Teaching English As A Foreign Language

Contents
A.In the restaurant..........................................................................................................46

I actor.............................................................................................................................46
II actor............................................................................................................................46
Teacher's notes...............................................................................................................46
B.Taxi court role ...........................................................................................................47
Passenger:......................................................................................................................47
Cabbie:...........................................................................................................................47
You do not think you should be in taxi court. Saturday night, you picked up a drunk
man and his girlfriend. He was so drunk that you couldn't understand his directions.
You repeated "Cadman Plaza?". The customer was already kissing his girlfriend and
didn't answer..................................................................................................................47
C. Neighbors at odds role cards ....................................................................................47
Create the atmosphere of a block of flats. There are many residents. Introduce the topic
to the pupils. Ask if the pupils have neighbors and what relations they have with their
neighbors........................................................................................................................47
The first resident aprt.102..............................................................................................47
The second resident aprt.202.........................................................................................48
Introduction
As a future teacher at a middle school, my main objective will be to help
the pupils to master English at a high level. This fact makes us use such
terms that are generally handled in methodology. They are: approach,
technique, method. When we use the word approach we mean that an idea
or theory is being applied, that whatever the teacher does, certain theoretical
2
principles are always borne in mind. When we talk about a technique, we
mean a procedure used in classroom. Finally, a method is a set of procedures
or a collection of techniques used in a systematic way which it is hoped to
result in efficient learning. A technique is the narrowest term, meaning one
single procedure. A method will consist of a number of techniques, probably
arranged in a specific order. The word approach is much more general and
has the implication that whatever method or techniques the teacher uses, he
does not feel bound by these, but only by the theory in which will fit in with
his approach, then we will adopt them. Different approaches may share the
same techniques and even the same methods, and different methods may
share the same techniques, some techniques have developed independently
but many of the important ones have arisen particular methods.
Language teaching is a side of education that makes use not only of the
language materials but of pragmatics. One of the most important approaches
in teaching English as a second language is the communicative one. We
throw forward this idea because the essence of the relations in life is
created thanks to communication.
The aim of my paper is to bring home to the great majority ways to help
the pupils to handle successfully the language.
Aim and tasks of the investigation have made us use the following
methods:
- the analytical methods;
- the comparative methods;
- the elements of the statistical methods.
The structure of the paper is as follows: it consists of an introduction,
three chapters, conclusion and bibliography.
3
In Introduction the importance of the topic investigation is discussed
the aims, tasks and methods used throughout the research.
Chapter 1 is devoted to the theoretical aspect of the question that is the
language teaching, its history, its methods, approaches and techniques.
Chapter 2 touches upon the communicative approach, its necessity and
its history. It comes out according to different opinions this approach stands
at the bases of the development of speech habits at foreign language
learners. The role of the teacher is to encourage and to motivate the pupils’
participation.
In Chapter 3 you can find the classification of the communicative
activities according to their structure and the aim of their usage. We propose
some exercises too that may help all the teachers in heightening the fluency.
In Conclusion the results of the licenta paper investigation are summed.
The Bibliography includes the list of literature and the web sites used in
the investigation.
CHAPTER ONE: General Issues of Teaching English as a

Foreign Language
§1.1The needs of a foreign language teaching
When Aristotle wrote All we do is done with an eye to something else over
two thousand years ago1, he probably did not realize that he would be helping
introduce a book on human teaching.
1
www.methodenglish.com
4
Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century.
Central to this phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of "methods"
of language teaching. The method concept in language teaching—the notion
of a systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of
language and language learning—is a powerful one, and the quest for better
methods was a preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout
the 20th century. Howatt's (1984)2 overview documents the history of
changes of practice in language teaching throughout history, bringing the
chronology up through the Direct Method in the 20th century. One of the
most lasting legacies of the Direct Method has been the notion of "method"
itself.
Methodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of
ways. When speaking about methodology 3 main terms are very important.
A more or less classical formulation suggests that methodology is that
which links theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of
what language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories
of second language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked to various
design features of language instruction. These design features might include
stated objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of
teachers, learners, materials, and so forth. Design features in turn are linked
to actual teaching and learning practices as observed in the environments
where language teaching and learning take place. This whole complex of
elements defines language teaching methodology. When the linguists and the
language specialists sought to improve the quality of language teaching in
2
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.-p.29
5
the late 19th century, they often did so by referring to general principles and
theories concerning how languages are learned, how knowledge of language
is represented and organized in memory, or how language itself is structured.
The early applied linguistics such as Henry Sweet, Otto Jespersen, Harold
Palmer3, elaborated principles and theoretically accountable approaches to
the design of language teaching. When they analyzed all the principles a lot
of things were left out. An attempt to clarify the differences, Edward
Anthony proposed a scheme. He identified three levels of conceptualization
and organization, which he termed as approach, method and technique.
…an approach is asset of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the
nature of the subject matter to be taught.
…….method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material…………… An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.
Within one approach there can be many methods.
A technique is implementational –that which happens in the classroom.4
Following Anthony, approach refers to theories about the nature of the
language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and
principles in language teaching. In order for an approach to lead to a method,
it is necessary to develop a design for the instructional system. Design is the
level of method analysis in which we consider what the objectives of a
method are, how language content is selected and organized within the
method, the types of learning tasks, the roles of learners, the role of the
teachers, the role of instructional material. 5
3
Richards, J Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press.2001-p.18
4
Richards, J Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press.2001-p.19
5
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.-p.56
6
§1.2Schools of Language Teaching Methodology
Within methodology a distinction is often made between methods and

approaches, in which methods are held to be fixed teaching systems with
prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches represent language
teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied in a variety of
different ways in the classroom. This distinction is probably most usefully
seen as defining a continuum of entities ranging from highly prescribed
methods to loosely described approaches.
7
The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as "The
Age of Methods," 6during which a number of quite detailed prescriptions for
language teaching were proposed. Situational Language Teaching evolved in
the United Kingdom while a parallel method, Audio-Lingualism, emerged in
the United States. In the middle-methods period, a variety of methods were
proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language
Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted
under such titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language
Learning, and Total Physical Response. In the 1980s, these methods in turn
came to be overshadowed by more interactive views of language teaching,
which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT). Communicative Language Teaching advocates subscribed to a broad
set of principles such as these:
• Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.
• Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of
classroom activities.
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
• Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error.
However, CLT advocates avoided prescribing the set of practices through
which these principles could best be realized, thus putting CLT clearly on
the approach rather than the method end of the spectrum.
Communicative Language Teaching has spawned a number of off-shoots
that share the same basic set of principles, but which spell out philosophical
details or envision instructional practices in somewhat diverse ways. These
6
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.-p.78
8
CLT spin-off approaches include The Natural Approach, Cooperative
Language Learning, Content-Based Teaching, and Task-Based Teaching.
It is difficult to describe these various methods briefly and yet fairly, and
such a task is well beyond the scope of this paper. However, several up-to-
date texts are available that do detail differences and similarities among the
many different approaches and methods that have been proposed. 7Perhaps it
is possible to get a sense of the range of method proposals by looking at a
synoptic view of the roles defined for teachers and learners within various
methods. Such a synoptic (perhaps scanty) view can be seen in the following
chart.
TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER
ROLES
Teacher
Method Learner Roles
Roles
Context Setter
Situational Language Imitator
Error
Teaching Memorizer
Corrector
Pattern
Language
Practicer
Audio-lingualism Modeler
Accuracy
Drill Leader
Enthusiast
Communicative Language Needs Analyst Improvisor
Teaching Task Designer Negotiator
Total Physical Response Commander Order Taker
Action Performer
7
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.-p.90
9
Monitor
Community Language Counselor Collaborator
Learning Paraphraser Whole Person
Actor Guesser
The Natural Approach
Props User Immerser
Auto-
hypnotist Relaxer
Suggestopedia
Authority True-Believer
Figure
As suggested in the chart, some schools of methodology see the teacher as

ideal language model and commander of classroom activity (e.g., Audio-
Lingual Method, Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, Total Physical
Response) whereas others see the teacher as background facilitator and
classroom colleague to the learners (e.g., Communicative Language
Teaching, Cooperative Language Learning).
There are other global issues to which spokespersons for the various
methods and approaches respond in alternative ways. For example, should
second language learning by adults be modeled on first language learning by
children? One set of schools (e.g., Total Physical Response, Natural
Approach) notes that first language acquisition is the only universally
successful model of language learning we have, and thus that second
language pedagogy must necessarily model itself on first language
acquisition. An opposed view (e.g., Silent Way, Suggestopedia) observes that
adults have different brains, interests, timing constraints, and learning
environments than do children, and that adult classroom learning therefore
10
has to be fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature
fashions how first languages are learned by children.
Another key distinction turns on the role of perception versus production in
early stages of language learning. One school of thought proposes that
learners should begin to communicate, to use a new language actively, on
first contact (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Silent Way, Community Language
Learning), while the other school of thought states that an initial and
prolonged period of reception (listening, reading) should precede any
attempts at production (e.g., Natural Approach).
§1.3 The Future of Methodology

The future is always uncertain, and this is no less true in anticipating
methodological directions in second language teaching than in any other
field. Some current predictions assume the carrying on and refinement of
current trends; others appear a bit more science-fiction-like in their vision.
Outlined below are 10 scenarios that are likely to shape the teaching of
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second languages in the next decades of the new millennium. These
methodological candidates are given identifying labels in a somewhat
tongue-in-cheek style, perhaps a bit reminiscent of yesteryear's method
labels.
1. Teacher/Learner Collaborates8
Matchmaking techniques will be developed which will link learners and
teachers with similar styles and approaches to language learning.
Looking at the Teacher and Learner roles sketched in Figure 2, one can
anticipate development of a system in which the preferential ways in
which teachers teach and learners learn can be matched in instructional
settings, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological
resources.
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2. Method Synergistics
Crossbreeding elements from various methods into a common program
of instruction seems an appropriate way to find those practices which
best support effective learning. Methods and approaches have usually
been proposed as idiosyncratic and unique, yet it appears reasonable to
combine practices from different approaches where the philosophical
foundations are similar. One might call such an approach "Disciplined
Eclecticism."
8
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native-like selection and native-like
fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. London: Longman.-p.67
9
12
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3. Curriculum Developmentalism
Language teaching has not profited much from more general views of
educational design. The curriculum perspective comes from general
education and views successful instruction as an interweaving of
Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and Administrative considerations.
From this perspective, methodology is viewed as only one of several
instructional considerations that are necessarily thought out and realized
in conjunction with all other curricular considerations.
4. Content-Basics11
Content-based instruction assumes that language learning is a by-product

of focus on meaning--on acquiring some specific topical content--and
that content topics to support language learning should be chosen to best
match learner needs and interests and to promote optimal development of
second language competence. A critical question for language educators
is "what content" and "how much content" best supports language
learning. The natural content for language educators is literature and
language itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in
literature and in the topic of "language: the basic human technology" as
sources of content in language teaching.
12
5. Multintelligencia
The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of

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11
12
13
human talents proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model is one of
a variety of learning style models that have been proposed in general
education with follow-up inquiry by language educators. The chart below
shows Gardner's proposed eight native intelligences and indicates
classroom language-rich task types that play to each of these particular
intelligences. The challenge here is to identify these intelligences in
individuallearners and then to determine appropriate and realistic
instructional tasks in response.
INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND

APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Intellegence
Educational Activities
Type
lectures, worksheets, word games,
Linguistic
journals, debates
Logical puzzles, estimations, problem solving
charts, diagrams, graphic organizers,
Spatial
drawing, films
Bodily hands-on, mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal group work, peer tutoring, class projects
reflection, interest centers, personal
Intrapersonal
values tasks
field trips, show and tell, plant and
Naturalist
animal projects
6. Total Functional Response 13
13
14
Communicative Language Teaching was founded (and floundered) on
earlier notional/functional proposals for the description of languages.
Now new leads in discourse and genre analysis, schema theory,
pragmatics, and systemic/functional grammar are rekindling an interest in
functionally based approaches to language teaching. One pedagogical
proposal has led to a widespread reconsideration of the first and second
language program in Australian schools where instruction turns on five
basic text genres identified as Report, Procedure, Explanation,
Exposition, and Recount. Refinement of functional models will lead to
increased attention to genre and text types in both first and second
language instruction.
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7. Strategopedia
"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on

language learning strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic
level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive
strategies for learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. Research
findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to language learners,
that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks, and
that such application does produce significant gains in language learning.
Simple and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learners
remember and access new second language vocabulary items, will attract
considerable instructional interest in Strategopedia.
14
www.wikepedia.com
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8. Lexical Phraseology
The lexical phraseology view holds that only "a minority of spoken
clauses are entirely novel creations" and that "memorized clauses and
clause-sequences form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech
heard in every day conversation." One estimate is that "the number of
memorized complete clauses and sentences known to the mature English
speaker probably amounts, at least, to several hundreds of thousands" .
Understanding of the use of lexical phrases has been immensely aided by
large-scale computer studies of language corpora, which have provided
hard data to support the speculative inquiries into lexical phraseology of
second language acquisition researchers. For language teachers, the
results of such inquiries have led to conclusions that language teaching
should center on these memorized lexical patterns and the ways they can
be pieced together, along with the ways they vary and the situations in
which they occur.
9. O-zone Whole Language
Renewed interest in some type of "Focus on Form" has provided a major
impetus for recent second language acquisition (SLA) research. "Focus
on Form" proposals, variously labeled as consciousness-raising, noticing,
attending, and enhancing input, are founded on the assumption that
students will learn only what they are aware of. Whole Language
proponents have claimed that one way to increase learner awareness of
how language works is through a course of study that incorporates
broader engagement with language, including literary study, process
writing, authentic content, and learner collaboration.
10. Full-Frontal Communicativity
We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents
16
only a small fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has
gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-
verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation
is negligible." Despite these cautions, language teaching has chosen to
restrict its attention to the linguistic component of human
communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The
methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-
linguistic aspects of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch,
intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial
expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging.
Chapter II. Language Communication Teaching
§2.1 The Essence of Communicational Approach
The subject matter of my research is the development of speech habits at

school during the classes of English. When speaking about the development
of the speech, we refer to communicative language teaching approach.
Communication is the process of passing information and understanding
from one person to another. The communication process involves six basic
elements: sender (encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder), noise, and
17
feedback. Supervisors can improve communication skills by becoming
aware of these elements and how they contribute to successful
communication. Communication can break down at any one of these
elements.
Sender Encodes
The sender initiates the communication process. When the sender has
decided on a meaning, he or she encodes a message, and selects a channel
for transmitting the message to a receiver. To encode is to put a message into
18
words or images. The message is the information that the sender wants to
transmit. The medium is the means of communication, such as print, mass,
electrical, and digital. As a sender, the supervisor should define the purpose
of the message, construct each message with the receiver in mind, select the
best medium, time each transmission thoughtfully, and seek feedback. Words
can be verbal - written and spoken. Words are used to create pictures and
stories (scenarios) are used to create involvement.
This is the essence of the communicative language teaching approach. The

origins of CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language
teaching tradition from the late 1960’s. Until then the situational language
teaching represented the major British approach to teaching English as
foreign language in situational language teaching, the language was taught
by practicing
Basic structures in situation-based activities. In the mid 60’s. British applied
linguists began to call into question the theoretical assumptions underlying
situational language teaching:
By the end of the 60’s it was clear that the situational approach had run its
course…………15
This was a response to the sorts of criticisms the American linguist Noam
Chomsky had leveled at the structural linguistic theory in his classic book
Syntactic Structures. Chomsky had demonstrated that the current standard
Structural theories of the language were incapable to account for the
fundamental characteristic of the language- the creativity and uniqueness of
individual sentences. The other linguists saw that the need to focus in
15
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching (2nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.-p.153
19
language on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery
structures. Scholars who advocated this view were C. Candlin,
H.widdowson, J.Firth, D.Hymes, W. Labov.Both American and British
proponents now see it is an approach that aims to make the communicatice
competence the goal of language teaching; to develop procedures for the
teaching of four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of
language and communication. CLT is more than an integration of
grammatical and functional teaching. Littlewood states :
One of the most characteristic features of CLT is that it pays systematic

attention to functional as well as to the grammatical aspects of the
language.16
This means using procedures where learners work in pairs employing

available language resources in problem solving tasks . The development
of this approach is the essence of the society, without the communication the
child , the pupil and the society can not live.
A more pedagogical analysis of the CLT was given by Henry Widdowson.

He identifies four dimensions of communicative competence :
Grammatical competence is what refers to Chomsky’s linguistic

competence. It is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity.
Sociolinguistic competence to an understanding of the social context in

which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared
information of the participants.
16
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.-p155
20
Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message
elements.
Strategic competence refers to the copying strategies that communicator

employs to initiate, maintain and terminate the conversation.
When speaking about the implementation of the CLT in school, we can say
that Piepho draws the attention to the following objectives:17
1. An integrative and content level
2. A linguistic and instrumental level
3. An effective level of expressing interpersonal relationships( a means

of expressing values and judgments about oneself and the others)
4. A level of individual learning needs( remedial learning based on

error analysis)
5. A general educational level of extra-linguistic goals( language

learning within the school curriculum)
The emphasis in CLT on the processes of communication leads to different

roles for the learners. Thus candling says that the role of the learner is that
of a negotiator18.There is an acknowledgement that learners bring
preconceptions of what teaching and learning should be like. The teacher
has a role too. In such a way according to Breen:
17
18
21
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the
communication between the participants in the classroom……the second
role is to act as an independent participant within the learning- teaching
group.
The other roles of the teacher according to Jack C.Richards are needs
analyst,
Councelor, and group process manager.
The needs analyst is the teacher’s responsibility for determining and

responding to learner language needs. Typically these assignments contain
items that attempt to determine an individual’s motivation for studying the
language.
The teacher counselor is expected to exemplify an effective communicator

seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention and of the hearer
interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation and feedback.
CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered

classroom management skills. It is the teacher’s job to organize the
classroom as a setting for communication. Guidelines for classroom
practice suggest that during an activity the teacher monitors, encourages
and suppresses the inclination to have gaps in grammar and lexis. The
focus on fluency and comprehensibility may cause anxiety among teachers
that are accustomed to seeing error suppression and correction as the major
instructional responsibility.
A great variety of materials are used to support CLT approach. The

materials currently used are text- based, task- based and realia.
22
There are a lot of textbooks designed to direct and support CLT. Their
tables of content sometimes suggest a kind of grading and sequencing of
language practice not unlike those found in structurally organized texts.
Some of these are written around a largely structural syllabus, with slight
reformatting to justify their claims to be based on a communicative
approach.
A variety of games, role plays, simulations and task- based communication

activities have been prepared to support CLT. These typically are in-one-of-
a-kind items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-
communication practice materials and student interaction booklets. In pair
communication materials enter two sets of material for pair of student.
They contain different information. Sometimes the information is
complementary and the partners must fit their parts in the jigsaw. Others
assume different role relationships for the partners.
Many proponents of CLT have advocated the use of authentic, from-life

materials. These might include language-based realia, such as signs,
magazines, newspapers, visual sources around which the communicative
activities can be built.
Generally all the activities that are used in developing the speech habits
should undergo a procedure.
23
Structural activities
Pre-communicative activities
Quasi-communicative activities
Functional communication
Communicative activities
Social interactional activities
As you can observe the class of communication is supposed to be very well

structured if we want to achieve results. Thus before the speaking begins it
is necessary to prepare the class for the topic. The pupils are given
structures for training, then they are supposed to introduce the formulas in
some situations.
This is going to take a period of time before the speaking itself starts. When
the pupils have a command of the formulas they are given the intended
tasks. Only after it different types of discourses are used. To sum up I
would like to mention that the preparation and the training of CLT is a very
hardworking and a time-taking job.
24
Chapter III. Oral Communication Skills in Pedagogical
Research.
When someone asks you Do you speak English?, they usually mean if you
can carry on a conversation. The goals and the techniques for teaching
conversation are diverse, depending on the student, teacher, context, class.
Recent pedagogical research on teaching conversation has provided some
parameters for developing objectives and techniques.
Generally speaking when working on CLT we are interested in fluency and

comprehension. There has been a controversy over the role of
pronunciation work in a communicative course. The problem is that the
foreign language learners will never keep in mind perfectly the stress and
the intonation.
This fact as many others can bring to misunderstanding.
There are many cases in the everyday usage of CLT when the pupils meet
some problems. This is related to some peculiarities of the language.
§3.1What makes Speaking Difficult?19
Douglas Brown in his book Teaching by Principles draws the attention of

the teachers to some things that may stop the understanding.
• Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word. Learners can

organize their output both cognitively and physically. When we
speak we break our speech in small parts. Clauses are common
19
Brown ,D. Teaching by Principles, Second Edition. San Francisco State University.2001-p.270
25
constituents, but the phrases within the clauses are more easily
retained. This the job of the teacher when handling a communication.
• Reduced forms. This is a process where some unstressed syllables

are lost in the flow of speech. In English there are a lot of reduced
forms. They phonological(Dijeetjt), morphological(I’ll),
syntactical(tomorrow, may be). These reductions pose a lot of
difficulties, especially for language learners who were exposed to
full forms.
• Rate of delivery. The speed can stop the understanding too. That is
why you are supposed to teach the pupils the speed along with other
attributes of the fluency. The learners will nevertheless be able to
comprehend the speech a any rate of delivery.
• Stress, rhythm and intonation. This is the most important feature of

English. The stress-timed, along with its intonation patterns convey
important messages. Intonation patterns are very important; they are
supposed to be taught to understand subtle meaning conveyed by
these.
• Colloquial language. Make sure your pupils are reasonably well

acquainted with the words, phrases from the colloquial language.
As you could observe the problem that we have tried to bring to your
judgment is Teaching Speech Habits. It is a topic that is linked to
methodology and it is worth studying as the communication is the essence of
our living. My practical chapter will be centered around techniques that are
26
necessary in developing speaking, and principles for designing speaking
techniques.
§3.2Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques.20

20
Brown ,D. Teaching by Principles, Second Edition. San Francisco State University.2001-p.275
27
1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from
language-based focus on accuracy to message based focus on

interaction, meaning and fluency. In our current zeal for interactive
language teaching, we can easily slip into a pattern of providing zesty
content- based, the interactive activities that do not capitalize on
grammatical pointers. When you begin a game make sure that your
task include techniques that help the students to perceive and use the
building blocks of language.
2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try all the time to appeal
to students ‘ultimate goal, interests. Even if the activity does not send
the students into ecstasy, it make them understand how they will
benefit them.
3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.It
takes energy to devise authentic contexts and meaningful interaction,

but with the help of a storehouse of teacher resource material it can be
done.
4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. In TEFL situations,
students are totally dependent on the teacher for useful linguistic

feedback. It important that you take advantage of you knowledge to
inject the kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the
moment.
5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many
interactive techniques include both speaking and listening. We are

supposed to integrate these two skills.
28
6. Give students to initiate oral communication. Part of oral
communication competence is the ability to initiate conversation, to
nominate topics.
7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies. The concept of
strategic competence is one that few beginning language students are

aware of. The students are supposed to participate in the development
of the dialogue. There some of the possibilities:
• Asking for clarification
• Asking someone to repeat smth.
• Using mime and nonverbal expression to convey meaning
• Getting someone’s attention.
• Using paraphrases.
As you notice each class of speaking is a hard work as you should achieve
the most important goal in teaching a foreign language, this is ability to
speak and understand the interlocutor.
According to Richards21 to major approaches characterize current teaching

for conversation: an indirect approach and a direct approach.
The indirect approach implies that one does not actually teach conversation,
but rather the students acquire conversational competence by engaging in
meaningful tasks.
21
Klippel, F. Getting Students to Talk: Communicative Fluency Activities for Language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1984-p.67
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A direct approach explicitly calls the students’ attention to conversational
rules, conventions and strategies.
Thus the conversational classes according to Marianne Celce-Murcia can be

divided into:
1. Imitative. A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may be
spent generating human tape recorder speech, where the students

practice an intonation contour. Imitation of this kind is trained not for
the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on particular
element of language form. They offer limited practice through
repetitions. They allow focusing on one element of the language. They
can help in establishing psychomotor patterns there are some pieces of
advice for teachers:
Keep them short
Keep them simple
Make students know why they are doing the drill.
Limit them to phonology or grammar points.
Don’t overuse them.
2. Intensive . Intensive speaking goes beyond the imitative to include
any speaking performance that is designed to practice some

phonological grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking can
be self initiated, where students are going over some certain forms of
language.
30
3. Responsive. A good deal of student speech is responsive, that means
questions and answers. They may be of different types, beginning

from the trivial ones: How are you?, Who is on duty, finishing with
How do you find life in Moldova?. The only condition is that these
questions do not expand into dialogues.
• Use the questions!
1. ________________ has been dating his/her SO for more than a

year. How long?
2. ________________ was not sleeping at midnight last night. What?
3. ________________ was going to school when s/he fell in love for

the first time. Who?
4. ________________ has been playing a sport for more than 5 years.

Which?
5. ________________ was doing English homework when s/he

realized that Jim is a great teacher. Why?
6. ________________ is thinking about something other than English.

What?
7. ________________ has been studying English for more than five

years. How long?
8. ________________ is getting good grades in his/her classes. How

good?
9. ________________ has been planning something special for a long

time. What? How long?
10. _______________ was out drinking Saturday night. Where?

Who?
11. _______________ has recently been studying English very hard.

31
Why?
12. _______________ has been playing a computer game for more

that three years. Which?
• Fill in sentences can be attributed to responsive activities
1.______________ has been to Australia.
2. ______________ has been to a country in North America.
3. ______________ has been to a country in South America.
4. ______________ has been to a country in Europe.
5. ______________ has been to another country in Asia.
6. ______________ enjoys flying.
7. ______________ enjoys traveling by train.
8. ______________ enjoys being a passenger in a car.
9. ______________ enjoys driving cars.
Write down three places you'd like to visit. These should be

places that you have never been to before.
1.
2.
1. ________________ enjoys cooking. What...?
Do you enjoy cooking? What do you like to cook?
2. ________________ doesn't enjoy cooking. How often...?
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Do you enjoy cooking? How often do you cook?
3. ________________ likes to listen to music. What kind...?
Do you like to listen to music? What kind of music do you like?
4. ________________ doesn't mind studying English. Why...?
5. ________________ doesn't like studying English. Why...?
6. ________________ likes pizza. How often...?
7. ________________ hates pizza. Why...?
8. ________________ loves animals. Why...?
9. ________________ really likes to watch TV. What...?
10. _______________ really dislikes watching TV. How

often...?
11. _______________ is thinking about a TV show right now.

Which...?
12. _______________ likes his or her job. Why...?
13. _______________ doesn't like to exercise. Why...?
4.Transactional. Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of

conveying or exchanging specific information, is an extended form of
responsive language. Generally we can speak about the talk referring to
transactional language. The work can be divided into:
pre-speaking activity
33
Students need to choose topics that interest them. They should have a clear
idea of the topic, when and where they will be presenting the talk, the
purpose of the talk, and the nature of the audience. Next, they need to gather
information and develop an outline for the talk. An outline helps students
develop a comfortable familiarity with their material. Students may wish to
prepare index cards with points outlined on them and they may choose to
use visual aids to enhance their presentations (e.g., use of a slide projector,
computer display, audio or video recordings, overhead transparencies, chart
paper or chalkboard, posters, photographs, illustrations, or graphs).
Students should be encouraged to practice their talks in front of an

imaginary audience, a mirror, or a friend. Together the teacher and students
may create a list of guidelines for practice similar to the one below:
• monitor volume and rate of speed to be sure everyone can hear and
understand you
• practice the use of emphasis and pitch so your voice sounds natural
• use appropriate nonverbal cues for emphasis and interest
• practice using the index cards in a discreet way
• review index cards to be sure that the notes spark your memory and
support you as you speak
• Review your talk (e.g., ask: "Have I omitted anything important or
included anything unnecessary? Do my points flow smoothly and
logically from one to the other?")
• review visual aids to determine their effectiveness
• practice using the visuals (number them if you have several).
The talk itself
34
If the student is prepared, the interest talk itself should be an enjoyable
experience. Interest talks can take a variety of forms, from a five-minute
review of a movie to a fifteen-minute slide presentation accompanied by
explanations. Students should be reminded to speak in a relaxed but
enthusiastic and confident manner.
After the Talk
Peer assessment could be done by three or four members of the class, rather
than the entire class. The assessors could write answers to questions such as
the following:
• What were the purposes of the talk?

• How well was the talk timed? Explain.
• Were visual aids used? If so, explain why they were (or were not)
helpful.
• Was the talk presented in logical sequence? Comment.
• Did the audience seem interested? How do you know?
• What might this student do in the future to improve the presentation?
We propose some transactional activities:
I.Questions that can initiate a dialogue.22
A.1. ________________ writes down how s/he spends time. How long/ (you)
write/how you spend your time? (present perfect continuous)
2. ________________ is very punctual. Why/be/you punctual? (present

simple)
22
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35
3. ________________ is disoraganized. Can you/give/me an example?
(present simple)
4. ________________ uses a planner to organize his/her time commitments.

How long/use/a planner? (present perfect continuous)
5. ________________ studies in between classes. What subjects/do/you

study? (present simple) How much time do you/spend/studying between classes?
(present simple)
6. ________________ went out during midterm week, even though s/he knew
it would be better to saty home and study. What/ (you) study/for?
7. ________________ is too busy. Why/be/you busy? (present simple)
8. ________________ usually has to cram the day before a test.

What/happen/when you take the test? (present simple)
9. ________________ has pulled an all nighter to study for a test. Which test/
(you) study/for? (past continuous)
10. _______________ recently had to make an excuse for not doing his/her
homework. Why/ (not) (you) do/your homework? (past simple)
11. _______________ often feels tired. Why/ (you) feel/tired? (present

simple)
12. _______________ doesn't sleep enough. Why/ (you) sleep/enough?

(present simple)
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B.1. ________________ enjoys cooking. What...?
Do you enjoy cooking? What do you like to cook?
2. ________________ doesn't enjoy cooking. How often...?
Do you enjoy cooking? How often do you cook?
3. ________________ likes to listen to music. What kind...?
Do you like to listen to music? What kind of music do you like?
4. ________________ doesn't mind studying English. Why...?
5. ________________ doesn't like studying English. Why...?
6. ________________ likes pizza. How often...?
7. ________________ hates pizza. Why...?
8. ________________ loves animals. Why...?
9. ________________ really likes to watch TV. What...?
10. _______________ really dislikes watching TV. How often...?
11. _______________ is thinking about a TV show right now. Which...?
12. _______________ likes his or her job. Why...?
13. _______________ doesn't like to exercise. Why...?
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C. Christmas Questions
How do you usually celebrate Christmas? Will this Christmas be different?
How long does it take you to do your Christmas shopping? What are you getting
for your friends and relatives?
How much money do you usually spend around Christmas time?
Do you listen to (or sing) Christmas carols?
What's your favorite Christmas special on TV? Why?
II. Interview can initiate a conversation.
A. Interview your partner, using the following questions as a guide. Feel free
to add your own questions. Then, individually write the draft copy of a
speech you will use to introduce him/her. Once your draft copy has been
completed, sit down with your partner and help each other edit your work
for the final copy. Then do your final copy. Practice what you are going to
say with your partner. Then you will be ready to present your introduction to
the class.
· When were you born? Where?
· How many people are members of your family?
· Have you ever had any accidents? If so, briefly describe what happened.
· What activities do you enjoy in your spare time?
· What is your favorite subject at school? Why?
· What is the most exciting thing that has ever happened to you?
· If you could make any dream come true, what would you do?
· What would you like to do when you get older?
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· What is your favorite time of year? Why?
B. Give the students some information about a personality.
Organize a press conference with journalists and the interwiee.
1. Queen Elisabeth the 2nd
2. William Shakespeare
3. One of the teachers
4. Tom Cruise
C. Describe the pictures or draw and describe the pictures.
D.
• interviewer and another as a character from a novel, story, or poem.

The interviewer needs to establish a time and place being referred to
in the selection, and then ask questions of the character. The character
should be encouraged to elaborate when replying, rather than giving
one-word answers.
• A variation would be to have one student, who has not taken on any
identity, approach and wait for a second student (who has decided to
"be" a particular character). The second student would establish an
identity, and establish what the circumstances are through actions and
conversation. The first would "become" the character needed to
respond to the second, after recognizing the second person's identity.
Then the second student could become the one without an identity,
waiting for a third student to approach, and so on.
• In a more complicated four-person exercise, two students become
certain characters from a selection, with the other two becoming their
consciences. The consciences talk to their characters, saying the things
that are supposedly "driving" the characters' thoughts and actions. The
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two characters interact as any two people might, take cues from their
consciences. Each character can react only to what the other says (and
does) and his/her own conscience. He/she cannot hear the other
person's conscience.
5.Interpersonal. Transactional type of activities resembles the interpersonal,

but they differ as the interpersonal activities should involve the following
factors:
A casual register
Emotionally charged language
Slang
Ellipsis
Sarcasm
A covert agenda
As a result here we can include: role-playing, puppetry, telephone,
announcements.
A.Telephoning.23 The telephone is an important tool for personal, school,
and business use because of the rapid communication it permits. Therefore,
there is need to reinforce personal speaking and listening abilities regarding
telephone use.
Before Telephoning Students could brainstorm ideas about

basic telephone etiquette and generate a list such as the
following:
• answer the telephone as quickly as possible
23
Bygate,M. Speaking. Oxford University Press. 1995-p.76
40
• identify yourself immediately when receiving or placing a call
• keep the call brief and the talk relevant
• show respect for the listener's time and give full attention to the
conversation
• offer to take a message if the call is for another person and record the
message in writing
• treat every caller politely and professionally
• be helpful and co-operative
• prepare for receiving and placing calls by planning what you might
say and anticipating what you might hear (e.g., list dates, write down
important questions, keep standard message pads as well as important
reference material near the telephone)
• follow up telephone conversations with notes or letters, when
appropriate.
While Telephoning
Students must have authentic reasons for telephoning when they are
practicing their skills in the English language arts classroom. Reasons can
include the following:
• to inquire about suitable times and dates for a trip to the museum, as a
follow up to a unit in historical fiction
• to plan a visit to a senior citizens' home for an "adopt a grandparent"
reading program
• to order materials for a research report or other project
• to order class tickets to a theatre performance
• to inquire about details concerning a class trip
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• to invite or arrange for a community speaker, author, or storyteller to
come to the class.
While telephoning, the student should practice the techniques previously

established by the class.
After Telephoning
As soon as possible after telephoning, students should complete a self-

assessment form based upon criteria established prior to their placing the
call. A sample checklist follows.
Sample Telephone Self-assessment Checklist
Reason for Call:
1. Was I polite and professional?

2. Did I identify myself immediately?
3. Was I prepared with notes and a note pad?
4. Did I attend to the listener?
5. Did I show respect for my listener?
6. Did I keep the call brief and on topic?
7. Did I double check my facts?
8. Did I follow up on the conversation with a note or letter?
Items for telephoning:
1. A call to a friend.
2. a call to a famous person.
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3. a call to the president of Moldova to ask when the salaries will be raised.
4. a call to the parents telling about the future husband.
5. a call to a boy friend.
6. a call to the favorite actor, actress.
B. Announcements
Making announcements can serve as useful oral speaking practice at any

grade level. As with other types of speech activities, criteria for making
announcements should be developed by the class. These criteria should
address the recommended format and manner of presentation and serve as
guidelines for the students. Some guidelines include the following:
· provide all necessary and relevant information (who, what, when, where,
how)
· record and review key points prior to making the announcement
· confirm accuracy of information
· use vocabulary that is appropriate for the audience
· speak in a friendly and enthusiastic manner
· speak slowly, audibly, and clearly
· observe listeners to be certain they are understanding the message and
clarify as needed.
Listeners should be encouraged to concentrate on the speaker making the
announcement, taking care not to become distracted. As well, listeners
should give appropriate responses to the speaker, confirming their
understanding or asking questions for clarification.
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Items for developing this activity:
• Take some magazines or newspapers as New Yorker, Digest,
Forum. Let the children read the headlines and let them make
announcements on the information they have read.
• Let the children make announcements of different kinds:
meeting, selling of the house, presentation of oneself.
2.Role playing. It is a type of activity that is not so much expanded on in
our country and it is highly preferred in Europe and in America. As Martin
Bygate notes in his book Speaking………….it is something that not only
trains the language but also make the pupils live and think about the carries
of the language they are training……….24We fully agree with this as the
student or pupil that is involved in role playing tries to act and to think about
his acting. Thus the teacher pays attention to cultural and functional sides of
the language. Role play provides the opportunity for students to develop and
revise their understanding and perspectives by exploring thoughts and
feelings of characters in given situations. The teacher may take a role,
becoming an active participant in promoting independent thinking and co-
operative learning.
Role play helps students to develop:
• empathy as they examine others' ideas, feelings, and points of view

• oral expression and interpretation skills as they use language to
describe perceptions, emotions, and reactions
• decision-making and problem-solving skills as they gain experience in
independent thinking and co-operative learning
24
Bygate,M. Speaking. Oxford University Press. 1995-p.100
44
• speaking and listening abilities.
Before the Role Play Explore possibilities concerning sources for role
plays. While literature is the most frequently used source, the media and
students' life experiences are also rich sources of role play situations and
issues. Carefully plan for integration of all language processes into the role
play. The following describes a method of planning a role play:
• choose a topic or theme (one that has a number of potential learning

concepts) currently under study
• identify relevant concepts within the topic (webbing is useful for
discovering possibilities)
• select a concept, being sure that there is a compelling issue involved,
that it has human conflict within it, and that there are roles to play for
the number of students to be involved
• decide upon a key question about the concept or issue selected
• list the possible viewpoints that might be adopted
• place each viewpoint within a situation (or set of circumstances) in
such a way that those characters involved are faced with a problem
which needs resolving
• choose a situation for the drama, and roles for students and teacher.
During Role Play It is important that students feel safe taking risks as they
enter into various roles. Establishing expectations and rules (e.g., no put-
downs) with students can help students to be supportive of each other during
the role play. Listeners should be encouraged to observe attentively so that
they are prepared to respond and discuss following the drama.
45
If the role play has been planned effectively and all the steps have been
carried through, the experience should be satisfying and positive for all
participants.
After the Role Play Assessment of role plays will mainly occur through
reflective discussion and through assessment of the products which develop
in response to the drama (e.g., written work, art work). Student participation
is important; however, participation does not always involve talking. It is
possible for a student who has remained very quiet during the role play to
write effectively and thoughtfully about the experience.
Activities:
A.In the restaurant25

I actor
You own a restaurant. You need a server (waiter or waitress). Decide if you
will hire the interviewee.
II actor
You have never worked in a restaurant before, but you really need a job (and
the money)!
Teacher's notes
1. Set the scene. Create the atmosphere of a restaurant.

2. Put the two actors together and let them decide what they are going to tell.
25
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46
3.Retell the students about the Americans or Englishmen and their
preferences.
B.Taxi court role 26
You are a judge in taxi court. A customer will complain about a driver, and
the driver will be there to defend himself. You must decide if the taxi driver
should be punished. If punishment is necessary, decide what is appropriate.
Passenger:
You are complaining about a taxi driver because he took you to the wrong
destination. You live on Mace Street in The Bronx, but he took you to
Cadman plaza in Brooklyn. The driver wasted your time so you don't want
to pay.
Cabbie:
You do not think you should be in taxi court. Saturday night, you picked up
a drunk man and his girlfriend. He was so drunk that you couldn't
understand his directions. You repeated "Cadman Plaza?". The customer was
already kissing his girlfriend and didn't answer.
C. Neighbors at odds role cards
Create the atmosphere of a block of flats. There are many residents.
Introduce the topic to the pupils. Ask if the pupils have neighbors and what
relations they have with their neighbors.
The first resident aprt.102
26
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47
It's 7:00 AM. You are a drummer, and a music major. Today is your senior
recital. If you don't play well you can't graduate so you have to practice as
much as possible.
The second resident aprt.202
It's 7:00 AM. You were up until 4:00 AM preparing for an important
business meeting. You have to give your presentation at 9:30, and you really
need another hour or two to sleep. You can't sleep because the person who
lives downstairs is playing the drums.
3.Puppetry.In the classroom, puppets are creations that "come to life" with
the help of student puppeteers. Almost any object can be a puppet. An
effective puppet is one that can be manipulated easily; however, it is not
what the puppet looks like that counts, but rather how the student feels
about, and uses, the puppet. Puppets can be incorporated into a variety of
oral language strategies including storytelling, oral reporting, and choral
speaking. Even Littlewood spoke about this activity in his book Teaching
27
Oral Communication as being effective in raising the interest of the
pupils and the development of the language.
Puppetry is a valuable learning practice for many reasons:
• Dressing and decorating puppets require imagination. Each puppet

must become a character through its costume and through the way it is
decorated or painted.
• Puppetry requires students to engage in speaking activity; the use of
the puppet has the advantage of shielding the speaker who is shy.
27
Littlewood, W. Teaching Oral Communication. Oxford: Blackwell.1992-p.45
48
• Puppetry offers an avenue of expression, allowing the puppeteer to
express the thoughts and feelings of the characters being portrayed.
• Working with puppets demands co-operation; students learn to work
together for a successful performance.
• Puppetry is inexpensive; excellent results may be obtained within the
most limited budget.
• Puppets are capable of behaviors (e.g., fighting) and feats (e.g., flying,
shrinking) which would be undesirable or impossible for student
performers.
• Telling stories with puppets is fun; it provides students with
enjoyment.
Some guidelines for preparing for puppetry activities include the following:
• The teacher and students discuss the characteristics that make a

puppet play interesting to watch. Student responses are listed and
posted.
• The teacher asks students to suggest stories they have read or to create
their own stories that may be turned into puppet plays.
• The teacher and students discuss the types of puppets which might be
suitable for each story, and that are practical given time, cost, and
materials available.
• The teacher and students list a set of guidelines and tasks required for
adapting and presenting a story as a puppet play (e.g., audience
attention span, availability of materials for making puppets and sets,
special skills required).
• Students form groups of 4-6, with each group responsible for selecting
or creating a story; adapting it to oral dialogue format; creating
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puppets, sets and props; and practicing the play. Emphasis in rehearsal
must be on creating and maintaining consistent voices and movements
for each of the puppet characters. Students not handling puppets might
serve as technical crew (e.g., lighting, sound).
• Groups are given time to organize and accomplish their tasks.
During the performance of puppet plays, consider the following:
• As each group shares its play with the class, listening students are
encouraged to record positive comments and constructive suggestions
to help the group members refine their performance.
• The teacher should record anecdotal notes regarding the performance.
• If plays are to be presented to other audiences (e.g., a class of younger
children), groups should be given the opportunity to rehearse several
times before the presentation.
• The teacher and students may wish to record puppet plays on video to
be stored with the puppets.
• Familiar folk and fairy tales are dependable choices for puppet plays.
Some additional puppetry activities include choric work with puppets,
situational role playing with puppets, interviews, and small group
problem solving. Students could also explore the puppetry of various
cultures.
After the performance of puppet plays, discuss the various aspects of the
puppet play presentations with students. Some students may choose to write
or draw in response to the puppet play they have created or viewed (e.g.,
journal writing, creating dialogue for another puppet play, illustrating the
setting).
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Using anecdotal records, the teacher should note observations made while
students were taking part in the entire activity:
• abilities to co-operate in the group task

• participation in class discussion
• combining of personal experience with knowledge of stories to create
a puppet play
• creation of believable dialogue
• efforts to use their voices to communicate the puppets' attitudes and
personalities.
Activities:
1. stage an episode from Cinderella.
2. stage an episode from Three Pigs.

3. stage an episode from a cartoon they like.
4. Stage an anecdote.
4.Games. The last and the most interesting way of developing the
communicative abilities is the game. The 20th century is generally referred to
as the year of interesting and efficient activities28. All the methodological
books that appear, all the seminars that are organized are all interactive.
Moreover this kind of work the pupils like most of all as they bring joy and
better understanding to the pupils. We want to propose some activities that
are a mixture of effective and motivating ways to improve the pupils’ ability
to speak in a foreign language.
Activities:
28
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A. Crazy Sentence
Listening to details can be very important when trying to solve a problem or

when attempting to follow complicated directions. Sometimes the details are
not essential but at other times these details are the most important part of
the information being conveyed.
Being able to listen carefully to what is said and to all the words that a
person is saying isn’t an easy task. Sometimes we must listen with our eyes
and observe body language, facial expressions, and eye movement in order
to get all the information needed. The better you “listen” to the details, the
more you will hear and the better you will understand what is being said.
Objective
To use good listening skills in order to win the game.
GroupSize
4 or more
Materials
-Paper
-Pensorpencils
- 2 Chairs
Description
Prior to this activity make up a dozen or so sentences that are complete and
correct but make them crazy and random; then write each sentence on a
small piece of paper. Some examples of crazy sentences are:
“My prom date had a large tattoo.”
“Big Bird is my idol.”
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“The blue cow swam over the moon.”
“It is good to eat spiders and caterpillars for breakfast.”
“Rubber bands stick to the ceiling on Christmas day.”
Be creative and come up with many more. Also, prior to the game set up two
chairs in the front of the room.
For the activity select two people from the group and ask them to sit in the
chairs that you have set up in the front of the room. Give each person a piece
of paper with one of the crazy sentences on it. The two players must read the
sentence to themselves and then engage in conversation. Each player
attempts to state his/her sentence in the course of conversation. The object is
to slip in the sentence without the other person guessing what it is. You may
wish to give them a topic to start with such as fishing, country music,
bowling, buying shoes, or anything else that has nothing to do with the
sentences. Also give them a one or two minute time limit to slip their
sentences in during the conversation. After the time limit, allow the people
in the audience to guess what the crazy sentence is and whoever guesses
correctly is given the opportunity to play the game for the next round.
DiscussionPrompts
1. What did you have to do in order to detect the hidden sentence?
2. When do you use your best listening skills? Why?
3. When is it important for you to show good listening skills?
Variations
- Each player may tell a story, instead of engaging in conversation
with one other player.
- This game can be done with three people engaging in conversation at the
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same time instead of just two.
B. Direction Direction
In our society there is a constant transfer of information from one person to

another. You must be careful when you pass information on if you want it to
stay accurate. One great example shows up in rules for a game. If you check
with people in different parts of the country you will find out that many of
the games have different rules. Someone, something changed the rules a
little bit
In this activity someone gets a set of rules and the group gets to see how
easy it can be to make mistakes in passing them on. This can be a fun way to
see what can happen when information is not passed on correctly.
Objective
For people to recognize the importance of using good communication skills
when giving directions and when receiving directions. To recognize the
difficulties encountered when interpreting what someone else said.
Group Size
2 or more
Materials
- Varies
Description
Chose a game that has a few specific rules that must be followed in order to
play the game (and enough rules to make it hard to remember them all).
Prior to the activity select one person and give him/her the direction for the
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game without telling the rest of the group. Verbally explain the game can
clearly state all of the rules.
At the time of the game, the person who has heard the rules will give the
directions to the rest of the group without any help from you. Allow the
group to play the game once through before having a group discussion or
making any corrections or clarifications in the rules of the game.
Discussion Topics
1. Was there any confusion about the rules of the game?

2. Why do you think the game was explained correctly (or incorrectly)?
3. What is important to remember when listening to others and when
giving directions?
C. Back to Back
Purpose:
To have participants become aware of the need for eye contact in
interpersonal communication.
Setting:
Room enough for participants to sit on floor in pairs.
Procedure: 1.
Have participants form dyads. Read the following
mini-lecture to the group:
55
Sit back to back with your partner and begin to talk about something that
happened to you lately - something that was a really good experience.
(Wait about one minute.)
Now, move about five feet away from your partner and continue talking.
Processing:
Ask the group members to share how this experience felt. How did it
feel for them to share a good experience with someone who turned away
from them? If the group members do not bring up the following points,
discuss them with the group:
-How strong is the need for eye contact when talking with others?
-Did you find yourself missing the nonverbal gestures and facial
expressions? Why?
-How easy was it to hear what your partner was saying?
D. Do Your Best
Objective:
To help participants discover how well they communicate.
Materials:
Sugar Cubes. Exercise Handout
Time: 20 minutes
Procedure: Divide the participants into groups of two. Have the groups
determine who will be the committee leader and who will be the committee
member. Give the committee leader the sugar cubes and exercise handout.
Tell the committee leader to read each exercise's directions before beginning
each activity.
Exercise 1Read the following instructions to your committee member.
"Your job is to stack as many blocks as you can in one minute. Each sugar
56
cube will be stacked one on top of the other in a single, vertical column.
How you stack the sugar cubes is up to you. If the column topples and time
remains, you may rebuild. Your score is the number of sugar cubes standing
in a column when I call time. Your minimum score is always one."
2. Do not specify or suggest how many sugar cubes might be stacked.

Simply say, "Do your best."
3. Time the exercise as accurately as possible. (1 minute)
4. When the exercise is finished, have the committee member count the
number of sugar cubes standing.
5. Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your
committee member's results. If asked directly, avoid the question.
Discussion Questions:
1. Was this exercise easy or hard?
2. How did it feel to not have any positive feedback or encouragement?
3. How did it feel to not have any say in the goal setting?
4. How is this similar to "real life" situation?
As a way of conclusion we can say that there are many ways to develop
speech habits: imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional and
interpersonal. Using these activities the speech habits are developed
gradually, from the elementary to the advanced level. The wise usage of
these activities can bring exceptional results.
57
Conclusion
Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century. Central
to this phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of "methods" of language
teaching. The method concept in language teaching—the notion of a systematic
set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language
learning—is a powerful one, and the quest for better methods was a
preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout the 20th century.
A more or less classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which
links theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of what
language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories of second
language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked to various design features
of language instruction. These design features might include stated objectives,
syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners, materials,
and so forth. Design features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning
practices as observed in the environments where language teaching and learning
take place. This whole complex of elements defines language teaching
methodology. When the linguists and the language specialists sought to improve
the quality of language teaching in the late 19th century, they often did so by
referring to general principles and theories concerning how languages are
learned, how knowledge of language is represented and organized in memory, or
how language itself is structured. The early applied linguistics such as Henry
Sweet, Otto Jespersen, Harold Palmer, elaborated principles and theoretically
accountable approaches to the design of language teaching. When they analyzed
all the principles a lot of things were left out. An attempt to clarify the
differences, Edward Anthony proposed a scheme. He identified three levels of
2
conceptualization and organization, which he termed as approach, method and
technique.
…an approach is asset of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the
nature of the subject matter to be taught.
…….method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material…………… An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within
one approach there can be many methods.
A technique is implementational –that which happens in the classroom.
The subject matter of my research is the development of speech habits at school

during the classes of English. When speaking about the development of the
speech, we refer to communicative language teaching approach. Communication
is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to
another. The communication process involves six basic elements: sender
(encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder), noise, and feedback.
Supervisors can improve communication skills by becoming aware of these
elements and how they contribute to successful communication. Communication
can break down at any one of these elements.
The origins of CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language
teaching tradition from the late 1960’s. Until then the situational language
teaching represented the major British approach to teaching English as foreign
language in situational language teaching, the language was taught by practicing
Basic structures in situation-based activities. In the mid 60’s. British applied
linguists began to call into question the theoretical assumptions underlying
situational language teaching:
3
By the end of the 60’s it was clear that the situational approach had run its
course…………
This was a response to the sorts of criticisms the American linguist Noam
Chomsky had leveled at the structural linguistic theory in his classic book
Syntactic Structures. Chomsky had demonstrated that the current standard
Structural theories of the language were incapable to account for the
fundamental characteristic of the language- the creativity and uniqueness of
individual sentences. The other linguists saw that the need to focus in language
on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery structures. Scholars
who advocated this view were C. Candlin, H.Widdowson, J.Firth, D.Hymes, W.
Labov. Both American and British proponents now see it is an approach that
aims to make the communicative competence the goal of language teaching; to
develop procedures for the teaching of four language skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language and communication. CLT is more than an
integration of grammatical and functional teaching. Littlewood states :
One of the most characteristic features of CLT is that it pays systematic attention
to functional as well as to the grammatical aspects of the language.
This means using procedures where learners work in pairs employing available
language resources in problem solving tasks . The development of this approach
is the essence of the society, without the communication the child , the pupil and
the society can not live.
A more pedagogical analysis of the CLT was given by Henry Widdowson. He

identifies four dimensions of communicative competence :
Grammatical competence is what refers to Chomsky’s linguistic competence. It

is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity.
4
Sociolinguistic competence to an understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place, including role relationships, the share information of
the participants.
Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message

elements.
Strategic competence refers to the copying strategies that communicator employs

to initiate, maintain and terminate the conversation.
The teacher has a role too. In such a way according to Breen:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication
between the participants in the classroom……the second role is to act as an
independent participant within the learning- teaching group.
The other roles of the teacher according to Jack C.Richards are needs analyst,
Councelor, and group process manager.
The needs analyst is the teacher’s responsibility for determining and responding
to learner language needs. Typically these assignments contain items that
attempt to determine an individual’s motivation for studying the language.
The teacher counselor is expected to exemplify an effective communicator

seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention and of the hearer
interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation and feedback.
CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered

classroom management skills. It is the teacher’s job to organize the classroom
as a setting for communication. Guidelines for classroom practice suggest that
5
during an activity the teacher monitors, encourages and suppresses the
inclination to have gaps in grammar and lexis. The focus on fluency and
comprehensibility may cause anxiety among teachers that are accustomed to
seeing error suppression and correction as the major instructional responsibility.
A great variety of materials are used to support CLT approach. The materials
currently used are text- based, task- based and realia.
There are a lot of textbooks designed to direct and support CLT. Their tables of
content sometimes suggest a kind of grading and sequencing of language
practice not unlike those found in structurally organized texts. Some of these
are written around a largely structural syllabus, with slight reformatting to
justify their claims to be based on a communicative approach.
A variety of games, role plays, simulations and task- based communication

activities have been prepared to support CLT. These typically are in-one-of-a-
kind items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication
practice materials and student interaction booklets. In pair communication
materials enter two sets of material for pair of student. They contain different
information. Sometimes the information is complementary and the partners
must fit their parts in the jigsaw. Others assume different role relationships for
the partners.
Many proponents of CLT have advocated the use of authentic, from-life

materials. These might include language-based realia, such as signs, magazines,
newspapers, visual sources around which the communicative activities can be
built.
6
The conversational classes according to Marianne Celce-Murcia can be divided
into:
4. Imitative. A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may be
spent generating human tape recorder speech, where the students practice
an intonation contour. Imitation of this kind is trained not for the purpose
of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on particular element of
language form. They offer limited practice through repetitions. They allow
to focus on one element of the language.
5. Intensive. Intensive speaking goes beyond the imitative to include any
speaking performance that is designed to practice some phonological

grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking can be self initiated,
where students are going over some certain forms of language.
6. Responsive.A good deal of student speech is responsive, that means
questions and answers. They may be of different types, beginning from the
trivial ones: How are you?, Who is on duty, finishing with How do you
find life in Moldova?. The only condition is that this questions do not
expand into dialoques.
4.Transactional. Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of

conveying or exchanging specific information, is an extended form of
responsive language. Generally we can speak about the talk referring to
transactional language.
5.Interpersonal. Transactional type of activities resemble the interpersonal, but

they differ as the interpersonal activities should involve the following factors:
7
A casual register
Emotionally charged language
Slang
Ellipsis
Sarcasm
A covert agenda
We propose some activities that may help the teachers to make successful
conversations and to develop their students’ speech habits.
8
Bibliography.
1. Bygate,M. Speaking. Oxford University Press. 1995
2. Brown ,D. Teaching by Principles, Second Edition. San Francisco State
University.2001
3. Brumfit, D. The Communicative Approach to Language, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.1979
4. Bachman, L. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.1991

5. Christison, M. Applying multiple intelligences theory in preservice and
inservice TEFL education programs. English Teaching Forum.1998

6. Jonhson, K. Communicative Syllabus Design and
Methodology./www.google.com
7. Klippel, F. Getting Students to Talk: Communicative Fluency Activities for
Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1984

8. Howatt, A. A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.1984
9. Larsen-Freeman, D. Techniques and principles in language teaching.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.2000

10.Lee, J. Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen, San
Francisco:McGraw Hill.1995
11. Littlewood, W. Teaching Oral Communication. Oxford: Blackwell.1992
12. Morrow, K. Communicate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1979
13. Pawley, A., & Syder, F. Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native-like
selection and native-like fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.),

Language and communication. London: Longman.1983
9
14. Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. Approaches and methods in language
Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.2001

15. Tannen, D. Conversational Style. Norwood,NJ:Ablex.1984
16. Savignon, S. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom
Practice.Mass:Addison-Wesley. 1983
17. Wright, A. Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford: oxford University
Press.1987
18.Yalden, J. The Communicative Syllabus: Evolution, Design and
Implementation.Oxford: Pergamon.1983
19.Widdowson, H. The Communicative Approach and its applications.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.1979
Web sites:
www.google.com
www.englishtips.org
www.eslogo.com
www.english methodology.org
www.wikepedia.org
10

Teaching English As A Foreign Language

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Teaching English As A Foreign Language

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Contents

A.In the restaurant..........................................................................................................46

CHAPTER ONE: General Issues of Teaching English as a

Within methodology a distinction is often made between methods and

As suggested in the chart, some schools of methodology see the teacher as

§1.3 The Future of Methodology

Content-based instruction assumes that language learning is a by-product

The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of

INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND

6. Total Functional Response 13

"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on

Chapter II. Language Communication Teaching

§2.1 The Essence of Communicational Approach

The subject matter of my research is the development of speech habits at

This is the essence of the communicative language teaching approach. The

One of the most characteristic features of CLT is that it pays systematic

This means using procedures where learners work in pairs employing

A more pedagogical analysis of the CLT was given by Henry Widdowson.

Grammatical competence is what refers to Chomsky’s linguistic

Sociolinguistic competence to an understanding of the social context in

Strategic competence refers to the copying strategies that communicator

1. An integrative and content level

2. A linguistic and instrumental level

3. An effective level of expressing interpersonal relationships( a means

4. A level of individual learning needs( remedial learning based on

5. A general educational level of extra-linguistic goals( language

The emphasis in CLT on the processes of communication leads to different

Councelor, and group process manager.

The needs analyst is the teacher’s responsibility for determining and

The teacher counselor is expected to exemplify an effective communicator

CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered

A great variety of materials are used to support CLT approach. The

A variety of games, role plays, simulations and task- based communication

Many proponents of CLT have advocated the use of authentic, from-life

Social interactional activities

As you can observe the class of communication is supposed to be very well

Generally speaking when working on CLT we are interested in fluency and

This fact as many others can bring to misunderstanding.

§3.1What makes Speaking Difficult?19

Douglas Brown in his book Teaching by Principles draws the attention of

• Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word. Learners can

• Reduced forms. This is a process where some unstressed syllables

• Stress, rhythm and intonation. This is the most important feature of

• Colloquial language. Make sure your pupils are reasonably well

§3.2Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques.20

language-based focus on accuracy to message based focus on

2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try all the time to appeal

3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.It

takes energy to devise authentic contexts and meaningful interaction,

4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. In TEFL situations,

students are totally dependent on the teacher for useful linguistic

5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many

interactive techniques include both speaking and listening. We are

7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies. The concept of

strategic competence is one that few beginning language students are

• Asking for clarification

• Asking someone to repeat smth.

• Using mime and nonverbal expression to convey meaning

• Getting someone’s attention.

According to Richards21 to major approaches characterize current teaching

Thus the conversational classes according to Marianne Celce-Murcia can be

1. Imitative. A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may be

spent generating human tape recorder speech, where the students