Study Notes #2 p.

Mr. Weber Chemistry

CHEMICAL BONDS form between atoms to form molecules or compounds. Energy is released when bonds are made/formed. Energy is absorbed when bonds are broken. A chemical reaction results in the release/absorption of energy depending on which bonds are made/broken. An exothermic reaction releases heat energy while an endothermic reaction absorbs heat energy.

In a covalent bond, valence electrons are shared between neighboring atoms so that each atom involved in the bond has eight valence electrons (Octet Rule). H bonds so it has 2 valence e-. In an ionic bond, one or more valence electrons is completely transferred from a metal to a non metal, forming a cation with a (+) charge and anion with a (-) charge. Metals may lose electrons to form cations with a positive (+) charge. Non metals may gain electrons to form anions with a negative (-) charge

Example: NaCl is sodium chloride or table salt. Na which is in Group 1, loses its valence electron and gets a +1 charge. Cl which is in Group 7, gains that electron and gets a -1 charge.

The ionic bond holding sodium and chloride ions together is an electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, Na+ and Cl- Sodium chloride is an example of an ionic compound. When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the charged ions may move about freely. In the solid state, the ions are fixed and cannot conduct electricity. since the ions cannot move around. Ionic compounds tend to have very high melting points (thus they are solid at room temperature), they are hard and brittle these properties are due to the high strength of ionic bonds. The repeating geometric pattern of a salt crystal is called a crystal lattice and the energy holding the crystal together is the lattice energy. The cation surrounds itself by as many anions as possible and gets as far away as it can from other cations. (Opposite charges attract, like charges repel.) Figure 12 on p.174 shows the crystal lattice structure of NaCl and CaF2, the structures are different due to the different sizes and ratios of the ions. A crystal lattice consists of repeating unit. Each repeating unit is a unit cell.

Covalent bonds are generally formed between non metals (CH4, NH3, N2, O2, CH2Cl2) Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non metals (NaCl, CaF2, MgCl2) Covalent bonds are weaker than ionic bonds, therefore covalent compounds have considerably lower melting points than ionic compounds since less energy is required to break the covalent bonds. (See p.171)

In a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are shared evenly between atoms of the same element (N2, O2, F2, Cl2, etc). Such bonds are purely covalent since the e- are evenly shared. In a polar covalent bond, the electrons are NOT evenly shared since different atoms have different electronegativity values (the EN value measures how strongly an atom attracts electrons to itself.) When the difference in electronegativity (EN) between two bonding atoms is greater than 1.7-2.0, the bond is considered to be an ionic bond. With one exception noted below, a bond is always polar if the two atoms involved in the bond are different. Exception: CS2 has nonpolar covalent bonds since C and S both have electronegativity = 2.5 As EN increases, polarity and bond strength also increase. When EN is very small (less than 0.5) then the bond is so slightly polar that it may be regarded as non polar.

Study Notes #2 p.2

STATES OF MATTER (also called phases of matter) Intermolecular forces (forces between molecules) and interatomic forces (forces between atoms) hold substances together. The stronger these forces are, the more energy (heat) will be required to separate them. When a substance is in the solid state or phase, the molecules or atoms vibrate but they cannot move past one another, they are held in place relatively tightly. As heat is applied to the solid, the particles (atoms or molecules) vibrate more and more and they move faster and faster (their kinetic energy increases) until the forces of attraction between them is overcome enough to allow the particles to move around more freely and slide past each other this is the liquid phase. The temperature at which solid turns to liquid is the melting point. As more and more heat is applied to a liquid, the particles move around faster and faster until the particles break completely free into the gas phase. The temperature at which a liquid turns to gas is the boiling point. Since ionic

compounds have stronger bonds than covalent compounds, they have higher melting and boiling points. Liquids and gases take the shape of the container they are in. (e.g. a glass of water)

When water boils in a pot, the H2O molecules at the very surface are able to break away into the gas phase when they have enough kinetic energy to overcome the force of the atmosphere (atmospheric pressure) exerted on the surface of the water. This explains why H2O boils at a lower temperature in the mountains (high altitude) where atmospheric pressure is relatively low.

COMPARISON OF MELTING AND BOILING POINTS OF COMPOUNDS (see p.171) Ionic bonds are much stronger than covalent bonds, thus ionic compounds have much higher melting points and boiling points than covalent compounds. This trend is illustrated below:

Compound Name magnesium fluoride sodium chloride hydrogen sulfide methane

Chemical Formula MgF2

Type of Compound ionic

Melting Point (C) 1261

Boiling Point (C) 2239

NaCl

ionic

801

1413

H2S

covalent

-86

-61

CH4

covalent

-182

-164

Study Notes #2 p.3

Mr. Weber Chemistry

LEWIS DOT STRUCTURES show how valence electrons and covalent bonds are arranged between atoms in molecules. A single covalent bond is represented by a single line between atoms. For example, a single bond between C and H looks like this C H A pair of valence electrons is represented by two dots next to each other.

When drawing Lewis Structures, it is very helpful to keep in mind the information in this chart:

Atom # of valence electrons (same as group #) # of covalent bonds (2 electrons per bond) # of lone pairs (2 electrons per pair)

H C N O F, Cl, Br, I 1 1 4 4 5 3 6 2 7 1

This chart holds true when all atoms have a neutral charge or formal charge of O. With the exception of H (hydrogen), note that (# of lone pairs) + (# of bonds) = 4. We know that each lone pair and each bond consists of 2e- and that each atom likes to have 8e- (octet) around it. H (hydrogen) likes to have 2 electrons around it so it will always make one single bond. The rest of the atoms in the chart like to have a noble gas configuration with 8 electrons around them.

The chart says that C (carbon) makes 4 bonds which means that C bonds in one of these ways: 4 single bonds (CH4, CH2Cl2, CBr4, etc)

2 single bonds, 1 double bond (C2H4, COH2, etc...) 1 single bond, 1 triple bond (C2H2)

Carbon will NOT have a lone pair of electrons in any of the molecules we see this year.

N (nitrogen) makes 3 bonds which means that N bonds in one of these ways: 3 single bonds, 1 lone pair of e1 single bond, 1 double bond, 1 lone pair of e1 triple bond, 1 lone pair of e-

O (oxygen) makes 2 bonds which means that O bonds in one of these ways: 1 double bond, 2 lone pairs of e2 single bonds, 2 lone pairs of e-

H will always make one single bond as we said previously.

The above rules apply when all atoms have a formal charge of 0. Even when atoms have a formal charge 0, it still holds true that all atoms (except H) like to have 8e- around them.

Study Notes #2 p.4

Examples of Lewis Dot Structures:

CH4

NH3

H2

CBr4

N2

H2O

COH2

CH3OH

CO2

C2H6

C2H4

C2H2

These 3 compounds are all butane: C4H10

CH3CH2CH2CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

***FORMAL CHARGE is the charge on each individual atom of a molecule. The net charge of a molecule is computed by adding up all of the formal charges of each atom in the molecule.

Here is how we compute the formal charge of a particular atom in a molecule: Formal Charge = (Group number of the atom) (# of bonds) (# of lone electrons) The number of bonds is 1 for a single bond, 2 for a double bond, 3 for a triple bond, etc The number of lone electrons is twice the number of lone pairs of electrons (2 e- per pair)

Examples:

OH-

N2O

NH4+

*** Formulas for Ionic Compounds are written so that the ratio of cations:anions is such that the + and charges cancel each other out. Note these general rules when writing formulas for ionic compounds: Group 1 ions have a +1 charge, Group 2 ions have a +2 charge, Al has a +3 charge, Group 6 ions have a -2 charge, Group 7 ions have -1 charge. Examples: 1. sodium chloride, NaCl, note that the single + charge is balanced by the single charge. 2. calcium bromide CaBr2 since calcium is in Group 2, its charge is +2. Each bromide ion (Group 7) has a -1 charge and we need TWO -1 charges to balance the +2 charged Ca ion.

*** A charged group of two or more atoms is a polyatomic ion (e.g. NH4+, CN-, PO43-, SO42-) It is helpful to memorize the list of common polyatomic ions shown on page 178 of Holt Chemistry. The following are some examples of common polyatomic compounds: 1. sodium sulfate, Na2SO4, since sulfate has a -2 charge and Na has a +1 charge, we need two sodium ions to balance the -2 charge on sulfate. 2. aluminum phosphate is written Al2(SO4)3 Since aluminum has a +3 charge and sulfate has a -2 charge. We need 2 Al ions (2)(+3) = +6 and 3 sulfate ions (3)(-2) = -6. 3. KMnO4 is potassium permanganate, K is +1 and MnO4 is -1 4. Ba(OH)2 is barium hydroxide, Ba has +2 charge and OH

*** Naming Ionic Compounds: write the name of the cation + name of anion If the cation is a single element, use the name of the element. If the anion is a single element then replace ine with ide. If the cation and/or anion are polyatomic ions then use the name(s) of the polyatomic ions. If the cation is a transition metal then its charge needs to be indicated by a Roman numeral. Here are some examples:

NaF Sodium Flouride Ca2CO3 Calcium Carbonate (NH4)3PO4 Ammonium Phosphate Pb(CO3)2 Lead (IV) Carbonate MgBr2 Magnesium Bromide

(NH4)2S Ammonium Sulfide Sn3(PO4)2 Tin (III) Phosphate Fe2O3 Iron (III) Oxide

*** Naming Covalent Compounds The first element in the chemical formula is simply the name of the element. The second element is also the name of the element but substitute ide for

ine. For example, HF is named hydrogen fluoride. If there is more than one atom of an element in a molecule, we need to add prefix(es) to tell us how many atoms are present. These are the prefixes you need to remember:
Number of atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Prefix mono- (used only for oxygen) ditritetrapentahexaheptaOcta=

Examples: P2O5 this is named diphosphorus pentaoxide because there are 2 phosphorus, 5 oxygen atoms CO this is named carbon monoxide, you need the mono since there is only 1 oxygen atom CF4 this is carbon tetrafluoride because there is 1 carbon atom and 4 fluorine atoms H2O2 technically this is dihydrogen dioxide but its common name is hydrogen peroxide