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1 - FORMULAS
If you are serious about doing A level Chemistry, you MUST be able to write a formula without a second thought. It is the single most essential skill for an A level chemist. You have to know and be able to use the information on this page you should not be looking it up. There is no data sheet with ion charges at A level. If you cant write a formula in an instant, DROP CHEMISTRY NOW and choose something else.

Elements
Monatomic helium neon argon krypton xenon radon Simple molecular hydrogen nitrogen oxygen fluorine chlorine bromine iodine phosphorus sulfur Ionic There are no ionic elements!! Metallic The formula is just the symbol, e.g. magnesium iron sodium nickel Giant covalent The formula is just the symbol diamond graphite silicon

Compounds
Monatomic There are no monatomic compounds!! Simple molecular Some common molecular compounds: carbon dioxide carbon monoxide nitrogen monoxide nitrogen dioxide sulfur dioxide sulfur trioxide ammonia methane hydrogen sulfide Note these acids: hydrochloric acid sulfuric acid nitric acid phosphoric acid Ionic These have to be worked out using ion charges you have to know these at AS/A level! LEARN them ASAP. Metallic There are no metallic compounds!! Giant covalent silicon dioxide

Positive ions Group 1 ions: lithium sodium potassium Group 2 ions: magnesium calcium barium Other common ions silver zinc ammonium hydrogen Group 6 ions: oxide sulfide Group 3 ions: aluminium Group 7 ions: fluoride chloride bromide iodide

Negative ions Other common ions nitrate sulfate carbonate hydrogencarbonate hydroxide hydride phosphate

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TASK 1 WRITING FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) silver bromide sodium carbonate potassium oxide iron (III) oxide chromium (III) chloride calcium hydroxide aluminium nitrate sodium sulfate . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 9) lead (II) oxide .. . .. .. .. .. . .

10) sodium phosphate 11) zinc hydrogencarbonate 12) ammonium sulphate 13) gallium hydroxide 14) strontium selenide 15) radium sulfate 16) sodium nitride

TASK 2 WRITING FORMULAS 1

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) lead (IV) oxide copper sodium ammonium chloride ammonia sulfur sulfuric acid neon silica .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11) barium hydroxide 12) tin (IV) chloride 13) silver nitrate 14) iodine 15) nickel 16) hydrogen sulfide 17) titanium (IV) oxide 18) lead 19) strontium sulfate 20) lithium .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

10) silicon

TASK 3 WRITING FORMULAS 2

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) silver carbonate gold platinum (II) fluoride nitric acid ammonia silicon (IV) hydride phosphorus diamond vanadium (V) oxide .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11) barium hydroxide 12) ammonia 13) hydrochloric acid 14) fluorine 15) silicon 16) calcium phosphate 17) rubidium 18) germanium (IV) oxide 19) magnesium astatide 20) nitrogen oxide .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

10) cobalt (II) hydroxide

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2 - EQUATIONS
From an early age you should have been able to balance chemical equations. However, at A level, you will often need to: work out the formulas yourselves work out what is made (so you need to know some basic general equations) for reactions involving ions in solution, write ionic equations

Some general reactions you should know: General Reaction substance + oxygen oxides Examples 2 Mg + O2 2 MgO 2 H2S + 3 O2 2 H2O + 2 SO2 C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen metal + acid salt + hydrogen oxide + acid salt + water hydroxide + acid salt + water carbonate + acid salt + water + carbon dioxide hydrogencarbonate + acid salt + water + carbon dioxide ammonia + acid ammonium salt metal carbonate metal oxide + carbon dioxide (on heating) 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 Mg + 2 HCl MgCl2 + H2 MgO + 2 HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2O 2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O CuCO3 + 2 HCl CuCl2 + H2O + CO2 KHCO3 + HCl KCl + H2O + CO2 NH3 + HCl NH4Cl CaCO3 CaO + CO2

TASK 4 WRITING BALANCED EQUATIONS

1) Balance the following equations. a) Mg + HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2

b) CuCl2 + NaOH Cu(OH)2 + NaCl c) SO2 + O2 SO3 d) C4H10 2) + O2 CO2 + H2O

Give balanced equations for the following reactions. a) sodium + oxygen sodium oxide b) aluminium + chlorine aluminium chloride c) calcium + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + hydrogen d) ammonia + sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate

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TASK 5 WRITING BALANCED EQUATIONS 2

Write balance equations for the following reactions: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) burning aluminium burning hexane (C6H14) burning ethanethiol (CH3CH2SH) reaction of lithium with water reaction of calcium carbonate with nitric acid thermal decomposition of lithium carbonate reaction of ammonia with nitric acid reaction of potassium oxide with water reaction of calcium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid reaction of zinc with phosphoric acid reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with sulfuric acid reaction of potassium hydroxide with sulfuric acid

Ionic equations
When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the positive and negative ions separate and become hydrated (they interact with water molecules rather than each other). For example, a solution of sodium chloride could also be described as a mixture of hydrated sodium ions and hydrated chloride ions in water. In reactions involving ionic compounds dissolved in water, some of the ions may not be involved in the reaction. These are called spectator ions. For such reactions, we can write an ionic equation that only shows the species that are involved in the reaction. Simple examples are equations for which ionic equations can be written include:
Na+ Na+ Na+

Cl

Cl

Cl

Na+

Cl
Na+

Cl
Na+

Cl
Na+

Cl

Reactions of acids: Common ionic equations are: acid + hydroxide acid + carbonate acid + hydrogencarbonate acid + ammonia H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l) 2 H (aq) + CO3 (aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) H (aq) + NH3(aq) NH4 (aq)
+ + + + 2+ -

We can even use these ionic equations to work out the ratio in which acids react without writing any equation. For example, in the reaction of H2SO4(aq) with NaOH(aq) we know that one lot of H2SO4 contains two lots of H ions. As H + ions react with OH ions in the ratio 1:1 [H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l)] we know that we need two lots of NaOH to provide two + lots of OH ions to react with the two lots of H ions. Therefore, one lot of H2SO4 reacts with two lots of NaOH, i.e. the reacting ratio of H2SO4 : NaOH = 1:2
+ +

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Na Na
+

OH
Na
+

Na+ Na+ OH

Na

Na

Na

Na+ SO4 Na
+ 2

SO42
Na
+

SO4

OH Na+ Na+

OH
+

Na+

SO42

Na+

Na Na
+

Na

OH

+
OH
SO42
+

SO4
2

Na+

Na

SO42

OH

Na

SO42

Na

OH Na+
Na
+

SO42
Na
+

SO42

Na+ Na+ Na
+

Na

OH

OH

Na

H2SO4 (aq) contains H (aq)

+

NaOH (aq) contains OH (aq)

+

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) the Na (aq) and SO42-(aq) ions are not involved

Na Na
+

CO
+

2-

Na+ Na+
2-

Na+

Na

Na

Na

CO

Na+ SO42 Na+ SO42 Na+

SO42
Na
+ 2 SO4

Na+
Na
+

Na+

Na+

Na

+
SO42
+

CO

2-

Na

Na+

Na+
CO
23

SO42

Na

SO4

SO42

Na

SO42
Na
+

SO4

Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+
Na
+

Na

CO

2-

Na

H2SO4 (aq) contains H (aq)

+

Na2CO3 (aq) contains CO32-(aq)

2 H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) the Na+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions are not involved

Precipitation reactions Some salts are insoluble in water. If solutions containing those ions are mixed, the insoluble salt forms as a solid as the solutions are mixed. This solid is known as a precipitate, and the reaction as precipitation.
NO3 Ba2+ NO3 NO3 NO3 NO3
Na
+ 2 SO4

Na Na
+

NO3
Na
+

Na

Na

Na

Na

NO3
Na
+

SO42
NO3
Na
+

NO3
Na Na
+ +

NO3

NO3

Ba2+ NO3

Ba

2+

+
NO3 SO42

Na

NO3

Na

SO42
+

Na

NO3

NO3 Ba
2+

Ba

2+

Na

NO3 Ba2+ SO42 Ba2+ SO 2 Ba2+ 4

Na
+
+ 2+ 2 2+ SO4 Ba SO42 SO42 Ba

SO42 NO3
Na
+

NO3

Na

NO3

Na

Ba(NO3)2 (aq) contains Ba2+(aq)

Na2SO4 (aq) contains SO42-(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

Most salts are soluble in water. Often when solutions of two salts are mixed, no such precipitation reaction will take place and the ions will remain dissolved in water.
NO3 Mg2+ NO3 NO3 NO3 NO3

Na Na
+

NO3
+

SO42
Na
+

Na

Na

Na

Na

NO3
Na
+

SO4 NO3 NO3

SO42
Na
+

SO4

NO3

Mg
Na
+

2+

Mg2+ NO3

Mg2+

+
NO3 SO42

Na

NO3
SO42
+

Na

SO42
Na

Mg2+ NO3
Na Na
+ +

Mg2+ NO3

SO42

NO3 Mg2+

Mg2+ SO42

Na

NO3 Mg2+

Na

NO3

NO3

Na

Na

Na

NO3 Mg2+ SO4

Mg(NO3)2 (aq)

Na2SO4 (aq)

Nothing happens solutions just mix together

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TASK 6 IONIC EQUATIONS

1) Use your knowledge of ionic equations to give the molar ratio in which the following acids react with bases. Complete the table to show your answers.
Molar ratio of acid:base

Acid hydrochloric acid sulphuric acid nitric acid sulphuric acid nitric acid

Formula of acid

Base lithium hydroxide sodium hydrogencarbonate ammonia potassium carbonate strontium hydroxide

Formula of base

2)

Write ionic equations for each of the following reactions. a) reaction of hydrochloric acid (aq) with potassium hydroxide (aq) b) precipitation of silver iodide from reaction between silver nitrate (aq) and potassium iodide (aq) c) reaction of potassium carbonate (aq) with nitric acid (aq) d) precipitation of calcium hydroxide from reaction between sodium hydroxide (aq) and calcium chloride (aq) e) reaction of ammonia (aq) with hydrochloric acid (aq) f) reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate (aq) with sulfuric acid (aq) g) precipitation of calcium sulfate from reaction between calcium chloride (aq) and sulfuric acid (aq) h) precipitation of lead (II) chloride from reaction between lead nitrate (aq) and sodium chloride (aq) i) reaction of barium hydroxide (aq) with nitric acid (aq)

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3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES & STANDARD FORM

Some general rules in chemistry: usually give final answers to 3 significant figures (but it is best to keep the whole number on your a during the calculation) give Mrs to 1 decimal place 0.00346678 = 0.00347 (3 sig fig) = 3.47 x 10 (3 sig fig)
-3

Note:

346678 = 347000 (3 sig fig) = 3.47 x 10 (3 sig fig)

TASK 7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES & STANDARD FORM

1) Write the following numbers to the quoted number of significant figures. a) 345789 b) 297300 c) 0.07896 2) 4 sig figs 3 sig figs 3 sig figs d) 6 e) 0.001563 f) 0.01 3 sig figs 3 sig figs 4 sig figs . . .

Complete the following sums and give the answers to 3 significant figures. a) 6125 x 384 b) 25.00 x 0.01 c) 13.5 + 0.18 d) 750 25 e) 0.000152 x 13 f) 0.0125 x 0.025 . . .

3)

Write the following numbers in non standard form. a) 1.5 x 10

-3

..
-2

d) 0.0534 x 10 e) 10.3 x 10 f) 8.35 x 10

5

b) 0.046 x 10 c) 3.575 x 10 4)

...... ......

-3

Write the following numbers in standard form. a) 0.000167 b) 0.0524 c) 0.000000015 .. ...... ...... d) 34500 e) 0.62 f) 87000000

5)

Complete the following calculations and give the answers to 3 significant figures. a) 6.125 x 10 b) 4.3 x 10
-4 -3

x 3.5

.. .. ...........................................................
3

7.0

c) 4.0 x 10 + 35000 d) 0.00156 + 2.4 x 10 e) 6.10 x 10 f) 8.00 x 10

-2

.
-5

3.4 x 10

.
-3

-3

x 0.100 x 10

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4 THE MOLE & AVOGADRO CONSTANT

One mole of anything contains 6.02 x 10 of those things. One mole of 23 23 bananas is 6.02 x 10 bananas. One mole of water molecules is 6.02 x 10 water molecules This number is known as the Avogadro constant. The Avogadro number was chosen so that the mass of one mole of particles of a substance equals the Mr in grams. For example, the Mr of water is 18.0, and the mass of one mole of water molecules in 18.0 grams.
23

Moles = Mass (in grams) Mr

1 ton = 1,000,000 g 1 kg = 1,000 g 1 mg = 0.001 g Remember Mr Moles!

TASK 8 MOLES
1) How many moles are there in each of the following? a) 72 g of Mg d) 1 tonne of NaCl 2) b) e) 4 kg of CuO 20 mg of Cu(NO3)2 c) 39 g of Al(OH)3

What is the mass of each of the following? a) 5 moles of Cl2 d) 0.002 moles of (NH4)2SO4 b) e) 0.2 moles of Al2O3 0.3 moles of Na2CO3.10H2O c) 0.01 moles of Ag

3)

a) Calculate the number of moles of CO2 molecules in 11 g of carbon dioxide. b) Calculate the number of moles of C atoms in 11 g of carbon dioxide. a) Calculate the number of moles of O atoms in 11 g of carbon dioxide.

4)

a) Calculate the number of moles of Al2O3 in 5.1 g of Al2O3. b) Calculate the number of moles of Al
3+

ions in 5.1 g of Al2O3.

a) Calculate the number of moles of O ions in 5.1 g of Al2O3. 5) An experiment was carried out to find the Mr of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). It was found that 1 g contains 0.00568 moles of Vitamin C molecules. Calculate the Mr of vitamin C. Use the following data to calculate the mass of the particles shown. Mass of proton = 1.6726 x 10
-24

2-

6)

g g

Mass of electron = 9.1094 x 10

-28

g
23

Mass of neutron = 1.6749 x 10

1

-24

Avogadro constant = 6.0221 x 10

a) Calculate the mass of a H atom. b) Calculate the mass of an H ion. c) Calculate the mass of a H atom.
3 1 +

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5 REACTING MASS CALCULATIONS

What a chemical equation means

3 H2
3 molecules H2 36 molecules H2 3 dozen molecules H2 36 molecules H2 3 dozen molecules H2 18 x 10 molecules H2 3 moles H2 3 moles H2 1.5 moles H2
23

N2
1 molecule N2 12 molecules N2 2 dozen molecules N2 12 molecule N2 2 dozen molecules N2 6 x 10 molecule N2 2 moles N2 10 moles N2 0.5 moles N2
23

2 NH3
2 molecules NH3 24 molecules NH3 2 dozen molecules NH3 24 molecules NH3 2 dozen molecules NH3 12 x 10 molecules NH3 2 moles NH3 2 moles NH3 1 mole NH3
23

TASK 9 WHAT EQUATIONS MEAN

4 Na 12 mol 0.1 mol + O2 2 Na2O

2 Al 5 mol 0.1 mol

3 Cl2

2 AlCl3

C4H10 0.5 mol 20 mol

6 O2

4 CO2

5 H2O

4 NH3 0.5 mol 10 mol

3 O2

2 N2

6 H2O

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10

Reacting mass calculations

You can use balanced chemical equations to find out what mass of chemicals (or volume of gases) react or are produced in a chemical reaction. To do this, calculate: (a) moles of e.g. (b) moles of ? (c) mass of ?

What mass of iron is produced when 32 kg of iron (III) oxide is heated with CO? ? Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g) moles of Fe2O3 = mass (g) = 32,000 = 200.5 mol Mr 159.6 1 mole of Fe2O3 forms 2 moles of Fe moles of Fe = 2 x 200.5 = 401.0 mol mass of Fe = moles x Mr = 401.0 x 55.8 = 22,400 g (3 sig fig)

e.g.

What mass of oxygen is needed to convert 102 g of ammonia into nitrogen? ? 4 NH3(g) + 3 O2(g) 2 N2(g) + 6 H2O(g) moles of NH3 = mass (g) = 102 = 6.00 mol Mr 17.0 4 moles of NH3 reacts with 3 moles of O2 1 mole of NH3 reacts with mole of O2 moles of O2 = 6.00 x = 4.00 mol mass of O2 = moles x Mr = 4.00 x 32.0 = 128 g (3 sig fig)

e.g.

When 5.00 g of crystals of hydrated tin (II) chloride, SnCl2.xH2O, are heated, 4.20 g of anhydrous tin (II) chloride are formed. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallisation are in SnCl2.xH2O (i.e. the value of x). SnCl2.xH2O SnCl2 + x H2O moles of SnCl2 = mass (g) = 4.20 = 0.02214 moles Mr 189.7 moles of SnCl2.xH2O = 0.02214 mol Mr of SnCl2.xH2O = mass = 5.00 = 225.8 moles 0.02214 Mr of xH2O = 225.8 189.7 = 36.1 x = 36.1 = 2 (x is a whole number) 18.0

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11

TASK 10 REACTING MASS CALCULATIONS 1

1) What mass of hydrogen is needed to react with 40 g of copper oxide? CuO + H2 Cu + H2O 2) What mass of oxygen reacts with 192 g of magnesium? 2 Mg + O2 2 MgO 3) What mass of sulfur trioxide is formed from 96 g of sulfur dioxide? 2 SO2 2 SO3 + O2 4) What mass of carbon monoxide is needed to react with 480 kg of iron oxide? Fe2O3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2 5) What mass of carbon dioxide is produced when 5.6 g of butene is burnt. C4H8 + 6 O2 4 CO2 + 4 H2O 6) What mass of oxygen is needed to react with 8.5 g of hydrogen sulphide (H2S)? 2 H2S + 3 O2 2 SO2 + 2 H2O 7) 4.92 g of hydrated magnesium sulphate crystals (MgSO4.nH2O) gave 2.40 g of anhydrous magnesium sulphate on heating to constant mass. Work out the formula mass of the hydrated magnesium sulphate and so the value of n. MgSO4.nH2O 8) MgSO4 + n H2O

In an experiment to find the value of x in the compound MgBr2.xH2O, 7.30 g of the compound on heating to constant mass gave 4.60 g of the anhydrous salt MgBr2. Find the value of x. MgBr2.xH2O MgBr2 + x H2O

9)

What mass of glucose must be fermented to give 5.00 kg of ethanol? C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

10) The pollutant sulfur dioxide can removed from the air by reaction with calcium carbonate in the presence of oxygen. What mass of calcium carbonate is needed to remove 1 ton of sulfur dioxide? 2 CaCO3 + 2 SO2 + O2 2 CaSO4 + 2 CO2 11) What mass of potassium oxide is formed when 7.8 mg of potassium is burned in oxygen? 4 K + O2 2 K2O 12) What mass of hydrogen is produced when 10.0 g of aluminium reacts with excess hydrochloric acid? 2 Al + 6 HCl 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2 13) What mass of sodium just reacts with 40.0 g of oxygen? 4 Na + O2 2 Na2O 14) What mass of nitrogen is produced when 2.00 tonnes of ammonia gas decomposes? 2 NH3 N2 + 3 H2 15) What mass of oxygen is produced when 136 g of hydrogen peroxide molecules decompose? 2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2 16) What mass of lead (II) oxide is produced when 0.400 moles of lead (II) nitrate decomposes? 2 Pb(NO3)2 2 PbO + 4 NO2 + O2

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12

Limiting reagents
In the real world of chemistry, it is rare that we react the exact right amount of chemicals together. Usually, we have more than we need of one of the reactants and so it doesnt all react it is in excess. Sometimes in calculations, we need to work out if one of the reactants is in excess. The reactant that is not in excess is sometimes called the limiting reagent. e.g. 1 - Starting point - Working out how much reacts in terms of moles: Moles at the start Moles SO2 4 10 0.1 2 2 Moles O2 3 10 0.02 0.4 10 Moles reacting Moles SO2 4 Moles O2 2 Reagent in excess O2 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 Moles at the end Moles SO2 0 Moles O2 1 Moles SO3 4

And then you usually have to work out the mass of one of the substances. e.g. 2 Ba(OH)2 + 2 HCl BaCl2 + 2 H2O Moles at the start Mol Ba(OH)2 5 0.1 0.2 0.025 Moles HCl 5 0.05 0.5 0.0375 Moles reacting Mol Ba(OH)2 2.5 Moles HCl 5 Reagent in excess Ba(OH)2 Moles at the end Mol Ba(OH)2 Moles HCl Moles BaCl2

e.g. 3

In the manufacture of titanium, what mass of titanium can theoretically be formed when 1 kg of titanium chloride reacts with 0.1 kg of magnesium? TiCl4 + 2 Mg Ti + 2 MgCl2 Moles TiCl4 = 1000 = 5.266 189.9 Moles Mg = 100 = 4.115 24.3

5.266 moles of TiCl4 needs 10.53 moles of Mg to react, TiCl4 is in XS and does not all react, so Mg is the limiting reagent 2.058 moles of TiCl4 reacts with 4.115 moles of Mg 2.058 moles of Ti is produced Mass of Ti = 2.058 x 47.9 = 98.6 g

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13

TASK 11 REACTING MASS CALCULATIONS 2

1) In each case work out the limiting reagent and moles of ammonia formed (assuming complete reaction). N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 a) 3 moles of N2 + 3 moles of H2 b) 3 moles of N2 + 10 moles of H2 c) 0.1 moles of N2 + 0.2 moles of H2 d) 0.5 moles of N2 + 2.0 moles of H2 e) 2 moles of N2 + 10 moles of H2 2) In each case work out the limiting reagent and moles of ammonia formed (assuming complete reaction. 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 a) 3 moles of SO2 + 3 moles of O2 b) 3 moles of SO2 + 2 moles of O2 c) 0.1 moles of SO2 + 0.02 moles of O2 d) 2.0 moles of SO2 + 0.4 moles of O2 e) 2 moles of SO2 + 10 moles of O2 3) 5.00 g of iron and 5.00 g of sulphur are heated together to form iron (II) sulphide. Which reactant is in excess and what is the maximum mass of iron (II) sulphide that can be formed? Fe + S FeS 4) In the manufacture of the fertiliser ammonium sulphate, what is the maximum mass of ammonium sulphate that can be obtained from 2.00 kg of sulphuric acid and 1.00 kg of ammonia? H2SO4 + 2 NH3 (NH4)2SO4 5) In the Solvay process, ammonia is recovered by the reaction shown. What is the maximum mass of ammonia that can be recovered from 2 tonnes of ammonium chloride and 0.5 tonnes of calcium oxide? 2 NH4Cl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O + 2 NH3 6) In the manufacture of titanium, what mass of titanium can theoretically be formed when 0.5 kg of titanium chloride reacts with 0.1 kg of magnesium? TiCl4 + 2 Mg Ti + 2 MgCl2 7) In the manufacture of ammonia, what mass of ammonia can theoretically be formed when 1 kg of nitrogen reacts with 0.5 kg of hydrogen? N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 8) In the manufacture of sulphur troxide, what mass of sulphur trioxide can theoretically be formed when 1 kg of sulphur dioxide reacts with 0.5 kg of oxygen? 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 9) Hydrazine (N2H4) was used as the rocket fuel for the Apollo missions to the moon. It is by reaction of ammonia with sodium chlorate. What mass of hydrazine is made by reaction of 100 g of ammonia with 100 g of sodium chloriate? 2 NH3 + NaOCl N2H4 + NaCl + H2O

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14

1)

A mixture of anhydrous sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate of mass 10.000 g was heated until it reached a constant mass of 8.708 g. Calculate the composition of the mixture in grams of each component. Sodium hydrogencarbonate thermally decomposes to form sodium carbonate. A mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate with a mass of 10.000 g was heated to constant mass, with the final mass being 5.096 g. Calculate the percentage composition of the mixture, by mass. 1 mole of a hydrocarbon of formula CnH2n was burned completely in oxygen producing carbon dioxide and water vapour only. It required 192 g of oxygen. Work out the formula of the hydrocarbon. A mixture of MgSO4.7H2O and CuSO4.5H2O is heated at 120C until a mixture of the anhydrous compounds is produced. If 5.00 g of the mixture gave 3.00 g of the anhydrous compounds, calculate the percentage by mass of MgSO4.7H2O in the mixture.

2)

3)

4)

Yields
When you make a new substance by a chemical reaction, you may not get all the expected amount of product. For example, if you reacted 4 g of hydrogen with 32 g of oxygen, you may get less than 36 g of water. Reasons include: the reaction may be reversible (both the forwards and backwards reaction can take place) some of the product may be lost when it is separated from the reaction mixture some of the reactants may react in other reactions.

% yield =

mass of product obtained x 100 maximum theoretical mass of product

e.g.

Iron is extracted from iron oxide in the Blast Furnace as shown.

Fe2O3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of iron that can be made from 1 tonne of iron oxide. Moles of Fe2O3 = mass (g) = 1,000,000 = 6266 moles Mr 159.6 moles of Fe = 2 x 6266 = 12530 mol mass of Fe = moles x Mr = 12530 x 55.8 = 699000 g (3 sig fig) b) In the reaction, only 650000 g of iron was made. Calculate the percentage yield. % Yield = mass actually made theoretical mass expected x 100 = 650000 x 100 = 93.0% 699000

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15

TASK 12 PERCENTAGE YIELD

1) Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen to make sulfur trioxide. 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of sulfur trioxide that can be made by reacting 96 g of sulfur dioxide with an excess of oxygen. b) In the reaction, only 90 g of sulfur trioxide was made. Calculate the percentage yield. c) Give three reasons why the amount of sulfur trioxide made is less than the maximum theoretical maximum.

2)

Iron is extracted from iron oxide in the Blast Furnace as shown.

Fe2O3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of iron that can be made from 1 tonne of iron oxide. b) In the reaction, only 650000 g of iron was made. Calculate the percentage yield.

3)

Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to make ammonia.

N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of ammonia that can be made by reacting 90 g of hydrogen with an excess of nitrogen. b) In the reaction, only 153 g of ammonia was produced. Calculate the percentage yield.

4)

Titanium can be extracted from titanium chloride by the following reaction.

TiCl4 + 2 Mg Ti + 2 MgCl2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of titanium that can be extracted from 100 g of titanium chloride . b) In the reaction, only 20 g of titanium was made. Calculate the percentage yield. c) Give three reasons why the amount of titanium made is less than the maximum theoretical maximum.

5)

Aluminium is extracted from aluminium oxide in the following reaction.

2 Al2O3 4 Al + 3 O2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of aluminium that can be made from 1 kg of aluminium oxide. b) In the reaction, only 500 g of aluminium was made. Calculate the percentage yield.

6)

The fertiliser ammonium sulpfate is made as follows.

2 NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of ammonium sulfate that can be made by reacting 85 g of ammonia with an excess of sulfuric acid. b) In the reaction, only 300 g of ammonium sulfate was produced. Calculate the percentage yield.

7)

0.8500 g of hexanone, C6H12O, is converted into its 2,4-dinitrophenylhyrazone during its analysis. After isolation and purification, 2.1180 g of product C12H18N4O4 are obtained. Calculate the percentage yield.

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Atom Economy
Atom economy is a measure of what proportion of the products of a reaction are the desired product and how much is waste. The higher the atom economy, the less waste that is produced.

Atom economy = mass of wanted product from equation x 100 total mass of products from equation

e.g. making ethanol by fermentation

glucose C6H12O6(aq) 180 g

ethanol 92 g

carbon dioxide 2 CO2 88 g 180 g products

2 CH3CH2OH(aq) +

Atom economy = 92 x 100 = 51% 180 Only 92 g of the 180 g of products is ethanol. This means that 51% of the mass of the products is ethanol, while the other 49% is waste.

TASK 13 ATOM ECONOMY

1) Calculate the atom economy to make sodium from sodium chloride. 2 NaCl 2 Na + Cl2

2)

Calculate the atom economy to make hydrogen from the reaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid.

Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2

3)

Calculate the atom economy to make iron from iron oxide in the Blast Furnace.

Fe2O3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2

4)

Calculate the atom economy to make calcium oxide from calcium carbonate.

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

5)

Calculate the atom economy to make sulfur trioxide from sulfur dioxide.

2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3

6)

Calculate the atom economy to make oxygen from hydrogen peroxide.

2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2

7)

Hydrazine (N2H4) was used as the rocket fuel for the Apollo missions to the moon. It is by reaction of ammonia (NH3) with sodium chlorate (NaOCl). ammonia + sodium chlorate hydrazine + sodium chloride + water 2 NH3 + NaOCl N2H4 + NaCl + H2O

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of hydrazine that can be made by reacting 340 g of ammonia with an excess of sodium chlorate. b) In the reaction, only 280 g of hydrazine was produced. Calculate the percentage yield. c) Calculate the atom economy for this way of making hydrazine. d) Explain clearly the difference between atom economy and percentage yield.

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6 GAS CALCULATIONS

THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION

P = pressure (Pa) n = number of moles R = gas constant (8.31 J mol K ) T = temperature (K)
-1 -1

PV = nRT

V = volume (m )

Volume dm = m 1000 e.g.

3 3

Pressure
3 3

Temperature C + 273 = K

cm = m 1000000

kPa x 1000 = Pa

MPa x 1000000 = Pa

Calculate the pressure exerted by 0.100 moles of an ideal gas at 50C with a volume of 1500 cm . P = nRT = 0.100 x 8.31 x 323 = 179000 Pa (3 sf) 1500 V /1000000

TASK 14 THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION

1) Convert the following into SI units. a) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 200C b) 98 kPa c) 50 cm
3 3

d) -50C

e) 0.1 MPa

f) 3.2 dm

Calculate the volume that 0.400 moles of an ideal gas occupies at 100C and a pressure of 1000 kPa. How many moles of gas occupy 19400 cm at 27C and 1 atm pressure? Calculate the pressure that 0.05 moles of gas, which occupies a volume of 200 cm , exerts at a temperature of 50 K. 0.140 moles of a gas has a volume of 2.00 dm at a pressure of 90 kPa. Calculate the temperature of the gas. At 273 K and 101000 Pa, 6.319 g of a gas occupies 2.00 dm . Calculate the relative molecular mass of the gas. Find the volume of ethyne (C2H2) that can be prepared from 10.0 g of calcium carbide at 20C and 100 kPa. CaC2(s) + 2 H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
3 3 3 3

8)

What mass of potassium chlorate (V) must be heated to give 1.00 dm of oxygen at 20C and 0.1 MPa. 2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

9)

What volume of hydrogen gas, measured at 298 K and 100 kPa, is produced when 1.00 g of sodium is reacted with excess water? 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2

10) What volume of carbon dioxide gas, measured at 800 K and 100 kPa, is formed when 1 kg of propane is burned in a good supply of oxygen? C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O 11) Calculate the relative molecular mass of a gas which has a density of 2.615 g dm at 298 K and 101 kPa. 12) A certain mass of an ideal gas is in a sealed vessel of volume 3.25 dm . At a temperature of 25C it exerts a pressure of 101 kPa. What pressure will it exert at 100C? 13) An ideal gas occupies a volume of 2.75 dm at 290K and 8.7 x 104 Pa. At what temperature will it occupy 3.95 dm at 5 1.01 x 10 Pa?
3 3 3 -3

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REACTING GAS VOLUMES

The volume of a gas depends on the temperature, pressure and number of moles. What the gas is does not affect its volume. This means that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, 100 cm (as an example) of one gas contains 3 the same number of moles as 100 cm of any other gas. e.g. What volume of oxygen reacts with 100 cm of but-1-ene? C4H8(g) + 6 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) Answer = 600 cm e.g.
3 3 3 3

1 dm of but-1-ene is reacted with 10 dm of oxygen. What volume of oxygen remains at the end? C4H8(g) + 6 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) 6 dm of O2 reacts with 1 dm of but-1-ene 4 dm of oxygen is left over
3 3 3

TASK 15 REACTING GAS VOLUMES

1) What volume of oxygen is required to burn the following gases, and what volume of carbon dioxide is produced? a) 1 dm of methane b) 20 cm of butene c) 500 cm of ethyne d) 750 cm of benzene
3 3 3 3

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) C4H8(g) + 6 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) 2 C2H2(g) + 5 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) 2 C6H6(g) + 15 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

2)

When 100 cm of hydrogen bromide reacts with 80 cm of ammonia, a white solid is formed and some gas is left over. What gas and how much of it is left over? NH3(g) + HBr(g) NH4Br(s)

3)

100 cm of methane was reacted with 500 cm of oxygen. What is the total volume of all gases at the end, and indicate how much there is of each gas? CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

4)

If 4 dm of hydrogen sulphide is burned in 10 dm of oxygen, what is the final volume of the mixture (give the volume of each gas at the end)? 2 H2S(g) + 3 O2(g) 2 H2O(g) + 2 SO2(g)

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1) 2)

A gas has a density of 1.655 g dm at 323 K and 1.01 x 10 Pa. Calculate the Mr of the gas. One method used to inflate air bags in cars is to use nitrogen produced chemically from the decomposition of sodium azide. The sodium formed reacts with potassium nitrate to give more nitrogen. 2 NaN3(s) 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g) 10 Na(s) + 2 KNO3(s) K2O(s) + 5 Na2O(s) + N2(g) a) In what ratio (by mass) must the sodium azide and potassium nitrate be mixed in order that no metallic sodium remains after the reaction? b) Calculate the total mass of the solid mixture needed to inflate a 60 dm air bag at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
3

-3

3)

1.00 g of sulphur dissolved completely in an excess of liquid ammonia to give 420 cm3 of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), measured at 273 K and 101 kPa, and also a solid containing the elements nitrogen and sulphur. Deduce the empirical formula of the solid. When 15 cm of a gaseous hydrocarbon was exploded with 60 cm of oxygen (an XS), the final volume was 45 3 3 cm . This decreased to 15 cm on treatment with NaOH solution (removes CO2). What was the formula of the hydrocarbon? (all measurements were made at room temperature and pressure, the water produced is a liquid). Find the equation to calculate the root mean square velocity of gas particles. Once you have that equation, use it to calculate the root mean square velocity for nitrogen molecules at 298 K and 100 kPa. 10 cm of a hydrocarbon, CxHy, were exploded with an excess of oxygen. There was a contraction in volume of 3 30 cm . When the products were treated with sodium hydroxide (which reacts with carbon dioxide), there was a 3 further contraction of 30 cm . Deduce the formula of the hydrocarbon, given that all volumes were measured under the same conditions.
3 3 3

4)

5)

6)

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1) a) b) c) d)

Give the formula of each of the following substances. zinc nitrate lead chromium (III) oxide ammonium sulphate e) f) g) h) phosphorus nitrogen barium hydroxide aluminium sulphate
(8)

2)

Use your knowledge of ionic equations to give the molar ratio in which the following acids react with bases. Complete the table to show your answers. (4)
Molar ratio of acid:base

Acid sulphuric acid hydrochloric acid nitric acid hydrochloric acid

Formula of acid

Base potassium hydroxide potassium hydrogencarbonate ammonia zinc carbonate

Formula of base

3) a)

Write ionic equations for each of the following reactions. reaction of sulphuric acid (aq) and sodium hydroxide (aq) . b) precipitation of barium carbonate by mixing solutions of barium hydroxide and sodium carbonate . c) reaction of nitric acid (aq) and ammonia (aq) . d) reaction of sulphuric acid (aq) and potassium hydrogencarbonate (aq) .
(2) (2) (2) (2)

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4)

a)

Define the term relative atomic mass. .

(2)

b)

Explain why

12

C is referred to in the definition.

. .
(1)

c)

Explain why carbon has a relative atomic mass of 12.011 and not exactly 12.000.

... .
(1)

5)

In each case work out the limiting reagent and moles of ammonia formed (assuming complete reaction). N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3 a) b) c) d) 5 moles of N2 + 5 moles of H2 2 moles of N2 + 5 moles of H2 10 moles of N2 + 50 moles of H2 0.2 moles of N2 + 0.05 moles of H2 moles of NH3 formed = moles of NH3 formed = moles of NH3 formed = moles of NH3 formed = .. .. .. ..
(1) (1) (1) (1)

6)

Calculate the volume of 0.200 moles of carbon dioxide at 100C and 2 MPa pressure. . . . .
(3)

7)

Calculate the number of moles of argon in 200 cm at 100 kPa at 20C. . . . .

(3)

8)

The equation is for the combustion of ethane in oxygen.

C2H6(g) + 3 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l)

What volume of carbon dioxide is formed and what is the total volume of gases at the end in each of the following reactions. a) 100 cm of ethane + 100 cm of oxygen volume of CO2 formed = b) 100 cm of ethane + 500 cm of oxygen volume of CO2 formed = c) 200 cm of ethane + 400 cm of oxygen volume of CO2 formed = . Total volume of gases at end = .
(2)
3 3 3 3 3 3

Total volume of gases at end =

(2)

Total volume of gases at end =

(2)

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9)

What volume of hydrogen is formed at 20C and 100000 Pa pressure when 2 g of magnesium is reacted with excess sulphuric acid? Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) . . . .
(4)

10)

What volume of carbon monoxide is formed at 1200C and 0.14 MPa pressure when 1 kg of iron oxide is reduced by carbon? Fe2O3(s) + 3 C(s) 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO(g) . . . .
(4)

11) a)

In 20 moles of Al2O3, i) ii) how many moles of Al

3+

ions?
(2)

how many moles of O ions?

2-

b)

In 360 g of water i) ii) how many moles of H atoms? how many moles of O atoms?
(2)

c)

In 1 kg of aluminium sulphate i) ii) how many moles of aluminium ions? how many moles of sulphate ions?
(2)

12)

What mass of Fe3O4 is produced when 140 g of iron reacts with excess steam? 3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g)

Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2(g)
. . .
(3)

13)

What mass of potassium oxide is formed when 7.8 g of potassium is burned in oxygen? 4 K + O2 2 K2O . . .
(3)

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14) a)

Sulfur trioxide is made from sulfur dioxide by the following reaction. Calculate the maximum amount of sulfur trioxide that can be made from 1 kg of sulfur dioxide. 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 . . .
(3)

b)

In an experiment, only 1200 g of sulfur trioxide was produced. i) Calculate the percentage yield. .. . ii) Give three reasons why the yield is less than 100%. . . .
(1) (1) (1)

c)

Calculate the atom economy for this process.

..

15) a)

Aluminium is made from aluminium oxide by electrolysis. Calculate the mass of aluminium that can be made from 1 kg of aluminium oxide. 2 Al2O3 4 Al + 3 O2 . . .
(3)

b)

Calculate the percentage yield if 500 g of aluminium is produced. .

(1)

c)

Calculate the atom economy for this process. .

(1)

16)

When 12.3 g of MgSO4.nH2O is heated gently until no further change in mass occurs, to remove the water of crystallisation, 6.0 g of anhydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) remained. Work out the relative formula mass (Mr) of the MgSO4.nH2O, and so the value of n. MgSO4.nH2O MgSO4 + n H2O . . . . .
(4)

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17)

Since 1850, most books and documents have been printed on acidic paper which, over time, becomes brittle and disintegrates. By treating books with diethyl zinc vapour, the acids in the book are neutralised. Diethyl zinc vapour penetrates the closed book and reacts with the small amount of water in the paper to form zinc oxide. The zinc oxide neutralises the acids and protects the book from acids that may be formed later. There is virtually no difference between treated and untreated books. The reaction between diethyl zinc and water is represented by the equation: Zn(C2H5)2(g) + H2O(l) ZnO(s) + 2 C2H6(g) The total moisture content of a book which was treated was found to be 0.9 g of water. a) i) How many moles of water were present in the book? . .. ii) Using the equation, how many moles of diethyl zinc would react with this amount of water? .. iii) What is the volume at room temperature and pressure of this amount of diethyl zinc vapour? .. .. .. iv) What mass of zinc oxide would be formed in the book? .. .. b) The acid content of the book was found to be 0.032 moles of H zinc oxide and acid is:
+ 2+ + (aq).

(1)

(1)

(1)

(2)

The equation for the reaction between

ZnO(s) + 2 H (aq) Zn (aq) + H2O(l) i) Calculate the mass of zinc oxide required to neutralise the acid in the book. .. ii) Hence calculate the mass of excess zinc oxide which remains in the book. .. ..
(2) (2)

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7 SOLUTION CALCULATIONS

Normal solution calculations

a) b) c) Use the volume and concentration of one reactant to calculate the moles. Use the chemical equation to find the moles of the other reactant. Calculate the volume or concentration as required of that reactant.

concentration (mol/dm )

moles volume (dm )

3

Note Volume in dm = volume in cm 1000

3 3

In many titrations, a standard solution of one the reagents is made (typically 250 cm in a volumetric flask), and 25 cm portions of this standard solution are used in each titration
+

Monoprotic acids contain one H ion per unit (e.g. HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH) with NaOH they react in the ratio 1:1 (acid : NaOH) Diprotic acids contain two H ions per unit (e.g. H2SO4) with NaOH they react in the ratio 1:2 (acid : NaOH) Triprotic acids contain three H ions per unit (e.g. H3PO4) with NaOH they react in the ratio 1:3 (acid : NaOH)
+ +

E.g. 1:

25.0 cm of 0.020 mol/dm sulphuric acid neutralises 18.6 cm of sodium hydroxide solution. H2SO4(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(s)
3

2 H2O(l)

a) Find the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in mol/dm . Moles of H2SO4 = conc x vol (dm ) = 0.020 x
3 3 25

/1000 = 0.000500

Moles of NaOH = conc x vol (dm ) = 2 x moles H2SO4 = 0.000500 x 2 = 0.00100 Concentration of NaOH = mol = 0.00100 = 0.0538 mol/dm 3 18.6 vol (dm ) ( /1000) b) Find the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in g/dm . Mr of NaOH = 23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0 = 40.0 Mass of NaOH in 1 dm = Mr x moles = 40.0 x 0.0538 = 2.15 g Concentration = 2.15 g/dm E.g. 2:
3 3 3 3

Crystals of citric acid contain water of crystallisation (C6H8O7.nH2O). Citric acid is a triprotic acid. 1.52 g of the 3 3 3 -3 citric acid was made up to 250 cm solution. 25 cm portions of this solution required 21.80 cm of 0.100 mol dm for neutralisation. Calculate the value of n. Moles of NaOH = conc x vol (dm ) = 0.100 x
3 21.70

/1000 = 0.00218 (1 mol of acid reacts with 3 mol of NaOH)

Moles of C6H8O7.nH2O in each titration = 0.00218 / 3 = 0.000727

3

Moles of C6H8O7.nH2O in 250 cm solution = 0.000727 x 10 = 0.00727 Mr of C6H8O7.nH2O = mass moles = 1.52 = 0.00727 209.2

Mr of nH2O = 209.2 192.1 = 17.1 n = 17.1 = 0.950 = 1 (n is a whole number) 18.0

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TASK 16 SOLUTION CALCULATIONS

1) Calculate the number of moles in the following. a) 2 dm of 0.05 mol dm HCl b) 50 litres of 5 mol dm H2SO4 c) 10 cm of 0.25 mol dm KOH 2) Calculate the concentration of the following in both mol dm and g dm a) 0.400 moles of HCl in 2.00 litres of solution b) 12.5 moles of H2SO4 in 5.00 dm of solution c) 1.05 g of NaOH in 500 cm of solution 3) Calculate the volume of each solution that contains the following number of moles. a) 0.00500 moles of NaOH from 0.100 mol dm solution b) 1.00 x 10 moles of HCl from 0.0100 mol dm solution 4) 25.0 cm of 0.020 mol dm sulphuric acid neutralises 18.6 cm of barium hydroxide solution. H2SO4 + Ba(OH)2 BaSO4 + 2 H2O a) Find the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution in mol dm . b) Find the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution in g dm . 5) 25.0 cm of a solution of sodium hydroxide required 18.8 cm of 0.0500 mol dm H2SO4. H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Na2SO4 + 2 H2O a) Find the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in mol dm . b) Find the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in g dm . 6) Calculate the volume of 0.05 mol dm KOH is required to neutralise 25.0 cm3 of 0.0150 mol dm HNO3. HNO3 + KOH KNO3 + H2O 7) 25.0 cm of arsenic acid, H3AsO4, required 37.5 cm of 0.100 mol dm sodium hydroxide for neutralisation. 3 NaOH(aq) + H3AsO4(aq) Na3AsO4(aq) + 3 H2O(l) a) Find the concentration of the acid in mol dm . b) Find the concentration of the acid in g dm . 8) A 250 cm solution of NaOH was prepared. 25.0 cm of this solution required 28.2 cm of 0.100 mol dm HCl for 3 neutralisation. Calculate what mass of NaOH was dissolved to make up the original 250 cm solution. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O 9) What volume of 5.00 mol dm
-3 3 3 3 -3 -3 -3 3 3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 3 3 -3 -3 -3 3 -3 3 -5 -3 -3 3 3 -3 -3 3 -3 -3 3 -3

HCl is required to neutralise 20.0 kg of CaCO3? 2 HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

10)

3.88 g of a monoprotic acid was dissolved in water and the solution made up to 250 cm . 25.0 cm of this solution -3 3 was titrated with 0.095 mol dm NaOH solution, requiring 46.5 cm . Calculate the relative molecular mass of the acid.

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11)

A 1.575 g sample of ethanedioic acid crystals, H2C2O4.nH2O, was dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm . One 3 mole of the acid reacts with two moles of NaOH. In a titration, 25.0 cm of this solution of acid reacted with exactly 3 -3 15.6 cm of 0.160 mol dm NaOH. Calculate the value of n.

12)

A solution of a metal carbonate, M2CO3, was prepared by dissolving 7.46 g of the anhydrous solid in water to give 3 3 3 -3 1000 cm of solution. 25.0 cm of this solution reacted with 27.0 cm of 0.100 mol dm hydrochloric acid. Calculate the relative formula mass of M2CO3 and hence the relative atomic mass of the metal M.

13)

An impure sample of barium hydroxide of mass 1.6524 g was allowed to react with 100 cm of 0.200 mol dm 3 hydrochloric acid. When the excess acid was titrated against sodium hydroxide, 10.9 cm of sodium hydroxide 3 3 solution was required. 25.0 cm of the sodium hydroxide required 28.5 cm of the hydrochloric acid in a separate titration. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample of barium hydroxide.

-3

2) Back titrations
A back titration is done to analyse a base (or acid) that does not react easily or quickly with an acid (or base). Instead, the base (or acid) is treated with an excess of acid (or base), and then the left over acid (or base) titrated. You can then work back to find out about the original base (or acid). e.g. Imagine that we are trying to find out how many moles of CaCO3 we have (lets call it x moles). We add 10 moles of 3 3 HCl (an excess). The excess is made into a 250 cm stock solution and then 25 cm portions of it require 0.4 moles of NaOH for neutralisation. CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

This means that there is 10 x 0.4 moles (= 4 moles) of left over HCl in the stock solution This means that 6 moles (10 4 moles) of HCl reacted with the CaCO3. This means that there must have been 3 moles of CaCO3 (i.e. x = 3) in the first place (remember that 2 moles of HCl reacts with each mole of CaCO3).

e.g. Aspirin is a monoprotic acid that can be analysed by a back titration with NaOH. We add 0.25 moles of NaOH (an 3 3 excess) to y moles of aspirin and make the resulting solution into a 250 cm stock solution. We titrate 25 cm portions of the solution which require 0.01 moles of HCl for neutralisation. Calculate the original moles of aspirin.

e.g. Malachite is an ore containing copper carbonate (CuCO3. We add 5.00 moles of HCl (an excess) to some crushed 3 3 malachite and make the resulting solution into a 250 cm stock solution. We titrate 25 cm portions of the solution which require 0.15 moles of NaOH for neutralisation. Calculate the original moles of copper carbonate in the malachite.

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TASK 17 BACK TITRATION CALCULATIONS

1) Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate. A student wanted to find what percentage of some limestone was calcium 3 -3 carbonate. A 1.00 g sample of limestone is allowed to react with 100 cm of 0.200 mol dm HCl. The excess acid 3 -3 required 24.8 cm of 0.100 mol dm NaOH solution in a back titration. Calculate the percentage of calcium carbonate in the limestone. CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 2) HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
3 -3

An impure sample of barium hydroxide of mass 1.6524 g was allowed to react with 100 cm of 0.200 mol dm -3 hydrochloric acid. When the excess acid was titrated against 0.228 mol dm sodium hydroxide in a back titration, 3 10.9 cm of sodium hydroxide solution was required. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample of barium hydroxide. Ba(OH)2 + 2 HCl BaCl2 + 2 H2O HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

3)

Calculate (a) the moles and (b) the mass of magnesium carbonate at the start if 0.2 moles of sulfuric acid is added to 3 3 the magnesium carbonate and the excess sulfuric acid made up to a 250 cm solution. 25 cm of this solution required 0.03 moles of sodium hydroxide for neutralisation. MgCO3 + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O + CO2 H2SO4 + 2 NaOH NaCl + H2O

4)

A student wanted to find the mass of calcium carbonate in an indigestion tablet. She crushed up a tablet and added 3 -3 -3 an excess of hydrochloric acid (25.0 cm of 1.00 mol dm ). She then titrated the excess against 0.50 mol dm 3 NaOH requiring 25.8 cm of the NaOH. Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in the tablet. A sample containing ammonium chloride was warmed with 100 cm of 1.00 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution. 3 -3 After the ammonia had reacted the excess sodium hydroxide required 50.0 cm of 0.250 mol dm HCl for neutralisation. What mass of ammonium chloride did the sample contain?
3 -3

5)

1) A fertiliser contains ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate. A sample of 1.455 g of the fertiliser was 3 -3 warmed with 25 cm 0.2 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution giving off ammonia gas. The remaining NaOH that 3 -3 was not used required 28.7 cm of 0.100 mol dm hydrochloric acid for neutralisation. Calculate the percentage by mass of ammonium sulphate in the sample. 2) Silicon tetrachloride dissolves in ethoxyethane, an inert solvent. If the ethoxyethane is contaminated with a little water, a partial hydrolysis occurs and two compounds A and B are formed. The formula of A is Si2OCl6 and that of B is Si3O2Cl8. When a 0.100 g sample of one of the compounds, A or B reacted with an excess of water, all the chlorine present was converted to chloride ions. Titration of this solution with aqueous silver nitrate, in the presence of a suitable 3 -3 indicator, required 42.10 cm of 0.0500 mol dm aqueous silver nitrate for complete precipitation of silver chloride. Deduce which of the compounds A or B was present in the 0.100 g sample.

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8 EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR FORMULAS

Every substance has an empirical formula. It shows the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in a substance. e.g. SiO2 (giant covalent) the ratio of Si:O atoms in the lattice is 1:2 Al2O3 (ionic) the ratio of Al :O ions in the lattice is 2:3 H2O (molecular) the ratio of H:O atoms in the substance is 1:2
3+ 2-

Substances made of molecules also have a molecular formula. This indicates the number of atoms of each element in one molecule.

a) Finding the molecular formula from the formula mass and empirical formula e.g. Empirical formula = CH2, Mr = 42.0 Formula mass of empirical formula = 14.0 Mr / formula mass of empirical formula = 42.0/14.0 = 3 Molecular formula = 3 x empirical formula = C3H6 b) Finding the empirical formula of a compound from its composition by percentage or mass i) ii) iii) Write out the mass or percentage of each element, Divide each mass or percentage by the Ar of the element (not the Mr) Find the simplest whole number ratio of these numbers by dividing by the smallest number. If the values come out as near 1/2s then times them by 2, if they are near 1/3s then times by 3. e.g. i) A compound is found to contain, by mass, iron 72.4% and oxygen 27.6%. Fe 72.4 = 1.29 56 O 27.6 = 1.73 16 (divide by smallest, i.e. 1.29) (involves 1/3s so x3)

Simplest ratio Fe:O = 1.29 : 1.73 1 : 1.34 3:4 empirical formula = Fe3O4

e.g.

ii) 0.25 g of hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce 4.25 g of hydrogen peroxide (Mr = 34.0). Mass of oxygen reacting with hydrogen = 4.25 0.25 = 4.00 g H 0.25 = 0.25 1 O 4.00 = 0.25 16 (divide by smallest, i.e. 0.25)

Simplest ratio H:O = 0.25 : 0.25 1:1 empirical formula = HO

Formula mass of empirical formula = 17.0 Mr / formula mass of empirical formula = 34.0/17.0 = 2 Molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula = H2O2

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TASK 18 EMPRICIAL & MOLECULAR FORMULAS

1) Write the empirical formula of each of the following substances. a) e) 2) C2H6 C2H4O2 b) f) P2O3 C2H7N c) g) SO2 B6H10 d) h) C6H12 C12H22O11

The empirical formula and relative molecular mass of some simple molecular compounds are shown below. Work out the molecular formula of each one. a) b) c) NH2 C2H5 CH2 Mr = 32 Mr = 58 Mr = 70 d) PH3 e) CH f) CH2 Mr = 34 Mr = 78 Mr = 42

3)

Find the simplest whole number ratio for each of the following. The numbers come from experiments so there will be some small random errors which mean that you can round the numbers a little bit. a) e) 1.5 : 1 1 : 1.33 b) f) 1 : 1.98 1.66 : 1 c) g) 4.97 : 1 1 : 1.26 d) h) 1 : 2.52 1 : 1.74

4)

Find the empirical formulae of the following compounds using the data given. a) b) c) d) e) Ca 20 % Na 29.1 % C C N 53.3 % 2.73 g 15.2 g Br 80 % S 40.5 % H 15.5 % O 7.27 g O 34.8 g O N 30.4 % 31.1 %

5) 6)

3.53 g of iron reacts with chlorine to form 10.24 g of iron chloride. Find the empirical formula of the iron chloride. 50.0 g of a compound contains 22.4 g of potassium, 9.2 g of sulphur, and the rest oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound. An oxide of phosphorus contains 56.4 % phosphorus and 43.6 % oxygen. Its relative molecular mass is 220. Find both the empirical and the molecular formula of the oxide. A compound contains 40.0 g of carbon, 6.7 g of hydrogen and 53.5 g of oxygen. It has a relative molecular formula of 60. Find both the empirical and the molecular formula of the compound. An organic compound X, which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only, has an Mr of 85. When 0.43 g of X are burned in excess oxygen, 1.10 g of carbon dioxide and 0.45 g of water are formed. Find the empirical and molecular formulae of compound X.

7)

8)

9)

10) When ammonium dichromate (VI) is added gradually to molten ammonium thiocyanate, Reineckes salt is formed. It has the formula NH4[Cr(SCN)x(NH3)y] and the following composition by mass: Cr = 15.5%, S = 38.15%, N = 29.2%. Calculate the values of x and y in the above formula.

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1)

A compound contains 59.4% carbon, 10.9% hydrogen, 13.9% nitrogen and 15.8% oxygen, by mass. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

2)

A compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only contains 74.2% carbon and 7.9% hydrogen. Its Mr is found to be 178 by mass spectroscopy. Find its empirical and molecular formulae.

3)

What mass of carbon monoxide is needed to react with 1.00 kg of iron oxide? Fe2O3 + 3 CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2

4)

The reaction below is known as the Thermitt reaction, which is used to form molten iron to mould train tracks together. What mass of aluminium powder is needed to react with 8.00 g of iron (III) oxide? 2 Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Fe

5)

What volume of 0.100 mol dm hydrochloric acid would react with 25.0 g of calcium carbonate? CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2

-3

6)

25.0 cm of 0.0400 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution reacted with 20.75 cm of sulphuric acid in a titration. Find the concentration of the sulphuric acid.
3 3

-3

7)

13.8 g of a solid monoprotic acid was dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm . 25.0 cm portions of this were -3 3 titrated against 0.250 mol dm sodium hydroxide, requiring 23.5 cm . Calculate the Mr of the acid. 10.0 g of a mixture of copper powder and magnesium powder was mixed with 100 cm of 1.00 mol dm hydrochloric acid. The copper does not react, but the magnesium does as shown: Mg + 2 HCl MgCl2 + H2 The resulting solution was filtered to remove unreacted copper and then made up to 250 cm with water. 25.0 cm of 3 -3 this solution was found to neutralise 36.8 cm of 0.200 mol dm NaOH. Find the % by mass of the magnesium in the metal powder mixture.
3 -3 3 3 3 -3

8)

9)

12.0 g of a mixture of calcium carbonate and sodium chloride was treated with 100 cm of 2.00 mol dm hydrochloric 3 3 acid (only the calcium carbonate reacts). The resulting solution was made up to 250 cm with water and a 25.0 cm 3 -3 portion of this needed 34.1 cm of 0.200 mol dm sodium hydroxide for neutralisation. Find the % by mass of the calcium carbonate in the mixture.

10)

The solid booster rockets of the space shuttle are fuelled by a mixture of aluminium and ammonium chlorate (VII) (NH4ClO4). a) If no other reagents are involved, and the products are nitrogen, water, hydrogen chloride and aluminium oxide, devise an equation for this reaction. b) Each launch consumes about 160 tonnes of aluminium. What mass of hydrogen chloride gas is produced in the atmosphere above the Cape Canaveral launch pad?

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Full worked solutions are available to subscribers of www.chemsheets.co.uk. Subscribe for many more exercises with answers.

TASK 1 Writing formulas of ionic compounds

1 7 13 AgBr Al(NO3)3 Ga(OH)3 2 8 14 Na2CO3 Na2SO4 SrSe 3 9 15 K2O PbO RaSO4 4 10 16 Fe2O3 Na3PO4 Na3N 5 11 CrCl3 Zn(HCO3)2 6 12 Ca(OH)2 (NH4)2SO4

TASK 2 Writing formulas 1

1 7 13 19 PbO2 H2SO4 AgNO3 SrSO4 2 8 14 20 Cu Ne I2 Li 3 9 15 Na SiO2 Ni 4 10 16 NH4Cl Si H2S 5 11 17 NH3 Ba(OH)2 TiO2 6 12 18 S8 SnCl4 Pb

TASK 3 Writing formulas 2

1 7 13 19 Ag2CO3 P4 HCl MgAt2 2 8 14 20 Au C F2 Ar 3 9 15 PtF2 V2O5 Si 4 10 16 HNO3 Co(OH)2 Ca3(PO4)2 5 11 17 NH3 Ca(OH)2 Rb 6 12 18 SiH4 NH4Cl GeO2

TASK 4 Writing balanced equations 1

1 a b c d 2 a b c d Mg + 2 HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2 CuCl2 + 2 NaOH Cu(OH)2 + 2 NaCl 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 C4H10 + 6 O2 4 CO2 + 5 H2O or 2 C4H10 + 13 O2 8 CO2 + 10 H2O 4 Na + O2 2 Na2O 2 Al + 3 Cl2 2 AlCl3 Ca + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2 2 NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

TASK 5 Writing balanced equations 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3 C6H14 + 9 O2 6 CO2 + 7 H2O 2 Li + 2 H2O 2 LiOH + H2 CaCO3 + 2 HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2 Li2CO3 Li2O + CO2 or 2 C6H14 + 19 O2 12 CO2 + 14 H2O CH3CH2SH + 4 O2 2 CO2 + SO2 + 3 H2O or 2 CH3CH2SH + 9 O2 4 CO2 + 2 SO2 + 6 H2O

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7 8 9 10 11 12

NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3 K2O + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + 2 H2O 3 Zn + 2 H3PO4 Zn3(PO4)2 + 3 H2 2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 2 KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2 H2O

TASK 6 Ionic equations

1 2 HCl, LiOH, 1:1; H2SO4, NaHCO3, 1:2; HNO3, NH3, 1:1; H2SO4, K2CO3, 1:1, HNO3, Sr(OH)2, 2:1 a b c d e f g h i H + OH H2O Ag + I AgI 2 H + CO3 H2O + CO2 Ca
+ 2+ + 2+ + -

+ 2 OH Ca(OH)2
+ + -

NH3 + H NH4 Ca Pb
+ 2+ 2-

H + HCO3 H2O + CO2 + SO4 CaSO4 + 2 Cl PbCl2

2+

H + OH H2O

TASK 7 Significant figures & standard form

1 2 3 4 5 a a a a a 345800 2350000 0.0015 -4 1.64 x 10 0.0214 b b b b b 297000 0.250 0.00046 -2 5.24 x 10 -5 6.14 x 10 c c c c c 0.0790 13.7 357500 -8 1.5 x 10 8 4.00 x 10 d d d d d 6.00 30.0 534 4 3.45 x 10 2400 e e e e e 0.00156 0.00198 1030000 -1 6.2 x 10 0.0610 f f f f f 0.01000 0.000313 0.00835 7 8.7 x 10 -7 8.00 x 10

TASK 8 Moles
1 2 3 4 5 6 a 2.96 b a 355 g b a 0.25 b a 0.050 b 176 -24 a 1.670 x 10 g 50.3 20.4 g 0.25 0.10 b 1.673 x 10 c c c c
-24

0.500 1.08 g 0.50 0.15 g c 5.023 x 10

-24

d d

17100 0.264 g

e e

0.000107 85.8 g

TASK 9 What equations mean

1 2 3 4 12 mol Na + 3 mol O2 6 mol Na2O; 0.1 mol Na + 0.025 mol O2 0.05 mol Na2O 5 mol Al + 7.5 mol Cl2 5 mol AlCl3; 0.1 mol Al + 0.15 mol Cl2 0.1 mol AlCl3 0.5 mol C4H10 + 3.25 mol O2 2 mol CO2 + 2.5 mol H2O; 20 mol C4H10 + 130 mol O2 80 mol CO2 + 100 mol H2O 0.5 mol NH3 + 0.375 mol O2 0.25 mol N2 + 0.75 mol H2O; 10 mol NH3 + 7.5 mol O2 5 mol N2 + 15 mol H2O

TASK 10 Reacting mass calculations 1

1 7 13 1.01 g 7 115 g 2 8 14 126 g 6 1650000 g 3 9 15 120 g 9780 g 64.0 g 4 10 16 253000 g 1562000 g 89.3 g 5 11 17.6 g 0.00940 g 6 12 12.0 g 1.11 g

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TASK 11 Reacting mass calculations 2

1 2 3 8 a 2 mol NH3 a 3 mol SO3 7.88 g 1250 g b b 4 9 6 mol NH3 3 mol SO3 2694 g 42.9 g c c 5 1.33 mol NH3 0.04 mol SO3 303000 g d d 6 1.0 mol NH3 0.8 mol SO3 98.6 g e e 7 4 mol NH3 2 mol SO3 1210 g

CHALLENGE 1
1 NaHCO3 = 3.51 g, Na2CO3 6.49 g 2 CaCO3 = 40.3%, MgCO3 = 59.7% 3 C4H8 4 26.6%

TASK 12 Percentage yield

1 2 4 6 a a a a 120 g 700000 g 25.2 g 330 g b b b b 74.9% 92.3% 79.4% 90.8% c reversible, product lost on isolation, other reactions take place 3 a 510 g b 30.0% 5 a 529 g b 94.4% 7 a 2.40 g b 88.4%

TASK 13 Atom economy

1 7 39.3% 2 1.5% 3 45.8% 4 56.0% 5 100% 6 47.1% a 320 g b 87.5% c 29.5% d % yield compares the amount produced compared to the amount you should get, atom economy is the proportion of the mass of all the products that is the desired product

TASK 14 Ideal gas equation

1 2 8 a 473 K b -3 3 1.24 x 10 m 3 3.36 g 9 98000 Pa 0.786 3 0.000538 m c 4 10 50 x 10 m 104000 Pa 3 4.53 m
-6 3

d 5 11

223 K 155 K 64.1

e 6 12

100000 Pa 71.0 483 K

f 7 13

3.2 x 10 m 3 0.00380 m 126400 Pa

-3

TASK 15 Reacting gas volumes

1 3 a O2 2 dm , CO2 1 dm b O2 120 cm , CO2 80 cm 3 3 3 3 3 c O2 1250 cm , CO2 1000 cm d O2 5625 cm , CO2 4500 cm q 2 20 cm HBr left at end 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 dm O2, 4 dm H2O, 4 dm SO2, total 12 dm gas 300 cm O2, 100 cm CO2, total 400 cm gas at end
3 3 3 3

CHALLENGE 2
1 44.0 2 1 : 3.11, 40.9 g 3 NS 4 C2H4 5 515 ms 6
-1

C3H8

Calculations CHECK-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 a Zn(NO3)2 b Pb c Cr2O3 d (NH4)2SO4 e P4 f N2 g Ba(OH)2 h Al2(SO4)3 H2SO4, KOH, 1:2; HCl, KHCO3, 1:1; HNO3, NH3, 1:1; HCl, ZnCO3, 2:1 a H + OH H2O
+ + + -

Ba + SO4 BaSO4
+ -

2+

2-

c H + NH3 NH4 d H + HCO3 H2O + CO2 th 12 a average mass of an atom, relative to 1/12 mass of C atom b it is the agreed standard c mixture of other isotopes a H2, NH3 = 3.3.3 b H2, NH3 = 3.33 c N2, NH3 = 20 d H2, NH3 = 0.033 -4 3 -3 3.10 x 10 m 7 8.21 x 10 3 3 3 3 a volume of CO2 = 57.1 cm , total = 128.5 cm b volume of CO2 = 200 cm , total = 350 cm 3 3 c volume of CO2 = 228.6 cm , total = 314.3 cm -3 3 3 2.00 x 10 m 10 1.64 m

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11 12 14 15 17

a 40, 60 b 40, 20 c 193.5 g 13 9.39 g a 1250 g b 96% c a 529 g b 94.5% c -3 3 a 0.05, 0.05, 1.22 x 10 m , 4.07 g

5.84, 8.76 reversible, product lost on isolation, other reactions 52.9% 16 7 b 1.30 g, 2.77 g d 100%

TASK 16 Solution calculations

1 2 3 4 7 10 13 a 0.1 b 250 -3 -3 a 0.2 mol dm , 7.3 g dm 3 3 b 0.001 dm a 0.05 dm -3 -3 0.0269 mol dm , 4.61 g dm -3 -3 0.015 mol dm , 71.0 g dm 87.8 90.8% c b 5 8 11 0.0025 -3 -3 2.5 mol dm , 245.3 g dm 0.0752 mol dm , 3.01 g dm 1.13 g 2
-3 -3

c 6 9 12

2.1 mol dm , 84.0 g dm 0.0075 dm 3 79.9 dm Ar = 39.1, K

3

-3

-3

CHALLENGE 3
1 96.7% 2 A Si2OCl6

TASK 17 Back titration calculations

1 4 87.7% 0.606 g 2 5 90.8% 4.01 g 3 0.05 mol, 4.22 g

TASK 18 Empirical & molecular formulas

1 2 3 4 5 9 a CH3 b f e CH2O a N2H4 b a 3:2 b e 3:4 f a CaBr2 b FeCl3 6 C5H10O, C5H10O P2O3 C2H7N C4H10 1:2 5:3 Na2S2O3 K2SO4 c g c c g c 7 10 SO2 B3H5 C5H10 5:1 4:5 C2H7N P2O3, P4O6 x = 4, y = 2 d h d d h d 8 CH2 C12H22O11 PH3 e 2:5 4:7 CO2 e CH2O, C2H4O2

C6H6

C3H6

NO2

Calculation Allsorts
1 6 10 C5H11NO 2 -3 0.0241 mol dm C11H14O2, C11H14O2 7 234.9 3 8 526 g 3.21% 4 9 2.71 g 55.0% 5 5.00 dm
3

10 Al + 6 NH4ClO4 3 N2 + 9 H2O + 6 HCl + 5 Al2O3

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