CHNG 1: GII THIU CHUNG

1.1. Tng quan v h thng x l nh

H thng x l nh cho php tip nhn khung cnh hoc nh u vo, thc hin
mt dy cc php x l a dng to ra mt nh u ra mang thng tin cn thit, phn
tch rt ra c cc c trng cho php hiu c khung cnh, nh.
Cc phng php v k thut x l nhm to ra cc my tnh c kh nng nhn v
hiu c nh nh con ngi, gip cho con ngi c th nhn nhng ni m con ngi
khng ti c.
X l nh l mt qu trnh phc tp v a dng lin quan n nhiu lnh vc khc
nhau.
1.1.1. Cc chc nng c bn ca h thng x l nh
a. Thu nhn v s ha hnh nh
- Thu nhn:
Camera (c th l camera tn hiu tng t - CCIR hay camera tn hiu s ha - CCD).
Sensor (b cm ng): thu nhn nh v tinh
Scanner
- S ha: nhm bin i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s (ri rc)gm hai qu trnh
ly mu v lng t ha.
b. X l v phn tch nh
Qu trnh x l v phn tch nh gm nhiu giai on: nng cao cht lng nh, trch
chn c im, hu x l (nhn dng phn lp hay cc quyt nh khc).
- Nng cao cht lng nh: lm ni bt mt s c im ca nh hay lm cho nh
ging nht vi trng thi gc ca n.
Xa nhiu: loi b cc i tng d tha trong nh (c th do cht lng ca thit
b thu nhn, do ngun sng
Nn chnh hnh hc: khc phc cc bin dng do cc thit b in t v quang hc
gy nn, c th khc phc bng cc php chiu.
Chnh mc xm: khc phc tnh khng ng u ca mc xm, thng dng
xa bt s mc xm ca nh.
- Trch chn c im: tin ti hiu nh
D bin, xc nh bin, phn vng. lm mnh, trch xng,...
- Nhn dng nh: 3 pha
M t i tng
Trch chn c im
i snh vi kt lun
c. Hin th, m ha, nn nh
- Hin th l a nh ra mt thit b ngoi vi no l qu trnh ngc li ca qu
trnh thu nhn nh bao gm: ti hin nh, in nh, a nh ra mn hnh.
- Nn nh (hay cn gi l m ha nh): l gim thiu khng gian lu tr, lng thng
tin sau khi nn thng nh hn d liu gc rt nhiu (cng c th l tng-suy bin).
1.1.2. Cc giai on chnh ca qu trnh x l nh
Thu nhn nh S ha nh Phn tch nh Nhn dng
H quyt nh
Lu
tr
Lu
tr
Camera
Sensor
scanner
1
Hnh 1.1.2. Cc giai on trong x l nh
1.2. Cc vn c bn ca x l nh
1.2.1. Mt s khi nim
a. Picel (picture element - im nh): im nh c xem nh l c trng cho cng
sng hay mt du hiu no ti mt to nht nh trong khng gian v nh l tp hp
cc im nh.
b. Gray level- mc xm: l s gi tr c th c ca cc im nh ca nh. nh xm c 256
mc xm: 0 ->255.
1.2.2. Thu nhn v s ha hnh nh
Thu nhn v s ha hnh nh gm 2 cng on:
- Bin i nng lng quang thnh nng lng in ca mt nh, y l tn hiu tng
t - tn hiu nh, l mt hm lin tc.
- S ha hnh nh:
1.2.3. X l - Phn tch nh
- Ci thin, nng cp, khi phc nh (tin x l preprocesing)
- Phn tch c trng ca nh: pht hin v tch bin, phn vng
- Biu din v x l c trng ca nh (nh phn ha, x l theo kiu nh phn, nhn
dng,...)
1.3. Phm vi v ng dng ca x l nh
- Thng tin nh
- X l nh v tinh, vin thm
- Thin vn, nghin cu khng gian v tr
- a cht thm d
- Ngi my, t ng ha
- My thng minh, th gic my
- Sinh hc, y hc
- Vt l
- Ha hc
- Gim st, kim sot
- Qun s
1.4. Mt s vn nghin cu
- Cc phng php pht hin v tch bin tin tin
- Cc phng php phn vng tin tin
- Nhn dng cc i tng v phn tch nh
- Cm nhn nh da trn mng noron
- Phn tch, x l kt cu v ng dng trong nhn dng
- Pht hin cc phn t chuyn ng trong nh
- X l nh a ph, phn tch thnh cc thnh phn chnh, cc thnh phn c lp
- Khi phc nh, lc nh trong nhiu
- M ho, nn nh
S ha
nh lin tc
f(x,y)
x,y R
f(x,y)
nh s
f(m,n)
m,n [1,M]
f(m,n) [0,1,...L-1]
2
CHNG 2: TO NH V BIU DIN NH
2.1. Nguyn tc hnh thnh nh
Mt hnh nh c cm nhn bi mt con ngi khi tn ti cc ngun sng, pht
sng n cc vt th, ty thuc vo kh nng phn x ca cc vt th m mt ngi nhn
c hnh nh.
* c tnh ca nh sng:
nh sng l sng in t cho nn c th m t n bng tn s hay bc sng. nh
sng mt tri truyn i mi tn s trong di nhn thy to ra nh sng trng. Khi nh
sng trng chiu ln i tng: Mt vi tn s phn x, mt s khc b hp th. T hp ca
cc tn s phn x hnh thnh ci gi l mu i tng. Th d: Nu tn s thp chim u
th -> mu ...
Khi ta quan st ngun sng, mt ta p ng mu v hai cm gic khc:
- chi: Lin quan n cng (nng lng) nh sng: Nng lng cng cao ->
ngun sng cng chi.
- tinh khit ca mu sng
nh sng c ba c tnh: Tn s, chi v tinh khit
2.2. Kh nng cm nhn nh ca mt
nh sng m con ngi nhn bit (hay mu khc nhau) l di tn hp trong quang
ph in t
2.3. Mu sc
* Mu: C nhiu nh ngha v mu (khng c nh ngha hnh thc)
- T gc nhn khoa hc: Mu l phn b cc bc sng (: 700 nm, tm: 400 nm),
tn s f v tc nh sng: c=f
- T gc nhn v ngh thut v cuc sng: Mu l sc, sng v bo ha ca i
tng
* M hnh mu: L phng php din gii cc c tnh v tc ng ca mu trong ng
cnh nht nh.
- Khng c m hnh mu no l y cho mi kha cnh ca mu
- S dng cc m hnh mu khc nhau m t cc tnh cht c nhn bit khc nhau
ca mu.
Th d
- M hnh mu RGB: nh sng Red, Green v Blue ng dng cho mn hnh, TV.
- M hnh HSV: Nhn thc ca con ngi
- M hnh CMYK: My in
* M hnh mu RGB:
Thc t s mu gc l khng gii hn. Tuy nhin ch 3 mu c s cho phn ln
cc ng dng. M hnh mu RGB c biu din bi lp phng vi cc trc R, G, B
- Gc biu din mu en
3
- Ta (1, 1, 1) biu din mu trng.
- Ta trn cc cnh trc biu din cc mu c s.
- Cc cnh cn li biu din mu b cho mi mu c s
Biu RGB thuc m hnh cng:
- Pht sinh mu mi bng cch cng cng mu c s
- Gn gi tr t 0 n 1 cho R, G, B
- Red+Blue -> Magenta (1, 0, 1)
- ng cho t (0, 0, 0) n (1, 1, 1) biu din mu xm
* Nhn xt
- M hnh ny khng th biu din mi mu trong ph nhn thy
- cho cc ng dng my tnh
- Mn hnh my tnh v TV s dng m hnh ny
- c s dng rng ri nht
- n gin
2.4. Biu din nh
nh trn my tnh l kt qu thu nhn c theo phng php s ha c nhng
trong cc loi thit b k thut khc nhau. Qu trnh lu tr nhm vo hai mc ch: tit
kim b nh v gim thi gian x l.
Vic lu tr thng tin trong b nh c nh hng rt ln n vic hin th in n v
x l. nh c xem nh l mt tp hp cc im (im nh) vi cng kch thc, nu s
dng cng nhiu im nh th bc nh cng p, cng mn v cng th hin r hn chi tit
ca nh. Ngi ta gi c im ny gi l phn gii. Vic la chn phn gii thch
hp ty thuc vo nhu cu s dng vi c trng ca mi nh c th.
Trn c s nh thng c biu din theo hai m hnh khc nhau.
2.4.1. M hnh RASTER
y l cch biu din thng dng nht hin nay, thun tin cho vic thu nhn, hin
th v in n, thng thu nhn c qua cc thit b thu nhn nh nh: camera, scaner,...
Trong m hnh Raster, mt nh c biu din di dng mt ma trn hai chiu. Mi
phn t ca ma trn biu din cho mc xm hay cng ca nh ti v tr . Mi phn
t trong ma trn c gi l mt phn t nh, thng thng k hiu l PEL (Picture
Element) hoc l im nh (Pixel).
- Vi nh en trng: Nu dng 8 bit (1 byte) biu din mc xm, th s cc mc
xm c th biu din c l 2
8
hay 256. Mi mc xm c biu din di dng l mt
s nguyn nm trong khong t 0 n 255, vi mc 0 biu din cho mc cng en
nht v 255 biu din cho mc cng sng nht.
- Vi nh mu: Cch biu din cng tng t nh vi nh en trng, ch khc l cc
s ti mi phn t ca ma trn biu din cho ba mu ring r gm: (red), lc (green) v
lam (blue). biu din cho mt im nh mu cn 24 bit, 24 bit ny c chia thnh ba
khong 8 bit. Mi khong ny biu din cho cng sng ca mt trong cc mu chnh.
hiu vic s ho nh hy xem hnh 1.1.
4


Hnh 1.1 Biu din ca mt mc xm ca nh s.
Trong hnh ny mt li chia vung tng tng c t ln nh. ln mi
vung ca li xc nh kch thc ca mt im nh. Mc xm ca mt im c tnh
bng cng sng trung bnh ti mi vung ny. Mt li cng nh th cho cht lng
nh cng cao.
2.4.2. M hnh VECTER
Ngoi mc ch tit kim khng gian lu tr, d dng cho vic hin th v in n cn
phi m bo d dng trong trong lu chn, sao chp, di chuyn, tm kim. Theo yu cu
ny m hnh VECTER t ra u vit hn.
M hnh ny s dng hng gia cc vecter ca im nh ln cn m ha v ti
to hnh nh. nh vecter c thu nhn trc tip t cc thit b s ha nh Digitalizer hoc
chuyn i t nh Raster thng qua chng trnh vecter ha.
Tuy nhin cng ngh phn cng cung cp nhng thit b x l vi tc nhanh v
cht lng cao cho c u vo v u ra ch yu h tr nh Raster. Do vy, nhng nghin
cu v biu din Vecter u tp trung cc k thut chuyn i t nh Raster
RASTER VECTER RASTER Vecter
ha
Raster
ha
sng trung bnh
trong mi hnh ch nht
= gi tr mt im nh.
Pixel
or PEL
5
CHNG 3: THU NHN V S HA NH
3.1. Cc thit b thu nhn nh
Cc thit b thu nhn nh thng thng l: camera, scaner, sensor,... Cc thit b ny
c th cho nh en trng (mc mu 0, 1), nh a cp sng (mc mu 0 -> 255), nh mu
(mi im nh lu tr trong 3B),..., c phn gii t 100 -> 1600 dpi (2,5cm).
VD: nh mn hnh c phn gii 96 dpi
Thit b thu nhn nh c hai loi chnh ng ci hai loi nh thng dng l RASTER
v VECTER. Cc thit b thu nhn nh RASTER thng thng l: camera, scaner, ... Cc
thit b thu nhn nh VECTER thng qua b s ha Digitalizer hoc chuyn i t nh
RASTER
Nhn chung cc h thng thu nhn nh thc hin hai qu trnh:
- Bin i nng lng quang hc thnh nng lng in
- Tng hp nng lng in thnh nh
3.2. S ha nh
S ha nh l bin i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s (ri rc)gm hai qu trnh ly
mu v lng t ha:
Ri rc ha nh L(x,y) l qu trnh thc hin ly mu ( ly cc im ri rc theo chu
k theo trc Ox, Oy). Kt qu thu c tn hiu nh s ti cc im ri rc ca mt phng
nh.
y) n - y x, m (x y) L(x, y) n x, L(m y) L(x,
M
1 m
N
1 n



Vi m [1,M], n [1,N]
x l khong cch gia hai im k tip theo trc Ox
y l khong cch gia hai im k tip theo trc Oy
m bo c tnh trung thc ca nh th qu trnh ri rc ha phi tha mn
nh l chu k ly mu (Shamnon): nh lin tc L(x,y) c tn s gii hn khng gian l F
x
,
F
y
ch c th c khi phc trung thc t cc mu nu tha mn:
max 2
1
x
F
x
;
max 2
1
y
F
y
b. p dng
Xt nh Video: Di thng tn hiu chi: 25 Hz 6,5 MHz
Di thng tn hiu mu: 25 Hz 2 MHz
Thc t chp nhn c : F
xmax
= F
ymax
= 4 MHz
Vy s im cn thit cho mt im nh l bao nhiu?
- Thi gian qut mt mt phng nh:
s
25
1
30
1

- Chu k ly mu:
s
MHz
6
10 . 8
1
8
1

=> S im nh cn thit cho mt nh:
30
10 . 8
10 . 8
1
30
1
6
6

266 000 512

2
(im)
=> nh vung chun c: 266000 = N
2
=> N=512
Vy ma trn nh L(x,y) c kch thc 512 x 512
3.2.2. Lng t ha
S ha
nh lin tc
f(x,y)
x,y R
f(x,y)
nh s
f(m,n)
m,n [1,M]
f(m,n) [0,1,...L]
6
Lng t ha l bc tip theo ca qu trnh ly mu, l ri rc ha hm sng.
Lut lng t ha nhm t c sai s nh nht
Gi D l gii bin thin v sng
C
w
l phn bit sng ca mt
Bng thc nghim c: C
w
=
[ ] 02 , 0 01 , 0

L
M
q
l mc lng t c th c
Mc lng t u: q =
M
D
q
(gi l mc lng t)
Da vo nhy cm nh sng ca mt (bng thc nghim) c:
M
q
=
1) lg(0,02
2
1) lg(
D
C
w
+

+
= 232,5
(D
tl
= 2)
x l nh bng my tnh ta cn xc nh s bit cn thit biu din sng ca
mt im nh. t M
q
= 2
n
= 232,5 256 = 2
8

Vy cn 8 bit biu din sng ca mt im nh ngha l nh en trng c ti
256 mc xm.
Vi nh mu thng C
w

= 0,01 => M
q
=
1) lg(0,01
2
+
468 256 = 2
9
Vy cn 9 bit biu din sng ca mt im nh mu hay cn c 512 mc
biu din sng cho cc im nh mu.
Dung lng b nh cn lu tr mt nh:
en trng: 512 x 512 x 2
3
= 2
18
byte =
4
1
MB
Mu: 512 x 512 x 2
4
= 2
19
byte =
2
1
MB
Tm li sau qu trnh ri rc ha v lng t ha, mi nh c biu din l mt ma
trn:
y) n - y x, m (x y) L(x, ny) x, L(m y) L(x,
M
1 m
N
1 n

'

'

1 l
1 k
khi 0
1 l k khi 1
) , ( l k
H1: Cn ti thiu bao nhiu im phn nh trung thc mt nh?
H2: Cn c bao nhiu mc biu din sng ca mt im nh? V sao?
H3: Dung lng nh cn s dng lu tr mt nh l bao nhiu byte? V sao?
7
CHNG 4: CC PHNG PHP C BN
X L S HNH NH
4.1. Khi qut chung
4.1.1. H thng s
X l nh s bao gm cc php ton, thut ton thc hin x l ma trn biu din s
liu nh.
H thng s: H thng s c nh ngha l h thng tip nhn u vo l tn hiu
s, to u ra cng l tn hiu s theo mt php ton hay thut ton no . Ta c th m
hnh ho ton hc ca h thng bi:
Y = H[X] trong H l ton t
i vi s liu nh: Vo X(m,n) l mt ma trn s liu nh (mc xm)
Ra Y(m,n) cng l ma trn s liu nh
Y(m,n) = H[X(m,n)]
Ton t H gi l m hnh ca h thng s
4.1.2. Cc phng php x l nh s c bn
nh s = Ma trn s liu X(m,n)
* Mt nh c c trng bi hai yu t:
- V tr khng gian (m,n): cc php bin i hnh hc
- Gi tr sng: cc php x l s
* Phn bit cc phng php x l s hnh nh theo phc tp ca php x l:
- Cc ton t im nh: l cc php x l n gin, x l tng im ring bit
- Cc x l cc b: x l gi tr im nh trong mi quan h vi cc im ln cn,
gm cc php lc nh: tuyn tnh v phi tuyn
- Cc php x l tng th: x l gi tr im nh c lin quan n tt c cc im nh
trong nh
Cc php ton biu i nh c phc tp tnh ton cao nht thng l: O(N
2
),
O(N
4
)
* Phn loi cc phng php x l s theo cch x l min khng gian quan st: X l
trc tip gi tr thu nhn c:
- Biu din tng phn
- Cc php lc nh
- Bin i nh
- X l biu din a phn gii
- Phn tch kt cu nh
* X l trong min tn s
- Cc php lc trong min tn s
- Php bin i Fourier
- Phn tch ph
Thu
nhn nh
S ho nh
- Ri rc ho
- Lng t ho
nh in
Video
nh s
I(m,n)
Ma trn s
biu din nh
X l s
H[]
Y[m,n] = H[X]
Khung
cnh
nh
H thng s
H[X]
Y(m,n) X(m,n)
8
4.2. Cc php ton im nh
4.2.1. Biu phn b mc xm (Histogram)
Ta c nh s X(m,n) => gi tr X(m,n) [l
min
, l
max
]
Histogram ca X(m,n) c nh ngha l mt vector s liu m mi thnh phn h
i
ca n l: h
i
=
MN
n
i
, trong MN l tng s im nh n
i
l s mc xm c mc xm i
[l
min
, l
max
] [0,255]. th ca cc vector H[h
i
] gi l biu mc xm
VD: Cho nh s X(m,n) nh sau:
X(m,n) =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

3 1 1 5 6 8 9 8
1 2 1 7 8 8 9 9
1 2 2 8 9 9 9 9
3 1 2 7 7 9 9 8
2 1 1 9 9 9 9 8
1 1 2 1 7 9 8 7
1 1 1 1 7 9 9 8
1 2 2 1 1 1 7 9
Ta c:
* Nhn xt: im gn trc i s l bin nh hoc l im xut hin . Lc xm cung
cp nhiu thng tin v phn b mc xm ca nh. X l nh cho php phn tch khong
no phn b phn ln cc mc xm ca nh. Nu nh sng th lc xm nm bn
phi mc xm thp cn nu nh m th lc xm nm bn tri mc xm thp.
Thut ton xy dng lc xm c th c xy dng nh sau:
- Bc 1: Tm kch thc vector H v khi to cho cc phn t ca H bng 0
- Bc 2: To mng H[h
i
] vi mi im nh (x,y). Tnh ra h
i

for i: = l
min
to l
max
do
begin
begin
for m: = 1 to N do if X(m,n) = i then n
i
= n
i
+1
h[i]: = n
i
.
MN
1
end;
end;
- Bc 3: V th ca H[h
i
]
4.2.2. Cc php ton im nh
Bn cht ca cc php x l im nh l nhm bin i gi tr ca mt im nh,
ngha l bin i xm ca mi im nh, do lc xm c bin i.
Ta c th nh ngha mt cch tng qut cho cc php ton im nh nh sau:
Y(m,n) = f(X(m,n))
Trong f l mt hm ton hc no , c th l tuyn tnh hay phi tuyn., lin tc
hay ri rc, hm s hay hm logic.
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n
i
19 8 2 0 1 0 6 9 16
h
i
19/648/64 2/64 0/64 1/64 0/64 6/64 9/64
16/64
X l tnh
ton H
nh raY(m,n)
m[1,M],n[1,N]
nh voX(m,n)
9
VD: Ta c th nh phn ho mt nh a mc xm bi ton t im nh:
f(X(m,n)) =

'

<

] , [ \ 1
] , [ \ 0
n m X
n m X
l ngng nh
nh thu c l nh ch c hai mc xm 0 v 1 (nh nh phn)
Vic ci t cc php ton im nh cn thc hin M x N lng hm f ln mt nh.
thun tin ta s dng k thut LUT (Look Up Table) nh sau:
- Lp bng tnh gi tr hm f cho cc gi tr mc xm
=> ch c 256 ln tnh gi tr hm f
- Tra bng xc nh gi tr im nh Y(m,n)
- M phng thut ton:
+ Bc 1: To bng LUT
for i: = 0 to 255 do LUT[i] = f[i]
+ Bc 2: Bin i nh
for each picel X[i,j] do Y[i,j] = LUT[x[i,j]]
VD: Ta dng hm phi tuyn alog(): Y(m,n) =alog(X(m,n)). nu nh c kch thc
512x512 th phi mt 512
2
ln tnh alog(). Nu s dng thut ton LUT ch mt ti a L ln
tnh alog(), vi 1 L 256
4.3. Cc ton t tuyn tnh khng gian
Cc ton t khng gian thng dng l cc ton t tuyn tnh, nhn chp v lc...
Mc ch chnh ca cc ton t l lm cho nh tt hn thun li cho cc php x l tip
theo nh: tng cng v nng cao cht lng nh, d bin, trch trn c tnh, nhn dng,

4.3.1. Ton t tuyn tnh

Mt h thng c gi l tuyn tnh nu
u vo: X(m,n) = a
1
X
1
(m,n) + a
2
X
2
(m,n)
u ra: Y = H[x] = H[a
1
X
1
+ a
2
X
2
] = a
1
Y
1
+ a
2
Y
2
vi Y
1
= H[X
1
], Y
2
= H[X
2
]
Mt h thng gi l bt bin nu tho mn:
H[x(m-m
0
, n-n
0
)] = Y(m-m
0
, n-n
0
) dch 1 v tr
Y(m,n) l kt qu ca ton t tuyn tnh nu cc im nh ca Y l t hp tuyn tnh
cc im nh ca X theo trng s no .
Phng trnh ton t tuyn tnh vit l:
l) k, , n; (m, y) X(x, l) Y(k,
M
1 m
N
1 n

Trong :
l) k, , n; (m,
c gi l ton t Kernel, gm cc h s ph thuc k,l c
quan h tuyn tnh vi X,
l) k, , n; (m,
l ma trn cc h s.
4.3.2. Php ton nhn chp khng gian
a. nh ngha php nhn chp i vi tn hiu lin tc
Gi f(x,y) v g(x,y) l hai hm lin tc. Php nhn chp ca f(x,y) v g(x,y) k hiu
l:

- -
)d - y , - )g(x , f( g f

d
i 0 1 255
f(i) f(0) f(1)
f(255)
10
Ngi ta chng minh c cc tnh cht quan trng sau ca tnh nhn chp:
- Giao hon:
g f
=
f g
- Phn phi:
h) g ( f +
=
h f g f +
b. Php ton nhn chp i vi tn hiu ri rc
Gi f(m,n) v g(k,l) l cc tn hiu ri rc vi m, n, k, l Z
Tch chp:
+

+


- k
) , ( ) , ( g f
k
l n k m g l k f
c. Php nhn chp p dng cho x l nh
X(m,n) l nh u vo
H(k,l) l h thng hm tc ng ln nh X(m,n) to ra nh Y(m,n)
Ta c:

1
0
1
0
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
K
k
L
l
l n k m X l k H n m Y
Thng thng K = L
Nhm x l cc b, ln cn: L nh (L = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
Gi H(k,l) l ma trn ca php nhn chp (cn gi l mt n/p ng xung ca b
lc)

r
r k
r
r l
l n k m X l k H n m Y ) , ( ) , ( ) , (
, vi L = 2r + 1 hay dng vi r = 1
d. Nhn chp v xp chng
Gi s H(k,l) l ma trn 3x3

1
1
1
1
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
k l
l n k m X l k H n m Y
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

) 1 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 (
) 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 ( ) 1 , 0 (
) 1 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 (
) , (
H H H
H H H
H H H
i h g
f e d
c b a
l k H
Y(m,n) = H(-1,-1)X(m+1,n+1) + H(-1,0)X(m+1,n) + H(-1,1)X(m+1,n-1)
+ H(0,-1)X(m,n+1) + H(0,0)X(m,n) + H(0,1)X(m,n-1)
+ H(1,-1)X(m-1,n+1) + H(1,0)X(m-1,n) + H(1,1)X(m-1,n-1)
Vy ta dng H
0
=
1
1
1
]
1

i h g
f e d
c b a
chnh l H quay quanh tm 180
0
t chng ln nh
sao cho e (tm ca nh) trng vo phn t Y(m,n) cn tnh v gi tr ca Y(m,n) l tng
ca tch cc trng ln nhau gia H
0
v X.
VD:
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 1
10
1
) , ( l k H
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1
1 8 8 8 8 8 9 1
1 9 8 8 9 9 9 1
2 9 8 8 9 9 9 1
1 8 8 8 8 8 7 1
1 8 8 1 1 8 7 1
2 8 8 1 1 7 7 1
1 8 8 1 1 7 7 1
) , ( n m X
4.3.3. Php tng quan v hip sai trong khng gian
M hnh thng k c ngha quan trng trong biu din nh cng nh trong nhiu
qu trnh x l nh, m hnh ny mi im nh c xem nh mt bin ngu nhin n. Mt
nh l mt hm mu ca mt ma trn bin ngu nhin cn gi l trng ngu nhin. Thc
t, s bin ngu nhin l rt ln, iu ny gy khng t kh khn v c t mt hm mt
11
phi cn mt khi lng o hay quan st rt ln. V vy ngi ta ngh ti s dng cc
c trng ca phn b xc sut nh sau: k vng ton hc, phng sai, momen,
* S tng quan th hin s quan h gia cc thnh phn trong khng gian
- Trong khng gian mt chiu: x(n) l tn hiu s (vector)
Hm t tng quan:

+
N
n
x
k n x n x x
1
) ( ) ( ) (
) (x
x

t max khi k = 0
Theo l thuyt th
) (x
x

= E[x(n)x(n+k)]
- K vng ton hc:
x(n) v x(n+k) khng qng quan th E[x(n)x(n+k)] = E[x(n)]E[x(n+k)]
- Trong khng gian hai chiu:
Hm tng quan ca x, y vi x(n) v y(n) l hai tn hiu s:

+
N
n
xy
k n y n x k
1
) ( ) ( ) (
x v y khng tng quan th
) (k
xy

= E[x(n)]E[y(n+k)]
- Hm tng quan ca hai nh X(m,n) v Y(m,n) c nh ngha nh sau:


+ +
N
n
N
m
xy
l n k m Y n m X l k
1 1
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( l k
xy

t max khi k = l = 0 ngha l hai nh X(m,n) v Y(m,n) c xp chng

ln nhau.
- Hm t tng quan ca X:


+ +
N
n
N
m
xx
l n k m X n m X l k
1 1
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
- Ma trn hip bin ca tp hp cc nh X
Gi

= {X
i
}, i =
p , 1
th ma trn hip bin A = E[(X-M)(X-M)
T
]
Trong M l ma trn trung bnh cc nh X.
4.4. Cc php bin i cc min khng gian
Mc ny nghin cu cc php ton cho php chuyn i s biu din nh t min
khng gian (m,n) sang min khng gian khc.
Cc ng dng quan trong ca cc php bin i phc v cho x l nh
- Php bin i Z: cng c biu din v nghin cu cc h thng s (b lc s)
- Php bin i Fourier: cng c nghin cu c tnh tn s ca nh
- Php bin i KL: cng c trch chn cc c tnh ch yu ca nh
4.4.1. Php bin i Z
a. nh ngha v tnh cht
Cho ma trn nh X(m,n) trong min khng gian thc, php bin i Z ca X(m,n)
c nh ngha:
n
n
m
m
Z Z n m X n m X TZ Z Z X

+

+



2 1 2 1
) , ( )] , ( [ ) (
(*)
Trong Z
1
, Z
2
l hai min phc
iu kin hi t cua chui (*) c nghin cu trong X l tn hiu s cn thc t
trong X l nh m, n l hu hn

```
php bin i
X(k,l) X(m,n)
m,n R
n
k, l min phc X(Z
1
, Z
2
), Z
1
, Z
2
l
cc s phc (php bin i 2)
k,l min tn s (php bin i
Fourier)
k,l mim khng gian khc m cc
ma trn l khng tng quan
(bin i KL)
12
- Php bin i Z ngc:
2 1 2 1 2 1
2
1
) , (
) 2 (
1
)] , ( [ ) , (
1 2
dz dz Z Z Z Z X
j
n m X TZ n m X
n m
C C

- Tnh cht:
+ Tnh bt bin: TZ[X(m-m
0
,n-n
0
)] =
0
2
0
1
n m
Z Z

X(Z
1
,Z
2
)
vi X(Z
1
,Z
2
) = TZ[X(m,n)]
+ Tnh tuyn tnh: TZ[a
1
Z
1
+ a
2
Z
2
] = a
1
TZ[X
1
] + a
2
TZ[X
2
]
= a
1
X
1
(Z
1
,Z
2
) + a
2
X
2
(Z
1
,Z
2
)
vi a
1
, a
2
l h s
+ Bin i Z ca tch chp: TZ[X
1
X
2
] = TZ[X
1
].TZ[X
2
] = X
1
(Z
1
,Z
2
).X
2
(Z
1
,Z
2
)
b. ng dng ca php bin i Z vo h thng s
Xt h thng s tuyn tnh bt bin

1
1
1
1
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
L
l
L
k
l n k m X l k H X H n m Y
Ly bin i Z hai v:
Y(Z
1
,Z
2
) = TZ[HX] = TZ[H].TZ[X] = H(Z
1
,Z
2
). (Z
1
,Z
2
)
H(Z
1
,Z
2
) =
Z2) X(Z1,
Z2) Y(Z1,
gi l hm truyn ca h thng
* Cc dng biu din h thng s:
- Hm truyn phn thc tng qut:
H(Z
1
,Z
2
) =

1
11
1
1
1 1
1 1
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
0 0
2 1 k
0 0
2 1 k
. a
. b
K
k
L
l
l k
l
K
k
L
l
l k
l
Z Z
Z Z
, trong
1 1
k
a
l
,
2 2
k
b
l
l cc h s hng, nh vy tp
hp cc h s ca t v mu l hai ma trn: A = [
1 1
k
a
l
], B =
2 2
k
b
l
Ta c: Y = H.X, vy bit H s tm c Y u ra.
4.4.2. Php bin i Fourier
a. Php bin i Fourier cho nh lin tc
Thun: X(f,g) = TF[X(x,y)] =
+

+
+
y
y fg x f j
x
e y x X
)) ( ) ( ( 2
) , (
Ngc: X(x,y) =
g f
y fg x f j
d d e g f X
)) ( ) ( ( 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
) , (
+


vi

sin cos j e
j
+
sin , cos
l cc hm tun hon c chu k
2
. Vy sau php bin i ta c
hm phc c chu k
2
, t c khi nim ph ca nh:
X(f,g) = Re[X(f,g)] + jIm[X(f,g)]
Q[X]
Y(m,n)
]
X(m,n)
H thng s
]
X(u,v)
u,v min tn s
X(m,n)
m,n R
n
13
Re[X(f,g)] =

+
y x
fy fx y x ) ( 2 cos ) , (
Im[X(f,g)] =

+
y x
fy fx y x ) ( 2 sin ) , (
Ph bin : ] [ Im Re ) , (
2 2
X g f X +
Ph nng lng:
] [ Im Re ) , (
2 2
2
X g f X +
Ph pha:
)] , ( arg[ ) , ( g f X g f
Vy TF cho php biu din c tnh chu k (tn s) ca nh.
b. Bin i Fourier cho nh s
) , ( ) , ( v u X n m X
TF

* Thun: m, n
N , 1
X(u,v) = TF[X(m,n)] =

1
0
) (
2
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
N
n
v u
N
j
N
m
n
e n m X
N
t:
N
j
N
e W
N
j
N

2
sin
2
cos
2
=> X(u,v) = TF[X(m,n)] =

1
0
) (
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
N
n
v u
N
N
m
n
W n m X
N
* Ngc: X(m,n) = TF
-1
[X(u,v)] =

1
0
) (
2
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
N
n
v u
N
j
N
m
n
e v u X
N
Ta c: X(u,v)
W n m X
N
N
n
v u
N
N
m
n

1
0
) (
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
vi w
lN
= 1 (l Z)
W e e W
k
N
jlN
N
jk
lN k


+
2 2
.
1
2

N
W
K
N
N
k
N
W W

2
2
2
4
2
N
j
N
j
e e W

c. Cc tnh cht cua php bin i Fourier ri rc
* Tnh chu k:
X(u + pN, v + pN) = X(u,v), vi p Z
=
W n m X
N
N
n
pN v pN u
N
m
n m

+ + +

1
0
] ) ( ) [(
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
=
n m
pN v
N
n
pN u
N
m
W W n m X
N
) (
1
0
) (
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
+

14
=
n n m m
pN v
N
n
pN u
N
m
W W W W n m X
N

1
0
1
0
2
, ,
) , (
1
Vy X(u,v) c chu k N vi c hai bin.
* Bin i ngc tng t: X(m,n) =

1
0
) (
2
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
N
n
v u
N
j
N
m
n
e v u X
N
X(m +pN, n + pN) = X(m,n), vi p Z
Vy nh ban u c chu k N => ch cn x l trong mt chu k.
* Tnh tuyn tnh:
TF[a
1
X
1
(m,n)+ a
2
X
2
(m,n)] = a
1
TF[X
1
(m,n)] + a
2
TF[X
2
(m,n)]
= a
1
X
1
(u,v) + a
2
X
2
(u,v)
* Bin i Fourier ca tch nhn chp
TF[X
1
X
2
] = TF[X
1
].TF[X
2
] = X
1
(u,v).X
2
(u,v)
* Tnh i xng lin hip:
X(u,v) =

1
0
) (
2
1
0
2
,
) , (
1
N
n
v u
N
j
N
m
n
e n m X
N
=
) (
2
sin ) (
2
)[cos , (
1
1
0
1
0
2
n m n m
N
n
N
m
v u
N
j v u
N
n m X
N
+

Vy X(u,v) = X
*
(-u + pN, -v + pN)
d. Biu din bin i Fourier trong khng gian vector
y = Tx
Gi X(m,n) l ma trn biu din nh, x l vector tng ng

(u,v) l ma trn biu din nh trong min tn s,

l vector tng ng
Php bin i Fourier c vit di dng vector nh sau:
TF[x] =

= Ax (A gi l ma trn ca php bin i)

Ta vit: A
c
A
R
A
c
= A
R
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 1 0
) 1 ( 3 9 6 3 0
) 1 ( 2 6 4 2 0
1 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
...
... ... ... ... ... ...
...
...
...
...
1
N N N N N
N
N
N
w w w w w
w w w w w
w w w w w
w w w w w
w w w w w
N
4.4.3. Php bin i KL
y l php bin i khng gian n chiu thnh khng gian m chiu (vi m<n), nhm
gim lng thng tin lu tr). Mi thnh phn ca vector miu t mt c tnh ca i
tng.
Mc ch ca php bin i KL l chuyn t khng gian n chiu v khng gian m
chiu sao cho bnh phng sai s l nh nht.
Gi U = {u
1, ,
u
n
} l tp cc vector c s trong khng gian trc gic,
vi

'

nj
j
j
j
u
u
u
u
...
2
1
v

'

k i
k i o
u u
k i
\ 1
\
Mt vector trong khng gian trc giao c th vit:
15
y U u u u u y
T
n n
> + + ...
2 2 1 1
Gi X
1
l kt qu thu c trong khng gian m chiu:
X
1
= + +
n n
u u u ...
2 2 1 1
X
Sai s trong php bin i:



n
j
j
j
j
m
j
j i
n
i
i
u u u X X
1
2
1 1
1

Sai s trung bnh bnh phng:

= E[
2

] = E[(X
1
X)
T
(X
1
X)]= <(X
1
X)
T
(X
1
X)>
=<
+
n
m j
j
1
2

> =
+
> <
n
m
j
j 1
2

m X U
T
do
+ +
> <
n
m j
j
T T
j
T
j
n
m j
T
j
u XX u X u X u
1 1
) )( (
Theo nh ngha ma trn tng quan R ta c:
+

n
m j
j
T
j
Ru u
1

t:
) (
1
i
T
i
n
m i
i
u u I

+
+
t min, khi o hm ca

bng:
) ( 2
j j j
j
u Ru
u

l cc gi tr ring v u
i
l cc vector ring ca phng trnh: (R-
i

)u
i
= 0
* nh ngha v khi nim:
Cho u l mt vector ngu nhin, vector c s ca bin i KL l cc vector trc giao
ca ma trn hip bin R cho bi phng trnh:
k k k
R
. Bin iKL ca u l
u v
T *
v bin i ngc v u
H l vector ct, v l vector hng v
k

l ct th k ca
VD: Cho tp cc i tng biu din bi cc vector sau:
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

0
3
0
;
0
1
1
;
4
0
1
;
3
0
2
;
1
0
2
5 4 3 2 1
X X X X X
Thc hin trch chn hai thuc tnh v nh gi sai s ca php bin i.
4.5. Lc nh
4.5.1. Phng php x l bng tng hp cc im ln cn
nh l ma trn s liu nh, gi tr mi im nh (picel) l xm.
Mi quan h ln cn
- Nu cc im ln cn c xm ng u th cc im thuc v mt i tng
- Nu cc im ln cn khc nhau xa th cc im thuc v cc i tng khc
nhau (ranh gii gia cc i tng, nhiu,)
X l im ln cn cho php to ra mt nh mi m mt im nh (picel) l t hp
cc im ln cn theo mt ma trn cc h s.
ng dung: lc nhiu trong nh, khi phc nh, thay i tng phn, lm ni
ng bin, phn vung nh,
4.5.2. Lc nh
M hnh b lc

- Lc tuyn tnh cn gi l lc s (Digital Filter): Y = H X
- Lc phi tuyn
- C nhiu b lc c chc nng c th:
+ Lc ci thin nh
B lc
H[X]
nh raY
]
nh voX
16
+ Lc nhiu
+ Lc phn tch nh trn min tn s (phn tch ph)
+ Lc o hm (tch bin)
+ Lc thc hin a phn gii (phn vng nh)
+ Lc i vi nh nh phn
17
CHNG 5: CI THIN V NNG CAO
CHT LNG NH
5.1. Khi qut chung
Nng cao cht lng nh l mt bc quan trng, to tin cho x l nh. Mc
ch chnh l nhm lm ni bt mt s c tnh ca nh nh: thay i tng phn, lc
nhiu, lm trn bin nh, khuych i nh,...
Nng cao cht lng nh gm hai qu trnh: Tng cng nh v khi phc nh.
- Tng cng nh: l hon thin trng thi quan st (tng cng cm th - ch
quan), lm ni cc c tnh ca nh. Tng cng nh gm: iu khin mc xm, gin
tng phn, gim nhiu, lm trn nh, phng i, ni bin,...
- Khi phc nh: l lm cho nh gn vi nh thc nht khi n b bin dng do nhiu
nguyn nhn khc nhau.
5.2. Bin i tng phn
Trc tin, ta cn lm r khi nim tng phn. nh s l tp hp cc im nh
m mi im c gi tr sng khc nhau. y sng mt ngi d cm nhn nh
song khng phi l quyt nh. Thc t ch ra rng hai i tng c cng sng nhng
t trn hai nn khc nhau s cho cm nhn khc nhau.
Nh vy, tng phn biu din s thay i ca i tng vi nn. Ni cch khc,
tng phn l ni ca im nh hay vng nh so vi nn.
nh c tng phn thp c th do iu kin sng khng hay khng u hoc
do tnh khng tuyn tnh hay bin ng nh va b cm nhn nh. iu chnh li to
tng phn ca nh l iu chnh li bin trn ton di hay trn di c gii hn bng
cch bin i tuyn tnh (hm tuyn tnh), bin u vo hay phi tuyn (hm m hay hm
logarit).
5.2.1. Bin i tng phn bng cc php ton im nh
Mi mc xm X(m,n) = x s c
nh x sang mt mc xm y = f(x) =
f(X(m,n))
Chng hn hm f c th chn nh
sau:

'

+
+

L x b yb b x
b x a ya a x
a x x
x f
\ ) (
\ ) (
\
) (

Cc dc , , xc nh tng phn tng i, phi chn ln hn 1 trong
min cn gin.
L l s mc xm cc i.
Cc tham s a,b c th chn khi xem xt lc xm.
Nu tng phn bng hm phi tuyn ta c:

'

>
<

1 , ,
1 , ,



gin tng phn
Hm m hay dng gin tng phn c dng: f = [X(m,n)]
p
Vi cc nh dng ng nh p thng chn bng 2.
5.2.2. Bin i lc phn b mc xm
a. Gin Histogram
y
y
b
y
a
a b L
x
nh kt qu trng vi nh gc
co tng phn
18

b. Cn bng Histogram
* Cn bng Histogram: l bin i phi tuyn hnh dng ca Histogram nhm thu
c s phn b tng i u ca hai gi tr xm. Kt qu lm r cc chi tit nh ca nh,
tng tng phn.
* Cn bng l tng: nh I c gi l cn bng l tng nu vi mi mc xm g v
g` ta c: h(g) = h(g`).
Gi s nh I c kch thc m x n
new_level l s mc xm ca nh
TB =
level new
mxn
_
t(g) =

g
i
i h
0
) ( ; f(g)=Max(0, round(
1
) (

TB
g t
)
VD: new_level = 4
I =
TB =
4
20
= 5
I
kq
=
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 3 1 1
2 1 2 2 0
1 1 2 3 0
3 2 1 0 1
5.3. Lc nhiu
nh ban u X(m,n) [s
1,
s
2
] nh sau php gin Y(m,n) [L
min
-> L
max
]
Y(m,n)=
g 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
h(g) 2 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 2 1
t(g) 2 5 8 9 12 13 14 17 19 20
f(g) 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
g 0 1 2 3
h(g) 5 7 5 3
19
5.3.1. nh b nhiu
Nhiu l cc i tng cn loi b (d tha) trong nh, c hai loi nhiu thng gp:
- Nhiu h thng: thng gy ra bi cc thit b v c tnh cht tun hon c th kh
bng cc php bin i, chng hn php bin i Fourier.
- Nhiu ngu nhin: l cc vt bn kh xa, c th khc phc bng cc php lc.
Gi: X l nh thu nhn
S thng tin ca nh (nh khng b nhiu)
N nhiu ngu nhin
M hnh biu din nh b nhiu
+ Nhiu cng: X = S + N
+ Nhiu nhn: X = S . N
+ Nhiu nhn chp: X = S N
Do c nhiu loi nhiu khc nhau nn cn c nhiu b lc thch hp. Mt khc do
bn cht ca nhiu l ng vi tn s cao v c s l thuyt lc l b lc ch cho tn hiu c
tn s no i qua 9 (di tn s ca b lc). C hai k thut lc nhiu
+ Vi nhiu cng v nhiu nhn ta dng cc b lc thng thp, trung bnh v lc
ng hnh.
+ Vi nhiu xung ta dng lc trung v, gi trung v.
5.3.2. Lc tuyn tnh
X(m,n) = S(m,n) N(m,n)
a. Lc trung bnh khng gian
Vi lc trung bnh mi im nh c thay th bng trung bnh trung ca cc im
ln cn
Y(m,n) =

k w l
l n k m X l k H ) , ( ) , (
VD: H(k,l) =
9
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
; X(m,n) =
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

2 1 6 7 5
1 7 5 7 5
3 8 1 6 6
1 7 1 7 5
1 7 2 7 4
; Y(m,n) =
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

11 22 33 35 24
22 34 48 48 36
27 34 49 43 36
27 31 46 39 35
16 19 31 26 23
b. Lc thng thp
Thng c s dng lm trn nhiu. V nguyn l ging nh trnh by trn.
Trong k thut ny ngi ta s dng mt mt n lc nh sau:
H
1
=
8
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 0
; H
3
=
16
1

1
1
1
]
1

1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
; H =
2
) 2 (
1
+ b

1
1
1
]
1

1 1
1 1
2
b
b b b
b
5.3.3. Lc phi tuyn
Lc phi tuyn lm gim nhiu xung, ci thin cc mc xm mu.
a. Lc hng
Chn ca s lc W kch thc: (2p + 1)(2q + 1) = L. t ca s lc xp chng ln
nh sao cho im trung tm ca ca s lc trng vi im nh ang xt.
- Gi a(k) l gi tr cc mc xm ca nh trong phm vi ca s, sp xp cc gi tr
a(k) theo tng dn: a(1) a(2) ... a(L)
- Tnh gi tr im nh u ra theo cng thc: Y(n,n) =
) (k a W
L
l k
k

W
k
l gi tr hm s lc tng ng vi a(k)
20
* B lc trung v l mt lc hng vi:

'

+

+

2
1
\ 0
2
1
\ 1
L
k W
L
k W
k
k
Thay vo ta c: Y(m,n) = a(
2
1 + L
) = median{a(k)} = median{X(m-k,n-l)}
Ca d nht nh l hnh vung. ty thuc vo nh hoc vng nh chn hnh dn
ca W.
15 15 16 17 17 17 18 20 78
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Gi tr 17 c thay cho 78 tm ca ca s lc
B lc co gin (Erosion, Eroile)

'

1 \ 0
1 \ 1
k W
k W
k
k
Y(m,n) = a(1) = min{a(k)}
b. Lc ng tnh
Lc ng tnh hiu qu vi nhiu nhn nhm tng cng bin nh. K thut ny thc
hin ly Logarit ca nh quan st:
X(m,n) = S(m,n) . N(m,n)
log(X(m,n)) = log(S(m,n)) + log(N(m,n))
Nhiu nhn gim, sau php lc ta chuyn v nh c bi php bin i hm e m.
W Sp xp Tnh gi
tr
Y(m,n) a(k)
k=1,...,L
a(k) X(m,n)
1
5
1
7
1
8
1
6
7
8
1
7
1
7
1
5
2
0
21
lnX lc tn s, Y = X * H e
Y
5.3. Lc tng cng nt, ci thin bin nh
Bin l cc im c bin thin nhanh v sng. Theo quan im v tn s tn
hiu th cc im bin s ng vi cc thnh phn tn s cao. Do vy, c th dng b lc
thng cao ci thin: lc cc thnh phn tn s thp, ch gi li thnh phn tn s cao. V
th, lc thng cao thng c s dng lm trn bin trc khi tin hnh cc thao tc vi
bin nh.
Cc mt n lc thng cao:
H(k,l) =
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 9 1
1 1 1
; H(k,l) =
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0
B lc Gradient B lc Laplace
logX Lc thng thp
e
Y
X = S . N
nh vo
b nhiu
nhn
Y
22
CHNG 6: PHT HIN BIN V TCH BIN
6.1. Khi qut chung
Bin l vn ch yu trong phn tch nh, cc im trch trn trong qu trnh phn
tch ch yu da vo bin.
Bin nh l ng danh gii gia cc vng nh cho php xc nh hnh dng ca cc
i tng trong nh.
Vng nh l tp hp cc im thuc v mt i tng trong nh, cc ng bin
khp kn cho php xc nh vng nh.
Nhng im thuc vng nh c xm ng u nhau. Nhng im thuc vng nh
khc nhau c xm chnh lch ln. V vy, hm xm c bc nhy vt hoc bin
thin nhanh.
VD: i vi nh en trng, mt im c gi l im bin nu n l im en v
c t nht mt im trng bn cnh.
Xut pht t c s ton hc trn m ta s dng hai phng php pht hin bin:
- Phng php pht hin bin trc tip
- Phng php pht hin bin gin tip
* Phng php pht hin bin trc tip
Phng php ny lm ni bin da vo s bin thin ca nh, pht hin bin nh s
dng php ton o hm:
- Nu ly o hm bc nht ca nh ta c phng php Gradient
- Nu ly o hm bc hai ca nh ta c phng php Laplace
* Phng php pht hin bin gin tip
K thut d bin v phn vng nh l hai bi ton i ngu v d bin thc hin
phn lp i tng m khi phn lp xong c ngha l phn vng c nh v ngc
li khi phn vng c thnh cc i tng ta c th php hin ra bin.
Nhn xt: Phng php pht hin bin trc tip t ra kh hiu qu, d ci t v t
chu nh hng ca nhiu cong nu s bin thin ca nh t ngt th phng php ny t
ra km hiu qu. Phng php pht hin bin gin tip tuy kh ci t xong li p dng
kh tt cho trng hp bin thin xm nh.
6.2. Phng php pht hin bin da vo php o hm
6.2.1. Phng php Gradient
Theo nh ngha Gradient l vector c cc thnh phn bin th tc thay i gi tr
ca nh theo hai hng x v y. Ta c:

'

dy
y) f(x, - dy) y f(x,
f(y)
y
y) f(x,

dx
y) f(x, - dy) dx, f(x
f(x)
x
y) f(x,
Do lm dng ngn t, tuy ta ni l ly o hm ca nh nhng thc cht l m
phng v xp x o hm bng cc k thut nhn chp (cun theo mu, v nh s l tn hiu
ri rc nn o hm khng tn ti)
VD: dx = dy = 1
f(x) = f(x+1, y) - f(x,y)
f(y) = f(x, y+1) - f(x, y)
Mu ngang A =

,
_

1
1 -
, mu dc: B =
( ) 1 1 -
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

3 3 3 3 0
3 3 3 3 0
3 3 3 3 0
3 3 3 3 0
0 0 0 0 0
I
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x
A I
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 0
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x
x
x
x
x
B I
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0
23
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
x x x x x
x
x
x
x
B I A I
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
3 3 3 0
a. K thut Prewitt
K thut nys dng hai mt n nhn chp theo hai hng x v y l:
1
1
1
]
1

1 0 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
) (x H
;
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
0 0 0
1 1 1
) ( y H
Cc bc tin hnh:
- Bc 1: Tnh I H(x), I H(y)
- Bc 2: Tnh I H(x) + I H(y)
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x
x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x H I 0 0 9
0 0 9
0 0 6
) (
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x
x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
y H I 0 0 0
0 0 0
9 9 6
) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
y H I x H I 0 0 9
0 0 9
9 9 12
) ( ) (
Hay (5 x 5):
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
) (x H
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
) ( y H
b. K thut Sobel
K thut nys dng hai mt n nhn chp theo hai hng x v y l:
1
1
1
]
1

1 0 1
2 0 2
1 0 1
) (x H
;
1
1
1
]
1

1 2 1
0 0 0
1 2 1
) ( y H
Cc bc tin hnh:
- Bc 1: Tnh I H(x), I H(y)
- Bc 2: Tnh I H(x) + I H(y)
c. K thut Labn
K thut ny s dng 8 mt n nhn chp theo 8 hng: 0
o
, 45
o
, 90
o
, 135
o
, 180
o
, 225
o
,
270
o
, 360
o
.
1
1
1
]
1

3 3 3
3 0 3
5 5 5
1 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

5 3 3
5 0 3
5 5 3
2 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

5 3 3
5 0 3
5 3 3
3 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

5 5 3
5 0 3
3 3 3
4 H
24
1
1
1
]
1

5 5 5
3 0 3
3 3 3
5 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

3 5 5
3 0 5
3 3 3
6 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

3 3 5
3 0 5
3 3 5
7 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

3 3 3
3 0 5
3 5 5
8 H
Cc bc tin hnh:
- Bc 1: Tnh I H
i
, i =
8 , 1
- Bc 2: Tnh

8
1
I H
i
6.2.2. Phng php Laplace
Theo nh ngha:
y x
f f
f
2
2
2
2
2

Ta c: [ ] y x f y x f
x x
f
x
f
x
, ( ) , 1 (
2
2
+

,
_

[ ] [ ] ) , 1 ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , 1 ( y x f y x f y x f y x f +

) , 1 (( ) , ( 2 ) , 1 ( y x f y x f y x f + +
Tng t:
) 1 , (( ) , ( 2 ) 1 , (
2
2
+ +

,
_

y x f y x f y x f
y
f
y
f
y
Do : ) 1 , (( ) 1 , ( ) , ( 4 ) , 1 (( ) , 1 (
2
+ + + + +

y x f y x f y x f y x f y x f f
T mt n nhn chp ca phng php Laplace c dng:
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0
H
Trong thc t ngi ta dng mt n bin dng cho k thut Laplace:
1
1
1
]
1

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0
1 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1 8 1
1 1 1
2 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

1 2 1
2 12 2
1 2 1
3 H
;
1
1
1
]
1

1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
4 H
VD:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 3 3 3 0
0 0 3 3 3 0
0 0 3 3 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
I
1) Dng k thut Laplace:
25
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
I
H
0 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 0 3
3 6 3 6
1
1) Dng k thut Laplace:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x H I
3 3 0 3
6 6 0 6
9 9 0 9
6 6 0 6
) (
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
y H I
3 6 9 6
3 6 9 6
0 0 0 0
3 6 9 6
) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
y H I x H I
6 6 9 3
9 12 9 0
9 9 0 9
3 0 9 12
) ( ) (
=> Phng php Laplace tt hn, vi mt n c dy l 3 th c bin c dy l 2.
6.3. D bin v khp kn ng bin
6.3.1. Mt s khi nim
a. Khi nim v cc im 4, 8 lng ging
Gi s (i,j) l mt im nh, khi cc im 4, 8 lng ging l:
N
4
= {(i+1, j), (i, j-1), (i-1, j), (i, j+1)}
N
8
= N
4
{(i+1, j-1), (i-1, j-1), (i-1, j+1), (i+1, j+1)}
b. Khi nim i tng nh
Trong phn ny ch xt ti nh nh phn v mi nh u c th a v dng nh phn
bng k thut phn ngng.
K hiu: F l cc im vng (im en)
F
1
l cc im nn (im en)
Hai im P
s
, P
l
F hoc F
1
c gi l 8 lin thng (4 lin thng) nu P
i
, i=
n , 0
sao
cho:
i) P
0
= P
s
, P
n
= P
l
ii) P
i,
P
i+1
, i=
1 , 0 n
l cc 8 lng ging (4 lng ging) ca nhau.
Quan h k lin thng (k=4 hoc 8) l quan h c tch cht phn x, i xng v bc
cu (quan h tng ng). Mi lp tng ng ca n biu din mt thnh phn k lin
thng ca nh. Sau ny ta gi mi thnh phn k lin thng ca nh l mt i tng.
c. Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh
* nh ngha chu tuyn: Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh l dy cc im nh ca i
tng P
0,
P
1, ...,
P
n
sao cho:
i) P
0
= Ps
p
3
p
2
p
1
p
4
(i,j)
p
0
p
5
p
6
p
7
XXXX
(i,j)
XXXX XX
(i,j)
XX
8 lng ging 4 lng ging
26
ii) P
i
Q khng thuc i tng nh sao cho Q l 4 lng ging ca P
i
iii) p
i,
p
i+1
l 8 lng ging ca nhau
* nh ngha chu tuyn i ngu:
Gi s EF hoc F
1
l mt i tng nh, C l chu tuyn ca E. Khi , chu tuyn
C
1
c gi l chu tuyn i ngu ca C nu:
i) Mi im thuc chu tuyn C u tn ti mt im thuc chu tuyn C
1
sao cho hai
im l 4 lng ging ca nhau.
ii) C l chu tuyn ca cc im vng th C
1
l chu tuyn ca cc im nn v ngc
li.
iii) Cc im ca chu tuyn C
1
nm v mt pha vi
cc im ca chu tuyn C
VD: D bin ly ra c chu tuyn
* nh ngha chu tuyn trong, chu tuyn ngoi:
Gi s C l chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh, C
1
l chu tuyn i ngu ca C. Khi
, C l chu tuyn ngoi (trong) nu di ca C nh hn (ln hn) di ca C
1
B 1: Gi s C l chu tuyn ca i tng nh EF (F
1
), C
1
l chu tuyn i
ngu ca C.
C = < P
0,
P
1, ....,
P
n
> C
1
= <Q
1,
Q
2, ....,
Q
m
>
Khi :
i) Nu C l chu tuyn ngoi th Out(Q
i
, C), mi i=1,n
ii) Nu C l chu tuyn trong th In(Q
i
, C), mi i=1,n
Trong : In(Q
i
, C) ch im Q
i
nm trong chu tuyn C
Out(Q
i
, C) ch im Q
i
nm ngoi chu tuyn C
B 2: Gi s C l chu tuyn ca i tng nh EF (F
1
), khi :
i) C l chu tuyn ngoi th x thuc E, x C th In(x,C)
ii) C l chu tuyn trong th x thuc E, x C th Out(x,C)
nh l1: Gi s EF (F
1
) l mt i tng nh, C l chu tuyn ca E th C l duy
nht.
6.3.2. Thut ton d bin tng qut
V c bn thut ton d bin cho mt vng (i tng nh) nhm tm ra chu tuyn
ca i tng nh bao gm cc bc sau:
- Bc 1: Xc nh im bin xut pht
- Bc 2: D bo im bin tip theo
- Bc 3: Lp li bc 2 cho n khi gp im bin xut pht
Do xut pht t nhng tiu chun v nh ngha khc nhau v im bin v quan h
lin thng nn cc ton t d bin thng cho ta ng bin vi cc sc thi khc nhau.
Kt qu tc ng ca ton t d bin ln mt im bin b
r
l mt im lin thng. Thng
cc ton t trn c xy dng nh hm i s Bool trn cc 8 lng ging ca b
r
. Mi cch
xy dng cc ton t u ph thuc vo nh ngha quan h lin thng v im bin v s
gy ra kh khn cho vic kho st cc tch cht ca ng bin. Ngoi ra, v mi bc d
bin u phi kim tra ht tt c cc 8 lng ging ca mi im nn ton t thng km
hiu qu, khc phc hn ch trn ta thay vic xc nh mt im bin bi cp im nn
vng v phn tch cc ton t thnh hai bc:
- Bc 1: Xc nh cp nn vng tip theo
- Bc 2: La chn im bin
Bi vy, thut ton d bin tng qut s gm cc bc sau:
- Bc 1: Xc nh cp nn vng xut pht
- Bc 2: Xc nh cp nn vng tip theo
- Bc 3: La chn im bin
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 x 0
0 x x x x x x 0
0 x x x 0 0 0 x x 0
0 0 x x 0 x x 0
0 x 0 0 x 0
0 x x x x 0
0 x x 0
0 0
27
- Bc 4: Nu gp li im xut pht th dng, ngc li th quay li bc 2
Bc1: Xc nh cp nn vng xut pht
Cp nn vng xut pht c xc nh bng cch duyt nh ln lt t trn xung
di, t tri qua phi. im en u tin gp c v im trng trc n hoc bn cnh
s to thnh cp nn vng xut pht.
Cp vng nn c nh nha nh sau: Mt cp vng nn gm mt im vng v
mt im nn, trong nu im vng i c mt vng chu tuyn th im nn cng i
c mt vng chu tuyn i ngu.
Ta nh ngha cc hng tng ng vi 8-lng ghing ca mt im nh. Gi
Orient[8] l mng 8 phn t dng lu cc hng trn, mi phn t tng ng l lch
hng v ct ca mt im.
Orient[8] = { (0,1),(-1,1),(-1,0),(-1,-1),(0,-1),(1,-1),(1,0),(1,1) }
Vi mt im nh P(x,y) ca nh Image c mu c v hng i hin ti l dir thut
ton tm cp vng nn xut pht l mt hm tr v gi tr l hng i xut pht bng cch
t hng i hin ti quay theo chiu ngc kim ng h cho n khi gp mt im cng
mu vi im nh ang xt. Nu thnh cng hm tr v hng i trc , ngc li hm
tr v mt gi tr khng thuc Orient[].
Bc 2: Xc nh cp vng tip theo.
Sau khi xc nh c mt hng i u tin, bc 2 ca thut ton l lp li cng
vic xc nh cp vng nn tip theo cho ti khi gp c im ban u. Hng i tip
theo cho thut ton chnh l gi tr tr v ca hm xc nh cp vng nn tip theo. Tng
t nh hm xc nh cp vng nn xut pht, tm mt hng i cho bc k tip t
hng i hin ti ta quay theo chiu kim ng cho ti khi gp im c cng mu vi im
hin ti v hm tr v hng i . Nu khng thnh cng hm tr v gi tr khng thuc
Orient[].
* Thut ton d bin mt i tng.
Sau khi xy dng c hai hm Inverse v hm Next xc nh cp vng nn
xut pht v cp vng nn tip theo. Thut ton tm chu tuyn ngoi ca mt i tng nh
cha im (x,y) v mu c. u tin, da vo hm Inverse ta tm c hng i xut pht
vi hng i khi to l 4. Sau dng hm Next tm hng i tip theo v ghi nhn
tng ng vi cc hng i . Lp li cng vic ny cho ti khi gp c im nh ban
u v hng hin ti trng vi hng ban u. Thut ton th c ci t theo cc bc
sau:
Bc 1: Xc nh hng xut pht dir bng hm Inverse. savedir = dir.
Bc 2: Nu dir = 8 return v im nh ny b c lp, khng c lng ghing.
Bc 3: Tm mt hng i tip theo bng hm Next vi hng hin ti l dir v lu
li im nh tng ng vi hng i ny.
Bc 4: Nu gp li im nh ban u v hng i hin ti dir trng vi hng i
savedir ban u th return.
Bc 5: Gn li hng i hin cho dir v quay li bc 3.
Bc 5: return.
2
1
0 4
5 6
3
7
Hnh 2: Hng cc lng ghing ca mt im nh
28
CHNG 7: PHN VNG NH
7.1. Khi qut chung
Phn vng nh l bc then cht trong x l nh. Giai on ny nhm phn tch nh
thnh nhng thnh phn c tnh cht no da theo bin hay cc vng lin thng. Tiu
chun xc nh cc vng lin thng c th cng mc xm, cng mu hay cung
nhm,...
7.1.1. Mt s khi nim
* Mt vng nh R(region): l tp hp cc im nh c cung chung thuc tnh thuc
v mt i tng trong nh.
H: Thuc tnh (hay tnh cht) v xm (mc xm) ca cc im nh trong mt
vng nh (mt i tng nh) => nhng im nh thuc v cng mt i tng c mc
xm tng i ng u.
* Phn vng nh(segmentation): l qu trnh phn hoch tp cc im nh trong mt
vng nh X thnh cc tp con R
i
tho mn iu kin:
i
i
j i i
R X R R j i j i R i

, , , , ; ,
; R
i
bao gm cc im nh c thuc
tnh chung.
H: Phn vng nh c th hiu l s phn chia cc im nh mt cc tu c
khng? Vy ta hiu th no l phn vng nh (cn c nhng iu kin g)?
7.1.2. Cc hng tip cn
- Phn vng nh da trn cc min lin thng ( tng t v mc xm v cc thuc
tnh ca cc im nh trong mt vng) gi l k thut phn vng da theo min ng nht
(phn vng da trn phn lp).
- Phn vng da vo bin (s bin thin ca hm xm hay mc xm) gi l k
thut phn vng bin.
Ngoi ra cn c cc k thut khc nh phn vng da vo bin , phn vng theo
kt cu.
H: i ngu vi vng nh l bin nh, vy c th da vo kt qu sau khi pht hin
bin v tch bin nh c th phn vng nh c cha?
7.2. Thuc tnh ca im nh v vng nh
7.2.1. Thuc tnh ca im nh
nh X = {p
i
}
- i vi nh n mu thuc tnh p
i
l gi tr mc xm v k hiu l X(p
i
) (thuc tnh
mt chiu)
- i vi nh mu (nh a ph) thuc tnh p
i
l mt vector thuc tnh, mt h mu
(RG B) (thuc tnh a chiu)
1
1
1
]
1

ib
ig
ir
i
x
x
x
p
- tng phn gia hai im nh s
1
v s
2
c nh ngha l:
1
) ( ) (
) , (
2 1
2 1

L
s X s X
s s C
Trong L l gi tr ln nht ca mc xm
H: Nu s
1
v s
2
thuc mt nh th C(s
1
,s
2
) l nh hay ln?
7.2.2. Thuc tnh ca vng nh
- ng u mc xm ca mt vng nh R:

k i
R p
k i
k
k
m p X
R card
R E
2
) ) ( (
) (
1
) (
vi:

k i
R p
i
k
k
R X
R card
m ) (
) (
1
29
- Hm v tr:

'

>

) ( \ 0
) ( \ 1
) (
k
k
k red
R E
R E
R P
l mt ngng no
* ngha: ta cn phi phn chia vng R
i
cho ti khi cc vng con c P
red
(R
i
) = 1 vi
ngng
7.3. Phng php phn chia vng da trn phn lp
7.3.1. S phn lp
* Lp: l tp hp cc phn t c chung thuc tnh
* S phn lp: l phn loi cc phn t v cc lp theo cc tiu chun v thuc tnh.
7.3.2. Phn lp cc im nh trong khng gian thuc tnh 1 chiu (thuc tnh bin )
a. Tiu chun phn lp
p
i
C
k
nu 1
) (
+

j i j
T p X T
, vi T
j
v T
j+1
l ngng trn v ngng di ca C
k
Cn xc nh vector ngng T = {T
0
, T
1
,}
b. Vn ngng xm
C hai phng php xc nh ngng:
- Da trn Histogram ch ngng
- T ng chn ngng bng qu trnh hc ISODATA (Interactive Self Orgamizing
Data Analysig), mng nron nhn to
c. Xc nh ngng da trn Histogram
* Phng php 1: Ngng tng th
Cc im nh trong nh xm c gi tr 0 255. Histogram l biu cho php nh
gi tn sut xut hin s im nh c xm tng ng vi cc mc xm khc nhau.
Ta s phi xc nh mt vector ngng T = {T
l
}, l
1 , 1 L
vi L l s lp. Vic
xc nh cc T
l
bng da trn Histogram nh sau:
- Chia cc mc xm 0 255 thnh m mc, chng hn m = 5
- Chuyn nh v nh theo cc mc xm mi
- V Histogram ca nh m ho mc xm mi
- L c chn l cc nh ca Histogram
- Ngng c chn l cc v tr thp ca Histogram
- Tin hnh phn vng
VD: Chng hn c nh c m ho mc xm nh sau:
0 (nn) mc 0
125 mc 1
2673 mc 2
74160 mc 3
160255 mc 4
30
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

2 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 0
4 3 3 3 3 3 4 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 4 3 3 1 0 0
3 3 4 4 4 2 0 2 0 0
3 2 4 2 0 0 1 0 0 0
3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
) , ( ' n m X
L = 2, T
min
= 0, T
l
= 1
(25)
, T
max
= 4
(255)
Vng 1: l nhng im nh P
i
ng vi nn (1 25), X(p
i
) 25
Vng 2: l nhng im nh P
i
ng vi 25< X(p
i
) 255
* Phng php 2:
- V Histogram ca nh X(m,n)
- Chn ngng l T
min
= X(p
i
)
min
, T
max
=
X(p
i
)
max
, ngng gia T
min
v T
max
l v tr khe
ca Histogram
d. Phn ngng t ng bng qu trnh hc
Thut ton ISODATA
* Bt u:
- D on s vng N
c
- Chn gi tr ngng ban u ca cc vng theo cch sau:
min 0
) 0 ( l T
) 0 ( ) 0 (
0
min max
1
T
N
l l
T
c
+

) 0 ( ) 0 (
1
min max
2
T
N
l l
T
c
+

) 0 ( ) 0 (
2
min max
3
T
N
l l
T
c
+

* Bc lp: (T=1,2,)
- Thc hin phn lp cc ngng T
j
(t-1); j [0,N
c
]
P
i
C
k
nu
] , 1 [ ), 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (
1 c j i j
N k t T p X t T <
+
g 0 1 2 3 4
h(g) 22 3 6 19 8
0 1 2 3 4 mc xm
22
19
8
6
3
l
min
0 T
0
T
1
T
2
l
max
255
T
0
=T
min
T
1
T
2
T
max

31
- Tnh gi tr trung bnh mc xm ca cc im nh ca mi vng C
k
:

k i
C P
i
k
k
p X
C card
t m ) (
) (
1
) (
- Tnh cc gi tr ngng mi T
j
(t):
2
) ( ) (
) (
1
t m t m
t T
k k
j
+
+

- Kim tra iu kin lp:

+ Nu T
j
(t) = T
j
(t-1) hoc m
k
(t) = m
k
(t-1) th dng
+ Nu ngc li thc hin bc lp t+1
* Bc cui:
T
j
= const
- Thc hin phn lp cc im nh theo T
j
-> R
k
- nh nh cc vng R
k
v hin th
- Da theo kt qu hin th hiu chnh li s vng N
c
hoc thc hin li thut ton
(nu cn)
* Nhc im: Nu on N
c
thi qu th thut ton lu hi t cng nh phi hiu chnh
nhiu.
* Nhn xt: Trn hai phng php 2 (on N
c
) v ISODATA (xc nh ngng)
- Qu trnh phn chia:
+ Phn chia lin tip thnh cc min k cho ti khi tho tiu chun ng u,
k , Pred(R
k
) = 1
+ Xy dng cy t phn ca nh
+ Tnh li sai s ca nh sau qu trnh chia:
2
1
)
) ) ( ( ) (
k
N
k R P
i i r
m p X R E
k i

vi N l s min sau khi chia
- Thut ton phn chia:
+ Bc u:
Rng buc kch thc nh M x N, R
1
= X cha tho mn tiu chun
ng u.
Tnh
) ( ) (
1
2
R R E
i r

Chn C

, tnh Pred(R
1
)
+ Bc chia: thc hin qu trnh chia theo nguyn tc v tiu chun phn chia.
Kim tra iu kin lp, dng qu trnh phn chia khi Pred(R
k
) = 1,
k
Thc hin qu trnh phn chia R
k
theo cu trc cy t phn.
Tnh Pred(R
k
)
+ Bc cui:
Xy dng cy t phn
Tnh sai s ca qu trnh chia
VD: Cho
32
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
) , ( n m X
- C

64
1
2
1 1
2
)) ( ) ( (
64
1
) (
i
i
R m p X R
5 , 1
64
94
64
34 60
) (
64
1
) (
64
1
1

+


i
i
p X R m
25 , 0 64 . 5 , 0 .
64
1
) (
2
1
2
R
chn
2 , 0
c

(
c

: chia)

'

<

c
c
R E
R E
R ed

) ( \ 0
) ( \ 1
) ( Pr
Nu chn ngng chia
c

ln th khng chnh xc, ngc li

c

nh th lp nhiu
ln
- Chia nh thnh 4 vng bng nhau v tnh gi tr hm v tr
VD:
Vng k
) (
2
k
R
Pred(R
k
)
R
11
0 1
R
11
0,25 0
R
11
0,25 0
R
11
0,11 0
Ta c qu trnh phn chia: Phn chia lin tip thnh cc min k cho n khi tho
tiu chun ng u: k , Pred(R
k
) = 1
X(m,n) = R
1
=
(OK)
R
11
(phi chia)
R
12
(phi chia)
R
13
(OK)
R
14
R
11
R
121
R
122
33
R
123
R
124
R
131
R
132
R
14
R
133
R
134
Vng k E(R
k
) Pred(R
k
)
R
11
0 1
R
121
0 1
R
122

16
3
0,19 1
R
123

16
3
0,19 1
R
124
0 1
R
131
0 1
R
132
0 1
R
133
0 1
R
134
0 1
R
14
0,11 1
V cu trc cy t phn:
Tnh sai s:
2
1
)
) ) ( ( ) (
k
N
k R P
i i r
m p X R E
k i

= 3,25
0
0 0,75
0,75 0
0 0
0,75
0 0
X = R
1
O
R
11
O R
12
O R
13
O R
14
O
R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O R
121
O
34
Bi tp: Thc hin phn vng nh sau theo thut ton ISODATA v nhn xt kt
qu.6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8
9 9 9 1 1 1 1 1
9 9 9 1 1 1 1 2
9 9 9 1 1 1 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
) , ( n m X
7.3.3. Phng php phn vng theo cu trc
a. Gii thiu
- Cc ch tiu phn vng
+ ng u thuc tnh ca cc im nh
+ Tnh lin thng ca cc im nh trong mt vng
- Phng php: da vo cu trc th
b. Thut ton phn chia v kt h cc min k
* Nguyn tc chung
Qu trnh phn chia vng gm 2 giai on lin tip:
- Giai on phn chia (tin x l): Chia nh thnh cc min k da theo cu trc ca
cy t phn, chia cho n khi t n ng u.
- Giai on phn vng: Kt hp cc min k da trn th cc min k v tiu
chun v sai s to thnh vng nh.
* Thut ton phn chia nh thnh cc min k
- Nguyn tc: chia nh da trn cu trc cy t phn
- Ch tiu phn chia: s o ng u

k i
R P
k ii
k
k i r
m p X
R card
R R E
2 2
) ) ( (
) (
1
) ( ) (
chia cho n khi Pred(R
k
) = 1
- Thut ton (xem phn trc)
* Thut ton kt hp
- Vn kt hp:
+ Cc vng sau khi phn chia tn ti cc min k c xm trung bnh nh nhau,
cn c kt hp li.
+ Khi kt hp cn m bo tnh ng u
- th cc min k:
K hiu: G(V,E)
V l tp cc nh tng ng cc min k
E l tp cc cung, cc min lin kt
Hai min k R
i
, R
j
c ni bi mt cung trn mang gi tr v o s khng
ng u thuc tnh gia hai min: E(R
i
, R
j
)
E(R
i
, R
j
) =
[ ]
2
) ( ) (

j i i
R R p
j i i
R R m p X

VD: (v d trc)
Kt qu phn chia
R
11
R
121
m=1
R
122
m=1,3
R1 R
11
R
12
R
13
R
14
35
m(R
11
) = 1
R
123
m=1,8
R
124
m=2
R
131
m=1
R
132
m=1
R
14
m(R
11
) = 1
R
133
m=2
R
134
m=2
c. Ch tiu kt hp
Hai min k R
i
, R
j
c kt hp vi nhau thnh mt min j i
R R R
nu gi tr
o s ng u thuc tnh gia hai min l nh nht.
Qu trnh kt hp c da trn s kim tra iu kin v sai s bnh phng nh
sau:
2
1
)
) ) ( ( ) (
k
L
k R P
i r
m p X L E
k i

d. Ni dung thut ton
- Bc u: xy dng th cc min k ca nh, sau qu trnh phn chia G(V,E),
chn ngng kt hp.
- Bc lp: Kt hp cc min k R
i
, R
j
tng ng vi cc cung c gi tr nh nht.
Cp nht li th min k G(V,E), tnh sai s E
r
(L) sau mi ln kt hp. Kim tra iu
kin lp da trn E
r
(L)
- Bc cui: Kt qu phn vng da trn th cc min k sau qu trnh lp, tch
cc vng v hiu chnh nu cn
36
CHNG 8: NH NH PHN
8.1. Gii thiu chung
8.1.1. nh nh phn
nh nh phn l nh ch c hai mc xm: nn ( white = 0), i tng (black = 1)
nh nh phn c nn t nh xm (nh i tng thc)
- M ho ng bin, vng
- nh nh vng lin thng, nh nh ng bin
8.1.2. c im ca nh nh phn
- Mt im nh c th c gi tr 0 hoc 1, c th dng 1 bit lu tr mt im nh ->
dung lng nh nh.
- Ph hp nh ng nt: nh ch vit, bn , nh v k thut
- Ph hp biu din bin, vng ca nh s
- Thng tin v nh nh phn ch l tp cc im en
8.1.3. Phng php x l nh nh phn
Ta c th xem nh nh phn l tp cc phn t logic. Do vy, c th dng logic, tp
hp, th x l nh nh phn
X l nh nh phn l x l k hiu, hnh hc nh
*Kt lun: nh nh phn cho php biu din v x l hnh hc nh. Do vy, mun x l
hnh hc nh th chuyn v nh nh phn v x l nh phn.
8.2. Biu din, m ho nh nh phn
Nu lu tr mi nh tho theo kiu nh bn rt tn b nh, x l phc tp. Do vy,
thng th ngi ta khng biu din ton b nh m c t cc c trng ca nh: bin,
vng.
Cc phng php biu din cc c trng ca nh:
- Biu din m oc di (Run length code)
- Biu din m xich (Chaire code)
- Biu din m t phn (Quadtue code)
8.2.1. Biu din vng nh
Mt vng nh (hay mt nh nh phn) R c th biu din n gin bng mt ma trn
nh phn:
U(mn) =

'

R n m p
R n m p
) , ( \ 0
) , ( \ 1
a. Dng m on di
Mt vng nh nh phn R c xem l tp hp cc chui 1, 0 an xen, mi chui ny
c coi l mt mch (Run), mi mch c biu din bi mt a ch bt u v chiu di
mch theo dng (<hng, ct>, chiu di).
b. Dng m t phn
Mt vng nh R nh nh phn tp cc im en (i tng) v im trng (nn).
- Rng buc: nh c kch thc (2
k
)
2
- nh c chia lm 4 vng con lin tip cho n khi mi vng con c chia ra ch
ton im en hoc ton im trng.
+ Vng cha ton im trng k hiu l w
+ Vng cha ton im en k hiu l b
+ Vng cha c im trng v im en k hiu l g
- T m l l ca cy nh phn
37
VD: X(m,n) =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T m: g(g(g(wwbb)wbg(wwbw))g(wg(wwbb)g(wwwb)b
8.2.2. M ho ng bin
VD:
M xch thng s dng biu din bin nh. Thay v lu tr ton b nh, ngi ta
lu tr dy cc im nh A, B, C, D, Theo phng php ny ta biu din su nh sau:
8.3. Cc php ton x l hnh th c bn
Cc php ton x l hnh th l cc php ton lin quan n cu trc Topo ca nh,
da ch yu trn hai php ton c bn l: php gin v php co
8.3.1. Php co(erosion)
Gi s ta c i tng X v cu trc B, khi php co ca i tng X theo cu trc
B l tp hp tt c cc x sao cho Bx nm trong X
{ } X Bx x B X ,
Ngi ta dng php ton co xo nhiu, tch dnh
VD:
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

x x
x x x
x x
x x
x x
X
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
; [ ] x x B ) ( ;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
x x
x
B X

1
]
1

x
x x
B
) (
'
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
'
x
B X
Ch : Trng h thao tc ca php ton ra ngoi nh, ngi ta c th mc nh nn
c gi tr bng 0 hoc m rng nh thao tc, khi kt thc thao tc s tr li nh theo kch
thc ban u.
8.3.2. Php gin
g
g
g g g g
g g g g g g g g g g g g g g g
w
w
b
b
w
w
b
w
w
w
b
b
w
w
w
b
38
Php gin ca i tng X theo cu trc B l tp hp tt c cc x sao cho Bx chm
n X
{ } X Bx x B X ,

Ngi ta thng dng php gin ni cc ng t nt
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

B X
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

' B X
Php ton gin v co i vi nh xm v nh mu c th nh ngha nh sau:
)} , ( } , ( { max ) , (
) , (
j i B j y i x X y x B X
j i
+
)} , ( } , ( { min ) , (
) , (
j i B j y i x X y x B X
j i
+ +
VD:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
;
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
B X B X
B X
8.3.3. Php ng
B B X B X ) (
8.3.4. Php m
B B X B X ) (
8.3.5. Php tm bin
) ( B X X Bin
8.3.6. Quan h gia cc php ton
B X B X X B X B - X
8.4. Xng v cc phng php xc nh xng
8.4.1. Mt s khi nim
Xng c coi l hnh dng c bn ca i tng, vi s t cc im nh c bn ta
c th ly ra c thng tin v hnh dng ca i tng thng qua xng.
* Khi nim Xng:
Mt nh ngha xc tch v xng c a ra bi Blum(1976) nh sau: gi s rng
i tng l ng nht c ph bi c kh v sau ta dng ln mt vng bin la,
xng l ni cc vt la gp nhau v ti chng b dp tt.
Mt nh ngha xng nh nh phn ca Skeleton: Xng l s biu din hnh dng
ca i tng bng cc ng mnh c dy bng 1 picel tho mn cc yu cu sau:
- Xng phi nm bn trong v trung tm b dy ca i tng
- Xng phi mnh
- Xng phi th hin hnh dng ca i tng
39
- Xng phi c cng s thnh phn lin thng cc nhnh, cc l, cc khe nh hnh
dng ca i tng
- Xng phi khng chu nh hng ca nhiu
- Xng c th cho php khi phc li hnh dng ca i tng
* Tm xng: l qu trnh bin i s biu din hnh dng ban u ca i tng nh sang
dng biu din bi xng nh.
8.4.2. Phn loi cc phng php tm xng nh
Cc k thut tm xng lun l ch nghin cu trong x l nh. mc d c
nhng n lc cho vic pht trin cc thut ton tm xng nhng cc phng php a ra
u b mt mt thng tin. C th chia ra hai thut ton tm xng c bn:
- Tm xng da trn lm mnh
- Tm xng khng da trn lm mnh
a. Phng php tm xng da trn lm mnh
Thut ton lm mnh l mt trong nhng thut ton quan trong trong x l nh v
nhn dng xng cha nhng thng tin bt bin ca nh gip cho qu trnh nhn dng
hoc vector ho sau ny.
Thut ton lm mnh l qu trnh lp, duyt v kim tra tt c cc im thuc i
tng. Trong mi ln lp cc im ca i tng s c kim tra. nu n tho mn iu
kin xo no th s b xo i, qua trnh c lp li cho n khi khng cn in bin no
xo, i tng b bc dn lp bin cho n khi b thu mnh li ch cn cc im bin.
Vic phn loi thut ton lm mnh l da trn phng php x l cc im: thut
ton lm mnh tun t v thut ton lm mnh song song:
* Thut ton lm mnh tun t: l thut ton lm mnh m trong cc im c
kim tra theo mt th t no , chng hn cc im s c xt t trn xung di, tr
sang phi. Gi tr cc im khng ch ph thuc vo cc lng ging bn cnh m cn ph
thuc vo cc im c xt trc trong chnh ln lp ang xt.
* Thut ton lm mnh song song: l thut ton lm mnh m trong cc im
c x l theo phng php song song, tc l c x l cng mt lc, gi tr ca mi
im nh sau mi ln lp ch ph thuc vo lng ging bn cnh, thng thng l 8 lng
ging m gi tr ca cc im ny c xc nh trong ln lp trc . Trong my tnh
c nhiu b x l, mi b x l s x l mt vng ca i tng. N c quyn c cc
im vng khc nhng ch c ghi trn vng ca n x l.
*c im: Thut ton lm mnh n gin, t b nh hng bi nhiu, kh chnh xc
nhng thc hin tng i lu v khng cho php khi phc li hnh dng ban u.
* Cht lng ca thut ton lm mnh c nh gi theo nhiu tiu chun khc
nhau tu theo mc ch s dng, trong c mt s tiu chun bt buc phi t c l:
bo ton tnh lin thng, bo ton cc im ct v khng xo thnh phn lin thng no.
b. Phng php tm xng khng da trn lm mnh
tch c xng ca i tng ta c th dng ng bin ca i tng vi im
p bt k ca i tng, ta bao n bi mt ng bin. Nu nh c nhiu im bin c cung
khong cch ngn nht ti p th p nm trn trc trung v ca i tng.
Vic xc nh trc trung v ca i tng c tin hnh thng qua 2 bc:
- Tnh khong cch t mi im ca i tng ti im bin gn nht. Nh vy, phi
tnh ton vi tt c cc im bin ca i tng.
- Vi khong cch nh c tnh ton cc im tng ng vi cc gi tr ln nht
c xem l nm trn trc trung v ca i tng.
Xng c xem nh mt thnh phn ca trc trung v tho mn thuc tnh no .
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