Unit-I

Architectural Design
Design and Analysis: Category Planning and Design Purpose This procedure forms the basic outcome of the Planning and Design phase of the introduction of a new service into the Enterprise Network. It is intended for Architects, Planners and System Administrators.
There are two types of architectures required when implementing a new technology: the Enterprise Architecture which is focused on orientations, rules and standards for the service; and, the Technical Architecture, which is focused on the technical details of the service implementation. Both can use this procedure with small variations.

Task Coverage The procedure covers the design of architecture. It begins with the review of the existing situation and a review of existing and comprehensive inventories. If inventories are up to date, this procedure is greatly facilitated since it can concentrate on its objective instead of getting side-tracked into actually performing inventory collection. The situation review should also list existing problems and issues that can be addressed by the new service being introduced. Make sure the review also focuses on the positive elements of the existing situation. This ensures that what is being done well continues to be so. Tools Required List by category, items or tools required for the SOP.
Equipment A Personal Computer A technological laboratory able to reproduce the environment to be replaced or a virtual machine VMware Evaluation or testing copies of the technology supporting the new service The new technologys Help Files Reference Documents on the New Technology Internet Access. Enterprise Architects should take introductory training on the new technology. This can be in the form of external training or self-study. Information on the organization, its goals and objectives Inventory data in electronic format The Enterprise Architecture must be performed at the very beginning of the project The Technological Architecture must be performed as soon as the Enterprise Architecture is complete and the project go ahead is authorized

Reference materials

Training requirements

General materials

Timing

Steps to Perform :
1. Current Situation Review The architectural design process begins with a review of the current situation. What is wrong? Why do we need to change the current situation? What are our objectives? Who are we? These are the questions that need to be answered at this stage. Also, dont forget to project into the future. If some of the information you gather in this phase is likely to change in the near future, make sure you include it in your report. 2. Update & Review Inventories In order to answer some of the questions listed in step 1, you need to make sure your inventories are up to date and review them. Make sure the inventories are as detailed as you need them to be so that you will have access to all the information you require. 3. Identify Business Needs Use the results from the previous two steps to identify and prioritize the business needs of your enterprise. Concentrate on those that are specifically addressed by the service you wish to implement. 4. Review Market Trends Review the industry and market trends in this field. Categorize them as short-term and long-term. Identify those that affect your situation. Select the appropriate technology to support the service you wish to implement. 5. Review Product Features If the solution is to be based on a specific product, review and learn about the products features. Now that you know what you will use to support your solution, you need to identify the specific features that it will be based on. You also need to be sure you understand the philosophy behind the features so that you can use them to the best advantage. If the solution will be based on the upgrade of an existing product, concentrate on new features and improvements. 6. Use Applicable Best Practices Review Best Practices from both the Industry and from the Manufacturer of the technology you expect to implement. Retain only applicable Best Practices. 7. Customize to Business Requirements Customize the solution to meet your current Business Requirements. Make sure all of the requirements on the list you produced in step 3 are met. If some are not met, explain why. 8. Project to Support Future Business Requirements Make sure your solution can evolve with time and especially, with growing business requirements and future business trends. You dont want to implement a solution that cannot change with time. 9. Rationalize Hardware & Software Rationalize hardware and software as much as possible during your solution design. If your inventory tells you that you have more than one type of object that performs the same operations, reduce it to only one type. This will simplify the management and administration of the service you wish to implement. 10. Deal with Obsolescence If your equipment, either hardware or software is obsolete, replace it as much as you can, even if it still has a little life in it. It doesnt make sense to install something new on a piece of equipment that will be replaced within the next six months. 11. Solve Existing Issues Make sure your solution will specifically solve existing issues that were identified in Steps 1 and 3. If your current environment has problems of any type (technical, situational, physical, or even human issues), ensure that your solution will deal with them appropriately. 12. Test through Proofs of Concept Test everything thoroughly. Perform Proofs of Concepts if youre not sure of something. It is always easier to test first, then document. 13. Standardize and Certify your Solution Standardize within the solution. If there are procedures to document, ensure that they are outlined through standard operating procedures. Also make sure that every process you recommend is tried and tested. If you are using software that can be certified to work by its manufacturer, ensure that certification is part of your solution.

Integration of function and aesthetics : Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience that reflect functional, technical, social, and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of material, technology, light and shadow. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimating and construction administration. As documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, architecture defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or any other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed. Architectural works are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. Architecture sometimes refers to the activity of designing any kind of system and the term is common in the information technology world

Introduction to basic elements and Principles of Design Elements of Design:

Architectural design generally consists of 4 basic design elements and 4 basic design principles. These elements and principles are used to design beautiful and useful buildings if they are reasonably combined together by a master architect. We call it architecture. Like architecture, our spiritual life is also composed of similar elements and principles. If appropriate elements and principles, which have significant spiritual meanings, are combined according to the structure given by the heavenly Architect, a wonderful character can be seen and we may call it architecture of the soul. As a well-designed building is beautiful, useful and solid so that it might be loved by people, beautiful architecture of the soul is charming, healthy and helpful to others so that it will be "in favor with God and man" (Luke 2:52).

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
(1) FROM POINT TO FORM Every composition possessing unity should have ONE and only one focal point. This does not imply that there cannot be more than one point of interest in the composition to arrest the attention, but rather that there should be only one focal point, or center of interest where the eye finally comes to rest. In a successfully balanced architectural composition, the focal point should ordinarily be the most interesting and important point in the design. The same is true in our spiritual lives. A spiritual focal point, which gives tension and attraction to our empty and void human life, is needed. Jesus, way and the truth and the life (John 14:6) must be the only focal point in our Christian lives. Every composition starts from one point. Points make a line, which is called one dimension by moving in a certain direction. Lines can be composed of a two dimensional plane in the same way and planes also can be three-dimensional by moving in a certain direction. So most architectural structures are not built at the same time but gradually built from very basic elements. We may find the same application in the spiritual life. The basic spiritual elements are necessary to form a beautiful Christian character. What is the most basic element in the

beginning of the spiritual life? It is definitely the Word of God. In the Bible, the Word of God is described as a seed as Jesus explained in the parable of the mustard seed. "The kingdom of Heaven is like a mustard seed, which a man took and planted in his field. Though it is the smallest of all your seeds, yet when it grows, it is the largest of garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and perch in its branches."(Matt 13:31) Although a point as small as a mustard seed has no dimension at all but it will grow up to the heavenly dimension in the life of the believer. (2) DIRECTION Architecture has various directions, which are vertical, horizontal and oblique. These directions are decided according to the character of buildings and the types of structure. The vertical direction is emphasized for holiness and authority, the horizontal direction represents stability and peacefulness, and the oblique direction shows dynamics and variation. The architectural designer regards direction as a very important element not only because of aesthetic reasons but also because of functional and environmental reasons. The facade of a building is related to symbolicity, and directions of important rooms are related to direction of sunlight and they must have a good prospect. The direction of winds is also taken into consideration for the windows. As completed buildings are related to directions, our Christian lives need to have its direction toward Christ who is the sun of righteousness. Jesus said, "The wind blows wherever it pleases. You hear its sound, but you cannot tell where it comes from or where it is going. So it is with everyone born of the spirit." (John 3:8) We need to have big windows in the direction from where the Holy Spirit comes so that we may let Him inside of our spiritual houses as deeply as possible. When we fix our eyes on Savior, we can have the symbolicity as ambassadors of God's kingdom. As Christians, we have to have vertical direction toward the heaven that we are all longing for. But also we need to have the horizontal direction for our fellow man with open arms and hearts. Sometimes we might have the oblique direction that is able to overcome high walls of Christian formalism. The definition of wandering is to lose direction. The Bible shows us the wandering of the Israelites. "The Lord's anger burned against Israel and he made them wander in the desert forty years, until the whole generation of those who had done evil in his sight was gone." Israel did not wander in the desert due to losing a mechanical compass but because of losing the spiritual compass that it may lead them toward God. Without Jesus, the compass of life, we are going to be wandering in the spiritual desert. The believer's character is formed by the Word of God but the character does not stay in one place. It moves forward like the apostle Paul said in Philippians 3:14,15. "Brothers, I do not consider myself yet to have taken hold of it. But one thing I do: Forgetting what is behind and straining toward what is ahead, I press on toward the goal to win the prize for which God has called me heavenward in Christ Jesus." Let us have the direction in our Christian lives.

(3) SCALE Architects use the word "scale" very often. They say "It is on a huge scale." or "It is reasonable and harmonized scale." or "It is too small for the scale." The design of a building needs scale that it is proper to its feature, function and environment. Last month, I saw the biggest Buddhist temple in the Orient. As soon as I saw it I was disappointed and regretted coming because it was out of scale. The main building was bigger than the garden and surrounding open spaces. Can we imagine the statue of a little kid that is three times bigger than usual? The characteristics of things sometimes depend on their scale. So when they lost their quantities like size and scale they will lose their qualities too. Every Christian should have appropriate scale in their lives. Sometimes, the scale of a Christian can be seen as temperance. The Apostle Paul said, "Everyone who competes for the prize is temperate in all things. Now they do it to obtain a perishable crown, but we for an imperishable crown." (1Corinthians 9:25) On the other hand, the Christian scale must also cover the wide range of social needs. As God provides food for the young raven (Job 38:41), we have to have a very detailed view for the needs of children, family, neighbors and the poor. As He does great things beyond our understanding (Job 37:5), we also have vast, huge and broad scale that it is open to the whole world and universe and even to eternity. As Christians, we should always try to find out the most reasonable scale in our spiritual lives individually. "Do not think of yourself more highly than you ought to, but rather think of yourself with sober judgment, in accordance with the measure of faith God has given you." (Romans 12:3) (4) TEXTURE We are able to feel the state of surface not by touching the object but by just watching. That perception may be called texture. The architect designs the appearance of a building with certain intention to the texture. Each building has various kinds of texture, warm and cold, light and heavy, soft and hard, dull and sharp, natural and artificial so on. What kind of texture do we need in the Christian life? The prophetic book gives us an answer. "Jesus was the fountain of healing mercy for the world; His life flowed out in currents of sympathy and tenderness. The aged, the sorrowing, and the sinburdened, the children at play in their innocent joy, the little creatures of the groves, the patient beasts of burden,all were happier for His presence." (The Desire of ages p.74) Jesus took the texture of humanity and became our example. Every Christian who follows Christ's example may claim those words, "Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen one in whom I delight." (Isaiah 42:1)
Principles of Design: Architecture is an Art or Science of designing engineering system. It is not an exact science but thereare well-known general principles or guide-lines that can help in designing better engineering system. These are aimed at explaining these principles mainly covered the following three topics: 1. General system design philosophy: provides broad guide-lines for system design. 2. Modularity: the most general principle for architecture design. 3. Interplay between Theory and Architecture: theory leads to better architecture for certain specific systems. These were explained in detail, which will be the running example through-out the course.

1. Design Philosophy
Initially, a system is required to design to fulfill certain requirements. For example, Telephone network was designed to fulfill requirement of real-time long-distance communications. Hence, a natural way to begin thinking about architecture of a system is to start from the essential requirement of the system. That is, the first step should be list all the functional and non-functional requirements of the ideal system that one wishes to design. For example, the primary goal or expected requirement from Internet, when it was

designed late 1970s-early 1980s, was the multiplexed operation of multiple, independent, heterogeneous networks. The next step is to use these requirements to derive the design implications. The requirements naturally put constraints on the type of architecture that can be supported. For example, in the context of Internet, requirement of multiplexed operation of independent networks mean that the architecture can not have any centralized operations. Once such design implications or constraints are derived, the next step is the search of technology that satisfies these constraints and allows one to implemented system with desired requirement. Certainly there is not any straightforward algorithm for implementing the above three steps, going through series of intelligent system specific guesses with multiple iterations of the above steps can lead to a good architecture design. We note that carrying out the above steps require a lot of system specific knowledge and hence it is impossible to have one design principle for all system architecture. The details of the above steps in the context of the Internet are described in the class-s.

2. Modularity
The principle of modularity is one of the oldest principle of designing engineering system. It has been used widely in all sorts of architecture. The main idea behind modularity is as follows: divide the overall system into smaller sub-system that can be designed independently of each other such that these sub-system can inter-operate by exchanging appropriate information at the interface to provide the functionality of the overall system. Here are some examples. 1. Objected oriented software architecture: each object in software is a module and the objects interact with each other via appropriate interface to provide overall function of desired software system. 2. Divide-and-conquer algorithms design: the algorithmic question is divided into smaller questions and solved separately. The solutions over smaller questions is merged later to provide solution to the overall question. 3. Protocol-stack in Internet: each Internet application requires certain operations. Each operation may require different implementation depending on the underlying infrastructure, requirements, etc. The protocol-stack allows for the flexibility of implementing system specific protocols while retaining the same overall architecture.

3. Interplay: Theory and Architecture

In the context of specific system architecture design, theory helps in providing useful guidelines. We will consider three examples where theory helps in deciding the architecture, in both negative and positive way. Internet architecture is not an outcome of general theory but result of evolutionary engineering

thinking. However, the broad principles employed in the final outcome provide a general way of thinking about such large complex engineering systems.

Unit-II Site Planning Surveys:

Architecture can be quite difficult to survey. Most of the time, a survey is done as support to an analytical view that is constructed as support for a conservation or restoration project. Due to the fact that by and large, contemporary or modern architecture does not call for these types of interventions, the case history of surveys of modern buildings is extremely limited. However, the architectures of the modern movement are beginning show the effects of the passing of time, since reinforced concrete, which many buildings are made up, is not as durable as originally believed. One curious factor makes it superfluous to conduct a survey, even in the case of restoration interventions, quite in the same way as in the case of interventions on historic buildings. This is because the original project designs are used in the restoration project as basic documents, since many are still accessible. This approach is based as much on economic expedience as on a feeling of possession of the building, which is due to its recent construction and its continuity in the use of the building that are confirmed in the ability to access the original project designs. This approach is deeply flawed since it is based on an initial consideration without motivation: the one-to-one relationship between design and construction. Even though the categories with which the design takes shape, such as the geometry, can be found in the survey, the design plan and the survey plans are still different. Even if both are designs that represent the same architecture, they are quite different: the design plan is a drawing that pre-figures; the survey design post-figures. One looks to the future, the other looks to the past. In the middle between these two drawings is the construction, the site, the matter, and the skilled labourers; all elements that introduce new geometries. But there's more. There is a important phase of design (decision-making) on site. Not everything which is finally constructed is object of the preliminary drawing. The survey studies the form of the architecture through the geometries of the building. This is clear pursuant to what we've discussed to this point. But a definition of survey of architecture is difficult to achieve: on the one hand, we have to cope with numerous unique cases while on the other, we have to cope with them with a discipline that still seems confused. We can discuss the issue by illustrating a large variety of cases so that the various forms of the objects to survey and the specific objectives of every survey gives the reason for using one method over another. The hope is to create a sort of illustrated catalogue of survey as a response to the question "how to do it" both of objects already present and aspects to be read. Another way is to analyze the survey as a discipline and identify its bases, methods and goals. This procedure is complex right from definition of what the survey is and what it does, let alone discussing how it does it. Many people recognize the existence of a survey discipline because they work with architecture and may need to produce and use surveys, but few are able to define it. A common approach is to view the survey from two positions, remembering that survey has very particular importance in the field of architectural analysis since it holds a dual purpose: it is a possible analytical method (analysis of the form through geometry) while at the same time, it is a correlation and support instrument for the other analyses. As analysis, the survey studies the form of the architecture through the geometries of the building, geometries that play an essential role in the processes of conception, construction and comprehension which have involved the building over its lifetime. But survey isn't only an analysis of the geometries that define the form of the building: it is instrumental to the other analyses since it provides a metric and topological basis on which to spatially locate the phenomena being studied. Frequently, very different phenomena are correlated by the fact that they have the same position or are reciprocally located according to their own logic. The service that survey provides to other disciplines extends from creation of thematic maps with minimal support in their graphic expression, where the final printed product of survey is used (the design in orthogonal projection), to the more complex maps based on numerical cartography of information systems for geo-referencing phenomena.

Building within the Upper Hunter Valley area offers a unique set of opportunities and constraints. Every site requires detailed planning to balance development needs with environmental conditions. The site analysis - knowing what is there - is the starting point. It is not sufficient to prepare a site analysis and then ignore it during the design process. The site analysis will have identified the opportunities and constraints of a particular site and its surrounding area. The purpose of site analysis is to inform the design process. Some of the information will form the basis for preparing further reports in relation to flora and fauna, bushfire, heritage, etc. 3.2. Site Analysis Required (i) A site analysis must be completed on all proposals other than single dwellings involving construction work less than 100 square metres in floor area. It forms part of

the development application to Council. (ii) The site analysis can be in two formats depending on which method best presents the site characteristics, they are plans (maps) and statements. Plans contain all the information that can be easily mapped. Statements issues such as character of the area are better addressed in text and photographs. 3.3. Site Analysis Plan Site analysis in plan form must be drawn to scale (generally 1:200, 1:500 or 1:1000). Include the site and its surrounds and then add the following information (relevant to the site) to the plan: (i) Site Characteristics The location, boundary dimensions of the site. The position of true north. The contours of the site (usually at 1 metre intervals) and the contours of adjoining allotments. The movement of the sun across the site. The prevailing wind direction and, if in an exposed area, the likely wind speed across the site. The zone and the zone boundaries (if there are multiple zones), protected areas and riparian corridors. The location of any slopes greater than 20% (1 in 5) and the direction or fall of drainage from those areas. The location of existing vegetation. Specify the type of vegetation present. Identify any noxious or environmental weeds. The location of any significant natural features such as cliffs, rock outcrops, water holes. (ii) Drainage The location of existing stormwater controls such as easements, trenches, etc.

Muswellbrook Shire Development Control Plan Section 3 Site Analysis

Version date April 2009

3-2

Drainage patterns on the site, areas of concentrated runoff, ponding, possible flooding. Location of any watercourses, creek, wetlands, stream etc., on the site or any within 40 metres from the site. (iii) Services The location of above or below ground services, including power, water, gas, sewer or wastewater systems / land application areas. (iv) Existing Development Set backs, height and location of buildings on adjoining lands. Any potential noise sources, private open space areas or windows from any adjoining buildings which may overlook the site. Any areas of land degradation, identify likely causes. The location of buildings or structures on the site including swimming pools, retaining walls and other hard surface areas. The location of existing access to the site, including any pathways, tracks or driveways and the number and location of on-site car parking areas. For bushfire prone land the existing and proposed road network, including the width of roads and whether they are connector roads

DESIGN STEP 1 The first step is to acquire the interior dimensions of your space. The dimensions can be emailed to us from the building architect. You can also take the measurements of the walls, doors, and windows yourself and fax them to Design & Layout Services. Take the measurements as if you were laying carpet. We will use these dimensions to create a document called an existing wall plan. Once this information is checked and verified, we will begin the floor plan layout DESIGN STEP 2 The floor plan is designed to specifically match your shop concept, menu and space. We properly match pieces of equipment that will support your menu items. Essential pieces of equipment ranging from dry storage, refrigerated storage, food prep and ware washing are designed into the first. The front and back service counters are then incorporated into the plan so that employees have efficient work space and the proper equipment to deliver orders quickly to the customers. This equipment includes brewers, grinders, airpots or shuttles, espresso machines and espresso grinders, as well as the display case, cash register and the cold drink smoothie station. The last additions to the floor plan are the customer areas in the shop. These may include various seating arrangements, retail and condiment counters, restrooms and possibly a roaster or fireplace. The preliminary floor plan design is emailed for your review in a PDF format. We will then call you to discuss the layout, traffic flow, the various employee stations, equipment selection and answer all your specific questions. We will discuss any changes and

continue to make further revisions until a final floor plan is completed for your new shop. We do not stop until you are a 100% satisfied with your design. The design includes all of the revisions needed throughout the floor plan design process for your new business. DESIGN STEP 3 Next, your health and building departments need to be consulted to verify that the local regulations are met. Design & Layout Services can aid with the plan review process and email or fax your floor plan to the person who does the plan review. Your health department will discuss the menu, food preparation issues, NSF equipment standards and grease trap and floor drain requirements as well as review the required floor, wall and ceiling finishes. It is also important for the client or general contractor to verify with the building department that your shop design is compliant with parking, zoning, fire exits, restrooms and ADA regulations. Design & Layout Services will make the revisions to the design based on the input from these local departments DESIGN STEP 4 Once the health department and building department have given an initial approval of the floor plan, Design & Layout Services will proceed with providing many of the plans your contractor, plumber and electrician need to accurately bid and construct your new shop. The New Wall Plan will provide the contractor with the dimensions required to build the new kitchen, storeroom and restroom walls correctly. A new will also require new floor drains, water lines and electrical stub-ups under the bar and below certain pieces of

equipment such as the espresso machine. The Floor Penetration Plan and Penetration Dimension Plan will give the plumber and electrician the specific dimensions and requirements for any utility that needs to be located in the floor. There are also numerous electrical outlets, water lines and drains that will need to be placed in the new walls. These Plumbing and Electrical Requirements are provided individually on 8 x 11 pages. Each piece of equipment is clearly shown in both plan view and elevation with the dimension for the required utility. The electrician will know exactly where to put the outlets, the required amp loads and even the plug configurations. These documents will also show the plumber where to locate the water lines and which ones need to be filtered. DESIGN STEP 5 We will further help you visualize your new with elevations for each wall of the kitchen, the back service counters and bar. The elevations of your counters will show the locations of the drawers, doors and built-in equipment such as sinks, ice bins and cup dispensers. The kitchen elevations allow you to see the shelving, faucets, filters, and trash receptacles much easier then in the floor plan view. Wall backing dimensions are also provided on the elevations that describe where additional support is required for wall shelves. Section views of our standard cabinetry components are also included.

DESIGN STEP 6

Once the construction documents and elevations are completed then we will create an Equipment Specification book. This book includes specification sheets which have equipment dimensions and information on the construction materials, finishes and options that are available from the manufacturer. The health department will often require these to be included with the plan review application to verify that the equipment is NSF certified. The quotation will give you competitive pricing on your foodservice equipment, cabinetry, tables and chairs you will need to outfit your new . The quote includes an itemized list of all foodservice equipment and cabinetry, identified by manufacturer and model number. The item numbers on the floor plan all correspond to the same number on the plumbing and electrical requirement pages, equipment specification sheets and the quotation. This detailed information is incredibly valuable in the development of an accurate budget for your shop business plan DESIGN STEP 7 When complete, Design & Layout Services will send you multiple sets of your finished design including the floor plan, wall dimensions, elevations, plumbing & electrical requirements, equipment specification book and quotation. When you receive the documents, one set should be sent to the health department along with the plan review application and fee. Another set should be given to your general contractor for bidding purposes. We are available to answer any questions from your contractor or health department as your business develops. DESIGN STEP 8

When your shop design has been completed and approved, you will need to decide who will build your cabinetry. Most customers cannot find a local source that has the experience to build their custom bar. As a benefit to our customers, Design & Layout Services can supply the cabinetry for your new . We have successfully designed and built cabinetry for customers throughout the country, from Alaska to Florida and New York to Hawaii. You can be assured that your finished product will be built to match your plans and elevations. Design & Layout Services utilizes the most current graphic design and drafting software available. This technology allows our drawings to be directly linked to our preferred vendors, who can immediately begin production. This results in lower costs and shorter lead times. DESIGN STEP 9 The foodservice equipment for your new or shop can also be conveniently purchased directly from Design & Layout Services. Being an approved equipment dealer with many of the national foodservice equipment manufactures, we purchase your shop equipment package directly from the manufacturer. This allows you special pricing on your refrigeration, ice machine, shelving, sinks and display case. We do not supply the following shop equipment - espresso machines, brewers or grinders. These can be purchased directly from your local dealer. With over 20 years of experience in the foodservice business, we will supply the equipment that supports your menu and meets health department codes, all at a competitive price. Many of our customers take advantage of this one-stop service that saves them valuable time and money. DESIGN STEP 10

Design & Layout Services will consolidate all the sinks, refrigeration, cabinetry and furniture in Minneapolis and deliver them to your when the contractor is ready. You can arrange to have your contractor be on site to unload the truck, uncrate the equipment, and set-up your cabinetry and the shop equipment.

Unit-III
Building Types
Suitability to location. - Proportion of cost of building to value of land. - Effects of skyscrapers. Table of business buildings suitable for various locations. - Table of residences suitable for various locations. - Depreciation and life of buildings. - General effects of buildings. - Nuisances and restrictions. Let us consider next the types of buildings erected for different utilities and their reflex effects on values. The most important consideration governing suitability to location is that of proportion of cost of building to value of land, the safe general rule being that the cost of the building should approximately equal the value of the land. In other words, the typical successful property, land and building, appears to earn double interest on the cost of the building, one-half of which capitalized as economic rent gives a value to the land equal to the cost of the building. While there are exceptions to this proportion it forms a median line of departure, applying most closely to business property, whether the building is a $5,000 one-story brick on a cheap lot or a office building in the highest priced location. The chief destruction of capital comes from the erection of expensive buildings on cheap lots, while the erection of cheap buildings, known as tax payers, even on expensive land, should not lead to loss, although it may not lead to great profit. On a street whose traffic is increasing rapidly a business building costing several times the value of the land may profitably be erected, since within ten years the value of the land may overtake the cost of the building. If, however, the building runs at a low return for ten years, the investment may prove a poor one, and the compromise of erecting one or two-stories of sufficient strength to carry later five or six, is sometimes the best solution. In the largest cities increasing demand for space in favored localities has steadily increased the height of buildings, the practical checks arising from time to time having been successively overcome by new inventions. While fifty years ago the average height of business buildings in New York was three or four stories, and in the best locations five or six stories, the general use of elevators after 1870 ran the height up to eight or nine stories, where it was checked by the expense of the heavy walls and by the waste of the. most valuable space on the ground floor taken up by the walls. Skeleton steel construction, developed since 1890, has saved the space on the ground floor, modified the cost of the highest buildings and run them up to twelve or sixteen stories, which express elevators have lifted to twenty-five and thirty stories. When skyscrapers were first erected it was the common opinion that buildings of this character in the midst of low buildings by cuttingoff their light and air robbed them of their rights, so that justice demanded a legal limit to the height of buildings. It was soon found out, however, that where a skyscraper was so built as to require light and air from the adjoining lot, it was the owner of the small lot who had the skyscraper at his mercy. The threat of replacing the low building with a high one, destroying the value of possibly a quarter to a third of the skyscraper, has quite uniformly compelled the owner of the skyscraper to buy or lease for a long term of years the adjoining property, as with the American Surety Building, Washington Life building, etc. Skyscrapers being naturally located on corners, the typical development of a small block would consist of four high buildings on the four corners and four low ones between them controlled by the. high ones. With long narrow blocks, as in New York, the development would be more irregular, the tendency being to alternate high and low buildings. Further variations occur where a skyscraper owns one or two lots in an adjoining tract in order to block the erection of another high building, as with the Park Row Realty

Building, and the Broad Exchange Building, or the purchase of low buildings across narrow streets to insure light and air, as with some of the life insurance company buildings.

Anthropometry is the study of the dimensions and abilities of the human body. Wheeled mobility devices are used by people with mobility impairments to support their mobility in buildings and in the community, e.g. manual wheelchairs, power wheelchairs and scooters. Static anthropometry is the measurement of body sizes at rest and functional anthropometry is the measurement of abilities related to completing tasks. In the case of wheeled mobility, static anthropometry includes measurement of people and their devices. Functional anthropometry includes measurement of reaching abilities, maneuvering and other aspects of space and equipment use from a wheeled mobility device. The database used for accessibility standards in the United States was developed in the late 1970s. Since that time, both the technology of wheeled mobility and the demographics of device users have changed dramatically. The primary goal of this research is to develop a database that reflects the sizes, abilities and space needs of contemporary users and devices. A secondary goal is to identify, develop and disseminate reliable and valid research methods that can be used by many research groups effectively to increase knowledge and inform design and code development over the long term. A third goal is to disseminate our findings and provide technical assistance to standards committees, government officials and designers to help improve accessibility to the built environment by wheeled mobility users.
The study of human body measurements on a comparative basis is known as anthropometrics. Its applicability to the design process is seen in the physical fit, or interface, between the human body and the various components of interior space. Human Dimension and Interior Space is the first major anthropometrically based reference book of design standards for use by all those involved with the physical planning and detailing of interiors, including interior designers, architects, furniture designers, builders, industrial designers, and students of design. The use of anthropometric data, although no substitute for good design or sound professional judgment should be viewed as one of the many tools required in the design process. This comprehensive overview of anthropometrics consists of three parts. This deals with the theory and application of anthropometrics , It provides the designer with the fundamentals of anthropometrics and a basic understanding of how interior design standards are established. The second part contains easy-to-read, illustrated anthropometric tables, which provide the most current data available on human body size, organized by age and percentile groupings. Also included is data relative to the range of joint motion and body sizes of children. The third part contains hundreds of dimensioned drawings, illustrating in plan and section the proper anthropometrically based relationship between user and space. The types of spaces range from residential and commercial to recreational and institutional, and all dimensions include metric conversions.

A building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. The main purpose of building codes are to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and

structures. The building code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority. Building codes are generally intended to be applied by architects and engineers although this is not the case in the UK where Building Control Surveyors act as verifiers both in the public and private sector (Approved Inspectors), but are also used for various purposes by safety inspectors, environmental scientists, real estate developers, contractors and subcontractors, manufacturers of building products and materials, insurance companies, facility managers, tenants, and others. There are often additional codes or sections of the same building code that have more specific requirements that apply to dwellings and special construction objects such as canopies, signs, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, and radio and television antennas. The practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations and then enforced across the country by the central government. Such codes are known as the national building codes (in a sense they enjoy a mandatory nation-wide application). In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, a system of model building codes is used. Model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, and administrative orders. When referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference. When an adopting authority decides to delete, add, or revise any portions of the model code adopted, it is usually required by the model code developer to follow a formal adoption procedure in which those modifications can be documented for legal purposes. There are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in time all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However due to ever increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations, virtually all municipalities in the country have chosen to adopt model codes instead. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a customized version of the International Building Code.[3] The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago. Similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, which serves as model code proving guidelines for regulating building construction activity.

Safety Standards:

Quality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects, reconstruction may be required and facility operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due to these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project. As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to these original design and planning decisions. While conformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of construction. While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, some designs rely upon informed and appropriate decision making during the construction process itself. For example, some tunneling methods make decisions about the amount of shoring required at different locations based upon observation of soil conditions during the tunneling process. Since such decisions are based on better information concerning actual site conditions, the facility design may be more cost effective as a result. Any special case of re-design during construction requires the various considerations discussed in Chapter 3. With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract documentation becomes extremely important. Quality requirements should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand the requirements for conformance. Much of the discussion in this chapter relates to the development and the implications of different quality requirements for construction as well as the issues associated with insuring conformance. Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by decisions made during the planning and design process. Some designs or construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas other, comparable plans may considerably reduce the possibility of accidents. For example, clear separation of traffic from construction zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidental collisions. Beyond these design decisions, safety largely depends upon education, vigilance and cooperation during the construction process. Workers should be constantly alert to the possibilities of accidents and avoid taken unnecessary risks. While the multitude of participants involved in the construction process require the services of inspectors, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that inspectors are only a formal check on quality control. Quality control should be a primary objective for all the members of a project team. Managers should take responsibility for maintaining and improving quality control. Employee participation in quality control should be sought and rewarded, including the introduction of new ideas. Most important of all, quality improvement can serve as a catalyst for improved productivity. By suggesting new work methods, by avoiding rework, and by avoiding long term problems, good quality control can pay for itself. Owners should promote good quality control and seek out contractors who maintain such standards.

In addition to the various organizational bodies involved in quality control, issues of quality control arise in virtually all the functional areas of construction activities. For example, insuring accurate and useful information is an important part of maintaining quality performance. Other aspects of quality control include document control (including changes during the construction process), procurement, field inspection and testing, and final checkout of the facility.

Work Specifications
Specifications of work quality are an important feature of facility designs. Specifications of required quality and components represent part of the necessary documentation to describe a facility. Typically, this documentation includes any special provisions of the facility design as well as references to generally accepted specifications to be used during construction. General specifications of work quality are available in numerous fields and are issued in publications of organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), or the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI). Distinct specifications are formalized for particular types of construction activities, such as welding standards issued by the American Welding Society, or for particular facility types, such as the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges issued by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. These general specifications must be modified to reflect local conditions, policies, available materials, local regulations and other special circumstances. Conform to elevations and dimensions shown on plan within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.10 foot, and extending a sufficient distance from footings and foundations to permit placing and removal of concrete formwork, installation of services, other construction, and for inspection. In excavating for footings and foundations, take care not to disturb bottom of excavation. Excavate by hand to final grade just before concrete reinforcement is placed. Trim bottoms to required lines and grades to leave solid base to receive concrete. In recent years, performance specifications have been developed for many construction operations. Rather than specifying the required construction process, these specifications refer to the required performance or quality of the finished facility. The exact method by which this performance is obtained is left to the construction contractor. For example, traditional specifications for asphalt pavement specified the composition of the asphalt material, the asphalt temperature during paving, and compacting procedures. In contrast, a performance specification for asphalt would detail the desired performance of the pavement with respect to impermeability, strength, etc. How the desired performance level was attained would be up to the paving contractor. In some cases, the payment for asphalt paving might increase with better quality of asphalt beyond some minimum level of performance. In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goal of total quality control. In this system, no defective items are allowed anywhere in the construction process. While the zero defects goal can never be permanently obtained, it provides a goal so that an organization is never satisfied with its quality control program even if defects are reduced by substantial amounts year after year. This concept and approach to quality control was first developed in manufacturing firms in Japan and Europe, but has since spread to many construction companies. The best known formal certification for quality improvement is the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 9000 standard. ISO 9000 emphasizes good documentation, quality goals and a series of cycles of planning, implementation and review.

Total quality control is a commitment to quality expressed in all parts of an organization and typically involves many elements. Design reviews to insure safe and effective construction procedures are a major element. Other elements include extensive training for personnel, shifting the responsibility for detecting defects from quality control inspectors to workers, and continually maintaining equipment. Worker involvement in improved quality control is often formalized in quality circles in which groups of workers meet regularly to make suggestions for quality improvement. Material suppliers are also required to insure zero defects in delivered goods. Initally, all materials from a supplier are inspected and batches of goods with any defective items are returned. Suppliers with good records can be certified and not subject to complete inspection subsequently.

Building Rules and Regulations: The relevant provisions contained in the Factory Act. 1948 shall apply for the construction of factory buildings. The minimum internal height of workrooms shall not be less than 4.5 mt. measured from the floor level to the lowest point in the ceiling provided that this bye-law shall not apply to room intended for storage, godowns and the like purposes but only in rooms occupied by workers for purposes of manufacture. In case of small factories, employing less than 50 workers for purposes of manufacturing and carrying on a class of manufacturing covered under the flatted factories and service industries, as given in the Master Plan/Development Plan, the Authority may allow minimum height upto 3.66 mt. Parking space provisions as provide in development code of Master Plan/Development Plan. Requirements of water supply, drainage and sanitary installation shall be as per table 5.1, 5.2 and 5.14 of Chapter-5, but in no case less than 1 W.C. and one urinal shall be permitted. a) Notwithstanding the provision of exits requirements as per Bye-law No. 4.8 (Chapter-4) each working room shall be provided with adequate number of exits not less than two in number. b) No exit shall be less than 1.2 mt. in width and 2.1 mt. in height and doors of such exit shall be so arrange that it can be opened easily from inside. c) No staircase, lobby corridors or passage shall be less than 1.2 mt. in width. In addition to the requirement in this part, provisions contained in chapter-3 willbe followed.

There shall be provided at all time for each person employed in any room of factory at least 3.5 sq.mt. of the floor space exclusive of that occupied by the machinery and a breathing space of at least 15 cum. (Further the provision of part VIII section 1 lighting and ventilation of National Building code of India shall be followed). The effluent from industries (industrial and biological in nature) shall be treated and shall be of quality to the satisfaction of the concerned local bodies before letting out the same into a watercourse or municipal drain. EDUCATIONAL BUILDING (SCHOOL/COLLEGES) No basement or cellar room shall be designed, constructed, altered, converted or used for the purpose of study or instruction. Every such building, exceeding two storeys in height shall be constructed of fire resisting material throughout.

The minimum size of a cellar room, study room or room used for purposes of instruction shall be 5.5 mt. x 4.5 mt. and no part of such room shall be distant more than 7.5 mt. from an external wall abutting on the requisite open space. Every such room shall have a minimum ventilation to the extent of 1/5th of its floor area. A minimum of 1.0 sq.mt. of net floor space per student shall be provided. A central hall will not be counted in the accommodation, nor will a class room for cookery, laundry, manual instruction, drawing or science. The number of students in such building shall be calculated on this basis for the purpose of this clause. Every assembly room, gymnasium shall have a clear height of 3.6 mt. except under a girder which may project 0.6 mt. below the required ceiling height. A clear internal height under balcony or a girder shall not be less than 3.0 mt. A minimum room height for classroom in all schools and other institutions shall not be less than 3.0 mt. The minimum head room under beams shall be 2.75 mt. Exit requirements shall conform to bye-law 4.8 (Chapter-4). No door shall be less than 1.2 mt. in width and 2.20 mt. in height. Requirement of water supply, drainage and sanitary installation shall conform to table 5.1 to 5.6 of Chapter -5. A playground shall be provided as per norms. ASSEMBLY BUILDING (CINEMA, THEATERS, ETC.) The relevant provisions of the Cinematographic Rules/Acts of the particular States and IS: 4878 code for construction of Cinema Building shall apply for planning, design and construction of Cinema Building. Parking spaces wherever not specifically given shall conform to bye-law 4.11 in Chapter 4). Requirements of water supply, drainage and sanitation shall conform to provisions of table 5.1, 5.2, 5.11, and 5.12 of Chapter -5. Buildings for religious worship shall not be erected on a site, which has not been previously approved by the Authority.

. Road National Highway (90 mt ) Provincial Highway (60 mt.) Major Urban Road (30 mt.) Village Road (18 mt.) Front Setback 60 mt. 37mt. 22mt. 13mt.

Space Planning a) There should be a minimum distance of 6.0 mt. between sheds in the farm. b) The minimum distance of any farm building from the property line should be 4.5 mt. c) The minimum distance of any farm shed or farm building from the dwelling unit should be 7.5 mt. Farm Shed a) Shed should be constructed on pillars with walls on two longer sides not higher than 1.2 mt. b) The remaining height of the farm sheds in respect of two longer sidewalls can be covered with netting or other similar materials. c) The maximum height of the roof of the farm shed shall not exceed 6.0 mt. Dwelling Units as a Farm House The following norms shall be adopted for construction of dwellings in farmhouses: a) The maximum coverage for the dwelling unit shall be as per the provision of the Master Plan / Zonal Plan. b) The distance of parts of dwelling units from shed shall be as in Building Bye-Laws 6. 12.3. c) The requirements of parts of dwelling shall be as in Building Bye-Laws 4.2 in Chapter-4. d) Any other special requirements as specified by the Authority.

SPECIAL BUILDINGS NOT COVERED In case of special buildings not covered above, norms will be followed as decided by the concerned Authority. PROVISIONS IN THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS FOR HANDICAPPED PERSONS The building to be designed for Handicapped persons need special treatment and the provisions for site planning, building requirements etc. are given in Appendix-G.

RULES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF LAND The provisions of Master Plan/Development Plan and norms formulated by Authority shall apply regarding subdivision of a large parcel of land into plots, open areas, roads, spaces for services and community facilities. 6.16.2. Regulations for Low Income Housing The norms specified for Low-income housing are given in Appendix-I. PENAL ACTION FOR VIOLATION OF MASTER PLAN/ZONAL PLAN REGULATION/BYE- LAWS The Authority under the provisions of their respective Acts shall take action for violation of Master Plan/Zonal Plan / regulations. The concerned Authority may take penal action under their respective Acts, which may include stoppage of construction activity, demolition/ alteration and levying of penalties as given in Appendix-F. May also take action as provided under Building Bye-Laws 2.14.6 in Chapter-2. In addition, action for discontinuance of services in building may also be taken.

Integration of building services:

Structural engineers and building services engineers need to work together very closely to ensure that the decisions made by the structural engineer will suit the buildings comfort requirements. The reverse is also true, as the technical requirements of a particular services solution may dictate elements of the structural design. Guidance is given in the joint Concrete Society/BSRIA publication Services integration with concrete buildings. It is a common occurrence for holes to be cast or cut into concrete elements to allow for the passage of services. Wherever possible, the structure should be designed to include a service zone to minimise the need for holes for service runs. Preplanning is obviously preferable to retrospective provision of any holes or openings. Such holes are designed into the structural configuration so that the resulting stresses are distributed and do not compromise the structure. There may be a requirement to cut holes at a later stage, either due to poor planning or because of a need for new or additional services. Clearly such holes must not seriously affect the strength of the structure. Services such heating and cooling ducts, electrical conduits and light fittings may be cast directly into the concrete. Services integration with concrete buildings gives various examples, covering both in-situ and precast concrete. Great care must be taken that the cast-in units are not damaged or displaced during concreting. There may be a need to provide some duplication to provide some redundancy in the event of failure or to provide flexibility for future requirements.

Interior Design:

Interior design is a multifaceted profession in which creative and technical solutions are applied within a structure to achieve a built interior environment.

The interior design process follows a systematic and coordinated methodology, including research, analysis, and integration of knowledge into the creative process, whereby the needs and resources of the client are satisfied to produce an interior space that fulfills the project goals.[1] There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, which make up 26% of interior designers,[2] usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs. In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality and relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work tends to involve a great deal of traveling to visit different locations, studios, or client's homes and offices. Many interior designers are employed by larger architecture firms. With the aid of recent technology, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel. Some argue that virtual makeovers have revolutionized interior design from a customer perspective, making the design process more interactive and exciting, in a relatively technological but labor-intensive environment.[3]

Earnings
Interior design earnings vary based on employer, number of years with experience, and the reputation of the individual. For residential projects, self-employed interior designers usually earn a per-hour fee plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they may charge per-hour fees, or a flat fee for the whole project. The median annual earning for wage and salary interior designers, in the year 2006, was $42,260. The middle 50% earned between $31,830 and $57,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,760.[4]. Aside from these specific numbers, the salary can be a very broad range. One could start from anywhere around $20,000 per year and continue up the ladder and end up at $200,000 or more. It is too broad of an answer to give a direct number, but specialization, which means focusing on a couple main categories of design rather than focusing on every aspect, can greatly increase potential for a higher income.[5] For example, if a person opens a business and decides to specialize in furniture design and flooring, they will get only clients focusing on these topics rather than a variety of every type of issue that comes with designing a home.

Interior styles
A style, or theme, is a consistent idea used throughout a room to create a feeling of completeness. Styles are not to be confused with design concepts, or the higher-level party, which involve a deeper understanding of the architectural context, the sociocultural and the programmatic requirements of the client. These themes often follow The evolution of interior decoration themes has now grown to include themes not necessarily

consistent with a specific period style allowing the mixing of pieces from different periods. Each element should contribute to form, function, or both and maintain a consistent standard of quality and combine to create the desired design. A designer develops a home architecture and interior design for a customer that has a style and theme that the prospective owner likes and mentally connects to. For the last 10 years, decorators, designers, and architects have been re-discovering the unique furniture that was developed post-war of the 1950s and the 1960s from new material that were developed for military applications

Unit-IV
Climate and Environmental Responsive Design
Man and Environmental Interaction:
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION : ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Lets understand the Interaction between Man and Environment with special reference to MIND .Human being is designed and destined to maintain ecological balance. Unless he functions harmoniously and compatibly with the environment it is very difficult to uphold the ecosystem undisturbed. Scientific Vision ? : Scientific Vision ? The Hyperbolic action to achieve worldly comforts is exploiting the NATURE (Environment). Man must have envisaged to derive energies from the physical world like wind, sea-wave, thermal, hydel, nuclear, muscle, bull, horse,political power and so on. Consequently, he is tightly enveloped by the current of pollution and urgently, must contend with it. COMFORT ? : COMFORT ? Is he able to breath fresh air? drink potable water? eat good food? live in a ideal house? hear soothing music? get away from harmful electro-magnetic waves (TV/Radio; Wireless, X-Ray)and cosmic rays in the long term? Apart from all the above is it not becoming very difficult for him to keep himself away from tensions {Family, Society, & Occupation (due to increase of unending desires)} ? diseases? and drugs?. Blasphemy ? : Blasphemy ? The Laws that govern the universe are not different from those that govern the functions of the human being/living organism. The Laws of 'Mutuality; 'Mutation', 'Vital Dynamics', and 'Individualisation' are some of such kind which go almost hand in hand with Man and Environment. on Environment : on Environment what is Environment ? All physical,social and cultural factors and conditions influencing the existence or development of an organism is called ENVIRONMENT why should we know about it? Because it is causing threat to the health of environment and as well man on earth. who is Responsible ? Undoubtedly man is responsible CONTD wwwww.htp.com onEnvironment : onEnvironment when started? The moment man greed for material benefits started instead of spiritual thirst where are we going? Going one step forward and three steps backward. how to protect environment and combat pollution ? By right understanding and by right approach MAN WITH GOOD RESISTANCE : MAN WITH GOOD RESISTANCE In the diagram "A" the external stimulus acts on man. Man receives its' impressions. It causes mild changes in the outer organs. Soon after he recovers fully. The

reacting force of the man is fully operative. Hence, he comes back to the original state of health without any sequalae. Defense mechanism is thoroughly operative and intact A MAN WITH MODERATE RESISTANCE : MAN WITH MODERATE RESISTANCE In the diagram "B"Man offers resistance but not as much as in case of 'A'. He not only gets indisposed but becomes sick. Afterwards, he recovers gradually and finally he restores his health. Complaints like stiffness of muscles, pain in the joints, sinusitis, and fever etc., are felt without making much dent on the mind. With the support of medicine he restores back to health. B WEAK RESISTANCE : WEAK RESISTANCE In the diagram "C" Man is prone to get influenced and affected easily. Once he gets into the lap of sickness his mental faculty also starts getting affected. He develops anxiety, depression. He wobbles between one stage of sickness to another stage of sickness. He does not become normal at any time. There is a distinct lack of normal resistance. Defense mechanism needs medicinal support many a time to offer some resistance to the stimuli. C LACK OF RESISTANCE : LACK OF RESISTANCE In the diagram "D" Man can offer no resistance at all. There is no inclination to live. He becomes totally dull, inactive. There is a deterioration of mental and physical faculties. All his organs become emaciated. Even the assistance of medicine also does not help him. It leads ultimately to the funeral ground. Defense mechanism yields completely to the external force. With the above illustration it is clear that there is always a fight between external offending morbific agent (environment) and internal defending protecting agent (life principle/ Dynamis). D MAN & ENVIRONMENT : MAN & ENVIRONMENT IN MAN: (1) Mental (Spiritual/psychic; (2) Functional (3) Organic (physical) IN ENVIRONMENT: (1) Quality (spiritual) (2) Properties (3) Quantity (physical MAN ENVIRONMENT

watch your health : watch your health watch your will watch your aptitude watch your together watch your cooperation watch your helping watch your weight watch your area watch your time table watch your cleanliness watch your habits watch your wisdom watch your attitude watch your temperament watch your commitment watch your humor watch your words watch your actions watch your thoughts watch your character watch your heart spiritual health social health physical health mental health watch your health : watch your health watch your work watch your aim watch your tongue watch your customer watch your honesty watch your wages watch your accounts watch your taxes watch your consumption watch your happiness job health financial health
10 moral remedies : 10 moral remedies 01.attain real self contentment - in its true sense. 02.put a ceiling on undesirable desires. 03.avoid excitement and emotions as you lose the reasoning and hence pollute the mind. 04.think, meditate, analyse, understand and act upon the problems as they are. 05.think over your problems as that of others and act as you advise. 06.let noble thoughts shower on you. that brings you mental health. 07.explore nature do not exploit. 08.brooding over problems will over breed the problems. 09.do not deceive your inner conscience. 10.if you blunder today that will be a curse on you tomorrow. stop living at the cost of others.

Factors that determine climate:

The climate system is a complex, interactive system consisting of the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans and other bodies of water, and living things. The atmospheric component of the climate system most obviously characterises climate; climate is often defined as average weather. Climate is usually described in terms of the mean and variability of temperature, precipitation and wind over a period of time, ranging from months to millions of years (the classical period is 30 years). The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and due to changes in external factors that affect climate (called forcings). External forcings include natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and variations, as well as human-induced changes in atmospheric composition. radiation powers the climate system. There are three fundamental ways to change the radiation balance of the Earth: 1) by changing the incoming radiation (e.g., by changes in Earths orbit or in the Sun itself); 2) by changing the fraction of radiation that is reflected (called albedo; e.g., by changes in cloud cover, atmospheric particles or vegetation); and 3) by altering the longwave radiation from Earth back towards space (e.g., by changing greenhouse

gas concentrations). Climate, in turn, responds directly to such changes, as well as indirectly, through a variety of feedback mechanisms. The amount of energy reaching the top of Earths atmosphere each second on a surface area of one square metre facing the Sun during daytime is about 1,370 Watts, and the amount of energy per square metre per second averaged over the entire planet is one-quarter of this (see Figure 1). About 30% of the sunlight that reaches the top of the atmosphere is reflected back to space. Roughly two-thirds of this reflectivity is due to clouds and small particles in the atmosphere known as aerosols. Light-coloured areas of Earths surface mainly snow, ice and deserts reflect the remaining one-third of the sunlight. The most dramatic change in aerosol-produced reflectivity comes when major volcanic eruptions eject material very high into the atmosphere.

Characteristics of climate types:

The sun is ultimately responsible for the weather. Its rays are absorbed differently by land and water surfaces (equal amounts of radiation heat the ground more quickly than they do water). Differential warming, in turn, causes variations in the temperature and pressure of overlying air masses. As an air mass warms, it becomes lighter and rises higher into the atmosphere. As an air mass cools, it becomes heavier and sinks. Pressure differences between masses of air generate winds, which tend to blow from high-pressure areas to areas of low pressure. Fast-moving, upper atmosphere winds known as jet streams help move weather systems around the world. Large weather systems called cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere); they are also called lows, because their centers are low-pressure areas. Clouds and precipitation are usually associated with these systems. Anticyclones, or highs, rotate in the opposite direction and are high-pressure areas - usually bringing clearer skies and more settled weather. The boundary between two air masses is called a weather front. Here, wind, temperature, and humidity change abruptly, producing atmospheric instability. When things get out of balance in the atmosphere, storms develop, bringing rain or snow and sometimes thunder and lightning too. The weather you experience is influenced by many factors, including your locations latitude, elevation, and proximity to water bodies. Even the degree of urban development, which creates heat islands, and the amount of snow cover, which chills an overlying air mass, play important roles. It has been said that climate is what you expect; weather is what you get. In other words, you can expect snow in Russia in January, but you may or may not get it on a particular day. The climate of an area or country is known through the average weather over a long period of time. If an area has more dry days throughout the year than wet days, it would

be described as a dry climate; a place which has more cold days than hot days would make it known to have a cold climate.

Passive and Active Energy Controls:

The term architecture refers to an approach to building design that is sensitive to Nature and takes advantage of climatic conditions to achieve human comfort rather than depending on artificial energy that is both costly and environmentally damaging. Unlike the conventional design approach that treats climate as the enemy which has to be kept out of the built environment, architecture endeavours to build as part of the environment using climatic factors to our advantage and utilising the energy of Nature itself to attain required comfort levels. Natures energies can be utilised in two ways - passiveand active and consequently architecture is classified as passive solar and active architecture.

Passive architecture
It relies upon the design or architecture of the building itself to ensure climate control by way of natural thermal conduction, convection and radiation. The rudiments of passive design were developed and used through the centuries by many civilisations across the globe; in fact, many of these early civilisations built dwellings that were better suited to their climatic surroundings than those built today in most developed and developing countries. This has been largely due to the advent of cheap fossil fuels that allowed for artificial temperature and light control at the cost of natural light and cooling. A substantial share of world energy resources is therefore being spent in heating, cooling and lighting of such buildings. The use of passive measures such as natural cross ventilation, sufficient day-lighting, proper insulation, use of adequate shading devices coupled with auxiliary energy systems that are renewable and environment friendly can considerably bring down the costs as well as the energy needs of the building. Passive systems The term passive refers to systems that absorb, store and distribute the suns energy without relying on mechanical devices like pumps and fans, which require additional energy. Passive design reduces the energy requirements of the building by meeting either part or all of its daily cooling, heating and lighting needs through the use of energy. Passive heating Heating the building through the use of energy involves the absorption and storage of incoming radiation, which is then used to meet the heating requirements of the space. Incoming radiation is typically stored in thermal mass such as concrete, brick, rock, water or a material that changes phase according to temperature. Incoming sunlight is regulated by the use of overhangs, awnings and shades while insulating materials can help to reduce heat loss during the night or in the cold season. Vents and dampers are

typically used to distribute warm or cool air from the system to the areas where it is needed. The three most common passive systems are direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain. A direct gain system allows sunlight to windows into on occupied space where it is absorbed by the floor and walls. In the indirect gain system, a medium of heat storage such as wall, in one part of the building absorbs and stores heat, which is then transferred to the rest of the building by conduction, convection or radiation. In an isolated gain system, energy is absorbed in a separate area such as greenhouse or ium, and distributed to the living space by ducts. The incorporation of insulation in passive systems can be effective in conserving additional energy. Passive cooling Passive technology can also be used for cooling purposes. These systems function by either shielding buildings from direct heat gain or by transferring excess heat outside. Carefully designed elements such as overhangs, awnings and eaves shade from high angle summer sun while allowing winter sun to enter the building. Excess heat transfer can be achieved through ventilation or conduction, where heat is lost to the floor and walls. A radiant heat barrier, such as aluminium foil, installed under a roof is able to block upto 95% of radiant heat transfer through the roof. Water evaporation is also an effective method of cooling buildings, since water absorbs a large quantity of heat as it evaporates. Fountains, sprays and ponds provide substantial cooling to the surrounding areas. The use of sprinkler systems to continually wet the roof during the hot season can reduce the cooling requirements by 25%. Trees can induce cooling by transpiration, reducing the surrounding temperature by 4 to 14 degrees F. Active cooling systems of cooling such as evaporative cooling through roof spray and roof pond and desiccant cooling systems have been developed alongwith experimental stratergies like earth-cooling tubes and earth-sheltered buildings. Desiccant cooling systems are designed to dehumidify and cool air. These are particularly suited to hot humid climates where air-conditioning accounts for a major portion of the energy costs. Desiccant materials such as silica gels and certain salt compounds naturally absorb moisture from humid air and release the moisture when heated, a feature that makes them re-useable. In a desiccant system, the sun provides the energy to recharge the desiccants. Once the air has been dehumidified, it can be chilled by evaporative cooling or other methods to provide relatively cool, dry air. This can greatly reduce cooling requirements Passive indirect evaporative cooling techniques include roof spray and roof pond systems. Roof pond The roof pond consists of a shaded water pond over an non-insulated concrete roof. Evaporation of water to the dry atmosphere occurs during day and nighttime. The temperature within the space falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the space, without increasing indoor humidity levels. The limitation of this technique is that it is confined only to single storey structure with flat, concrete roof and also the capital cost is quite high.

Earth cooling tubes These are long pipes buried underground with one end connected to the house and the other end to the outside. Hot exterior air is drawn through these pipes where tit gives up some of its heat to the soil, which is at a much lower temperature at a depth of 3m to 4m below the surface. This cool air is then introduced into the house. Special problems associated with these systems are possible condensation of water within the pipes or evaporation of accumulated water and control of the system. The lack of detailed data about the performance of such systems hinders the large-scale use of such systems. Earth-sheltered buildings During the summer, soil temperatures at certain depths are considerably lower than ambient air temperature, thus providing an important source for dissipation of a buildings excess heat. Conduction or convection can achieve heat dissipation to the ground. Earth sheltering achieves cooling by conduction where part of the building envelope is in direct contact with the soil. Totally underground buildings offer many additional advantages including protection from noise, dust, radiation and storms, limited air infiltration and potentially safety from fires. They provide benefits under both cooling and heating conditions, however the potential for large scale application of the technology are limited; high cost and poor day-lighting conditions being frequent problems. On the other hand, building in partial contact with earth offer interesting cooling possibilities. Sod roofs can considerably reduce heat gain from the roof. Earth berming can considerably reduce heat gain and also increase heat loss to the surrounding soil, resulting in increase in comfort.

Active architecture
It involves the use of collectors and other renewable energy systems like biomass to support the passive features as they allow a greater degree of control over the internal climate and make the whole system more precise. Active systems use panels for heat collection and electrically driven pumps or fans to transport the heat or cold to the required spaces. Electronic devices are used to regulate the collection, storage and distribution of heat within the system. Hybrid systems using a balanced combination of active and passive features provide the best performance. Active systems Active heating In active systems, collectors are used to convert suns energy into useful heat for hot water, space heating or industrial processes. Flat-plate collectors are typically used for this purpose. These most often use light-absorbing plates made of dark coloured material such as metal, rubber or plastic that are covered with glass. The plates transfer the heat to a fluid, usually air or water flowing below them and the fluid is used for immediate heating or stored for later use. There are two basic types of liquid based active systems-

open loop and closed loop. An open loop system circulates potable water itself, through the collector. In closed loop systems, the circulating fluid is kept separate from the system used for potable water supply. This system is mainly used to prevent the freezing of water within the collector system. However, there is no need to go in for such a system in India, as freezing of water is not a possibility. Also closed loop systems are less efficient as the heat exchanger used in the system causes a loss of upto 10 degrees in the temperature of water, at the same time, one has to reckon with the extra cost of the heat exchanger as well as the circulating pumps. Compared to these, thermosiphon systems are more convenient and simple. In Thermosiphon systems, the water circulates from the collector to the storage tank by natural convection and gravity. As long as the absorber keeps collecting heat, water keeps being heated in the collector and rises into the storage tank, placed slightly above (at least 50 cm). The cold water in the tank runs into the collector to replace the water discharged into the tank. The circulation stops when there is no incident radiation. Thermosyphon systems are simple, relatively inexpensive and require little maintenance and can be used for domestic applications. Ponds have been developed ,which harness the sun's energy that can be used for various purposes including production of electricity. Other devices such as cookers, water distillation systems, dryers, etc. have been developed which can be used to reduce energy requirements in domestic households and in industrial applications. Active cooling Absorption cooling systems transfer a heated liquid from the collector to run a generator or a boiler activating the refrigeration loop which cools a storage reservoir from which cool air is drawn into the space. Rankine steam turbine can also be powered by energy to run a compressed air-conditioner or water cooler. refrigeration is independent of electric supply and without any moving parts, for example, Zeolite refrigerator.

Green building Concepts:

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.[1] Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity

Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation[1]

A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on the use of natural materials that are available locally.[2] Other related topics include sustainable design and green architecture. Green building does not specifically address the issue of the retrofitting existing homes.

Reducing environmental impact

Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of new buildings. Buildings account for a large amount of land use, energy and water consumption, and air and atmosphere alteration. Considering the statistics, reducing the amount of natural resources buildings consume and the amount of pollution given off is seen as crucial for future sustainability, according to EPA. The building sector alone accounts for 30-40 percent of global energy use. Over 80 percent of the environmentally harmful emissions from buildings are due to energy consumption during the times when the buildings are in use [3]. Green building does not typically include the concept of renovations although many of the 2050 homes are already built and UK homes account for 30% of UK Carbon Emissions [4] . Domestic energy improvement targets of 20% between now and 2010, and again by a further 20% between 2010 and 2020 have been suggested by the UK government [5]. The environmental impact of buildings is often underestimated, while the perceived costs of green buildings are overestimated. A recent survey by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development finds that green costs are overestimated by 300 percent, as key players in real estate and construction estimate the additional cost at 17 percent above conventional construction, more than triple the true average cost difference of about 5 percent. According to the UK Green Building Council, existing buildings account for 17% of the UK's total carbon emissions.[6]

Goals of green building

The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy (especially fossil oil) crisis and the environment pollution concern in the 1970s.[7] The green building movement in the U.S. originated from the need and desire for more energy efficient and environmentally friendly construction practices. There are a number of motives to building green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the retrofitting of an existing structure. Also known as sustainable

design, this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy amongst the practices used. Green building brings together a vast array of practices and techniques to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of new buildings on the environment and human health. It often emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic techniques and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain gardens, and for reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques, such as using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of ground water, are used as well. While the practices, or technologies, employed in green building are constantly evolving and may differ from region to region, there are fundamental principles that persist from which the method is derived: Siting and Structure Design Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, Water Efficiency, Materials Efficiency, Indoor Environmental Quality Enhancement, Operations and Maintenance Optimization, and Waste and Toxics Reduction.[8][9] The essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to produce a greater cumulative effect. On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are several key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building materials from local sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and generate on-site renewable energy.

Siting and structure design efficiency

See also: Sustainable design The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The concept stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and performance.[10] In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to minimize the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the building project. However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies from one building to the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex products, composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every design variable may affect the environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.[11]

Energy efficiency
Main articles: Low-energy house and Zero-energy building Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy use. To increase the efficiency of the building envelope, (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space), they may use high-efficiency windows and insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another

strategy, passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees[12] to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. Solar water heating further reduces energy loads. Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power, or biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.

Water efficiency
See also: Water conservation Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use water treatment and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of nonsewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.[13]

Materials efficiency
See also: Sustainable architecture Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo (because bamboo grows quickly) and straw, lumber from forests certified to be sustainably managed, ecology blocks, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal, and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable (e.g. Trass, Linoleum, sheep wool, panels made from paper flakes, compressed earth block, adobe, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, seagrass, cork, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood fibre plates, calcium sand stone, concrete (high and ultra high performance, roman self-healing concrete[14]) , etc.[15][16]) The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects [17] Building materials should be extracted and manufactured locally to the building site to minimize the energy embedded in their transportation. Where possible, building elements should be manufactured off-site and delivered to site, to maximise benefits of off-site manufacture including minimising waste, maximising

recycling (because manufacture is in one location), high quality elements, better OHS management, less noise and dust.

Indoor environmental quality enhancement

See also: Indoor Air Quality The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five environmental categories, was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.[18] Indoor Air Quality seeks to reduce volatile organic compounds, or VOC's, and other air impurities such as microbial contaminants. Buildings rely on a properly designed HVAC system to provide adequate ventilation and air filtration as well as isolate operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing construction materials and interior finish products with zero or low emissions will improve IAQ. Many building materials and cleaning/maintenance products emit toxic gases, such as VOC's and formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact on occupants' health and productivity as well. Avoiding these products will increase a building's IEQ. Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly designed building envelope will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of natural and artificial light sources will improve on the lighting quality of a structure.[13][19]

Operations and maintenance optimization

No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. Ensuring operations and maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process will help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.[20] Every aspect of green building is integrated into the O&M phase of a building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green practices such as recycling and air quality enhancement take place.

Waste reduction
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the state's waste comes from commercial buildings[21] During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material going to landfills. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as compost bins to reduce matter going to landfills.

To reduce the impact on wells or water treatment plants, several options exist. "Greywater", wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater collectors are used for similar purposes. Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semi-centralized biogas plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create carbon sinks that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also more costly in energy than this process.[22]

Unit-V

Town Planning
Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level. The Greek Hippodamus is often considered the father of city planning, for his design of Miletus, though examples of planned cities permeate antiquity. Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise), although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne. City planning embraces the organisation, or conscious influencing, of land-use distribution in an area already built-up or intended to become built-up. In ancient times, Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in Turin. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges.

Planning and aesthetics

In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as bollards (signposts), signs, and hoardings (temporary fences around construction sites). Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate. Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood zones. Some say that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna. While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch (and, in case, with some risk of unsuccessful examples like for Braslia), planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged as smart growth. There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the plans often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. See List of planned cities. Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique monuments and gardening in the park, and unique gates or boundary-markers for the edges of the cell. The commercial areas naturally become diverse. These differences help instill a sense of place, while the similarities of the cells make each place in the city familiar.

Planning and safety

Many cities are constructed in places subject to flood, storm surges, extreme weather or war. City planners can cope with these. If the dangers can be localized (for flood or storm surge), the affected regions can be made into parkland or greenbelt, often with lovely results. Another practical method is simply to build the city on ridges, and the parks and farms in valleys. Extreme weather, flood, war or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure evacuation routes and emergency operations centers. These are so inexpensive and unintrusive that they're a reasonable precaution for any urban space.

Many cities also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters. Some planning methods might help an elite control ordinary citizens. This was certainly the case of Rome (Italy), where Fascism in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. France currently uses similar methods to control ethnic-arabic groups on welfare. In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practising the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more bearable. City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories like socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism. Other social theories point out that in England and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalise the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.

Planning and transportation

There is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the amount of transportation into that environment. Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport. Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-storey apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away. Densities are usually measured as the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below 1.5 are low density. Plot ratios above five are very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centers are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. Higher densities tempt developers with higher profits. City authorities may try to lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some

observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provide adequate demand or funding for that infrastructure. Automobiles are well suited to serve densities as high as 1.5 with basic limited-access highways. Innovations such as car-pool lanes and rush-hour use taxes may get automobiles to neighbourhoods with plot ratios as high as 2.5. Densities above 5 are well-served by trains. Most such areas were actually developed in response to trains in the middle 1800s, and have historically high ridership that have never used automobiles for their work trip. A widespread problem is that there is a range of residential densities between about two and five that causes severe traffic jams of automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity are both available, achieving less than 1% ridership. Some theoretricians speculate that personal rapid transit might coax people from their automobiles, and yet effectively serve intermediate densities, but this has not been demonstrated. The Lewis-Mogridge Position claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion.

Planning and suburbanization

In some countries declining satisfaction with the urban environment is held to blame for continuing migration to smaller towns and rural areas Urban Exodus, so successful urban planning can bring benefits to a much larger hinterland or city region and help to reduce both congestion along transportation routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive commuting. A strong belief that the behaviour of individuals living in or frequenting an area can be heavily influenced by its physical design and layout is called environmental determinism.

Planning and the environment

Arcology seeks to unify the fields of ecology and architecture, especially landscape architecture, to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things. On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100-140 person scale for communities. In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening assumes a central role not only in agriculture but in the daily life of citizens. A series of related movements including green anarchism, eco-anarchism, eco-feminism and Slow Food have put this in a political context as part of a focus on smaller systems of resource extraction, and waste disposal, ideally as part of living machines which do such recycling automatically, just as nature does. The modern theory of natural capital

emphasizes this as the primary difference between natural and infrastructural capital, and seeks an economic basis for rationalizing a move back towards smaller village units. A common form of planning that leads to suburban sprawl is single use zoning.

Zoning Regulations:
Zoning is a device of land use planning used by local governments in most developed countries.[1][2][3] The word is derived from the practice of designating permitted uses of land based on mapped zones which separate one set of land uses from another. Zoning may be use-based (regulating the uses to which land may be put), or it may regulate building height, lot coverage, and similar characteristics, or some combination of these. Similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times.

Scope
Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing residents or businesses and to preserve the "character" of a community. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime may be determined or limited by state or national planning authorities or through enabling legislation.[4] In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth (federal) government is not subject to state planning controls. The United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes. In the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed (from low-density housing such as single family homes to high-density such as high-rise apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may occupy, the location of a building on the lot (setbacks), the proportions of the types of space on a lot, such as how much landscaped space, impervious surface, traffic lanes, and parking must be provided. In Germany, zoning usually includes building design, very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar. For example, in the state of Victoria, Australia, land use zones are combined with a system of planning scheme overlays to account for the multiplicity of factors that impact on desirable urban outcomes in any location. Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances (exceptions to the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question.

Basically, urban zones fall into one of five major categories: residential, mixed residential-commercial, commercial, industrial and special (e. g. power plants, sports complexes, airports, shopping malls etc.). Each category can have a number of subcategories. In Germany, e. g., each category has a designated limit for noise emissions (not part of the building code, but federal emissions code). In the United States or Canada, for example, residential zones can have the following sub-categories: 1. Residential occupancies containing sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in nature, including: boarding houses, hotels, motels 2. Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature, including: apartment houses, boarding houses, convents, dormitories. 3. Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature and not classified as Group R-1, R-2, R-4 or I, including: buildings that do not contain more than two dwelling units, adult care facilities for five or fewer persons for less than 24 hours. 4. Residential occupancies shall include buildings arranged for occupancy as residential care/assisted living facilities including more than five but not more than 16 occupants. Under the police power rights state governments may exercise over private real property, special laws and regulations were long made, restricting the places where particular businesses should be carried on. In 1916, New York City adopted the first zoning regulations to apply city-wide as a reaction to The Equitable Building which towered over the neighboring residences, diminishing the availability of sunshine. These laws set the pattern for zoning in the rest of the country. New York City went on to develop ever more complex regulations, including floor-area ratio regulations, air rights and others for specific neighborhoods. The constitutionality of zoning ordinances was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1926 case Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.. Among large populated cities in the United States, Houston is unique in having no zoning ordinances.[5] Rather, land use is regulated by other means.[6]

Zoning types in the United States

Zoning codes have evolved over the years as urban planning theory has changed, legal constraints have fluctuated, and political priorities have shifted. The various approaches to zoning can be divided into four broad categories: Euclidean, Performance, Incentive, and Design-based. Named for the type of zoning code adopted in the town of Euclid, Ohio, and approved in a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.[7] Euclidean zoning codes are the most prevalent in the United States.[citation needed] Euclidean zoning is characterized by the segregation of land uses into specified

geographic districts and dimensional standards stipulating limitations on development activity within each type of district. Advantages include relative effectiveness, ease of implementation, long-established legal precedent, and familiarity. However, Euclidean zoning has received criticism for its lack of flexibility and institutionalization of nowoutdated planning theory. Also known as "Effects-based planning", Performance Zoning uses performance-based or goal-oriented criteria to establish review parameters for proposed development projects. Performance Zoning is intended to provide flexibility, rationality, transparency and accountability, avoiding the arbitrariness of the Euclidian approach and better accommodating market principles and private property rights with environmental protection. Difficulties included a requirement for a high level of discretionary activity on the part of the supervising authority. Performance zoning has not been widely adopted in the USA. First implemented in Chicago and New York City, incentive zoning is intended to provide a reward-based system to encourage development that meets established urban development goals.[8] Typically, the method establishes a base level of limitations and a reward scale to entice developers to incorporate the desired development criteria. Incentive zoning allows a high degree of flexibility, but can be complex to administer. Form-based codes offer considerably more flexibility in building uses than do Euclidean codes. Form based zoning regulates not the type of land use, but the form that that land use may take. For instance, form based zoning in a dense area may insist on low setbacks, high density, and pedestrian accessibility.

Criticism of Zoning Laws

Much criticism of zoning laws comes from those who see the restrictions as a violation of property rights. It has been argued that zoning boards and city councils too easily can strip property owners of their right to unencumbered use of their land. It has also been argued that zoning laws work against economic efficiency and therefore hinder development in a free economy. A poor zoning restriction could hinder the optimal efficient usage of a given area. Even without any zoning restrictions, a landfill, for example, would likely gravitate to cheaper land rather than being placed in a residential area. Also, strict zoning laws can get in the way of creative developments like mixed-use buildings and can even stop harmless activities like yard sales.[9] While admitting that many zoning restrictions are attempts to prevent conflicts that could be resolved through nuisance and real covenant claims, zoning proponents defend restrictions as promoting greater economic efficiency by protecting the property values of a given area, as well as limiting subsequent nuisance claims when landowners have already made large investments in their land. In French zoning by income instead of with mixed occupation is called "zonage

Principles of Landscape Design:

Design is as individualistic as the person who designs. However, the elements and principles of design are means through which a designer monitors the effectiveness and success of a project. These elements and principles serve as structures and guidelines for design development. The design elements are the tools a designer uses to accomplish the design principles in a project. No consensus exists within the design world on the finite list of elements and principles. Definitions and understanding differ from one person to another. The elements of design are line, form, texture, and color. A designer uses these elements to generate a design. The principles of design are focalization, proportion and scale, balance, order and unity, repetition, rhythm and sequence, and interconnection. Use the elements of design to accomplish these design principles. Most artists incorporate the principles of design into their projects. However, some artists break the principles. Experienced artists who break the principles with solid intentions are usually successful. These artists use line, form, texture, and color to complete a composition*. However, the artists may or may not incorporate all the principles of design into the composition. Landscape designers are artists. The same elements and principles of design found in works of art also apply to landscape design. These elements and principles of design make up the art and science of landscape design. ELEMENTS OF DESIGN The elements of design are the visual and physical features of the plant and hardscape components that make up a landscape design. These features include line, form, texture, and color. A landscape designer uses these features to enhance the design principles. -2Line Line plays an important role in a landscape. This design element causes physical and/or visual movement. Line leads the viewers eyes through the landscaped space. It defines and delineates space. A skilled designer

recognizes the use of line. He/she applies line in all aspects of the landscape. As a designer, incorporate line into a landscape by using contrasting plant material and by forming patterns with similar plant materials. Pattern is line organized in a repetitive sequence. Examples of lines created in a landscape include ground patterns, edges of contrasting plant materials, and tree tops meeting the sky. Steer physical or visual movement directly through the environment. Use straight lines to represent formality or a contemporary concept. Intersecting straight lines suggest hesitation, change of view or direction, or a pause. Meandering or curved lines suggest a more relaxed, slower movement. Use these to create a casual, informal concept. Form Form is the two or three-dimensional shape and structure of an object or space. Whether it is two or three dimensional, form is line surrounding mass. The shapes of trees and the areas of grass bound by edging are examples of form expressed in a landscape. The air space created by two plant materials set side by side is also an expression of form. All the components in a landscape have a distinctive and natural form. The forms of plants contribute to the total design composition. The basic form of each plant depends on the plants natural growth habit. Some of the more common forms of landscape plants include round, conical, oval, weeping, horizontal, and upright. -3Most deciduous trees and shrubs have a rounded form. A conical form is characteristic of many evergreen trees. Evergreen shrubs have more of a horizontal form. The concept or theme for a landscape dictates which forms are most appropriate within that concept or theme. Formal concepts suggest the use of very tailored forms of plant material and ground beds. Such a formal landscape would include very straight, crisp, and precise planting beds; topiaries; and other visually clean-lined plants. Informal or woodland concepts mandate much more irregular or natural forms. Casual curving ground beds and loosely branched trees and vines have forms to satisfy this concept. As a designer, incorporate form into a landscape to manipulate a persons emotions. Use vertical forms for strong accents and for adding height. Horizontal or spreading forms add visual width to tall structures. Incorporate

weeping or drooping forms to create soft lines and to provide a transition to the ground plane. Rounded plant forms create large masses and are effective as borders and enclosures. Consider the element of form when making design decisions regarding design details for plants, structures, and ground patterns. Texture Texture is the surface quality of any plant material or structure in the landscape. It is the feature of a plant or structures physical surface qualities as determined by form and size. Texture is also a feature of the aggregation of the minor units that make up the plant or structure. Texture is relative. It must be seen as a comparison. Texture is analyzed by comparison between objects, by association of these objects with each other, and by distance. Texture is associated with the senses of touch and sight. Referring to the physical surface of plants (smooth, rough, shiny, or dull), texture is tactile. Texture is also viewed as the organization of the size and arrangement of a plants component parts (leaves, stems, and branches). In addition to being a physical feeling like rough or soft, texture also describes how one perceives a visual difference. For example, the leaves of one plant are rough and coarse when compared to the smaller leaves of a second plant. However, when compared to the larger leaves of a third plant, the smaller leaves of the first plant appear smooth and fine. As another example, consider coarse-grade pea gravel. Next to fine sand, the pea gravel has a coarse texture. When compared to granite or marble chips, the coarse-grade pea gravel has a finer texture. -4-