H
St
as 32
Dan
Si-W
MS
00-10
suo SM0
31-33
14 14 14
4.3
Md
Oorrlaa
1045
(Corol)
Long
CMII Start CMII Rah*
05b
05 05
MS
0.N
0.41
ia
04
2040
a a a
1-10
Da.,
OS
34
m
32
314 224
05-fO
05-*)
04
047
2041
40
IM
aid
0.11
04
1-3
Craa-
Start
M
Si
3441
Si-40
05
24
24.4
05b
05 OS
Ma
70
30
40
3i
30k
3S-40 20-32
314
24.2
54 04
047
1041
047
122
84
a a
ia
04
0.10 3-4
Wd
045
204
IS.4
fCn<|
Driad
20k
mo, Ma
a
041
41
10
-4
040
0.10
IM IM IM IM
u
Ua?
Skort
ss
204
104
1-12
047
041
32L
40 34
70-70 t0-70
4S-7S
047
(fcaa
34-M
30-40 31-32
70 05 05b
00 05
54
IS
044
041
Mi
112
Dan
a
77
144 204
0.4
a a
ropac
a
31
(AiimHcm
Saltan)
0040 0045
54
040
14 VA,
70
34
a
ad
CkM Start
CMII Rat*
Skort
40
33 3S 10
3S-40
30-31
314 224
05-10
05-10
040
04 M4f
04 54 04
045
[VlaHara
40 32
05b 00 05
254 204 314 224 324 224 114 22J 044 544 SS4 544
041
112
71
244
1-iMa
70
34
w a
2M
040
1441
0.4 2.0
0.11
Md
041
wapafnHt
Skart
40
32
4MB
31-34
a
05b
05 OS
05-10
OS-N
44
Wk
75 14
ia
a4
CMII Start
04
22
0.70
a
2M
CMIIRaM
laraamj
1141
04
1-4
ad
0.11
Skart
.
0540
SS at
St-40
Ctb 05b
00 05
05-S0 05-10
Mo
75
CMII Start
CkMHaJ*
Uomo
Skort
B
4E 4S SO 4S
P a
14 04
14
1041
041
ia
20.1
a a
2a
04
ad
4540
40-40
05b
Mb
05 01
0540 0540
CkM Start
CMII Rat*
44 Wk
75 47
44 04
040
1441
Ml
041
ia
214
OS
M
IM
04
0-10
Md
0.11
Ol|i
Skort
40 12 40
40-01
05
SM4
05b
OS 01
0040 0540
VA,
75
CMII Start
CkM Hal*
44 04
22
044
ia
01
204
M
2M
Wrf
040
1141
04
454
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESION ROOM CONDITIONS
Temperature
leletlve
trrelns par lb
10-10 (Continued)
SPECIFIC
Ert
Prod
Maxl-
HEAT
Ota/lb/
Latant
Maal-
FRUITS
type
of
Rec-
HnmldHv
Product
Dot F
Start lih
Latant
STORAGE
Ik.
Permit-
Air at
mum
Storage
Period
om-
Recom-
Tlma Rata
Haat
Btu/lb 24 Hr (Ei.iaa
DaaF
I.. Altar
Haat
mended
Condition
Hn-
Hr
Factor
DogF DogF
Patches
Short
%
osa
Notef)
5.1
Wa-
Alr
Motion
%
0
DogF
Ft./Mln
B
12
K-40
31-13
MS
01-05
2U
224
11.0
2-4
0.91
0.41
128
29.2
to
to
ISO
n>
05 OS
Wk,
05
0.1
40
32
24
o. 040
2141
CbUIRnbh
Peon
Short
224
as-to
04 44
0.1
17.01
Md
0.01
K-40
Ilk
20-11
00a
2*4
22i7
11
1-7
0.49
122
27-20
to to
ISO
Long
Chill Start Chill Rail*
90b
05-M
Mo,
70
40 40 SO 45
40-4S
40-41
K K
01
24
22.1
0.3
Md
0.90
OS-W
05-10
114
11.0
34
24
1-4
040
128
Kb
ttb
S0-M
OS-W
41.0
17.5
Hnl*
n
IS
35-40 31-32
5
IS
05
00-05
Wk Wk
n
21.0
20.1
ISO
ISO
0.1 0.1
m
1-0
40
047
244f
0.1
w
ISOd
ISO
10.0
Ptamsaad Short
2U
22.1
20.1
44
040
0.40
lie
fmMt
12 40
Kb
00
10-05
Wk,
10 14 20
204
N
00
200
Qstoet
M
10
0.1
047
204f
21.1
04
0d
0.90
n
40
3M0
31-12
05
10-05
05b
05
U4S
2SJ 224
11.0
22.3
44
2-1
Mo
M0
122
OS
204
04
12 24
40 to
ICO
047
244f
04
Md
From
TABLES
-455
TABLE
10-11.
Est
SPECIFIC
VMETAOUS
TYPf
Of
Rac-
alatlvo Humidity
Roc-
STORA6E
Prod
Mail-
HEAT
Ota/lb/
Lataat
Mari-
Product
Latant
Wa.
tor
mom
Storaga
Parted
Tamp.
Start
om-
Pormh-
om- Pormls-
RaeomCoadlrlon
32.0 23.7 31.0
Doif Timo Hr
finish
Rata
Factor
Haat
Ofu/lb 24 Hr (Ex. son
DagF DogF
Asparagus Short
Chill Start
Notof)
4.0
DagF
Haat
Fraaa-
Alr
lion
Con
tout
tng Point
% DagF
Ft./MIn
40
4*45
32-31
n
40
33 40 11
Chill
Ka
05-K 05-K
041
IX
M.0
214
X
to
JOOay.
40
Rahh
K k
40-4S
32-40
0.5
24
0.M
13.01
IM
40d
23.2
0.5
loans.
Skort
to
Oroaa
Long
Chill Start Chill Flalih
Ka
05
OS-X 05-X
32.0
34
047
0.47
111
X.0
21.7
X
40
150
24.5
31.0 23.2
XDays
0.7
40
40
33
40-45 32-40
hM
(Urn*)
Short
X
Ma
X X M
IS
047
IS.0f
0.7
tOd
0.70
05-M 05-X
32.0
Days
3.0
0.M
41.5
.4
X
40
Shallad
Long
24.4
XDayt
Uaahollad
04
040 0.M
Mi,
Taps Off
Short
4)
31
40-45 32-34
Ua
Short
X X
00 10a
OS-W
32.0
2.0
1-3
040
121
M4 M4
24.1
X
M
Mb, Toot On
40 32 40
40-45
32-3*
K-X K-K
05-K
254
32.0
Mo
Day
70
0.1
3.0
0.41
121
314
X
40
23.7
10-14
0.4
n
41
32
10
324
23.7
34
24
0.00
1741
0.4
IX
40d
Broccoli
4045 32-X
40
33
Chill
Rahh
10 to to 10
K-K K-K
324
23.7
44
7-10 Days
0.5
0.X
0.X
IX
X4
21.2
X
to
324 244
I44f
IX
X
3-4
34
24
0.30
04
54
0.11
Kd
0.41
irasMf
Sprouts
Short
40
33 40 33
40-45
X
Kb
32-X
X-K X-K
34.5
IM
14.5
31.0
X
to
24.0
32.0
Wk
0.5
X
35-40
Rahh
Cabbago
Short
X
32 43 32 4) 32
32-M
CMII Start
Chill
X X Kb n
to
X
3-4>Mo
34
24
0.00
14.01
IX
244
0.5 7.0
0.5
Kd
0.13 0.47
132
K-K K-K
20.2 25.0
32.0
114
31.2
H
to
X
4-5
34
24
040
I74f
IX
aOd
0.13 0.45
Hah*
23.7
04
2.0
Carrots.
Short
40-45
Topi Off
Carrots,
Loag
Short
32-34
40-45 32-34
w K
K-K K-K
05-K OS-K
32.0
124
X.0
X.0
X.4
X
to
254
32.0 23.7
Mo
Day
0.3
40
32
Tope
On
40
32
Rahh
Ca.Hflowor
Short
X
32
35-40
X Xb X X X
Xa
4.0
10-14
0.5
0.14
0.45
124
314
40
40
324
23.7
X
2-3
34
24
040
17.01
IX
tOd
04
Long
Chill Start
32-M
40
32
CMII Rahh
Cahry
Cora
(Croon)
Short
31
32
35-40
31-32 35-40
X X X
Wa
K-K K-K
244
23.7
44
0.X
0.44
in
24
W.I
Wk
0.3
324
23.7
m
2-4
M M
IX
tOd
34
24
O.00
17.01
0.3
Long (Wattod)
Short
X
Rahh
32 43 32
31-32
Cacons-
Short
bon
tadb. p
Loag
(lead)
a 45 M N X X
SO-K 4540
31-40
X Ma X X X X a N X
Xa
244
23.7
44
0.11
0.44
m
IK
144
21.7
Mo
14
7.0
244
23.7
044
040
ns
20.1
X M X
40
44 Dap
314 22J
X
10-14 Dayl
04
34
24
040
I74f
IX
tOd
04
34 04
0.X
0.41
137
K-K
Ot-K
45J 374
41.7
K.S
X4
m
2-3
X X
2K
I50d
52
24
14
I34f
424
0J 44
0.X 044
32-M
X-K K-X
M4
244
IM
i.o
30.1
Wk
14
X X
456
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESIGN >OOM S PMPITION?
Tamporatura
Ralatlva
10-11 (Continued)
Est
VEGETAM.ES
OF STORAGE
TYPE
Humidity
RacRacPafmlitibia
Prod
Mail-
HEAT
Sta/IW
Latent
Mail-.
mum
Staraga Parted
Product
Lataat
Watar
ommand-
om- Parmts-
Racomrnandad Condlttoo
24.1
24.5 37.5
Do
Tlma Rata
ntf-
Haat
ta/lb 24 Hr IE*, taa
DaoF
aforo
Haat
of Fusion
Fraai-
Air
Con
taut
mand
ad
Iblt
Ranga
Start lih
Rn-
Hr
Factar
Attar
Fraai-
Ing Point
Motion
In
Franlag
0.10
Stu/lb
lag
%
81.0
DaoF
Room
R./MIn
%
J 10a OS OSa
NotoO
74
LoHuca p
Mator* Watorfjjfi?
Start
IS
35-40
32-34
MS
10-15
0.44
134
31.2
Loo
Short
0dl
35
2-3
Wk
1.0
10 40
J
ISO
45
45-50
7545
75-5S
34
2-4
0.11
0.44
115
5.0
21.0
Long
M
32
34-40
24.2
Wk
Day
0
34 24
0.10
0.2
dm"
bah.
lOVPW
Long
Cklll Start 32-35
05
7S-70
22.3
31.0
7-10
0J
I4.0T
.2
0.11
0.47
128
814
21.0
10 250
40
05 05
Chill Half*
n
10 32
22.3
ISM
0.11
OntOMJ
Short
5*40
32-tt
75 75
75
70-75 70-75
4H0
11.0
Long
Chill Start
Chill flnlsh
44 Mo
70
34
24
0.00
24 0J
I0.0f
41
130
14
30.1
ISO
ISO
40
27.5
11.5
Paranlpt
Short
X
32 40 32
ISO
ISOd
75
35-40
0J
2-4
IS
10-15
24.2
Long
Chill Start Chill
32-34
Kb
0-tJ
W
10
35-40 32-34
254 32J
23.7
Mo
70
34 24
0.00
44 04
I74f
0.U
0.44
111
3.0
2*.1
40
40
150
Hnhh
0J
1-2
Md
0J2
0.45 107 00.0
Pom
Short
35
M
Nb
05
05
05-10 5-10
244
23.7
31.0
(ma)
Potatooi Itatlng) Potatooi
a
33
SOr
Wk
M M
34
20
fc47
2.7
N N
ISO
1441
0.5
3.0
23.2
lOd
SO-70
55
os-w
55-10
45.2
044
0.47
113
75J
2M
2.
ISO
(Sood
Stock)
Urn
Short
31-St
05a
24.4
0.5
ISO
Saaorkravt
45
39 3S 32
45-50
30-32
00
50c
lIM
Spinach
Long
Short
7540 7540
10-15 10-15
00-55 50-tS
35.3
3.0
0.12
0.52
121
010
24.0
ISO
I1J
25.2 25.0 54.5
54.5
Mo
>
0.2 7.0
10
0.12
0.51
35-40
TSa ISa
I2
104
30.3
10
Long
Swoat Potato.
Short
32-U
55-40 5S-40 SS-aO
10-14 Dai
0.5
3.0
40
Long
Short
SS ss SS ss as 70 so
m
(Sa
05 55 55
0J4
0.42
102
7>.0
4-4
Mo
254
ISO It)
0.4
3.0
Tomatoas
(Groan)
55-10
54.5
54.5
0.12
6.44
132
Long Mpaatng
Chill Start
540
iI-70
OS-W
5-10
3-5
Wk
0 52 34
1.0
ist
30.4
N
40
0.4
*S
05
70J 13J
24
I44f
0.4
7-10
3.0
N
15*
Chill Rnllh
ma
5-10
(Woo)
Tarnlpa
Long Long
Chill Start Chill Rnllh
.41
3S
32
4041
3S-40
ltd
10
0.10 0.45
121
OSa
irs
20.2 25.0 34.5
Dar
K
15a
15
H-M
15-M
4.0
4-6
ors
30.S
*)
32-34
Mo
70 34 14
40
32
40
JO
1741
0.5 5.0
1$
40-4S
31-40
IS
254
ts-w
5-10
31.0 24.0
ltd
o.to
0.45
130
ablat
Short
40
3S
5b
104
304
It
It
ISO
fWattad. Mraad)
Long
Chill Start
7b
2-4
Mo
0
35
10
IJ
0.70
10
CMII Rnllh
W
J
410
24.0
2341
1.2
ltd
From
TABLES
457
TABLE
Tempera'tere
10-12.
SPECIFIC
MEATS
TYPE
OF
Ree-
Relative
Humidity
Rec-
STORAGE
Prod
Mail-
Product
mum
Staragi Farted
Latant
tu/lb/
Latent
Watar
Tamp.
RecomCaadltlan
41.7
14.4
f
Start
lima
Rata
Factor
Haat
Itu/lb 24 Hr (E.iao
DaoF
Heat
Freez-
Air
Hr
DagF DagF
55
2(t
hi'
Notaf)
2.5
1.2
Content
ing Point
Motion
In
%
20
DegF
Room
Ft./Mtn
Start
JO-M
20-30
rlerdenlng
Slicing
Raom
50 38 33
5045
55 35 40
55-it 70-00
3S-40
IS
Day.
0.50
0.30
05b
100
44
24
~
0.5*
18.01
to
250
0.75
0.. J
It
72
31.3
CMIIaad HaMlag
CMII Rahh
Kb
5540
35-40
5.0
Wd
J2-.34 .11-24
0.75
Laag
Short
55
<5
45-70
41.7
Ma
0.1
7-22
US
72
31.3
ISO
Laag
Chill Start
30
15-32
CMII
riaad Shart
Raha
45 30 40
31
57b 12b 07 17
05 05
05-10 05-10
244
20.0
38.3
5.0
3Wk
100
0.40
to
1.7
40
250
ISOd
0.75 ISO ISO
44
II
0.47
2241
1.7
20.1
40-45 31-32
004S
Maat
Laag
Shaft
IMS
05-W 004S 0045 0045
05-07
1.0
Mo Mo
Days
0.1
CatMaat
Rah Frozen
lead
34
34-n
(-S)-O
07a
05c 15c 05a
Laag
Shart
34
4*5
24.3 20.4 24.3
MOO
30-32
0.1
0.74
0.41
101
70
21
250
Laag
Short
N
34 20 55
5.7
IS
0.4 3.4
34-M
21-10
K
05b
W W
0.40 0.30
LotMFresh
Laag
Shart
Chill Starts
Smoked
U
55 45
35 31
50-M
a
70 70
OS
1547 5545
I5J
41.7
53.7
3Wk
105
014
52
21.3
40 to
ISO ISO
1.0
1.3
0.40
0.32
57
CMII
Habht
57
140
541
.3
44.1
37.5 105
Wd
0.45 0.30
Chill Start
CMIIIng
14
35
II
047
24.01
1.1
Chill Ralih
05
044
(0
20.4
10.1
27
Hn
Chill Start
Chill
Raha
21
34 20 45 30
14-30 20-30
N W
00
105
15
14
047
23.0f
1.1
11.7
Short
05-W
05.10
254
11.7
Laag
Chill Start
3.4
10b 40
J 05
05'
2Wk
100
047
0.10
1.5
50
21
40 40
250
1.3
314
21.4
40
CMII Raiih
(Linn.
Haarti,
ale.)
0.75
1141
1.3
Wd
0.75
0.42 103
40
32 15 32 35 32
114
22.1
W s
II
0.70
21.01
1.3
72
ISO
Wd
043
0.44 lit
Shart
1540
32-11
Wc
10c 70 70 05
Long
Tab
05-W 05-W
70-75
244
21.7
4.2
ISDari
10
IS
N.4
07
27 27
35-40
32-11
0.5 2.3
204
lit
24.3
W W
ISO ISO
Laag
70-75
Dan
Days Davt
0.W
0.44
ITS
0.2
(**)
Freth
Shart
34
M-N
25-10
05-M
05-10
34
0.4 0.2
0.40
040
0.37
014
40
21
w
40
ISO 150
Laag
21
07b
05
114
4.46
10 10
0.71
IN
74
27
Laag
Wet
Picked
(-5M
45
05-W
Mo
05
Chill Starts
Chill
OS
374
Rahh
a.
41
1.00
17.01
Wd
458
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESIGN
Tamparatura
10-12 (Continued)
Eit
ROOM
Grain! par lb Air at
SPECIFIC
CONDITIONS
Ralatlva
Prod
MailProduct
Latant
MEATS
OF STORAGE
TYPE
Humidity
RaCRac'armliilbl.
mum
Storaga
Parlod
ommandad
Ranga
Raeom-
Dot F
fin-
Tima Rata
Haat
Otu/lb 24 Hr
(E.
mandad
Condition
Hr
Factor
Start lib
1M
Notaf)
DagF DagF
SauMga Caung
(Saltad)
%
80c 00c 15a
80
%
75-00 75-00 80-90
MailLatant
Wntar
Haat
Fraai-
Alr
Bofora
Attar
Motion
In
DagF
Room
Ft./Mln
Short
40
31
404
31-32 35-40
Long
Short
Chill Start Chill Flnlih
29.1 20.1
Mo
70 35
2
1.00
0.2 0.0
4.S
9.0f
0.40
ISO iso
And Smokad
Frank!
35
25.2
Hr
7 Dayi 70
35
0.U
156
u
93
at
H
26
u
150
42
32
35-40
31.4
21.1
M
05a
05 OS
05-90
tod
4.3
Fran
Short
Chill Start Chill Flnlih
35
25.2 33.4
0.09
0.56
45
to
ISO
42
32
1.00
9.0f
22.3
tOd
0.0
55
Smokad
Short
40
50 32
5S-M 35 40
41-56
40
05
35-40 00-90
45:80 70-75
80-8!
25.5
31.0 37.2
18.4
to
0.06 0.56
Mo Mo
3.2
5.0
86
60
25
to to 40
40
Summar
Wrapping
Drying
70
70 05
Long
32 34
45-50
34-31
6-8
2.0 0.0
Room
Vaal
Short
45
34
37.5
Long
Chill Start Chill Flnlih
2B 45 30
21-30
07b 87b
to
85-90
24.8
19.0
3.6
0.71
0.39
91
43
29
85-90
15
Dayi
100
1.3
to 40 to
39.6
21.4
40
0.75
2IJH
1.3
tOd
From
TABLES
459
TABLE
10-13.
DESIOM
tOOM
Fred
CONDITIONS
SPECIFIC
HEAT
0ta/lb/
Lataat
Mas*.
MUCH,
TYPE
OF
Rec
Parmts-
Urn Why
Rec-
pari?
Air at
Mail-
mum
Storage
Period
redact
Latairi
Water
Tamp.
omad
meed- dbla ad
permissible
Racomaiaadad Condition
DagF
Start
lima
DagF DagF
iearlWhale-
T
0045
45-70
Hr
Rata Factor
Haat
Otg/lb 24 Hr
DagF
latare
Haat
Fraai-
Alr
than
In
i*
(Exsaa Notef)
Fran-
Con.
rant
ag
DagF
Ft./Mtn
ahrl WoedaaKeg
Metal Keg
attar or
Short
3C 36
3540
354
05 74c Otc 05
55
254 204
.l
4.45
4
10
Mo Ma
Days
74u 04u
1.0
(24
0.34
15
20
ISO ISO
150
Sbart
40
Laag Long
as
MM
40-70
3545
7540 045
5045 5046 0045
24
0.3
044 043
B4
314 24J
21.1
Me Mo
Day
154
304
250
40
Lang.
Sbart
40 14
40
4*45
34-34
OS 05b
15
24 04
2.3
a
0.44
in
ISO
CtHMta Americaa
43-45
30-34
0b
Sbart
7540 7540 0045 0045 1045 046 7540 7540 7540 7540
5045
70
21.1
16
Mo
(54
17
W
to
04
2.5
Camembert
Umbargar
Laaa Laaa
fteqeerort
40 40 40
31
4*45
34-34 40-45
K
05b
05
30-34
Sbart
Lena
u
Lang
Coating)
41 40 4) SO
4540
30-34 40-45
3044
40-70
0.70
M
04
104
10
fODays
04 24
MDayi
40
0.70
404
S5.0
it
Dan
274
42.1
MDayi
4
24 04 24 04
0.1
046
042
044
70 7
3
IS
44
.
55.0
a a a a a
a
ISOd
<0
Mo Mo Mo
45
30
10
044
045
041
0.40
40
04
554
0545
Craam
(40%)
Eggs Crated
(See
Sbart
35 5
MM
4045
30-31
3540
0c
M
Kb
05b 05b 05b
40
Otc
7540 0046
046 0547
234
5.41
24u
4
0.lu
SO
a
314
in
045
0.46
100
Sbart
40 30 40
30
Doc
Laag
Chill Start
Chill R.ltt
2D4S)
12
34 04
046
74f
744
a u a
40d
Eggs, Frozen
10 lb
MM
MM
36-40
15-10
04
10
Mo
40
5 24
Oac.2D.es
Far, Woolen
Raid
35
15
Otc 45
445 445
4045
45-70
047
04lu 4f
046
100
2
250
044
4
2a
0.40
Famlgated
let*
l4
(See Doc.
1041)
Fleer
only
70
40 05 05
04
044 314 374
54.5
23.1
Mo 4 Mo
4
0.1 0.1
la la
040
134
27-31
Laag
70 40k
71-02
33-40
4045 540
5-10
Mo
Dayi
I20 0tu\
040
Howan,Cat
aaaral Orchldl Oardeales
Hides. Caring
3-14
042
46
45-50
Wk
PerSq
FtFloei
20-31
a u a
la
SS
5*46
32-40
OS
045
70-75
04 5Yr
22
0.1
0.40 0.40
Storage
l~g
Hardaalag
Start
Si
75
la
37
42
Sc
4.16
1.55
(SaaDec. JD44)
Lard
Ruhr.
Start
-a
-20
45 32 45
II
-10 -10
Be
05c 05c
45-50
0.75
l.lf.u
0.77
H4
2044
0.1a
445
145
24
Rahb
Sbart
0.75
l.3f,ii
O.lu
2a 2B 2a so
la
Mc
0c 70c
3244
7540 7540
45-70
354
21.1
4Mo
6
24 04
0.7
0.1
040 044
041
B
7 5
Maple
Sbart
45*0
31-32
2.f
17.7
Loag
70c
45-70
Mo
2a 2a
4*0
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
DESI0N
Tomparatura
10-13 (Continued)
Eat
ROOM
Gralai par lb Air at
CONDITIONS
Ralatlva
Prod
Maxi-
SKCIFIC HEAT
Ota/lb/
Latant
Mait-
MISCEL-
OF STORA6E
TYPE
Humidity
RacParrnh)-
Product
Lataat
Watar
Sac-
mum
Storago
Parted
Tamp.
om- FarmlfIbla
RacomCoadltlon
DagF
Start
Haat
Ota/lb 24 Hr
DaoF
Haal
Franlag
aflat
Alr
DagF DagF
lUaga
sr
(Es.m
Notof)
0.7
COR'
tant
Mattel
la
%
34.0
DagF
Room
Ft./Mla
la.
0.40
0.11
Mapla
Strip
Short
II
4S-50
31-11 05-40
70c 70c
53
ISO
Mo
0.1
no
0.00
MDt
lorHad
Short
Chill Start Chill Ftaha
B
41
70c
20.1
SDayt
45
IS
10
Ml
124
07.5
31
ISO
HdWil Doc-
Nab,
la
Mc
10c
40-41 32-40
.l
Short
SMk
Nats Olao
M
11
0.K
0.1
BO B0
0JS
0.22
3-10 2-0
70c
70c 70 70 00c 00c 70 70
45-75 45-75
25J
11.4
O.SO
0-12
Loag
Short
M;
Mfl
in
ISO ISO
0.01 0.50
0.3
IMM
VkcIim
Saram
Saraba
Loag
Short
45-75 45-75
B.3
10.4
0.24
4-14
3-10
4-10
0M
2J>
ISO
0.40
45
M
41
J
M-U 4MS
24-
7540 7540
5-70
ODDayi
4
0.3 0.0
Mo
MO
16.4
i-OMo
DM
0.*
50.0
From
TABLES
461
TABLE
10-14.
FRUITS
Temperature
Commodity
Applet
D.gP
32
per lb
.018 .030 .120
.023 .036 .170
Temperature
Btu per Kr
Commodity
Asparagus
Beans, Lima Beans, String
O.gF
32
per lb
.5S
.170
.170 .820 .099 .140 .470 .055 .085 .150 .059 .095 .280 .059 .095 .280
40 40
Apricots
40
32 60
32 40
32
M
Bananas Holding Ripening
Chilling
Borrios
Beets
54
.069 .190
40 60 32 40 60
32
70-S6
.500
.115 .345
Brussel
Sprouts
34
40 60
32
Cebbage
Cherries
32 60 32
Ml
.250 .014 .019 .036
.014 .019 .036
40 60
Cauliflower
32
Cranberries
40
SO
Dates, Froth
40 60
Carrot.
32
32 40 50
32
40 60
Celery
32
40 60
Corn, Sweet 32
Grapefruit
.0096
.022 .058
40
60
40
Cucumber
32
.028
Grape*
32
40 60
Endive
Lettuce
40 60 40
32
Ml
.175
.200 .240
_moM
32 40 60
32
Melons
(Except
Limos
40 60
Watermeionf) Mushrooms
Onions
40 60 32 40 60
32 50
32
J30
.960
.028
.041
Orangos
32
40 60
Poachoi
50 70
32
32 40 60
32 60 32
40 60
Poas
32
.170
.016 .230
.032 .250
60
Poars
Peppers
Potatoes
32 60 32 40 70 40
Plums
60
32 40 60
Strawborriot
1
Spinach
.018 .030 .120
.068 .120 .360
M
.070 .130 .027
.040 .050
|
40
60 40 32 40
32 40 60
From
462
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
10-15.
Heat Equivalent of
Motors
Btu/hp-hr
Electric
Motor
Connected
Losses
Connected
Load
Outside
Refr.
Load
Motor hp
in
Outside
Refr.
Refr.
Space 1
Space2
2545 2545
Space3
1700 1150
TABLE
Cooler
10-16.
|to *to3
3 to 20
1
Temperature,
2545
useful output
400
F
50
and motor
720
840 950
1050 1200 1300 1400
40
30
20
losses are dissipated
10
work of
motor
-10
pump on
a circulating brine or chilled water system, fan motor outside refrigerated space
driving fan circulating air within refrigerated
space.
3
Conditioning Engineers.
outside of space.
TABLES
463
TABLE
10-17.
Usage Heat Gain, Btu per 24 Hour for One Cubic Foot Interior
Capacity
Temperature Reduction in
Volume
Cubic
Feet
15
Service
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Normal Heavy
108
122
151
135
149
184
133
171
162
201 145 186 128
171
176
189
203
251
134
168
121
218
157
235
169
216 268
194
50
Normal Heavy
Normal Heavy
97 124
85
109 140
155
202
138 185
217
149
248
170 228
148
100
96
128
107
143
117
157
114
200
130 182 119
172
113
214
139
195 128
200
74
104
83
117
93
130
85
123
81
102
143
111
120
169
111
156 102
147
208
136 196 130 190
122
300
68 98 65 95
61 91
77
110
73
107
94
135
159
105
184
122
178
400
89
97
142
91
119
130
154
166
106 160 104 156 100
151
600
68
103
76
114
84
125
81
99
148
114
171
137
182
800
59 89 57 86 55 84
51
67
100
74
112
123
89 134 86
130
83
96
145
111
118
178
167 107
1000
64 97 62 95
58
72
108
79
119
93
114
173
140
162 104
158
1200
69
105
76
116
90
137
83
128
97
147
110
168
126
1600
79
89
64 99
70
108
77
118
90
138
96
148
102
158
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1949 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
464
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Insulation
10-18.
(Btu per sq
per 24 hr)
Cork or Equivalent
in.
1
40
96 72
58
45
108 81 65
50
120
55 132
60
144 108 87
65
156 117
70
168 126
101
75
80
192 144 115
85
90 216 162
130 108 93
81
95
100
105
110
115
170
2.4
1.8
4
5
90
72 60 52
99
79 66 57
1.44
1.2
6 7
8
48
41
1.03
54 46
41
72 62
54 48 43 40 36
33
31
94 78 67
59 52 47 43 39
84 72
63
204
153 122 102
228
171 137
240 180
144 120 103
252 189
151
264
198 159
113
?67
7,07
788
7.16
96 82 72 64 58
53
88
77 68
61
114 98
126 108
m
99 88 79
71 66
61
173
144 174
108 96 86 79
9 10
11
12
13
36 32
45
29 26 24
36 3r 30 27
40
36 33 30
50 44 40 36
33
56 50 46
56
51
42
39 36
48
72 65 60 54 50 46
86 76 68
63 57
90 80 72
66 60
55
51
95 84 76 69 63
58
97
83 76 69 63 59
77
66
61
14
Single
glass
77 70
75 73
28 76
30 28
36
33
44
41
47 43
52 49
54
56
27.0
11.0
7.0
Double
glass
1080 1220 1350 1490 1620 1760 1890 2030 2160 2290 2440 2560 2700 2840 2970 3100 3240
440 280
500
550 350
610 390
660
715
770 490
825
525
880
560
936
595
Triple
glass
320
420
454
700
740
770
810
840
Note: Where wood studs are used multiply the above values by 1.1. From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1955-56 Edition, by permission of the American
Refrigerating,
Society of Heating.
~ M
TABLES
465
29.
10.82
11.67 12.37
tx*'***>
22.87 23.33 23.77 24.22 24.66
13.92 14.43
ifi
i t*i
27.28 27.64
28.48 28.23
<efsx>
tAx
3 e <tfx # c
tr.
ox^
t^XX*
IHf9(4M
r*t>ao
**> 3
x*in tnf4
*fr*
r -J w
XXX
tft ift
mt*xx *-
*>t*>t*3<3<
SSSS2 RS8S8
-e
^rN,
Kx
2rx*
< <et^tC
N M **
*"l <
^ *i *
r"
^s
S5S5J2
ift
Xf3f4
W*0*0^tft
w
c
t*r*<
IT.
va to
**n'qox
'*.*
mmmmm
l^*SIN****N
*c
t9W9 S8SSS
**-
^n p^ ffl f^ f^
kWVo
XO<S^i
in X t (S M * m f*o*xn 5jMt
tft IT.
3S388
r*xr>r<*w
tttqxiA
8SS8S
M
0*4
M9PX xStft?*
XX*S4
!
*
*! ** W*
85#W
H
>
Sft#SS
t^xx'
tortn
<l>t>l>X
*3^S
ocaeVV
'M*
X
>* t*rt
?ss*s
** <*
in^t*
*t*rt
9>toNtf)
* rt r
t)
mo^xco
tv.
t*r*.t^r*
wm^tcio
t*.^i5^i
SSS8R
M(NMK4
nmitKo rofs^
t
X*'
X XXX
r*w
III
m3<SiS
O
<h<S
(StfiX
t l>^<
t*(*.t0t*iA
et^tCtotC
a 2
-I
MiAn ^X~*>X
N0De>
enisMir,
r>S5f*s x>-9<r
Mr.M<i
r^f^ f) f) MMMMN
*fl
fttft*r*
58SKS
AX4t4
>o*5to*j
3"> K2
aox*'
e%
x*5 3E283
-.X-.?
t*
XXX X
mSSm xxxx^
1
acnae Mlftt>N
SS8S2 S8S5S
OOtMMM
M825
P*<19<riA
t*f3
rmxot*
528=S
1
5S2SS
t%t^XXX
t*.
t* > t* t*
f*S
fj Hi f*>
BOOVVV
o-f^^JJift
i^ *<5
moo
M^>fi t*X0
rroj
*NN
^ fO ^
466
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
neiauve
11-2.
Evaporator Design
Design TD,
TD
Humidity,
%
95-91
Natural Convection
Forced Convection
8-10
10-12
12-14
14-16 16-18
For temperatures 10
rator
TD
of 10
is
convection evaporators.
TABLE
Pure
CaCli
Specific gravity
11-3.
Specific
Baume
density
heat
%by
wt
60 60
F P
60F
Btu per
60F
1.000
CaClt
lb/gal
Water
lb/gal
Brine
lb/gal
Water
lb/cu
ft
starts
Brine lb/cu
ft
lbF
0.0
6.1
F
32.0 27.7 26.8 25.9 24.6 23.5
22.3 20.8 19.3 17.6 15.5
13.5 11.2
1.000
0.000
0.436
.526 .620 .714 .810
8.34
8.281 8.234 8.231 8.212 8.191
8.34
8.717 8.760 8.851 8.926 9.001 9.076 9.143 9.227 9.302 9.377
9.452 9.536 9.619 9.703 9.786
9.853 9.928 10.037 10.120 10.212
10.295 10.379 10.471 10.563 10.655
10.75 10.80 10.98 11.17
62.40
65.15 65.52 66.14 66.70 67.27 67.83 68.33 68.95 69.51 70.08 70.64 71.26 71.89 72.51 73.13
73. 61
6
7 8
9
10
11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
8.168 8.137 8.120 8.093 8.064 8.034 8.010 7.984 7.956 7.927
7.883 7.843 7.829 7.792 7.761
7.721 7.680 7.644 7.605 7.565
20
21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
29.87
26.4 27.4 28.3 29.3 30.4 31.4 32.6 33.0 34.9 36.8
0.737 0.729 0.716 0.707 0.697 0.689 0.682 0.673 0.665 0.658
0.655 0.653 0.640 0.630
-11.9 -16.2 -21.0 -25.8 -31.2 -37.8 -49.4 -67.0 -50.8 -19.5
30 32 34
4.3
From ASRE
Data Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of The American Society of
TABLES
467
TABLE
Pure NaCl
Specific gravity
1-4.
Specific
Baumfi
density
%by
wt
59 39
F F
60F
0.0
5.1 6.1 7.0 8.0 9.0
10.1 10.8 11.8 12.7 13.6
heat 59 F Btu/lb
Crystal'
lization starts
NaCl
lb/gal
Water
lb/gal
Brine
lb/gal
NaCl
lb/cu
ft
Water
lb/cu
ft
degF
1,000
F
32.0
27.0 25.5 24.0 23.2 21.8
20.4 18.5
17.2 15.5 13.9
Brine lb/cu
ft
1.000
6 6 7 8 9
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0.000
0.432 0.523 0.613 0.706 0.800 0.895 0.992 1.090 1.188 1.291
1.392 1.493 1.598 1.705 1.813
8.34
8.22 8.19 8.15 8.11 8.09 8.05 8.03 7.99 7.95 7.93
8.34
8.65 8.71 8.76 8.82 8.89
8.95 9.02 9.08* 9.14 9.22
0.000 3.230 3.906 4.585 5.280 5.985 6.690 7.414 8.136 8.879 9.632
10.395 11.168 11.951 12.744 13.547
62.4
64.6 65.1 65.5 66.0 66.5 66.9 67.4 67.8 68.3 68.8
69.3 69.8 70.3 70.8 71.3
1.035 1.043 1.050 1.057 1.065 1.072 1.080 1.087 1.095 1.103
1.111 1.118 1.126 1.134 1.142
14.5 15.4 16.3 17.2 18.1 19.0 19.9 20.8 21.7 22.5
4.0
7.89 7.84 7.80 7.76 7.73 7.68 7.64 7.60 7.55 7.51 7.46
20
21 22 23
24 25 25.2
+
-
1.8
23.4
+ + 16.1
2.488
+32.0
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 19S7-S8 Edition, by permission of The American Society or Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
TABLE
Alcohol
1-5.
Glycerine
Propylene Glycol
% by Wt
5
Deg F
28.0 23.6
19.7
%byWt
10
DegF
29.1
% by Vol
15
DegF
22.4
16.2
% by Vol
5
DegF
29.0
10
15
20 25 30
35
13.2
5.5
40
45
50
55
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
23.4
14.9
4.3
20 25 30
35
10
15
26.0
22.5
19.0
14.5
10.0
3.5
40
45 50
20 25 30
35
9.0
2.5
40
45 50 55 59
Above 60%
tallize at
-99.4
1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
468
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
12-1.
Compressors
Compression Ratio
Compression Ratio
Volumetric Efficiency
2
2.2
62
6.4
6Z2
61.2
86.0
84.9 83.5
2.4
2.6 2.8
3-
6.6
6.8
60.2
59.2
58.2
82
80.8 79.5 78.3
7
7.2 7.4 7.6
7.8
57.2
56.3 55.3
77.2 76.0
74.9 73.7 72.5
71.3
70.1
54.4
53.5
8
8.2 8.4
8.6
8.8
4
4.2
52.6
51.7
50.8
4.4
4.6
4.8
49.9
9
9.2 9.4
9.6
9.8
49
48.1
5
5.2
69.0
67.9
66.8
47.2
5.4
46.4
45.7
5.6
5.8
65.7 64.5
63.3
10
44.9
TABLES
469
125
or Less
Over 3 Ftf
0.0005
0.001
Sea water
Brackish water
0.0005
0.002
artificial
0.001
0.001
Untreated
City or well water (Such as Great Lakes;
0.003
0.001
0.003
0.001 0.001 0.001
0.001
Minimum
Mississippi
0.002
0.003
0.002
0.002
Delaware, Schuylkill
East River and
0.003
0.003
0.002 0.006
0.002
0.003
0.001
0.008
0.003 0.003
0.001
Muddy
or
silty
Hard (Over
Distilled
* 2.16
15 grains) gal
Engine jacket
0.0005
0.0005
gpm
per tube
is
t This table
Inc.,
is equivalent to a water velocity of 3 ft per second. presented by permission of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,
New York.
TABLE
14-2.
BIed-Off Rates
Percent
Bleed-off
0.15 0.22
0.33
7*
10
15
0.54
0.75
20
470
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
f"-
OOm m w*
irt
o n MNMn
f> r f
o s
o\
O oo o
uo i> vi
vt tN
vi v N vo 5K L!
* oo
tno\iftin
^nift
vt m ^ ON S
O m SO ^0Q^-4tN
HflOm^M *N ^ vi so vi
OS
00 -h
OOWhw
rtSSJ*"
1
***
voo ^ O H^mmift
("-^^"Os^*
_ ^h
tn -- vi n
^ ^
*-
'"'
vi oo vi
iOOOO
iZ
onm
-hO ^ ~* ^
.-**
so
v* v.
o\
^OOONqo*^
vt
OOnineO
Vt tN 00 tN 00 ,-h ,- *TS fO
tN
n ** 00 SO "^
-*
s > o
oo so
^oninm *n m f>
.-*-<
<-
O VI
00 SO Vt
I
a
OQO^
Opoen
S^
^ON'OOsO
OS
-h ^ ^ oo O rn
SO 00
O
tri
*"
m
'
l
>
?
B
oo
<4-
so t
oo
n o i>
*"*
l> N
oo vi
m i> ^ in
o * v
a,
O so vt
vi ci n
oo SO
so
73
ri
3 I
"O
VI Vi Vl _! OS * _^ ~
O OO <SN N
"">
so o o ~*
vj <s
o *^ m c4
v
23 00 m
OO Vt l> 00 f
oo N ^- ^"
w-i
On t> 00 ^ P4
VJ 00 "* so (*i ph*
oo oo r* (*5 <N -!
vt
<
.Q
irt
^ o <o
<*
<rj
so
vj vi ci tn *""
V
w
4)
41
m cs ^
*"*
Om
vi
*>
iN *J
vj oo ri -J
m ^
^
*n
v>
os o OS
1-^
O
*>
Vt SO Os ri
IL
OVtOs
tN
v vj oo v>
fO IN > \ *
VJ tN oo **> N
* fO "A
rj *n"
wso v
tN v vi
vj \o so
^d so M 00 Hrtd m O so O oo vj p^dd
O *
O
*N vt bo
C
01
O
0<*)n
00 VI Vt VJ Vt **
e > 3
Ul
so oo oo v.
*"*
^ * ** o n o
-<-
Nrtd
ro **
O
(s
vi
en fi *n
odd
oovon
o\
III
_l
o
oo .5
co
S 2*
**
o. oo bo
*^o
-as
s.
5.* ^ &..
i
e a u
DQQ QQQ
ii
ii
ii
II
II
iJla
Sop
o
u
TABLES
471
TABLE
15-2.
Gravity
at(F)
Freeze
Temperature
10
F
40
50
Liquid
atF
20
30
60
20.3
1.11
1.21
1.19
1.15
1.12
1.11
Sp gr Sp gr
= =
=
1.20
1.25
-5.8 1.21 1.49 1.44 1.38 1.33 1.28 1.26 1.24 -26.0 1.27 1.26 1.85 1.75 1.66 1.57 1.50 1.44 1.40 1.37 1.34
Sodium Sp gr Sp gr
brine
1.10
1.18
14.9
1.11
1.27
1.58
1.21
1.19
1.33
1.15 1.28
1.12 1.25
1.11
-6.0
1.19
1.50
1.44
1.39
1.22
Ammonia
(liquid)
Alcohol (ethyl) (100%) Alcohol (ethyl) (40%) Alcohol (methyl) (100%) Alcohol (methyl) (30%)
Ethylene glycol (60%) Ethylene glycol (50%)
-107.8 0.68 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 -114.6 0.83 0.81 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90
-22 -97
1.45 1.39 1.33 1.29 1.23 1.19 1.15 1.12 1.10 0.84 0.82 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 -5.8 0.96 1.32 1.26 1.22 1.19 1.16 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.05
0.93 0.91
-59.0 1.10 1.09 1.87 1.83 1.78 1.72 1.62 1.57 1.46 1.40 1.36 -38.0 1.09 1.08 1.83 1.74 1.64 1.54 1.48 1.42 1.37 1.31 1.26
2.0 1.06
1.34
1.27
1.22
1.17
1.13
1.11
Refrigerant-12 (liquid)
1.60
1.55 1.42
1.42 1.32
1.13
1.65
1.42 1.32
1.13
1.63
1.42 1.32
1.13
1.42 1.32
1.42
1.32
1.42
1.42
1.42 1.32
1.11
1.49
1.32
1.11
1.32
1.11
1.12 1.60
1.12
1.59
1.62
1.56
1.54
1.52
* To obtain pressure drop from flow of above liquids through pipes, multiply pressure drop for water flow (of equal quantity through same pipe) by factors from above table. Courtesy York Corporation.
472
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
ASRE
Standard
Refrigerant
16-1.
ASRE
Refrigerant
Numbering System
Boiling
Chemical Chemical
Designation
Name
Formula
Molecular Weight
Point,
F
170.2 74.8
Status1
Halocarbon Compounds
10
11
Carbontetrachloride
12 13
13B1 14 20
21
CC1 4 CC1.F
CC1.F,
153.8
137.4 120.9
104.5 148.9 88.0 119.4 102.9
86.5
CC1F, CBrF,
CF4
CHC1, CHC1.F CHC1F,
C c c
s
s
22
23 30
31
D
C
CHF,
CH.C1,
70.0 84.9
68.5
-41.4 -119.9
105.2
D
C C
Q
32
40
41
(50
Methylene chloride Monochloromonofluoromethane Methylene fluoride Methyl chloride Methyl fluoride Methane
Hexachloroe thane Pentachloromonofluoroethane
Tetrachlorodifluoroethane Tetrachlorodifluoroethane Trichlorotrifluoroethane Trichlorotrifluoroethane Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Dibromotetrafluoroethane
48.0
CH.F
CH4
ccucci,
CC1.CC1.F CC1,FCC1,F CC1.CC1F, CC1.FCC1F, CC1.CF, CCIF.CC1F, CC1.FCF, CBrF.CBrF, CCIF.CF,
110
111
-61.4 -10.8
-109 -259
365 279
199.0 195.8
117.6 114.2
38.4 38.5
114B2
113 116
CF.CF,
CHCl,Ca,
CHa,CF,
CHC1FCF,
CHF.CC1F,
220.3 203.8 203.8 187.4 187.4 170.9 170.9 259.9 154.5 138.0 202.3 153 136.5 136.5
C c
117.5
-37.7 -108.8
324
83.7 10.4
D D
14
D
D
S
CHF.CF,
CH.C1CF, CH,CC1, CH.CC1F,
CJH5CF3
120
118.5
-55
43.0 165
12.2
133.4 100.5
84
98.9
-53.5
140
CH.CHC1,
CH.CHF,
CH.CH.C1
66
64.5
-12.4
54.0
c
Q*
Ethane
Octafluoropropane
CH.CH,
CF.CF.CF,
CsngGHfCrig
30
188
218
(290
Propane
44
c^
Cyclic Organic
Compounds
C4C1,F.
C.C1F, C4F,
233
216.5
140 77
21.1
200
D
c
500
501 502
%*
CC1,F^CH,CHF,
CHC1F./CC1.F,
99.29
93.1
-28.0
-42
-50.1
CHClF^CaF,CF,
112
TABLES
-473
TABLE
ASRE
Standard
Refrigerant
16-1 {Continued)
Chemical
Chemical
Molecular
Boiling Point,
Designation
Miscellaneous Organic
Name
Formula
Weight
Status 1
Compounds
Hydrocarbons
50 170 290 600
601 (1150 (1270
Methane
Ethane Propane Butane
Isobutane Ethylene Propylene
CH4
CH.CH, CHsCHjCHj CH,CH,CH,CH,
CH(CH),
16.0
-259
-127.5 -44.2
31.3
30
44
58.1
C C c
C) C)
58.1
14
CrIj=CHj
CH,CH=CH,
C,H,OC,H,
28.0 42.1
-155.0 -53.7
Oxygen Compounds
610
611
Sulfur
74.1
HCOOCH,
60.0
94.3 89.2
Compounds
620
Nitrogen
Compounds
Methyl amine
Ethyl amine
630
631
Inorganic
31.1
45.1
20.3 61.8
Compounds
Ammonia
Water
Air
NH
H,0
CO,
17 18
-28.0
212
C C c
Carbon dioxide
Nitrous oxide Sulfur dioxide
29 44
-318 -109
(subl.)
744A
764
N.O
SO,
44 64
-127
14.0
Unsaturated Organic
1 1 1 2a
Compounds
Dichlorodifluoroethylene Monochlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrafluoroethylene Trichloroethylene Dichloroethylene Vinylidene fluoride Vinyl chloride Vinyl fluoride Ethylene
CC1,=CF,
133
116.5
67
-18.2
100
131.4
-105
187 118
96.9
64
62.5
-119
7.0
CH,=CHF
CJij==Cjij
46
28.0
42.1
-98
-155.0 -53.7
Propylene
CHjCrr=CHj
p. 1.
c c
is
* Carrier Corp.
1.
Document 2-D-127,
proper numerical positions, but in parentheses since these products are not halocarbons. 3. The compounds ethylene and propylene appear in the hydrocarbon section as parenthetical items in order to indicate that these compounds are hydrocarbons. Ethylene and propylene are properly ' identified under Unsaturated Organic Compounds. From the ASRE Data Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Denotes that as of October 1956, the status of these refrigerants as regards commercial evolution follows: C, S, or D. Commercial SSemi-commercial Development. 2. The compounds methane, ethane, and propane appear in the halocarbon section in their
as
474
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
16-2.
Liquid,
Temp
SPTOl
euft/lb
Vapor, sp vol
-40 F
40 1 F
F
1
cuft/lb
Vapor
81.7 82.9 84.0 85.2 86.3
Vapor
0.2226
.2192 .2160 .2133 .2108
V
0.00964
.00961 .00967 .00974 .00981
V
288.6 189.0 127.58 87.5 61.1
44.21 38.93 34.37 30.44 27.03
0.100
.157 .240 .356 .518
-0.0250
0.00988
.00991 .00993 .00996 .00999
0.0000
.0019 .0037 .0055
.0073
4 4
St
0.0091
.0109 .0127 .0145 .0162
0.2046
.2040 .2033 .2027 .2021
8
12 16
0.01018
.01021 .01022 .01024 .01027 .01031
0.0179
.0197 .0201 .0213 .0231 .0248
20
24 28
32 36
0.01034
.01037 .01041 .01044 .01048
0.0264
.0281 .0297 .0314 .0330
40 44 48
52 56
15.89 16.70 17.52 18.33 19.15 19.96 20.78 21.61 22.43 23.26
0.0346
.0362 .0378 .0394 .0410
0.1972
.1969 .1966 .1963 .1960
60 64 68 72 76 80 84 86t 88 92 96
100 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 100
0.01069
.01073 .01077 .01081 .01085
0.0426
.0442 .0457 .0473 .0489
0.1958
.1955 .1953 .1950 .1948
0.01088
.01092 .01094 .01096 .01101 .01105
2.90 3.58 4.27 5.73 7.27 8.90 10.63 12.45 14.35 16.37
18.50 20.72 23.04 25.53 28.10
0.0504
.0519 .0527 .0535 .0550 .0565
0.01109
.01113 .01117 .01122 .01126
0.0580
.0595 .0610 .0625 .0639
0.1938
.1937 .1936 .1935 .1934
0.01130
.01135 .01139 .01144 .01149
0.0654 .0669
.0683 .0698 .0712
0.1933 .1932
.1931
.1930, .1929'
30.80 33.65
36.61 39.71
0.01154 .01159
.01163 .01168 .01173
0.9505
.8970 .8476 .8014 .7581
42.95 46.34
0.0727
.0741 .0755 .0770 .0784
0.1929 .1928
.1927 .1927 .1927
0.01179
0.7176
111.12
0.0798
0.1926
*Inehei i of mercury below one etu dard atmosphere t Stand rd eyele temperatures.
Court et) E.
I.
du Pont de Nemours
It
Co.. Inc.
1I
TABLES
475
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476
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
477
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478
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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1-4
TABLES
479
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480
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
16-4.
volume
Enthalpy
Entropy
Temp F
-200 -190 -180 -170 -160
-150 -140 -130 -120
Pressure
psia
cu
ft
per lb
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
Liquid
Vapor
61.33 36.74 22.99 14.942 9.750
Latent
Vapor
38.545 39.600 40.672 41.696 42.725
Liquid
Vaporization Vapor
-0.10081 -0.09313 -0.08575 -0.07858 -0.07213 -0.06491 -0.05844 -0.05209 -0.04590 -0.03977
0.28147 0.26708 0.25375 0.24131 0.22960 0.21887 0.20863 0.19896 0.18980 0.18106
-uo
-
-24.010 67,783 -21.902 46.696 -19.792 65.596 -17.671 64.473 -15.527 63.316
-13.387 -11.241 - 9.052
62.138 60.941 59.672 58.362 56.993
55.546 54.023 52.416 50.668 48.630
-100
90 80 70 60
50 40 30 20
10
6.843 4.604
0.17275 0.16484 0.15716 0.14977 0.14259 0.13558 0.12872 0.12199 0.11524 0.10814 0.10146 0.09470 0.08777 0.08061 0.07295 0.06889 0.06466 0.06013 0.05518 0.04981 0.40379 0.03625 0.02513
0.13889 0.13678 0.13486 0.13312 0.13153 0.13009 0.12872 0.12744 0.12620 0.12500 0.12380 0.12259 0.12128 0.11982 0.11811
0.11715 0.11609 0.11486 0.11342 0.11174
53.226 54.023 54.779 55.477 56.113 56.690 57.175 57.543 57.719 57.820
-0.00548
0.00000 0.00545 0.01096 0.01686
0.02234 0.02789 0.03351 0.03921 0.04516
10 20 30
40
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
83.93
Courtesy E.
I.
46.638 44.479 42.100 39.472 36.450 34.769 32.958 30.946 28.677 26.137
23.193 19.382 13.565
0.02772
0.08898
du Pont de Nemours
TABLE
16-5.
T
f>
t
Pressors
pala
density
P<<S
Vapor, p vol
cuft/lb
-40 F
Entropy,
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
Liquid
/
lb/cnft
Liquid
Vapor
86.78
Vapor
0.2996
-155
0.19901
97.67
97.33 96.99 96.63 96.27
95.91 95.53
-0.0808
87.36 87.94
88.53 89.11
-0.0767
.0727 .0647
.0571
0.2952 .2912
90.61 72.33
58.21 47.23
-25.25 -23.99
-22.73 -21.47
0.2874
.2837
0.6949 0.8692
1.079 1.329 1.626 1.976
28.51* 28.15*
27.72* 27.21* 26.61* 25.90* 25.06* 24.09* 22.96* 21.67* 20.18* 19.55* 18.87* 18.14* 17.37*
16.55* 15.70* 14.86* 13.93* 12.93* 11.89* 10.81* 9.69* 8.53* 7.31*
0.2803
.2770
95.15 94.76
94.37 93.97
38.60 31.77
26.33 21.96
18.43 15.54
0.2738 .2708
-0.0461
0.2680
.2653
-100
95 90 85 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 62
2.386 2.865
3.417 4.055 4.787 5.100 5.430 5.79 6.17
93.56 93.14
92.72 92.29
-0.0390
.0356 .0288
.0242 .0229 .0216 .0203
0.2627
.2602
13.20 11.26
-12.73 -11.47
-0.0322 -0.0255
0.2579
.2556
91.85 91.67 91.49 91.31 91.13 90.95 90.77 90.58 90.39 90.21
90.03 89.84 89.65 89.46 89.27
60 58
56 54 52
50 48 46 44 42
-10.22
9.72 9.21 8.70 8.20
95.68 95.92 96.16 96.40 96.64 96.88 97.12 97.36 97.60 97.84
98.08 98.32 98.56 98.80 99.04
0.2535
.2526 .2518 .2510 .2502
-0.0253
.0177 .0164 .0151 .0138 .0113 .0100 .0087 .0075
0.2494
.2487 .2479 .2472 .2465
-0.0126
0.2458
.2451 .2444 .2438 .2431
-0.0062
.0050 .0037 .0025 .0012
0.2425
.2418 .2412 .2406 .2400
40 38 36 34
32
3.279 3.126 2.981 2.844 2.713 2.590 2.474 2.365 2.262 2.165
0.00 0.53 1.05 1.58 2.10 2.62 3.15 3.69 4.22 4.75
0.0000
.0013 .0025 .0037 .0050
0.2394 .2389
.2383 .2377 .2372
30 28 26 24 22
0.0062
.0074 .0086 .0099 .0111
0.2367
.2361
9.18
10.31
20
18 16 14 12 10
0.0123
.0135 .0147 .0159 .0170
0.2341 .2336
.2331 .2326 .2321
8 6
4
2
0.2316
.2312 .2307 .2302 .2298
24.09
25.73 27.44 28.33 29.21 31.04 32.93 34.88 36.89 38.96 41.09
1.373
0.0240
0.0251
.0262 .0268 .0274 .0285
0.2293
4
5
6 8
10 12 14 16 18
105.24 105.45 105.56 105.66 105.87 106.08 106.29 106.50 106.71 106.92
0.2289
.2285 .2283 .2280 .2276
0.0296
.0307 .0319 .0330 .0341
0.2272 .2268
.2264 .2260 .2257
481
TABLE
Temp F
1
16-5 (Continued)
Pressure
pl
Liquid, density
psig
Vapor,
sp vol
-40 F
40 F F
lb/cu
1/Vf
ft
cu ft/lb
Liquid
Vapor
107.13 107.33 107.53 107.73 107.93
Liquid
Vapor
0.2253 .2249
.2246 .2242 .2239
V
0.9369
.9032 .8707 .8398 .8100
20
22
24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
0.0352
.0364 .0375 .0379 .0398
0.7816
.7543 .7283 .7032 .6791
18.74 19.32 19.90 20.49 21.09 21.70 22.29 22.90 23.50 24.11 24.73 25.34 25.95 26.58 27.22 27.83 28.46 29.09 29.72 30.35
0.0409
.0421 .0433 .0445 .0457
0.2235
.2232 .2228 .2225 .2222
40 42 44 46 48
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88
69.02 71.99 75.04 78.18 81.40 84.70 88.10 91.5 95.1 98.8
102.5 106.3 110.2 114.2 118.3
0.6559
.6339 .6126 .5922 .5726
0.0469
.0481 .0493 .0505 .0516
0.2218
.2215 .2211 .2208 .2205
0.5537
.5355 .5184 .5014 .4849
0.0528
.0540 .0552 .0564 .0576
0.2201
.2198 .2194 .2191 .2188
76.75 76.50 76.24 75.98 75.72 75.46 75.20 74.94 74.68 74.41 74.15 73.89 73.63 73.36 73.09
72.81 72.53 72.24 71.95 71.65
0.4695
.4546 .4403 .4264 .4129
0.0588
.0600 .0612 .0624 .0636
0.2185
.2181 .2178 .2175 .2172
0.4000
.3875 .3754 .3638 .3526
0.0648
.0661 .0673 .0684 .0696
0.2168
.2165 .2162 .2158 .2155
0.3417
.3313 .3212 .3113 .3019
0.0708
.0720 .0732 .0744 .0756
90
92 94 96
98
100 102 104 106 108 110 112
114
0.2928
.2841
0.0768
.0780 .0792 .0803 .0815
0.2133
.2130 .2126 .2122 .2119
212.6 218.5 224.6 230.7 237.0 243.4 249.9 256.6 263.4 270.3
277.3 384.4 391.6 398.8 306.1
0.2517
.2443 .2370 .2301 .2233
0.0827
.0839 .0851 .0862 .0874
0.2115
.2111 .2107 .2104 .2100
116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138
69.78 69.45 69.12 68.78 68.44 68.10 67.75 67.40 67.05 66.70
66.35 66.00 65.65 65.25 64.85
0.2167 .2104
.2043 .1983 .1926
0.0886 .0898
.0909 .0921 .0933
0.2096
.2093 .2089 .2085 .2081
262.6 269.7 276.9 284.1 291.4 298.8 306.3 314.0 321.9 329.9
338.0 346.3 355.0 364.3 374.1 384.3 392.3 401.3 411.3 421.8 433.3
0.1871 .1825
.1772 .1724 .1675
0.0945
0.2078
0.1629
.1585 .1538 .1492 .1449
352.7 361.0 369.7 379.0 388.8 399.0 407.0 416.0 426.0 436.5
0.1408
.1368 .1330 .1292 .1253
0.1216
.1179 .1141 .1105 .1070
448.0
I.
60.20
0.1035
63.5
du Pont de Nemours
TABLES
483
TABLE
16-6.
Vapor
Temp
F
(
Pressure
Liquid, density
prig
Vapor, sp vol
euft/lb
Enthalpy,
-40 F F
Vapor
pel*
lb/cuft
Liquid /
V
-0.1774
-105 -104
27.9
27.8 27.7 27.7 27.5
*27.4 27.3 27.2 27.0 26.9
26.8 26.7
45.71 45.67 45.63 45.59 45.55 45.51 45.47 45.43 45.40 45.36
1.6243
.1744
.1655
-100
99 98 97 98 95 94 93 92
91
0.1626
.1597 .1568 .1539 .1510
1.47
1.52 1.S9 1.66 1.73 1.79
-0.1481
.1452 .1423 .1395 .1366
.1309 .1281 .1253 .1225
- 90 - 89 - 88 - 87 - 86 - 85 - 84 - 83 - 82 - 81 - 80 - 79 - 78 - 77 - 76 - 75 - 74 - 73 - 72 - 71 - 70 - 69 - 68 - 67 - 66 - 65
64 63 62
61
1.86 1.94 2.02 2.11 2.18 2.27 2.36 2.46 2.55 2.65
-0.1338
25.3
25.1 24.9 24.7 24.5
24.3 24.1
-0.1197
.1169 .1141 .1113 .1085 .1030 .1002 .0975 .0947
2.74 2.85 2.96 3.07 3.19 3.30 3.43 3.56 3.69 3.82 3.94 4.09 4.24 4.39 4.54 4.69 4.86 5.03 5.20 5.38 5.55 5.74 5.93 6.13 6.33
6.54 6.75 6.97 7.20 7.43
44.73 44.68 44.64 44.60 44.56 44.52 44.48 44.44 44.40 44.36
44.32 44.28 44.24 44.19 44.15
44.11 44.07 44.03 43.99 43.93 43.91 43.87 43.83 43.78 43.74
86.54 83.50 80.61 77.90 75.30 72.80 70.35 68.01 65.78 63.70 61.65 59.60 57.64 55.78 54.01 52.34 50.79 49.26 47.74 46.23
44.73 43.37 42.05 40.79 39.56
581.2 581.6
582.1 582.5 582.9
-0.1057
-0.0920
.0892 .0865 .0838 .0811
-0.0784
.0757 .0730 .0703 .0676
-0.0650
.0623 .0596 .0570 .0543
t-
60 59 58 57 56 S5 54 53
52 51
-18.0 -17.0
-15.9 -14.8 -13.8 -12.7 -11.7
-0.0517
.0490 .0464 .0438 .0412 .0360 .0334 .0307 .0281
-0.0386
.4551
1.4524
and
ctcSa?No
mercury Deiow one standard atmosphere (29.92 in.) Standards Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia, Circular No. 142 (1923) T<1948)'.
^^ "
'
484
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Temp
F
1
16-6 (Continued)
Pressure
Liquid, density
Vapor, sp vol
cuft/lb
Enthalpy,
datum -40
Vapor
*
Fl
Entropy, datum
40 F
Btu per lb
Btu per
Liquid
/
lb
F
Vapor
lb/cu
ssia
ft
Uquid
pais
///
V
-10.6
50 49 48 47 46
45 44
43 42 41
14.3
13.8 13.3 12.8 12.2
*11.7 11.1 10.6 10.0 9.3
*8.7 8.1 7.4 6.8 6.1
43.49 43.45 43.41 43.37 43.33 43.28 43.24 43.20 43.16 43.12
43.08 43.04 42.99 42.95 42.90
-0.0256
.0230 .0204 .0179 .0178
.0127
1.4368
1
40 39 38 37 36
24.86 24.18 23.53 22.89 22.27 21.68 21.10 20.54 20.00 19.48
18.97 18.48 18.00 17.54 17.09
0.0
1.1 2.1 3.2
0.0000
.0025 .0051 .0076 .0101
4.3
5.3 6.4 7.4 8.5 9.6
10.7 11.7 12.8 13.9 14.9
35 34
33 32 31
12.05 12.41 12.77 13.14 13.52 13.90 14.30 14.71 15.12 15.55
5.4
42.86 42.82 42.78 42.73 42.69 42.65 42.61 42.57 42.54 42.48 42.44 42.40 42.35 42.31 42.26
42.22 42.18 42.13 42.09 42.04
0.0126
.0151 .0176 .0201 .0226
30 29 28
27
26
25 24 23 22
21
601.4 601.7
602.1 602.5 602.8
0.0250
.0275 .0300 .0325 .0350
16.66 16.24 15.83 15.43 15.05 14.68 14.32 13.97 13.62 13.29
12.97 12.66 12.36 12.06 11.78
16.0
17.1 18.1 19.2
20.3
603.2 603.6 603.9 604.3 604.6 605.0 605.3 605.7 606.1 606.4
606.7 607.1 607.5 607.8 608.1
0.0374
.0399 .0423 .0488 .0472
20
19 18 17 16
21.4 22.4 23.5 24.6 25.6 26.7 27.8 28.9 30.0 31.0
32.1 33.2 34.3 35.4
0.0497
.0521 .0545 .0570 .0594
15 14 13 12
11
0.0618
.0642 .0666
.0714
SS'P
10
9 8
7
9.0 9.7
10.3 10.9 11.6
6
5
36.4
37.5 38.6 39.7 40.7 41.8 42.9
0.0738
.0762 .0768 .0809 .0833
1.3558 1.3537 1.3516 1.3495 1.3474 1.3454 1.3433 1.3413 1.3393 1.3372 1.3352
1.3332 1.3312 1.3292 1.3273 1.3253
4
3 2
1
-.0951
0.0975
30.42
1
9.116
8.912 8.714 8.521 8.333 8.150
7.971 7.798 8.629 7.464 7.304
611.8
612.1 612.4 612.7 613.0 613.3
2 3
4
5
31.16 31.92 32.69 33.47 34.27 35.09 35.92 36.77 37.63 38.51 39.40 40.31 41.24 42.18 43.14
44.0
45.1 46.2 47.2 48.3
0.0998
.1022 .1045 .1069 .1092
7
g 9 10
11 12 13 14
613.6 613.9 614.3 614.6 614.9 615.2 615.5 615.8 616.1 616.3
0.1115
.1138 .1162 .1185 .1208
15
'
TABLES
485
TABLE
Temp F
1
16-6 (Continued)
Vapor, sp vol
Enthalpy,
Pressure
Liquid,
density
P*>8
lb/cttft 1/v,
datum Btuperlb
40 F
A,
Entropy,
datum 40 F
Btu per lb
cuft/lb
Uauid
60.3 61.4 62.5 63.6 64.7
Vapor
616.6 616.9 617.2 617.5 617.8
618.0 618.3 618.6 618.9 619.1 619.4 619.7 619.9 620.2 620.5 620.7 621.0 621.2 621.5 621.7 622.0 622.2 622.5 622.7 623.0
623.2 623.4 623.7 623.9 624.1
Pita
Uauid
0.1346
.1369 .1392 .1415 .1437
Vapor
1.3043 1.3025 1.3006 1.2988 1.2969 1.2951 1.2933 1.2951 1.2897 1.2879
1.2861 1.2843 1.2825 1.2808 1.2790
16 17 18 19
20
21
29.4 30.4 31.4 32.5 33.5 34.6 35.7 36.8 37.9 39.0 40.2 41.4 42.6 43.8 45.0 46.3 47.6 48.9 50.2 52.6 52.9 54.3 55.7 57.2 58.6
60.1 61.6 63.1 64.7 66.3
22
23
24 25
40.38 40.34 40.29 40.25 40.20 40.15 40.10 40.06 40.01 39.96
39.91 39.86 39.82 39.77 39.72
0.1460
.1483 .1505 .1528 .1551
26
27
28 29 30
31 32 33
34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43
4.730 4.637 4.547 4.459 4.373 4.289 4.207 4.126 4.048 3.971
3.897 3.823 3.752 3.682 3.614
76.8 77.9 79.0 80.1 81.2 82.3 83.4 84.6 85.7 86.8
87.9 89.0 90.1 91.2 92.3
0.1686
.1708 .1730 .1753 .1775
1.2773 1.2755 1.2738 1.2731 1.2704 1.2686 1.2669 1.2652 1.2635 1.2618
1.2602 1.2585 1.2568 1.2552 1.2535 1.2519 1.2502 1.2486 1.2469 1.2453 1.2437 1.2421 1.2405 1.2389 1.2373 1.2357 1.2341 1.2325 1.2310 1.2294
39.67 39.63 39.58 39.54 39.49 39.44 39.39 39.34 39.29 39.24 39.19 39.14 39.10 39.05 39.00
0.1797
.1819 .1841 .1863 .1885
44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53
74.80 76.31 77.83 79.38 80.96 82.55 84.18 85.82 87.49 89.19
90.91 92.66 94.43 96.23 98.06
99.91 101.8 103.7 105.6 107.6 109.6 111.6 113.6 115.7 117.8
0.1908 .1930
.1952 .1974 .1996
67.9 69.5 71.1 72.8 74.5 76.2 78.0 79.7 81.5 83.4
85.2 87.1 89.0 90.9 92.9
3.547 3.481 3.418 3.355 3.294 3.234 3.176 3.119 3.063 3.008 2.954 2.902 2.851 2.800 2.751
2.703 2.656 2.610
624.4 624.6 624.8 625.0 625.2 625.5 625.7 625.9 626.1 626.3
0.2018
.2040 .2062 .2083 .2105
54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61
38.95 38.90 38.85 38.80 38.75 38.70 38.65 38.60 38.55 38.50
38.45 38.40 38.35 38.30 38.25
0.2127
.2149 .2171 .2192 .3214
0.2236
.2257 .2279 .2301 .2322
62 63 64 65
2,565 2.520
2.477 2.435 2.393 2.352 2.312
2.273 2.235 2.197 2.161 2.125
0.2344
.2365 .2387 .2408 .2430
66 67 68 69 70
71
0.2451
.2473 .2494 .2515 .2537
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
121.7 122.8 124.0 125.1 126.2 127.4 128.5 129.7 130.8 132.0
0.2558
.2579 .2601 .2622 .2643
486
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Temp
F
t
16-6 (Continued)
Prosstav
Liquid, density
psig
Vapor,
sp vol
Enthalpy,
datum -40 F
Vapor
A,
Entropy,
datum 40 F
lb
Btu per lb
Liquid
Btu per
Liquid
/
F
Vapor
psla
lb/cu
lit,
ft
cu
ft/lb
81 82 83 84 85
140.9 143.6 146.3 149.0 151.7 154.5 157.3 160.1 163.0 165.9 168.9 171.9 174.9 178.0 181.1
184.2 187.4 190.6 193.9 197.2
37.43 37.37 37.32 37.26 37.21 37.16 37.11 37.05 37.00 36.95
36.89 36.84 36.78 36.73 36.67 36.62 36.56 36.51 36.45 36.40
0.2769
.2791 .2812 .2833 .2854
80 87 88 89 90
91
138.9 140.1 141.2 142.4 143.5 144.7 145.8 147.0 148.2 149.4 150.5 151.7 152.9 154.0 155.2 156.4 157.6 158.7 159.9 161.1
162.3 163.5 164.6 165.8 167.0
168.2 169.4 170.6
0.2875 .2895
.2917 .2937 .2958
92 93 94 95
1.635 1.609 1.584 1.559 1.534 1.510 1.487 1.464 1.441 1.419
1.397 1.375 1.354 1.334 1.313
0.2979 .3000
.3021 .3041 .3062
96 97 98 99 100
101
.
0.3083
.3104 .3125 .3145 .3166
36.34 36.29 36.23 36.18 36.12 36.06 36.01 35.95 35.90 35.84 35.78 35.72 35.67 35.61 35.55
35.49 35.43 35.38 35.32 35.26 35.20 35.14 35.08 35.02 34.96
0.3187
.3207 .3228 .3248 .3269
1.293 1.274 1.254 1.235 1.217 1.198 1.180 1.163 1.145 1.128
1.112 1.095 1.079 1.063 1.047 1.032 1.017 1.002
0.3289
.3310 .3330 .3331 .3372
171.8 173.0
174.2 175.4 176.6 177.8 179.0 180.2 181.4 182.6 183.9 185.1
0.3392
.3413 .3433 .3453 .3474
0.3495
.3515 .3515 .3556 .3576
124 125
0.987 0.973
0.3597
.3618 .3638 .3659 .3679
TABLES
487
TABLE
16-7.
Products of
Decomposition
or Explosive Limits of
ASAB9
Safety
Nafl
Fire
Refrigerant in Air
by Flame
Duration of Exposure
(min)
Concenin Air
Code Group
Classifi-
Underwriters
Group
Duration of Exposure
(hr)
A
by Vol 4
%
by Vol
lb/1000
%
by Vol
4.9-15.0
Refrigerant
cation
31
l 1
Number
cuft
Methane R-14
Ethylene Nitrous oxide
+5
61
Nonflam.
3.0-25.0
8
31
l 1
+5
0.0025
R-13
61
5
5
Nonflam. Nonflam.
3.3-10.6
Ethane
3
1 l 1
37.4-51.7
Carbon dioxide
Kulene-131
itol
2
29-30
37.5-51.7
33.2-34.3
61
5
Nonflam. Nonflam.
2.3-7.3
Propane R-22
3
1
42.4-58.5
16
1.0
5A
2
Nonflam.*
16.0-25.0
Ammonia
Carrene-7
2
1
5A
6 4
2
3
i 2 2 2
25
1.1
20 30
1.0
Nonflam. Nonflam.
8.1-17.2 1.8-8.4
2.4
+5
1
2
3
1 1
It
i
2
2
0.7 37.5-51.7
1.165
Nonflam.
1.6-6.5
i
4
5
3
1
2
1
90.5-96.8
27.1
15
18
5
1.0
Nonflam. Nonflam.
3.7-12.0
6.72
35.7 3.12-3.9 11.25-11.7
2.0
1.0
2
1
2
1 1
10 2-2.5
5.1-5.3
Nonflam.
4.5-20.0
4A
4 4
i
1
1
20
16
5
1.0
1.2
2.1
4.8-5.2 2-2.5
23.3-25.2 5.04-6.3
Nonflam. Nonflam.
5.6-11.4
Very
To
slightly flammable, but for practical purposes considered nonflammable. guinea pigs.
* Initial
concentration.
Book, Design Volume, 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
488
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
489
TABLE
19-1.
TransTerse
Length Length
Shw
in Inches
Nomina Enema
1
Internal
Thick-
OD
Pipe
Sin
Inches
Dia. Inches
Type
Length
o/Rpe
Dia. Inches
ofHpe
in Ft.
of Pipe in Ft.
Metal
Inchef
Occupy
Contain Contain ing 1-Cu External Internal ing 1-Cu ing 1Ft. of Sorfaoe Surface Foot Gallon Space 15.25
X X X H X
.250 .375
.190
.030"
.032**
.049
.028
20.00
12.29
5090.0
1895.0
681.0 253.0
151.0 133.5
2940.0
1310.0
.080
X H
X
X
K K
L
.311
.110 .196
10.45
/.134
.269 .198
.500
7.65
9.50 8.89
7.25 7.00
1135.0 1001.0
735.6
.625
K
L
.306
6.10
660.5 621.0
432.5 422.0
88.0 82.6
S7.5 56.1
470.0
.344 .284
.418
.362
.750
K
L
.539
.333
.341
5.10
5.85 S.79
267.0
X
IX
1
.875
K
L
.745
.785
.995
.065
.045 .065
.598
.435
.482
4.36
331.0 299.0
186.0 174.7 118.9 115.0
44.0 39.8
24.7 23.2
15.8
15.3
11.1 10.8
240.5
.641
.454
1.125
K
L
.989
.775 .825
3.39
145.9
.839
.653
.050
.065
IK \H
IK IX
2
1.375
K
L
1.481
.055
.072
1.215 1.255
2.78
97.3
1.04
.882
1.625
K
L
2.070
1.725 1.771
2.35
69.6
2X
2.125
K
L
1.959 1.985
3.540
3.000 3.090
4.620 4.760
6.620 6.810
1.80
6.39 6.20
4.15 4.01
40.6
XX 3H
iX
3
2.625
K
L
2.435 2.465
2.907 2.945 3.385 3.425
5.400
1.45
27.6
3.125
K
L
7.750
1.22
21.8 21.1
16.1
18.6
4.00 3.33
5.12 4.29 6.51 5.38
m
*H
*X
4
3.625
K
L
10.350
8.96 9.21
11.620 11.920
18.100 18.600
25.80 86.61
14.80
<
1.05
13.9
15.6
12.4 12.1 7.95 7.75
4.125
K
L
13.320
.93
7.50
.98
.7S .79 .78
.62 .67
SK
6X
5.125
K
L
20.530
7.04
9.67 7.61
13.87 10.20
.5.90
1
6.125
K
L
89.400
4.90
8.125
K
L
il.700
2.78
16.60
9.29
<
490
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
NMW)Ht*JO^OCOO ~* fO ro ^ W rH PO O
l-H *-t t~-
*-* *-i
CS -* VO
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08
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CNJ
c^
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rt
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r* *o to
CM CO
CM -
CM 00
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^SSSw^oo^ooooo
^h 00
cs vo *o
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i
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y
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<
14
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CO
ft.
HHNN")*lO'0ON
TABLES
491
dH31 NOIlVUniVS
Nl
30NVH3 ONIQNOdS3UUO0
d(l\7)SSOn
dW31
1N31VAI0D3
<
o
PS
Or*
D H O < a!
ft.
* Q
S as w 5
en
II
s'l
<<
SP
W
8
3 ^1
,?<?
*3
492
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
M f U
c
ra
to
OCStJ*iOOOOOOO
System
Receiver
<"S
IB
s e s
P <
u.
4*
to
^
=>100fpm
Receiver
*- -
< o V c M a.
3
(A
.
<U L.
a. a.
Velocity
Condenser
CM*5*"CMO\*^t**'0^'HfO
*"H <-H -t
T-H -* -H
SOOQOOOOOOO Ooooooooooo^^^-^Tti
Size
M X
L.
He* inM
t>tto
i-tn e| >o|t
i;
x;
tt.
Line
TypeL Copper
OD
HHHN
h m| Hw >o* H
CM'f) fO
c
a
a
(A
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e
3
is
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i
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1
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a.
3 c5
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CM TO tO
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a
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e
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<
OD
*|n wt*
Xco
|2
TABLES
493
I
I
I
1
I
oo 10
eu
<M3i Noavtmjys
ni
bonvho ONKiNOdsauuoo
d(!V)SS01
dl/M31
lN3nVAinD3
5
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3 ^^^
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tq
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1-8
J
x 5
3
S
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5
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i
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a,
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00
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lie
f
to
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is
in
3-
8 a
fc
t
S'
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i i *
X 3
'>
a
<.
<1
III
I
>
**.
s?
494
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
^^
w e
M C a
.c
E^
ts
^ \a O ^ 0\ 4
Ov
-i
3
"3
DO
q
to
fpm.
.8
J M in c
JC
f
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Receiver
M X
L.
a e
8
.c
Condenser
Velocity
3
=100
8.
i. L.
-H
^h C^ **
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l
1
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Size
SooS^S^S^^^^^^I-t
3
vt
BO
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Line
a
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M
SCH
a < h
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Line
IPS
TABLES
495
I
s
a
8
=>
*1
11
*1
**
Is
S3
Scq
I* 8
.2
8
.8
.8
Line
IS
J?
3
_ co dW3i Nouwanivs
<e
ni
30nvho 0NKiNOdS3UMO0
8*.
.1
J
8
3 (IV)
SS01 dW31
1N3~I\/Ain03
.3
TABLE
19-5.
Low
Stage
and
Ammonia
Lint
Diecharge
Silt
Liquid line*
Drof
Capper
Tamp F
TfptL
Copper
Condenser
Receiver
to Receiv-
OD
1
-90
-so
-60
-59
-40
Una?
-30
OD
1 t
V-lOOfpm
Sgstem'
2.1
Refrigerant 12
H
2
F AT
if 11 2J
ft
0.2 0.4
0.3 0.6
1.1
0.4 0.8
1.4 2.2
31 31 *J Si 61
1
3.9
5.9 8.5
15.1
25.8
0.5 1.0 1.7 2.7 5.7 10.0 16.2 24.3 35.0 62.5 106.0
0.9
1.8 3.2 5.0 10.5 18.5
U
t it 2 2t
3t 3| 4i 5i 6}
1 t
t ii it ij
See Table
Refrigerant 22
1
H
11 it
ft
21 21 31 3t 41 51 6^
See*/
0.16 0.34 0.59 0.93 1.9 3.5 5.5 8.4 12,0 21.2 34.8
0.23 0.48 0.81 1.34 2.8 5.0 8.0 12.0 17.2 30.6 50.0
0.6
0.44
0.91 1.59 2.5 5.2
9.4
15.0 22.6 32.3 57.5
41.0 66.5
94.0
0.57 1.19 2.07 3.3 6.8 12.3 19.6 29.5 42.3 75.0 123.0
0.75 1.55 2.7 4.3 8.9 16.0 25.5 38.5 55.0 98.0 160.0
0.94
1.93 3.4 5.4
11.1
5 3.0 5.2 8.5 17.5 31.0 50.0 75.0 105.0 190.0 305.0
1
2i 2t 3t 3t 4J
a
6t
IPSSCH
i
-60
0.26 0.55
Steel
-SO
0.38 0.76
-40
0.50
1.05
-30
0.62 1.30 2.50 5.10 8.1 15.0 24.3 43.7 65.0 90.0 162.0 262.0 610.0
1.0 2.1 4.1 8.5 12.5 25.0
IPSSCH
i
40
t
Refrigerant 717
li li 2
(Ammonia)
F AT
n
ft
3 31 5
40 40 40 40 40 40
40 40
|
1.05 1.53 2.15 3.15 3.4 5.0 6.3 9.2 10.3 15.0 18.4 26.8 27.3 39.8 37.8 55.2 68.3 100.0 110.0 161.0 258.0 376.0
i f
1
It It
2
40.0
71.0 105.0 145.0 260.0
21 3
n
4
<
425.0
6 8
80 80 80 80 80 80 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
17.0
charge
Temp,
Refrigerant 22
Suction
Discharge
Discharge
ISO
1.80
(3)
BqmaUnt Lengths,
(<
100
\"
\'-
AT Lees, <,F
nrrn-TWir
Values attained from Carrier Corp. data.
J
ftr?t
A '*aBP*'L~tl*.f' (
100
Actual Tens
\"
*\
ToUeTous J
(5)
ar^Alr^o^U^tog aSr2eS
n *'*""*' 19S7~58
Editi0n ' **
496
CHARTS
497
CHART
14-1.
Btu per Minute Removed in Refrigerant- 1 2 Condenser per Ton of Refrigerating Effect Occurring in Evaporator
340
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
Suction temperature F
From ASRE Data Book, Design Volume 1957-58 Edition, by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
CHART
14-2.
Btu per Minute Removed in Refrigerant-22 Condenser per Ton of Refrigerating Effect Occurring in Evaporator
-5Q
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Suction temperature F
A^ndlSg gS. **
*%**
<
498
PRINCIPLES
14-3.
OF REFRIGERATION
CHART
Btu per Minute Removed in Ammonia Condenser per Ton Refrigerating Effect Occurring in Evaporator
300
E _ O Q)
oh a)
re
ton per
moved
u-
E
280
co
in
s
;
O
no
100
to
90
8U 70 60
!0
g.8.220 3 3
200
-10
10
20
30
40
Suction temperature F
From /iSltE Data Book, Design Volume 1957-58 Edition, by permission of The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
CHART
15-1.
Resistance to Flow of
ci
h ^ cio o 000
CM CO
tf)U>
CCJ
oj
<* into 00
1
lin. ft)
BMS 79.
CHARTS
499
CHART
15-2.
Resistance to Flow of
Water Through
Fairly
Rough Pipe
CM
CO ^ mio o o o do
CO c>
-H
CM
CO
t If)*
CO
o ""
cm
co
*f
mu5
00
lin. ft)
BMS
79.
500
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
c E c b e
ill
c o
rt
c
<*
*2 Sc o
u
t5
L.
1
_l
8
>*
/l 71 ii rf 1 77
A
1
,s
>M
.3*
>
L. 01
a)
'//,
// //
/I
cH E i
3
0)
Minim
?
S
"X ^ X
I
/y
I/*'
* a
*&
iiC
^P
1
V/
rS
1
T<3
Copp
in
to
_l
oe < X u
4J
<
L.
BO
e E e M k C
111
M C g
O
.
I *
-1
*c
a
3
>s
>
L.
El
O
i/>
l o fO e
< ^ *
>?
CM
s
_l
H AC < X
u
< c M
L.
*>
iud) '<ipo(9A
sb3
uinuiiuiim
CHARTS
e E e 2
501
||v
t
iu
1 S
-J
.8
^ 8 8 2 J
-
SO 8
J2 * >s o w
1*1
UKlj
I
g
UinUI|UJM
'%M|8A SB8
< I
u
E & c
IU
M
00
8
ssqsui 3JB sazjs sdjd nv
IS
o
a
I
(d
i*
13
wdj
'X}!0O|3A
se8 umujiujh
< i o
502
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
CHART
5.0
I9-2A.
4.6
NX \ \ s N. \\ \ \
^130
s^fe^
4.2
Icnr^
^f
110
10! r
3.8
igo;
:3.4
40 20"
3.0
^
20
20
-40
2.6
1 i 1
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
in
40
60
evaporator-T
CHART
|3-8
I9-2B.
3.6
^_130
3.4 ^3.2
*^ <*f
t3.0
12.8
^ ^
'hire.
^120
80 60"
f
J
2.6
1^2.4
2.2
40 20
0
^2.0
-60
.
1
^40
-20"
1.8
-100
-80-60-40-20
_
in
20
evaporator-'F
^_
40 60
CHARTS
503
CHART
I9-2C.
Ammonia Flow
Rate
504
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
The equipment rating tables reprinted in this book are intended only to illustrate methods of equipment rating and selection. For this reason, many are incomplete and therefore do not
represent the full line of the manufacturer.
TABLE
R-l.
(7* less
than overall)
Model
Width
No. Tubes
Fin
Spac.
SqFt
per
in.
in.
1TD
15
TD
Single
J-14
13*
4
6
8
0.86
1.89 1.29
22.1 18.2
33.1 27.3 44.1 35.5 55.2 45.9
K-16
18^
24'
i
i
i
U8
N-1.10
J-18
2.52
1.72 3.15 2.15
29J*
30'
10
8
i i
i
2.44
3.68 3.04
K-1.12
L-1.16
42*
54*
13**
12
16
PJ-14
8
12 16
PK-16
PL-18
PN-1.10
18i*
24**
i i i i i i i i i i i i
2.52
1.72 3.78
44.2
36.6 66.3 54.8 88.4 73.2
29J*
20
i
i
44.2
36.6 66.2 54.8 88.3 73.0 110.0 91.1
Coils
8
12 16
K-26
L-28 N-2.10
J-28
18i*
24*
29$*
30*
20
16
K-2.12
L-2.16
42*
54* 13'*
24
32
16
PJ-24
PK-26
PL-28
PN-2.10
18J'*
24
32
24**
29J**
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
2.52
1.72 3.78
i
40
i i
2.58 5.04 3.44 6.30 4.30 5.04 3.44 7.56 5.16 10.08 6.88 5.04 3.44 7.56 5.16 10.08 6.88 12.60 8.60
2.65 2.23 3.96 3.34 5.30 4.45 6.62 5.57 5.30 4.45 7.92 6.68 10.60 8.90 5.30 4.45 7.92 6.68 10.60 8.90 13.25 11.12
39.8 33.5 59.4 50.1 79.5 66.8 99.3 83.6 79.5 66.8 118.8 100.2 159.0 133.5 79.5 66.8 118.8 100.2 159.0 133.5 198.8 166.8
TABLES
505
h 13*l
Type 14
r- 24 -*i
Type K 16
Type L 18
(* 29% -*j
Type N 1.10
Type J 24
e
Type N 2.10
-)
30
f<
42
Type J 18
Type K 1.12
Type L 1.16
ssl
|*13H
Type J 28
w
|-d3*|
U model 54"'wide
sfli
fel8%*|
iS?
(*18iJ->|
Type K 2.12
sIKo^w
Type L 2.16
|- 24 ->j
l-e 24
in
>|
(-
29Js
-j
29%
-|
Type PJ 14
Type PK 16
'km!
Type PL 18
Type PN 1.10
lw^
Type PJ 24
Type PK 26
*k
jfs^
Type PN 2.10
Type PL 28
Installation
dimensions
^ *D <-A-4___J<
SSSSSKW
<-E-l
5)
WZMmk-E
A
12
in. in.
JMWm.
B C
8ft
6
in.
wmm.
D
8
in.
in.
Dimensions
Maximum
Minimum
5
10
ft.
4ft
in.
in.
the width of the box requires additional plasti-units, care should be taken to see that they are installed in a similar manner as shown above.
If
506
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
R-2.
Single
Nate Evaporators
Total Btu's per Total
Hour
"K"
per Plate
at 15
TD
Catalog
Width,
Inches
Length,
Inches
feetot
Pass
9.9
15.8
sqri
Surface
4.18 6.26
8.35
10.45 12.55 14.65
18.83
Number
1224 1236 1248
12
12
12
12 12 12 12 12
1260
1272
1284 12108
12144 2230
24 36 48 60 72 84
108
150
195
18
240
315
21.8 27.8
33.8
39.8 51.8 69.8
26
31
24 30
36
390
465
555
37
42
54 72 28
33
48
63
144
25.2 9.64
11.58
15.4
19.3
22 22 22 22 22 22 22
30 36 48 60 72 84
108
25.7 31.6
24 29
38
43.6
55.6
44
55
67.6 79.6
103.6
23.2
48 58
68
66
79 100
27.24
34.9
87
270 360 450 540 630 810 1080 420 495 660 825 990 1185 1500
TABLE
R-3.
Plate Banks
No. of
Expansion
Catalog
Size,
No. of Expansion
Valves
Hour
TD
Above
32
No.
Plates
Feet of Pass 87
Valves
Number
4-1248-B
5-1248-B
6-1248-B
Inches
12 x 48
R-12
Ammonia
Below 32
1260
1575
4
5
12
x48
109
131 111
12 x 48 12 x 60
1890
4-1260-B
5-1260-B
4
5
1560 1950 2340 1860 2325 2790 2220 2775 3300 2880 3600 4320 3780 4725 5670
12 x 60
12
6-1260-B
4-1272-B 5-1272-B
6-1272-B 4-1284-B 5-1284-B
6-1284-B
60 12 72 12 72 12 72 12 84 12 x 84 12 x 84
12 x 108 12 x 108
12
x x x x x
4
5
4
5
4-12108-B
4
5
5-12108-B
6-12108-B
x 12 x 12 x 12 x
108
4
5
2
1
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2700 2160 2700 3240 2520 3150 3780 3240 4050 4860 4320 5400 6480
Co
TABLES
507
TABLE
Catalog
R-4.
Plate Stands
No. of Expansion
Valves
Width,
Inches
Number
4-2230-S 5-2230-S 6-2230-S 7-2230-S 8-2230-S 4-2248-S 5-2248-S 6-2248-S 7-2248-S 8-2248-S 4-2260-S 5-2260-S 6-2260-S 7-2260-S 8-2260-S
4-2272-S 5-2272-S 6-2272-S 7-2272-S 8-2272-S 4-2284-S 5-2284-S 6-2284-S 7-2284-S 8-2284-S
Length, Inches
No. of
Plates
Feet of Pass
No. of Expansion
Valves
Total
at 15
TD
Above 32
1680 2100 2520 2940 3360
F-12
Ammonia
1
Below
32
22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
22 22 22 22 22
30 30 30 30 30 48 48 48 48 48
60 60 60 60 60
4
5
6 7
8
1 1 1
1
1
180 206
175 218
1 1
2
1
2880
4
5
1 1 1
1
6 7
8
2 2 2 2 2 2
3
3
4
5
222
278 333 390 445
1 1 1 1
2880
3600 4320 5040 5760
6
7 8
2
1
1
22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
72 72 72 72 72
84 84 84 84 84
108 108 108 108 108
4
5
6 7
8
2 2
3
3 3
2 2
1
4
5
2
3 3
6
7 8
2
2 2
1
4 2
3 3
4
5
6 7
8
2
2
4 4
2
2
508
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Desired Liquid
R-5.
in
Liquid*
Desired
Refr,
Liquid
Refr.
Temp.
65
(a)
Temp.
38
"K"
15.7
15.5
Temp.
35
(c) (c) (c)
(c)
Temp.
19
"K"
13.5
60 55 50 45
38
38
30 25
15
11
13.0
12.5
15.2
36
15.0
14.5
20
15
7
3
12.0 11.2
32
28
(c)
40
35 35 35 35 35
(a)
(c) (a)
14.0
13.5 12.5 10.8
10
5
24
19
15
11
-1 -5
10.5
9.8
(b) (6)
(b)
(ft)
-9
-12 -16
9.0 8.2
7.5
10.0
9.0
-5 -10
(c) (c)
Water cooling, (b) Water cooling, ice formation on coils, (c) Brine cooling. For dry expansion tubing or pipe submerged in water or brine without agitation. (Courtesy Vilter Manufacturing Company.)
*
TABLE
Refrig.
R-6.
in
Air*
Fahrenheit
40 44
50
Temp.
F
32 28 24 20
14 12 9
1.40
1.39
-10
10
20
30
36
60
2.30
2.11 2.11
2.49
2.52
2.50
2.51
2.49
2.49
2.48
2.52
2.11
2.49
2.52 2.49
2.49
2.51
2.47 2.52
1.79
2.50 2.49
1.80
1.79 2.01
2.52
2.49
2.50
2.48
2.48
2.51
6
3
1.39
1.40
1.59
1.59
2.53
-4 -8
-13 -17 -25 -30 -40 -50
*
1.39
1.30
1.39 1.50 1.49
2.50
1.80
1.74
2.01
1.98
1.79
1.50
1.39 1.59 1.79
1.60
1.79
1.70
1.80 1.80
coils
1.80
TABLES
509
TABLE
R-7.
Pipe Size
*'
r
i'
2.90 2.30
2.01
1.61
li-
if
2*
TABLE
R-8.
Btu/Hr Rating
Surf.
Motor Heat
Circuits
Air
Model
10
TD
15
TD
FT*
67 93
156
Tube
HP
25
Btu/24
Hr
Fan
10' 12' 14'
2,500 3,500
3,750
5,250
1
1
V
i"
7,600 8,000
11,500 12,600 13,350 15,100 18,000
h
20 12 12
4,500 6,500
8,500
10,500 12,000 18,000
6,750 9,750
12,750
20 20
17
15,750
18,000
1
1
Split
(2)
1 A
16'
16' 18'
4
(2) 2*0
23 27 25 25 20 27 28
Split Split
(2) 14'
1140
1,950
27,000
36,000
25,200
34,000 75,000
(2) 16'
(2) 18' (2)
24,000
32,000
Two
3
48,000
1030
(2)4 (2)i
22'
TABLE
Acme
Model No.*
Effective
R-9
Water
Chillers
Std.
Tube Area Sq Ft
41
Capacity
No.
Number
of Tubes
Range Tons
of Circuits
DXH-805
806 807 808 809 810
811
50 59 67 76 85 94 102
111 119
5.4 to 19
44
DXH-1005
1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016
64 77
91
8 to 30
68
DXH-1206
1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216
11 to
40
92
DXH-1406
1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416
213 231 249 267 285 136 159 184 207 231 255 278 302 325 349 372
187
14 to 52
120
DXH-1606
1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616
DXH-2006
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2020
219 251 283 315 348 380 412 444 477 509 286 335 384 437 487 535 583 633 683 733 782 830 880 976
20 to 71
164
31 to 111
252
510
TABLES
511
maximum
K
L
0.35 0.4
i
0.6
l
I
0.8
1
1.0
L5
I l l I
2.0
25
3.0
3.5
I
L_
0.6
J
15
l i i
0.2
0.4
0.8
> '
1.0
2.0
_L
0.15
J_
0.2
J_
_l_
0.4
_|
0.6
0.8
1.0
Courtesy
Acme
Industries.
512
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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514
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
li
31
3^
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1
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5|
5
TABLES
515
TABLE
R-IOC.
Specified Suction
Temperature
at
Compressor
Inlet (R- 1 2
and R-500)
and above
Saturated suction
-40
30
-20
-10
temperature
F
35
43
55
65
65
TABLE
Saturation temperature
R-IOD.
Correction Factors
-40
0,90
-30
0.91
-20
0.92
-10
0.93
10
0.94
0.95
20
0.96
30
0.97
40
50
Factor
0.987 0.997
516
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
oo
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TABLES
517
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518
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
519
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33
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PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
521
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PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
3
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TABLES
v> o <n is oo N c> n is is is
523
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temf temp
Water
Water
e
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o
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Out
IlE s Il| s i
z
In
Water
Temp.
Water
gffif pi J
H
32
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SllJUliL S3
High 75
95
Med.
75
90
Low
75
85
524
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE TABLE
A.
R-13.
90
Air Entering
Fan Motors
Dia.
Fan
Speed
MnHel No.
Tons
0.88
1.11 1.61
Btu/hr
10,600
13,340 19,300
Cfm
1,125
Inches
HP
Total Watts
Amps
Rpm
1,500
1,050
Rpm
1,500 1,050 1,140 1,140
RC75
R.C100
14
16
18
1,450
A A
* * *
I 2-* *
2-i 1 3-i
1
78
175
RC150 RC200
2,450 2,850
2.36
28,300
38,200 39,800
20
1,140
1,140
3.18
3.31
3,400
3,450
20
24 20 30
1,140
1,725
1,140
625
1,140
5.14
5.13
460
1.7
1,140
1,725
500
1,140
7.92
7.57
24
36
860
2.8
1,140
1,725
455
1,140
10.34
10.00
17.32
19.75
20 36
48 48
48 48
1,290
3.2
1,140
1,725
485
325 325 325 325
208,000
237,000
It 1*
1,725
1,725
13,600
34.64 39.50
416,000 474,000
29,500 27,200
2-1*
1,725
2-lf
9.6
1,725
TABLES
525
TABLE
B.
Suction temp. F
-30
0.76
-20
0.81
-10
0.85 0.89
+10
0.92
+20
0.95
+30
0.98
+40
1.00
Conversion factor
TABLE C.
entering
Diff.
(Condensing temp.ent.
air.
temp.)
Condensing Temperature
Air D.B.
100
105
F
125
110
115
120
130
70 80 90 100
1.00
1.17
1.33
1.50 1.17
1.67
1.33
1.83
1.5
2.00
1.67
1.33
0.665
0.333
0.834
0.50
1.00
0.665
0.333
0.834
0.50
1.00
1.17
0.665
0.834
1.00
526
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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TABLES
527
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Con
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528
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
Gpm
Fig.
TABLES
529
ou
130
1.25
25
1.20 1.15
i
|.
20
3
E
E
I"
8.15
v^/V
0.95
^ .v fe ^ s^
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& S
10
>>>;
5
t^> 90
50
0.90
80
-40-30-20-10
n 10
20
30
40
Evaporator temperature *F
Gpm
per ton
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
30
4 Pass
20
10
t
8
M
i /////
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Z
W Am
j
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1
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(/ V 7
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3
45678
10
Gpm
per tube
Gpm
per tube
Fig.
43
530
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE
Catalog
Stock
R-15.
In and Out
Cleaning
Shipping
Tool
Catalog
Nominal
SAE
Flare
SAE
Flare
SAE
Flare
Number
Number
HP
Rating
No. of
Sections
Weight
(Appr.)
Number
836 836 836 836 836
1036 1036
1-EL
i i
\
1
li
EL-200 EL-300
2
3
i i i
i
* # * * *
8f
H
lOf lOf
18 21 21
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
13 18
27
33
20 25
30 35 39
12f
14
O.D. Swt.
i
* i
16i
34 34
1 1
* For Booster application Use one size smaller when used in combination with air-cooled condensers. Courtesy Halstead Mitchell.
TABLES
531
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532
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
TABLE TABLE
A.
(In
R-17.
Cond.
(F)
No.
(F)
70
75
78
80
85
90
2.6
3.2
3.8
2.2 2.9
3.5
1.9
1.5
1.2 1.9
1.1
0.6
1.2 1.9
E-80F
2.1
1.7
2.8
2.5
3.3 4.1
5.1
2.3
3.1
4.5
5.3
4.2
5.1
3.5
4.4
5.3
2.6
3.5
4.8
5.7
4.0 4.9
6.3
6.0
4.5
90
4.4
5.5
3.9
2.6
3.7
2.1
1.8
0.9
2.1
E-135F
95 100
105
5.0
6.1
3.3
2.9
4.1
6.6
7.8
4.8
4.4
5.6
7.2
3.2
7.3
6.7
8.3
6.0
7.6
9.3
5.4
6.9
4.5
6.1
110
115
9.4 11.0
8.9
10.5
9.9
8.9
8.6
7.8
90
95
8.8
7.8
6.6
8.6 11.0 13.4 16.6
19.8
5.2
7.4 9.6 12.0
4.2 6.6
8.8
3.6
5.8
1.8
11.0
13.2
10.0
12.2 14.6
17.8
4.2
E-270F
100 105
110
115
8.2
10.8 13.8
6.4 9.0
12.2 15.6
15.6
18.8
11.2 14.4
17.8
15.2
18.6
22.0
21.0
17.2
TABLE B
Evaporator Temperature Correction Factors
Evaporator
Correction
Evaporator
Correction
Temp.(F)
50
Factor
0.97
1.0
Temp.
F)
Factor
1.11
40
30 20
10
1.03
1.05 1.09
1.16
1.20 1.26
TABLES
533
TABLE
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Courtesy Bell
534
PRINCIPLES
OF REFRIGERATION
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Index
Absolute, humidity, 59
pressure, 5
Brines, 199-201
British thermal unit, 17
temperature, 13, 14
Adiabatic, compression, 37-39, 82
Butane, 297
By-pass, condenser, 263
cylinder,
242
conditioning, 122
dry, 57
latent heat of,
quantities,
Canning, 123
62
57
Capacitor start motors, 414 Capacitor start and run motors, 415
Capacity, centrifugal
sensible heat,
specific heat,
62 246
pump, 278, 279 compressor, 87, 205, 206, 210-214, 222, 223,
229
condenser, 245-253
cooling tower, 259-261
evaporator, 170, 174, 177-179, 180, 181, 228
standard, 58
total heat,
62
Air circulation, over cooling coils, 174, 179, 185187 over condensers, 245-247 in refrigerated space, 131, 179 Air change load, 145, 152, 153 Air changes in refrigerated space, 145, 152 Air cooled condensers, 248-255 Air cooled condensing units, 79, 223 Air cooling coils, 180-187 Ammonia, anhydrous, 293 piping, 381 Antifreeze solutions, 201 Approach, cooling tower, 259 Atmosphere, 1, 2 Atmospheric cooling tower, 260, 261 Atmospheric pressure, 1, 2 Atoms, 10 Autolysis, 125 Automatic expansion valve, 298-302 used as condenser by-pass, 301 Azeotropes, 297
Bacteria, 126, 127
Baffle assembly, cooling coil, 181
Carrene
7,
297
Carbon
Cascade systems, 395, 396, 399 Cases, display, 140 Centrifugal compressors, 203, 352-363
Centrifugal pumps, 278, 279 Centrifugal refrigerating machines, 363, 364
to,
207
Clearance gas, 203 Clearance volume, 203 Centrigrade temperature, 12, 13
Charles' law, 26, 29 Chart, psychrometric, 64-69
pressure-enthalpy, 9, 93, 98, 101, 107, 113,
116, 118, 119
Barometer, 2 Barometric pressure, 2 Baudelot coolers, 188-190 Booster compressors, 395, 396 Bourdon tube gage, 5 Boyle's law, 27, 28 Brake horsepower, 216 Brine cooling, 199-201
535
536
INDEX
point,
Cloud
345
limit,
361
Coefficient, of expansion,
reciprocating, 203-223,
334-344
250-252 222
334-337
363
180-187
service valves, 78
single acting, vertical,
speed
surging, 362
types, 203,
forced
air,
185-187
valves,
334 337-341
223
humidity
214
compound, 395-401
constant pressure, 25, 26, 219
cycle,
PV
diagram 219
of,
204
heat of, 95
isentropic, 95,
processes,
ratio of,
PV
diagrams
of,
34-36, 38, 39
208
wet, 219
work of, 34-41 Commercial refrigeration, 122 Commercial refrigerators, 139 Compressor (s), action of, 203, 204 bore and stroke, 342, 343
centrifugal, 203,
classification of,
352-363 203
334-337
horsepower, 214-220
impellers,
lubrication of,
352-354 344-350
of,
216-218, 221
337
210-212 Condenser load, 96, 244, 245 Condensers, air cooled, 248-255 air quantities for, 245-247 air temperature rise in, 245-247 booster for, 255 capacity, 245-253 capacity control, 267-271 chassis mounted, 249 forced air, 249 function of, 244 gravity flow, 248, 249 location of, 249 rating and selection, 251-253 remote, 249 temperature split, 252 Condensers, water cooled, 253-259 by-pass, 263 capacity control, 267-271 cleaning, 255, 256, 271-273 double tube, 255 rating and selection, 257-259 recirculating systems, 253 scale factors for, 255 scaling rate, 254-255 shell-and-coil, 255, 256 shell-and-tube, 256, 257 water piping for, 253, 254, 278 water pressure drop through, 253, 254 water quantities for, 245-247 water regulating valves, 265-267 water temperature rise in, 245-247 water velocity in, 253, 254 Condensers, evaporative, 264, 265 capacity control of, 267-271 rating and selection, 265 Condensation of vapors, 49, 50 Condensing pressure, 83
variation with suction temperature,
INDEX
Condensing pressure,
effect of low, 267, effect
537
268
Condensing temperature, 43, 49, SO, 83, 101 105, 253 Condensing units, 79, 223 Conductance, 148 over-all coefficient of, 147-149
Conduction, 14, 148 Conductivity, 15, 148
Controls, compressor cycling, 231
Dehydrators, 297
motor, 418-427
298-333
8,
232
temperature, 231-236
Dilution, of oil
by
refrigerant,
290-292
Conversions, energy,
head-pressure, 275
21
head
in
heat-work, 21
pressure, 4, 5
pressure, 83
service valves,
temperature, 13
temperature, 83
valves,
Convection, natural, 15
Coolers, liquid, 188-197, 201
reach-in, 140
Discharge
walk-in, 140
Cooling load, see Heat load Cooling towers, 259-262, 271 Copper plating, 290
Corrosion, 272, 273
297 260
Crankcase heaters, 348, 350 Crankcase oil equalizing, 382, 383 Critical pressure, 50 Critical temperature, 50 Cycle, compression, 203-205
diagrams, 89-119, 204
reverse, 392
216-218
216-218
system, 97
volumetric, 206-208
Electric motors,
407-416
21-23
Dalton's law, 58
Defrosting, brine spray, 389, 390
internal, 10, 11
kinetic, 7, 11
391 frequency, 388, 389 hot gas, 391-395 multiple evaporator systems, 391, 392
electric, 390,
molecular, 10
potential, 7, 11
Enthalpy, 50, 51
of air, 62 Enthalpy-pressure diagrams, 89, 93, 98, 101, 107,
113, 116, 118, 119
off-cycle, 388,
389
538
INDEX
External work, 30-33 External equalizer, 304-306, 317, 318
Equalizer, crankcase
external,
oil, 382, 383 thermo expansion valve, 304-306, 317, 318 Equivalents, head-velocity, 275, 276 heat-work, 21-23
pressure, 5
Finned
coils, 168,
170-172
pressure-head, 275
temperature, 13, 14
Ethane, 287, 288, 297 Ethylene, 297 Ethylene glycol, 201 Eutectic solutions, 199-201
Evaporation, 47 Evaporative condensers, 264, 265
Evaporators, air-cooling, 174, 175, 185-187
air flow through, 174, 179,
baflOing, 180,
Flapper valves, 339 Flash intercoolers, 397 Float, high side, 321, 323-325
low
Film,
oil,
side,
321-323
149, 171
185-187
in evaporator, 291
181
Fluid, flow,
friction,
274-278
275
278
pressure, 274,
175-177
assembly, 181
and
baffle
defrosting,
388-395
346 Fluorocarbon refrigerants, 287, 288, 294-297 Foaming, oil, 347-350 Foods, absorption of odors by, 132
viscosity, 291, 345,
double-pipe, 188
132
forced
air,
185-187
and
195-197
shell-and-coil, 191,
192
enzymic action in, 124, 125 freezing, 133-139 microorganisms in, 125-129 packaging, 139 preservation of, 122, 123, 128-140 Freezing, of foods, 133-139
temperature of water, 12
Friction, fluid,
shell-and-tube,
192-195
278 278
head, 278
losses in piping,
24
and compression
of,
37-39
processes,
throttling,
PV diagrams of,
93
34-36, 38, 39
wiredrawing, 93, 208, 209 Expansion valve, automatic, 298-302 hand, 298 thermostatic, 302-318, 326, 327
26
constants, 29
critical
INDEX
Gas(es), ideal or perfect, 31 isothermal expansion and compression
28,
539
of, 27,
35-37
law, general, 29
liquefying of, 49, 50 polytropic expansion and compression of, 39-
41
processes,
PV
diagrams
33
of,
34-39
Horsepower, brake, 216, 217 compressor, 214-220 indicated, 217 pump, 281,. 282 theoretical, 97, 214-216 Hot gas defrosting, 391-395 Hot gas line, 372-375 Humidity, absolute, 59
in storage coolers, 131, 179
properties of, 50
specific heat, 32,
percentage, 60
59 60 Hydrocarbons, 297
relative,
specific,
Ice, banks,
167
melting temperature, 12
refrigeration, 72,
specific heat, 17
Hand
73
Ideal gas, 31
pump, 278
146
of,
21-23
Insulation, thermal, 71
Intercoolers,
396-399
measurement
of, 17
Internal energy, 10
kinetic, 11, 33
respiration, 155
sensible, 18,
total,
20
potential, 11
21
Isentropic compression,
219
factors, 148
Labyrinth
seal,
357
150
Heat
transfer,
14-17
conduction, 14
convection, 15
radiation,
19
15-17
and
valve,
209
Hermetic motor-compressors, 79 High pressure control, 236 High side float, 321, 323-325
History of industry, 121
Liquid, 12
chillers,
188-197, 201
intercoolers,
396-399
375, 376
lines, refrigerant,
risers,
Horsepower,
6,
376
540
INDEX
Oil, return to crankcase,
Liquid, saturated, 43
290-292
subcooled, 43
subcoolers, 114
347-350
346
Over-all coefficient of heat transmission, 148, 149 Overload protection for motors, 418, 422
difference, 173
Low Low
of,
97
327-328
fittings,
278
365
Mean
effective
Mechanical efficiency, 216, 2i7, 221 Mechanical energy, 7, 8 heat equivalent of, 21-23 Mercury gages, 3, 4 Methane, 297 Methyl chloride, 287, 294 Methylene chloride, 287, 294, 295 Microorganisms in food, 125
bacteria, 126
372-375
368-372
supports, 366
types,
365
in,
vibration
366, 367
molds, 128
yeasts,
127
127
air, 59,
Piston, clearance,
pins,
rings,
278 203
Moisture, in
60
indicators, 383
289 removal from system, 297, 383, 384 Mold, 128 Molecular theory of matter, 10
in refrigerating systems, 288,
Molecules, 10
Motor
Pour point of
Power, 6
factor, 413,
oil,
344, 345
6,
atmospheric,
bleed
lines,
381, 382
condensing, 43, 46, 50, 78, 83 constant, gas processes at, 25, 26
critical,
50
1
defined,
effect
dielectric strength,
345
dilution
by
refrigerant, 290-292,
347-350 290-292
fluid,
274, 275
gages, 3-6
losses in refrigerant system, losses in water piping,
345 foaming, 347-350 miscibility with refrigerant, 290-292 moisture in, 288, 289
117-120
278
INDEX
Pressure, vapor, 58
velocity, 274,
541
275
Relative humidity, 59
Rotating magnetic
fields,
409-412
422
Pumping head, 279-281 Pumping limit, centrifugal compressors, 360-362 Pumps, capacity, 279 centrifugal, 278-282
and Propane, 297
rating
selection,
384 high pressure, 236 low pressure, 236 oil pressure, 422-425
fusible plugs,
279-281
Saturated vapor, 43
Saturation pressure, 43-46 Saturation temperature, 20, 43-46
air,
57-69
343
Quick
freezing, 135
labyrinth, 357
Range, control, 233 cooling tower, 259 Rankine temperature, 13, 14 Ratio, compression, 208 Reciprocating compressors, 203-223 Refrigerant controls, 75, 76, 298-333 Refrigerant distributors, 311-314 Refrigerant-oil mixtures, 290-292 Refrigerant piping, 365-383
Refrigerants, 71,
Separators,
oil,
292, 379-381
Service valves, 78
256
Shell
Shell
284-297
ammonia, 293
butane, 297
413-415
oils,
412
288, 290
brine,
carbon dioxide, 287, 293 characteristics of, 284-287 comparison of, 287 ethane, 287, 288, 297 fluorocarbons, 287, 288, 294-297 halocarbons, 287 liquid, 73 safe properties, 284, 285 secondary, 197-201 sulfur dioxide, 287, 293
Sludge formation in
Sodium chloride
200
200
of
air,
246
of gases, 32 of water, 17
Specific humidity,
of, 285,
287
Specific
60 volume, 24
of gases, 21 of liquids, 20 of solids, 18 Speed, compressor, 220, 221, 362, 363 motor, 412 Spoilage agents, 124 control of, 128
Spray-type evaporators, 195, 201
Squirrel cage rotor,
412
542
Staging,
INDEX
395-402
air,
Standard
416-418
Temperature-entropy diagrams, 103 Thermal insulation, 71 Thermometers, 12 Thermostatic expansion valve, 302-318
cross-charged, 308, 309
external equalizer, 317, 318
Starting torque,
412 Static head, 275, 276 Static pressure, 274, 275 Stator, motor, 408, 409
Storage, cold, 130
frozen, 133-139
and selection, 318 remote bulb location, 315-317 superheat adjustment, 303, 304 Thermostatic sensing elements, 231, 232
rating
mixed, 131
refrigerated, 130
Thermostats, 231-236
temperature, 130
Strainers, refrigerant line,
starting,
412-415
384
Subcooled
liquid, 43,
112-117
Subcoolers, 114
Sublimation, 49
Superheat, 21
Superheated cycle, 107-112 Superheated region, 89 Superheated vapors, 21, 43 Surging in centrifugal compressors, 362 Synchronous motors, 413
System, balance, 225-230
capacity, 85
U
U
vapor compression, 78
Tank-type
chillers, 190,
compressor, 337-341
191
Temperature, absolute, 13
centigrade, 12, 13
compressor discharge, 83 condensing, 49, 83, 101-103, 105, 253 constant, processes at, 27, 28
controls,
231-236
50
58
low side, 321-323 hand expansion, 298 hand stop, 386, 387
hot gas by-pass, 391
conversions, 13, 14
critical,
dew
point,
dry bulb, 61
eutectic,
199-201
evaporating, 20
pressure
relief,
Fahrenheit, 12, 13
freezing, 19
Vapor, 12
clearance, 203
fusion, 19
in cold storage rooms, 130
condensation, 49, 50
pressure, 43, 48, 58
saturated,
Kelvin, 13, 14
43
superheated, 43
tables,
52-56
wet bulb, 61
INDEX
Vaporization, 47
ebullition,
543
TABLES
47
evaporation, 47
latent heat of,
20
sublimation, 49
Allowance for Solar Radiation, 450 Approximate Volumetric Efficiency of Refrigerant-12 Compressors at Various Compression Ratios, 468 ASRE Refrigerant Numbering System, 472 Average Air Changes per 24 Hours for Storage
185-187
Rooms, 452
Bleed-Off Rates, 469
368-371, 373
254
282
356
in centrifugal
pumps, 275-277
on
Btu per Cubic Foot of Air Removed in Cooling to Storage Conditions, 451 Comparative Refrigerant Characteristics, 488 Design Data for Fruit Storage, 453 Design Ground Temperatures, 447 Design Date for Meat Storage, 457 Design Data for Miscellaneous Storage, 459 Design Data for Vegetable Storage, 455 Dimensions and Physical DataCopper, Brass,
or Steel Tubing, 489 Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings, 470
oil,
heat on, 24
Heat Equivalent of Occupancy, 462 Heat Transmissions Coefficients for Cold Storage Rooms, 440 Mean Effective Temperature Differences, 465 Pressure Conversion Factors, 430
Pressure
Water,
chillers,
188-197
Drop Correction
Factors, 471
389-390
density, 24, 25
Properties of Pure Calcium Chloride Brine, 466 Properties of Pure Sodium Chloride Brine, 467 Properties of Saturated Steam, 431 Properties of Saturated
399
432
20
Reaction Heat from Fruits and Vegetables, 461 Design Ambient Temperature Refrigeration
pumps, 278-282
regulating valves, 265-267
saturation temperature, 20
specific heat, 17
Guide, 444
Refrigerant-11, Properties of Saturated, 474 Refrigerant- 12, Properties of Saturated, 475
Refrigerant-13, Properties of Saturated,
480
vapor in
air,
57-62
254
Wax
345
Refrigerant-717, Properties of Saturated, 483 Refrigerant Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant- 12,
490
Wet
Refrigerant Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant-22, 492 Refrigerant Line Capacities in Tons for Refrig-
bulb depression, 61
temperature, 61
Wiredrawing, 93, 207-209 Work, 6 external, 30, 31, 33 heat equivalent, 21-23
of compression, 35-40
Yeasts, 127
FactorsWater, 469
544
INDEX
Resistance to
Temperature and Enthalpy of Discharge Vapor, 439 Thermal Conductivity of Materials Used in Cold Storage Rooms, 443 U Factors for Class, 444 Usage Heat Gain, 463 Wall Heat Cain, 464
Tubing, 498
Resistance
to
Rough
Pipe,
CHARTS
Btu per Minute Condensers, Btu per Minute Condensers, Btu per Minute Condensers,
Removed
497
in Refrigerant- 12
Removed
497
in
Refrigerant-22
Removed
498
in Refrigerant-717
Flow Rate, 502 Flow Rate, 502 IP^gwant-717 Flow Rate, 503
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