Blasting Operations

Prepared by
Dr. Ayman El-Midany

4th year Mining

WEEK ONE
 Introduction

General types of Explosives

 Commercial explosives
 Military explosives
 Ingredient Chemical formula Function
Ethylene glycol dinitrate C2H4(NO3)2 Explosive base – lowers freezing point
Nitrocellulose (guncotton) C6H7(NO3)2O2 Explosive base – gelatinizing agent
Nitroglycerin C3H5(NO3)3 Explosive base
Nitrostarch Explosive base
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Explosive base
C7H5N3O6
Metallic powder Fuel sensitizer : used in high density slurries
Black powder Al Explosive base
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate NaNO3 + C+ S Explosive base
(PETN) C3H8N4O12
Lead azide Explosive used in blasting caps
Mercury fulminate Pb(N3)2 Explosive used in blasting caps
Ammonium nitrate Hg(ONC)2 Explosive base : oxygen carrier
Liquid oxygen NH4NO3 Oxygen carrier
Sodium nitrate Oxygen carrier – lowers freezing point
O2
Potassium nitrate Oxygen carrier
Ground coal - Charcoal NaNO3 Combustible, or fuel
Paraffin KNO3 Combustible, or fuel
Sulfur C Combustible, or fuel
Fuel oil CnH2n+2 Combustible, or fuel
Wood pulp S Combustible, absorbent
Lampblack (CH3)2(CH2) Combustible
Kieselguhr Absorbent – prevents caking
(C6H16O3)n
Chalk -Calcium carbonate Antacid
Zinc oxide C Antacid
Sodium chloride SiO2 Flame depressant (permissible explosives)
CaCO3
ZnO
NaCI
 Chemical explosives
 is a compound or mixture which is capable of
undergoing extremely rapid decomposition.

 An explosion can be broken down into four

phases
•Release of gas
•Intense heat
•Extreme pressure, and
•The explosion
 Chemical explosives
When the explosive is detonated,

 gas is released,
 temperature of the gas increases,

 pressure also increases (Charles’ law).

 move and break the rock.

 How to compare
explosives
 Strength  Detonation pressure

 Detonating velocity  Energy

 Fume class  Sensitivity

 Sensitiveness
 Water resistance
 Flammability
 Density

 Physical characteristics

 Storage

 Freezing
 How to compare
explosives
 Strength : % of active material

 Velocity of Detonating (VOD): is the

velocity at which the detonation wave moves
through the explosive (ft/s or m/s)

 Fume class : the amount of toxic fumes

which determine its safety to be used in
particular situation such as underground
operations.
 How to compare
explosives
 Detonation pressure : is the pressure behind the
detonation front.
 Energy

 Sensitivity : the minimum energy/pressure

needed for detonation.

 Sensitiveness: measure of explosion wave

spreading from one stick to another.

 Flammability : easiness to ignite by flame or

heat
 How to compare
explosives
 Water resistance : is the ability to resist
contamination or a reduction in strength when
exposed to water. Sometimes determined by the
length of time it can be submerged in water and
still perform as designed.

 Density : is the explosive wt per given volume.

A cartridge of 90 sticks per 50-lb case is denser
than a cartridge of 110 sticks per 50-lb case. Aid
in blast design.
 How to compare
explosives
 Physical characteristics: commercial explosives
can take three basic forms: granular, gelatin, and
slurry. The form depends on the formula, and the
choice of form depends on the usage required.
The package for the same explosive product may
also vary according to usage. For example, a
slurry can be pumped into a borehole with no
container, or it can be packaged in polyethylene
bags to permit handling in smaller amounts.
 How to compare
explosives
 Storage: how explosive can be stored without
affecting its safety, reliability, and performance.
Early nitroglycerin (NG) dynamites were
extremely poor for storing due to separation of
NG from the other components and creates an
extremely hazardous condition.
 Freezing : important for safety and performance

especially in cold climate. Anitfreezing additives

may be used.
 Drills and drilling
 The drilling system consists of the drill: the drill
steel, or rod; and the bit. The bit penetrates the
rock by the force it imposes on the rock. Bits are
designed for percussion, rotary drilling, or both.
 Hand held drills

 External –percussion drills

 Down-the-hole drills

 Rotary drills
 Rock Shear strength
Shear
Rock Condition strength,
lb/in2
Sandstone Soft 1500
Medium 3050
Hard gray 4720
Fine-grained brown 3600
Medium-grained friable gray 2840
 Rock Shear strength
Shear
Rock Condition strength,
lb/in2
Limestone Hard flossiliferrous 4160
Hard gray 6520
Medium crystalline 7600
Siltstone 3000
Dolomite 12700
quartzite 10600
 Drill Selection
 Size of project : drill type and size
 Hole diameter : drill type and bit size

 Depth of cut : long or short

 Rock hardness: percussion (4-6.5) or rotary (2-

3.5) on Mohs’ scale

 Capital : machine price

 Cost : cost per foot of borehole – need

specialized operator
WEEK TWO
 Firing systems

 Blasting Cap
 Detonating systems
 Blasting Caps
 Blasting Cap : are small cylindrical tubes that
detonate cap-sensitive explosives. They are
usually made of copper or aluminum and
contains an explosive.
 There are three types of blasting caps:
• Common caps
• Millisecond delays (MS delays)
• Standard delays
 Common Blasting Caps
 Detonated by a fuse
 Now they are the least common

 Copper or aluminum Cylinder

 38 mm long X 6 mm dia, closed at one end.

 Contains two types of charges : igniting charge and

the base charge.

 A safety fuse is inserted into the open end of the cap

to ensure that the flame reaches the igniting charge

completely. To prevent water and contaminants
from entering the cap and inhibiting detonation.
 Common Blasting Caps
 When the fuse is ignited, the powder core burns,
acting as a vehicle through which the fire is
transmitted to the igniting charge end of the cap.
 The burning fuse spits a flame resembling a jet
flame called as “ignition spit”.
 When the flame travels to the cap, it ignites the
ignition charge, which detonates the base charge,
which in turn detonates the explosive charge that is
being primed with the cap.
Common Blasting Caps

Base charge

Fuse Ignition
charge
 Electric Blasting Caps
 More controllable method
 Contains charges like the common cap, but

instead of safety fuse the cap contains two wires

that meet at a bridge wire.
 when electric current is applied, the bridge wire

burns, igniting the charge in the cap.

 Enables the blaster

• to choose the suitable time of detonation

• to shoot more holes than the safety fuse method
 Delay Blasting Caps
 Are caps that are detonated by electricity in
various time-delay intervals.
 Two types : standard and millisecond (MS).

 Advantages of (MS) are:

•Reduce ground vibration

•Improve fragmentation
•Produce less flyrock
•Reduce costs
•Reduce overbreak
 Delay Blasting
Flyrock 1st row
Free face

Flyrock, excessive movement of blasted rock in the

air, caused by not using delay blasting. Second row
cannot move toward face and therefore must
either fly or remain in place.
 Delay Blasting
• Delay blasting can help reduce flyrock by
permitting the rock to move in the direction
desired rather than moving haphazardly
through the air.
• Blasting without delays requires more drilling
and explosive to break the rock because the rock
tends to resist breakage and lack of a sufficient
number of free faces.
• Delay blasting reduces overbreak.
Delay Blasting

Free face
 Other Blasting Caps
Vented caps : with vents to delay blasting
to reduce the combustion rate in the
blasting cap.

Composition Electric caps : contains a

mixture of chemical compounds.
 Detonating Systems
The main components of an electric detonating system
• Blasting cap
• Blasting wire
• Power source or blasting machine
Detonating cord
• Transmit detonations from blasting cap to explosives
• Less sensitive than blasting caps
• Is a high explosive and burns at speed > 4
miles/second
 Blasting Circuits
Three types of circuits
• Single-series

• Straight parallel

• Parallel-series
Blasting Circuits

Problems
 Theory of Breakage
Purpose of blasting
• One solid piece → smaller pieces
(fragmentation) → to be moved or excavated
(movement).
• Underground blasting, for example, requires
greater fragmentation than surface blasting
because of the size of the equipment that can be
used and the difficulty of access.
• Get the desired results with a minimum cost
 Theory of Breakage
Involves two basic processes:
• Radial cracking
• Flexural rupture
• Rock is stronger in compression than in tension.
Therefore, the easiest way to break rock is to
subject it to a tensile stress greater than its
ultimate strength in tension.
•Rocks are heterogeneous (contain different types
of rocks). They differ in their density.
 Theory of Breakage

Free face

Compression
Borehole waves
Radial cracking
 Theory of Breakage
• The distance from the borehole to the free
face is the burden.
• The denser the rock the faster the waves
• Proper fragmentation when enough to
travel to the face and back overcoming the
tensile strength of the rock.
• Along the face the outermost edge is
stretched in tension which causes cracks.
 Flexural
Rupture
• The second process in breaking rock by
bending the rock to the point where the
outside edge, the side in tension, breaks.
• Caused by the rapid expansion of gases in
borehole.
• Analogous to the bending and breaking of a
beam.
• Movement or displacement are required in
addition to cracking.
 Flexural
Rupture
• After detonation the redial cracks expands
and the gas starts to the movement by
putting a CS against the borehole wall
causing its bending.
• The deeper the hole, the greater the burden
and borehole spacing.
• M = wl2/8 where w is the load (burden), l is
the borehole length.
 Stemming
• Is non-explosive material that is placed in the borehole
between the top of the explosive column and the collar of
the hole.
• Sand, drill fines, or gravel
• Confine and delay the escape of expansive gases and
increases the explosive’s efficiency (reduces the explosive
used).
• Reduce the flyrocks, increase ground vibration, and air
blast
• Rifling : in case of impropoer stemming, blowing of the
stemming material.
 Angle of Breakage
• Is the measured angle at which a homogeneous material
can be expected to break from the explosive charge to the
free face.

Free face 135°

90°
WEEK THREE
 Blast Design
• Is the safe and economic way to do blasting

Factors affecting blasting design

• Geological factors (out of blaster’s control)
• Controllable factors
•Borehole dia.
•Burden
•Spacing
•Stemming
•Design of the delay firing system.
 Hole Diameter
Depends on
•The availability of the equipment
•The depth of the cut
•The distance of the nearest structure.

• Max dia. Depends on the hole depth L (ft) = 2D (in)

There are four methods to decrease the explosives amount:
•Use delay firing
•Shorten the depth of the cut
•Decrease the hole dia
•Use decking technique
Burden & spacing determination
Burden is the distance from the blast hole to the nearest
perpendicular free face.

Spacing

Burden

Free face
Burden & spacing determination
Andersen Formula B= (dL)0.5
B : burden, ft d : borehole dia, in
L : borehole Length, ft

Langefors’ Formula V= (db/33) [Ps/cf(E/V)]0.5

V : burden, m db : dia of drill bit, mm

P : degree of packing = 1-1.6 kg/dm3
s : wt strength of explosives (1.3 for gelatin)
c : rock constant, generally 0.45
f : 1 degree of fraction, for straight hole = 1
E/V = ratio of spacing to burden
 Spacing determination
Spacing is the distance between blast holes fired in the same
row
It is necessary to complete burden calculations before
determining the spacing.

S= (BL)0.5

B : burden, ft
L : borehole Length, ft
 Controlled Blasting
To control overbreak and to aid the stability of the
remaining rock formation.
There are 4 methods
• Line drilling (unloaded), Fig.8-2
• Cushion blasting
• Smooth-wall blasting
• Presplitting
Controlled Blasting – Line drilling
• Provides a plane of weakness to which the rock can break.
• Helps to reflect shock waves,
• Reduces the shattering effect of the rock outside the
perimeter.
• Do not exceed 3 in in dia and are spaced one to four
diameters apart (due to cost).
• Are not loaded
• Requires more drilling more than the other controlled
blasting methods.
• Is not very effective in non-homogeneous formations
Controlled Blasting – Line drilling

Free Unloaded
face line drill
holes
 Cushion Blasting
• Requires a single row of holes ( 2 to 3.5 in) in dia.
• Permits a reduction in the No. of holes required by line-drilling
• Unlike line-drilling holes, the cushion holes are loaded with light
charges.
• Holes are fully stemmed between charges, allowing no air gap, and
are fired after the production shot has been excavated.
• The stemming acts as a cushion to protect the finished wall from the
shock waves. The larger the borehole, the greater the cushion.
• Not suitable for underground - tough stemming requirements.
• Drawbacks: (1) requires removal of excavated material before
firing (costly due to production delay – no excavation for entire area
at once). (2) Sometimes the production shot can break back to the
cushion holes, creating redrilling problems and causing loading
changes.
 Smooth-wall Blasting
• Similar to cushion blasting
 Pre-splitting
• Creates a plane of shear in solid rows along the desired
excavation before the production blast.
• All holes are loaded like cushion blasting
• Reduces overbreak
• Reduces the vibration