Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
B. TECH. IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Under West Bengal University of
Technology (U. Tech.)
Year : 2005-2006
Name of the Project : PWM based
Inverter fed Induction Motor
Submitted by –
Group Workers Roll No.
University Roll No.
Acknowledgement
We, the student of Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of
Technology, 81 Nilgunj Road, Kolkata – 700109, have completed our project
successfully under the guidance of Mrs. Shilpi Bhattacharya, Lecturer,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology,
Agarpara, without whose guidance, advice, interest, encouragement and also
disbursement of money for purchasing the components at proper time, our
project could not have achieved its grand success. We also express our respect
and profound sense of gratitude to Prof. Amlan Chakrabarti, Head of the
Department, Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, Agarpara
for his moral encouragement and advisement at different stages to build up our
project.
At last, we will thankful endlessly to the respective personality,
Prof. Biswarup Basak, Department of Electrical Engineering, Bengal
Engineering & Science University, Shibpur, who spent his expensive time
to illustrate how the project circuitry can be developed.
Contents
Topic Page No.
1
Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
In this technique several pulses are produced in each half – cycle but the width of the pulses
is not the same as in case of multiple – pulse width modulation, however the width of each pulse is
varied in accordance with the amplitude of the sine wave reference voltage. The width of the pulse
at the center of the half – cycle is maximum and decreases on either side. The figure 6(a) shows the
generation of the output signal by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal fr with a triangular carrier
wave of frequency fc. The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator and when
sinusoidal wave of has a higher magnitude than the triangular wave the comparator output is high,
otherwise it is low. This output of comparator is used to turn on the MOSFETs in the bridge
configuration of Figure 6(b), which generates the output voltage. The reference signal frequency fr
determines the output frequency fo of the inverter, and its peak amplitude Ar, controls the
modulation index M, and thereby the rms output voltage vo. Thus varying the amplitude of the sine
wave within the range of zero to Vp, where Vp is the peak of the triangular wave, controls the output
voltage. The number of pulses in each half – cycle depends on the carrier frequency. If the ratio of
these two signals (reference and carrier) is equal to m, then the number of pulses in each half –
cycle is (m - 1).
G1 M1 G3 M3
Load
Vs
G4 M4 G2 M2
(a) (b)
(c)
(a) Single Phase bridge inverter (b) Gate signal voltage and (c) Output Voltage
2
1. Objective :
To vary the speed of a single phase squirrel-cage induction motor by varying supple
frequency with the help of Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) based Inverter.
(Note: to change the frequency we change the resistance of controlling circuit.)
Figure 2(a) above shows a phase winding consisting of six coils divided into two groups –
a-b consisting of odd number coils (1, 3,5) connected in series and c-d consisting even numbered
coils (2,4,6)
3
connected in series. The coils can be made to carry currents in the given directions by connecting
coil groups either in series or parallel as shown in figure B and C. With this connection machine has
six poles. If the current through the coil group a-b is reversed [Fig. 3(a)], then all coils will produce
north poles. Fluxes coming out of the north poles will now find paths through Interpol spaces for
going out consequently producing south poles in Interpol spaces. The machine will now have 12
poles. Here again the direction of current through coils can be obtained by connecting two sections
a-b and c-d either in series or parallel for both pole numbers 6 and 12.
Fig. – 3 Stator phase connection for 12-poles
Further three phases of the machine can be connected to form delta or star connection by
choosing a suitable combination of series and parallel connection between coil groups of each
phase, and star and delta connection in each phase, speed change can be obtained with constant
power or variable torque operation. Connections and speed-torque curves for these operations are
shown in Figs. 4 to 6.
4
Fig. – 6 Variable torque control
4.2 Disadvantage :
The main disadvantages of PWM circuits are the added complexity and the possibility of
generating radio frequency interference (RFI). Locating the controller near the load, using short
leads, and in some cases, using additional filtering on the power supply leads, may minimize RFI.
Comparator Comparator
Logic Logic
AND AND
Logic
Inverter
B Pulse Pulse
L
O
C Opto- Opto-
K Isolator Isolator
D
I
A
G +
1 2 3 4
R Inverter
A
M
D.C. - -
Motor
11
10. Total Project Circuitry :
12
11. Project Details :
There are three parts in the total project circuitry, they are as follows –
47kOhm_5%
R1
Key = a 75%
2M_LIN
U1
4
2
6
square wave
3
R3 of
7 1 5 741
100kOhm_5% variable frequency
C1 V1
100nF 12V
R2
10kOhm_5%
V3
12V
(a)
(b)
Fig. – 7 Square Wave Generator
-V
R
C 4
R
Square wave 2
R1 741 6
of variable Sine wave
3
frequency of variable
C 7 1 5
frequency
+V
Fig. – 8 Second order Low-pass Filter
H ( s) =
vo
=
( RC ) 2
2
v 2 1 1
in s + s +
RC RC
Kω02
=
ω
s 2 + 0 s + ω02
Q
K
= 2
s 1 s
+ + 1
ω0 Q ω0
1
where K = 2, ω0 = , Q = 1.
RC
The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig. –
14
R2
R6
200kOhm_5%
C2 1kohm
100nF U1
4
200kOhm_5% 49.9kOhm_1% U3
4
2 R1
square wave (variable) R7 R5
6 2
1kohm
3 6
R3 sine wave
7 1 5 741 3
C1 100nF 49% 7 1 5 741
50kOhm
Key = c
V2
12V
V1 R4
12V
1kohm
(a)
(b)
4
r1
Actual 2
741 6
sine wave of Inverted
3
variable frequency sine wave of
7 1 5
variable frequency
+V
Fig. – 10 Inverting Amplifier
Now recall that voltage gain (Av) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
the input voltage.
Mathematically, voltage gain
output voltage vo r
Av = = =− 2
input voltage vin r1
The inverting amplifier circuit with specified components and its output is given in Fig. –
R2
1kohm
U1
4
R1
2
actual sine wave 1kohm
6
inverted sine wave
3
V1 7 1 5 741
12V
V2
12V
(a)
16
(b)
(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform (inverted sine wave)
After adjusting the level of two sine waves by the POT 50 kΩ, the obtained output is as
below –
Fig. – 12 Two variable Sine Waves (actual and inverted) in a same oscilloscope
Thereafter another square wave of fixed frequency (about 5 kHz) is generated. The
necessary circuit arrangement and its output are given below –
17
R3
10kOhm_5%
U1
4
2
6
high frequency
3
R1 square wave
7 1 5
741 100kOhm_5%
V1
C1
10nF 12V
R2
10kOhm_5%
V2
12V
(a)
(b)
Integrating this high frequency square wave, the triangular wave (also called carrier signal)
is generated. The description of integrator circuit with an OP-AMP is as follows –
Integrator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform. The
RC circuit itself acts as a simple integrator. But the problem with such a simple circuit is that the
output voltage is not a linear triangular output as it should be. The function of the OP-AMP is to
linearize the output. It may be noted from the diagram that the inverting input to the OP-AMP is
held at virtual ground by the differential amplifier in the OP-AMP input circuit.
18
R2
-V
C
4
Square wave of R1 2
741 6
high frequency Triangular wave
3
of high frequency
7 1 5
+V
Fig. – 14 Integrator
The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig. –
R2
15kOhm_5%
C1 U1
4
R1 100nF
1kohm
2
square wave
6
(high frequency) triangular wave
3
V1 (carrier signal)
12V 7 1 5 741
V2
12V
(a)
(b)
4
R
sine wave
2
741 6
Output after
triangular wave 3
R comparison
7 1 5
+V
Fig. – 16 Comparator
2
actual sine wave 1kohm
6
R3 output of comparator I
3
1kohm
7 1 5
741
triangular wave
4 U2
R2
2
inverted sine wave 1kohm
6
R4 output of comparator II
3
1kohm
7 1 5
741
V1
12V
V2
12V
(a)
20
(b)
(c)
At last the output of the first comparator is ANDed with the square wave of variable
frequency by using chip 7408 and the output of the second comparator is ANDed with the inverted
square wave of variable frequency (inverted by using logic inverter 7404) to generate the triggering
pulse for triggering the POWER MOSFETs. The simulation circuit of ANDing and its outputs are
given in the figure below –
21
square wave
(variable frequency)
U1A
1
3
2
output pulse
comparator 74LS08N
output I
1
U2A
74LS04N
2
U1B
comparator
4
output II 5
6
output pulse
74LS08N
(a)
(b)
Fig. – 18 ANDing the output of Comparator – I and II with Variable Square Wave
The pulses are isolated trough four opto-couplers, so that each POWER MOSFET of the
inverter bridge is being triggered separately. The opto-couplers connections and the outputs of four
opto couplers, i.e., individual triggering pulses for each MOEFET are shown in Figs. below –
22
U4
output of V1 To MOSFET M1
AND (7408) 12V
pin no - 3
R4
1.0kOhm_5%
U1
V2 To MOSFET M2
12V
R3
1.0kOhm_5%
U2
To MOSFET M3
output of
V3
AND (7408) 12V
pin no - 6
R2
1.0kOhm_5%
U3
To MOSFET M4
V4
12V
R1
1.0kOhm_5%
(a)
(b)
23
(c)
(d)
(e)
25
lower part of the sinusoidal supply appears across the load. The Inverter circuit and its output is
given in the following Figs. –
triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 3 M1
M3
output (phase)
neutral
triggering pulse
270V R1 L1
from opto-coupler 1
1.0uH
1.0kOhm_5%
triggering pulse C1 C2
M4 2.0nF 2.0nF
from opto-coupler 4 M2
triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 2
(a)
(b)
(a) Inverter Bridge and (b) Output of the Inverter, fed to the motor
Now we get the desired A.C. supply for motor. Here every MOSFET is become ON when the
amplitude of the gate pulse is 3.8V ≅ 4V.
26
1
Power = hp;
12
Current = 0.85 A;
Voltage = 230 V;
Speed = 6500 r.p.m.;
Power factor = 0.8
(a)
(b)
(a) The Single Phase Induction Motor and (b) Rating of the Motor
As we know that in single phase the alternating phases are absent due
to which the rotating flux is not generated; so rotation of the rotor is not
possible.
For that reason permanent split capacitor is used to generate two
balanced phases, due to which a rotating flux generated. There are several
types of single-phase motors in market but permanent capacitor type motors
are used because here two balanced phases generate rotating flux for which
the backward rotating flux is absent.
Due to which motor become more efficient and operated in better
power factor. This type of load is used in ceiling fans and table fans now a
day.
In our project, the two phases coming from Inverter Bridge is fed to
the load where any one phase is earthed; so that it acts as neutral in single-
phase supply. By this supply starting torque is generated and the motor starts
to rotate.
27
12. Test Tools :
16. Inference :
DATASHEET OF OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) LM741
Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 2) August 2000
If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required,
please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
(Note 7)
LM741
LM741A LM741 LM741C
Operational Amplifier
Supply Voltage ± 22V ± 22V ± 18V
General Description Power Dissipation (Note 3) output,
500 mW no latch-up 500whenmW
ceeded, as well as freedom
the common mode range is ex-
500 mW
from oscillations.
The LM741 series Differential Input Voltage
are general purpose operational ± 30V ± 30V ± 30V
The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A except that
amplifi- ers which feature
Input (Note 4) performance over ± 15V
Voltageimproved ± 15V ± 15V
the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0˚C to
industry stan- dards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in
Output Short Circuit Duration Continuous
+70˚C temperatureContinuous
range, instead of −55˚C Continuous
to +125˚C.
replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in
most applications. Operating Temperature Range −55˚C to +125˚C −55˚C to +125˚C 0˚C to +70˚C
Storage
The amplifiers offer manyTemperature Range
features which −65˚C to +150˚C
make their appli- Features −65˚C to +150˚C −65˚C to +150˚C
cation nearly foolproof: overload
Junction protection on the input and
Temperature 150˚C 150˚C 100˚C
Soldering Information
Connection N-Package
Diagrams (10 seconds) 260˚C 260˚C 260˚C
J- or H-Package (10 seconds) 300˚C 300˚C 300˚C
Metal Can Package Dual-In-Line or S.O. Package
M-Package
Vapor Phase (60 seconds) 215˚C 215˚C 215˚C
Infrared (15 seconds) 215˚C 215˚C 215˚C
See AN-450 “Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability” for other methods of
soldering
surface mount devices.
ESD Tolerance (Note 8) 400V 400V 400V
00934103
Electrical Characteristics
Note 1: LM741H is available per JM38510/10101
00934102
(Note 5) Order Number LM741J, LM741J/883, LM741CN
Order Number LM741H, LM741H/883 (Note 1), See NS Package Number J08A, M08A or N08E
Parameter Conditions LM741A LM741 LM741C Units
LM741AH/883 or LM741CH
Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max
See NS Package Number H08C
Input Offset Voltage TA = 25˚C
Ceramic Flatpak
RS ≤ 10 kΩ 1.0 5.0 2.0 6.0 mV
RS ≤ 50Ω 0.8 3.0 mV
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX
RS ≤ 50Ω 4.0 mV
RS ≤ 10 kΩ 6.0 7.5 mV
00934106
Average Input Offset 15 µV/˚C
Order Number LM741W/883
Voltage Drift
See NS Package Number W10A
Input Offset Voltage TA = 25˚C, VS = ± 20V ± 10 ± 15 ± 15 mV
Adjustment Range
Typical Application
Input Offset Current TA = 25˚C 3.0 30 20 200 20 200 nA
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX
Offset Nulling Circuit 70 85 500 300 nA
Average Input Offset 0.5 nA/˚C
Current Drift
Input Bias Current TA = 25˚C 30 80 80 500 80 500 nA
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX 0.210 1.5 0.8 µA
Input Resistance TA = 25˚C, VS = ± 20V 1.0 6.0 0.3 2.0 0.3 2.0 MΩ
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX, 0.5 MΩ
VS = ± 20V
00934107
Input Voltage Range TA = 25˚C ± 12 ± 13 V
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX ± 12 ± 13 V
© 2004
www.national.com
National Semiconductor Corporation DS009341 2 www.national.com
Electrical Characteristics (Note 5) (Continued)
Note 2: “Absolute Maximum Ratings” indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is
functional, but do not guarantee specific performance limits.
3 www.national.com
Electrical Characteristics (Note 5) (Continued)
Note 3: For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and Tj max. (listed under “Absolute Maximum
Ratings”). Tj = TA + (θjA PD).
Thermal Resistance Cerdip (J) DIP (N) HO8 (H) SO-8 (M)
θjA (Junction to Ambient) 100˚C/W 100˚C/W 170˚C/W 195˚C/W
θjC (Junction to Case) N/A N/A 25˚C/W N/A
Note 4: For supply voltages less than ± 15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
Note 5: Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for VS = ± 15V, −55˚C ≤ TA ≤ +125˚C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E, these
specifications are limited to 0˚C ≤ TA ≤ +70˚C.
Note 6: Calculated value from: BW (MHz) = 0.35/Rise Time(µs).
Note 7: For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A.
Note 8: Human body model, 1.5 kΩ in series with 100 pF.
Schematic Diagram
00934101
www.national.com 4
DATASHEET OF LOGIC INVERTER
SN7405
November 1988
Revised February 2005
74AC08 • 74ACT08
Quad 2-Input AND Gate
General Description Features
The AC/ACT08 contains four, 2-input AND gates. ICC reduced by 50% on 74AC only
Outputs source/sink 24 mA
Pin Descriptions
Pin Names Description
An , Bn Inputs
On Outputs
www.fairchildsemi.com 2
DC Electrical Characteristics for ACT
VCC TA 25qC TA 40qC to 85qC
Symbol Parameter Units Conditions
(V) Typ Guaranteed Limits
VIH Minimum HIGH Level 4.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 VOUT 0.1V
V
Input Voltage 5.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 or VCC 0.1V
VIL Maximum LOW Level 4.5 1.5 0.8 0.8 VOUT 0.1V
V
Input Voltage 5.5 1.5 0.8 0.8 or VCC 0.1V
VOH Minimum HIGH Level 4.5 4.49 4.4 4.4
V IOUT 50 PA
Output Voltage 5.5 5.49 5.4 5.4
VIN VIL or VIH
4.5 3.86 3.76 IOH 24 mA
5.5 4.86 4.76 V IOH 24 mA (Note 6)
VOL Maximum LOW Level 4.5 0.001 0.1 0.1
V IOUT 50 PA
Output Voltage 5.5 0.001 0.1 0.1
VIN VIL or VIH
4.5 0.36 0.44 IOL 24 mA
5.5 0.36 0.44 V IOL 24 mA (Note 6)
IIN Maximum Input Leakage Current 5.5 r0.1 r1.0 PA VI VCC, GND
ICCT Maximum ICC/Input 5.5 0.6 1.5 mA VI VCC 2.1V
IOLD Minimum Dynamic Output Current 5.5 75 mA VOLD 1.65V Max
IOHD (Note 7) 5.5 75 mA VOHD 3.85V Min
ICC Maximum Quiescent VIN VCC
5.5 4.0 40.0 PA
Supply Current or GND
Note 6: All outputs loaded; thresholds on input associated with output under test.
Note 7: Maximum test duration 2.0 ms, one output loaded at a time.
Capacitance
Symbol Parameter Typ Units Conditions
CIN Input Capacitance 4.5 pF VCC OPEN
CPD Power Dissipation Capacitance 20.0 pF VCC 5.0V
3 www.fairchildsemi.com
DATASHEET OF OPTOCOUPLER
MCT2E
DATASHEET OF POWER MOSFET
IRF720
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alok Jain – “Power Electronics and Its Applications”, Second
Edition, Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd.