LECTURE-07

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

- Theory of Chip Formation

NIKHIL R. DHAR, Ph. D.

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL & PRODUCTION
ENGINEERING
BUET
 Chip Formation

Every Machining operation involves the formation of chips. The nature of

which differs from operation to operation, properties of work piece material
and the cutting condition. Chips are formed due to cutting tool, which is
harder and more wearer-resistant than the work piece and the force and
power to overcome the resistance of work material. The chip is formed by
the deformation of the metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process
of shear. Four main categories of chips are:

Discontinuous Chips
Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips
Continuous Chip Built-up-Edge (BUE)
Serrated Chips

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 Types of Chips

Discontinuous Chips: These chips are small

segments, which adhere loosely to each other. They
are formed when the amount of deformation to which
chips undergo is limited by repeated fracturing. Hard
and brittle materials like bronze, brass and cast iron
will produce such chips.

Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips: In continuous

chip formation, the pressure of the work piece builds
until the material fails by slip along the plane. The
inside on the chip displays steps produced by the
intermittent slip, but the outside is very smooth. It
has its elements bonded together in the form of long
coils and is formed by the continuous plastic
deformation of material without fracture ahead of the
cutting edge of the tool and is followed by the smooth
flow of chip up the tool face.

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 Continuous Chip Built Up Edge: This type of chip is
very similar to that of continuous type, with the
difference that it is not as smooth as the previous
one. This type of chip is associated with poor surface
finish, but protects the cutting edge from wear due to
movement of chips and the action of heat causing the
increase in tool life.

Serrated Chips: These chips are semicontinuous in

the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance
that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of
alternating high shear strain followed by low shear
strain. This chip is most closely associated with certain
difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys,
nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels
when they are machined at higher cutting speeds.
However, the phenomenon is also found with more
common work metals (e.g., steels), when they are cut
at high speeds.

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 Actual Chip Forms and Classifications

C-type and Short helical

ε-type broken chips
broken chips

Medium helical Long helical

broken chips broken chips

Desired

Not Desired
Long helical
unbroken Long and snarled
chips unbroken chips

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 cutting conditions are the main causes for discontinuous chips
 Very low or very high cutting speed
 Large depth of cut
 Low rake angle
 Lack of cutting fluid
 Vibration on the machine tool

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 Chip Formation in Metal Machining
Since the practical machining is complex we use orthogonal cutting model
to explain the mechanics.In this model we used wedge shaped tool. As the
tool forced into the material the chip is formed by shear deformation.

Uncut chip
Thickness
a1=So sin φ
Rough
Chip
Shear surface
Thickness
plane (a2)

Shear Chip
Angle
(β) Shiny
surface
Positive rake

Rake angle (γ)

Rake
Clearance surface
angle (α)
Flank
surface
Workpiec Tool
e
Negative rake
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 Deformation of Uncut Layer

The problem in the study of the mechanism of chip formation is the

deformation process of the chip ahead of the cutting tool. It is difficult to
apply equation of plasticity as the deformations in metal cutting are very
large. Experimental techniques have always been resorted to for analyzing
the deformation process of chips. Several methods have been used:

Taking photographs of the side surface of the chip with a high speed
movie camera fitted with microscope.

Observing the grid deformation (directly)

 on the side surface of the work piece and
 on the inner surface of a compound work piece.

Examination of frozen chip samples taken by

 drop tool apparatus and
 quick stop apparatus,

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 Grid Deformation Methods

The type of stress-state conditions is evaluated by means of an angle index e

obtainable from Levy-Lode’s theorem,

e + e − 2e o
1 2 3 = tan (30 − e) - - - - - -[1]
e −e tan30 o
1 2
ro
r  r 
e = ln , e = ln 2 
 1  Chip
and e + e + e = o - - - -[2]
1 r 2 r 1 2 3
 o  o r1
r2
where,
e = deformation criteria
= 00 for pure tension Workpiece Tool
= 300 for pure shear
= 600 for pure compression Schematic representation of
the translocation of circles into
ro = radius of circles marked on the workpiece ellipses during chip formation.
r1 & r2 = semi-axes of the ellipse after deformation.

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 From Equation [1] and Equation [2]
3
tan(30o − e) = ln r1r2  r 
ln 1  − − − − − [3]
tan30o r 2 r 
 o   2
Case-1: For Pure Tension [e=0]

r = ro (1 + ε) and r = ro (1 − με) - - - - - - - - - - [4]

1 2
2
r r ε  r  ε ε 2
1 = 1 + ε, 2 = 1 − and  2  = (1 − 2. − ) ≅ (1 − ε) - - - -[5]
ro r 2 r  2 4
0  0
Where,
ε = cutting strength
μ = frictional coefficient=½
since ε is very very small so neglecting ε2

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 Now, from equation [5]
2
 r  r 
 1  2 
rr 2
 r  r  = 1 2 = (1+ ε) (1− ε) ≅ 1- - - - -[6]
  
 0  0  r 2
0
From Equation [3] and Equation [6]
 2 4
rr 3 r r r 
ln( 1 2 ) ln 1 2 . 1 
0 r 2  r 6 r2 
tan(30 − e)
= 0 =  0  = 1- - - -[7]
tan300 r r 
ln( )1 ln  1
r  r 
2  2
or, tan(300 − e) = tan300
or, e = 0o for Pure Tension

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 Case-2: For Pure Shear [e=300]

r = ro (1 + ε + με) and r = ro (1- ε - με) - - - - - - - - - - [8]

1 2
r r  r  r 
1 = 1 + ε, 2 = 1 − ε and  1   2  = (1 + 3 ε) (1 + 3 ε) ≅ 1 - - - -[9]
3 3
ro 2 r0 2 r  r  2 2
 0  0
From Equation [3] and Equation [9]
 
3
r r 
ln 1 2 
r 2 3
0
tan(30 − e)
=

 0 
 = ln (1) = 0 - - - - -[10]
tan300 r  r 
ln 1  ln 1 
r  r 
 2  2
or, tan(300 − e) = 0 = tan(0)
or, e = 30o for Pure Shear
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 Case-3: For Pure Compression [e=60o]
r = ro (1+ με) and r = ro (1− ε) - - - - - - - - - - [11]
1 2
2
r r  r  2
1 = 1 + ε , 2 = 1 − ε and  1  = (1+ 2. ε + ε ) ≅ (1+ ε) - - - -[12]
ro 2 r0  r  2 4
 0
2
 r  r 
 1   2  = (1 + ε ) (1- ε ) ≅ 1- - - - - - - - - [13]
r  r 
 o  o
From Equation [3] and Equation [13]
2
 r12 r2   r2 
ln 3   
tan(30 − e)
0
 r0   r1 
= = −1 or, tan(30 0
− e) = − tan30 0
= tan( −30 0
)
tan30 0
r 
ln 1 
 r2 
or, e = 60o for Pure Compression
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