Presented by:-

introduction
 TRUSS:-A TRUSS CONSIST OF AN ASSEMBLY OF RIGID BUT
ELASTIC MEMBERS JOINTED IN THE FORM OF TRIANGLES
TO ACT AS A BEAM.
 THE SAFE WORKING TENSILE STRESS OF MILD STEEL IS
ABOUT 20 TIMES THAT OF STRUCTRURAL TIMBER. THUS
STEEL TRUSSES WORK OUT TO BE ECONOMICAL,
SPECIALY FOR BIGGER SPAN.
 STEEL TRUSSES ARE FABRICATED FROM ROLLED STEEL
STRUCTRURAL MEMBERS SUCH AS CHANNELS, ANGLES,
T- SECTIONS AND PLATES.
 OUT OF THE VARIOUS SHAPES OF STEEL SECTIONS,
ANGLES ARE CONSIDERED MOST SUITABLE FOR STEEL
ROOF TRUSS. THIS IS ON ACCOUNT OF THE FACT THAT
ANGLES CAN RESIST BOTH COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE
STRESSES EFFECTIVELY. IN ADDITION ANGLES CAN BE
PRODUCED ECONOMICALLY AND CAN BE JOINTED
EASILY.
 THE ARRANGEMENT AND SIZES OF VARIOUS MEMBERS OF
A STEEL TRUSS DEPEND ON THE SPAN, LOADING AND
WIND PRESSURE.
Connections in trusses
• Various forms of truss or lattice girder may be defined depending on the
span and load configuration.
• Lattice girders have parallel top and bottom chords and are used as
beams, whereas trusses may have inclined top chords for use in roofs.
• In both cases, the connections between the members may be bolted or
welded. Welded connections are often preferred in tubular construction, or
where the cumulative effect of bolt slip is critical to the design of the truss.
These splices should be located and detailed carefully if they are
architecturally important.
Trusses comprising angle sections
Traditionally, roof trusses used angles, with bolted and gusseted
connections ( Figure a).The projection lines of the bolt setting-out lines are
detailed in such a way that eccentricities in the forces transmitted by the
bolt groups are minimised.

(a)Typical bracing-chord bolted connection using angle chords

(
 In welded connections, the depth of the T-section is chosen so that
the centroidal axis of the sections can be arranged to eliminate eccentricity
(Figure c). Top and bottom chords are usually continuous, except at
changes in direction or where splices are necessary for erection purposes.
Detail were prin
 •Steelwork possesses various advantages for architectural expression, as
follows:

•External structures clearly express their function.

•Slender members can be designed efficiently, particularly using tubular
sections.
•'Lightness' can be accentuated by openings in beams and by latticework in
the form of trusses.
•Curved members, such as arches, can be formed easily.
•Tension structures are efficient and lightweight particularly for long-span
enclosures.
•Connections can be designed expressively.
•The fire resistance of exposed steelwork can be enhanced by the use of
intumescing coatings, or by concrete or water filling (of tubular sections).
•Colures and finishes of painted steelwork can be used to great effect.
•In architecture, the decision to express or conceal the structural frame,
either externally or internally, is usually decided by aesthetic preference
coupled with technical and functional issues. The desire to express the
structure of the building is an association extending from the use of iron and
early steel :n the last century.
THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF STRUCTURAL FRAME ARE :

STRENGTH AND STABILITY:

 THE STRENGTH OF A STRUCTURAL FRAME DEPENDS ON THE STRENGTH OF THE MATERIAL USED IN THE
FABRICATION OF THE MEMBERS OF THE FRAME AND THE STABILITY OF THE FRAME OR FRAMES OR THE WAY IN
WHICH THE MEMBERS OF FRAME ARE CONNECTED, AND ON BRACING ACROSS AND BETWEEN FRAMES.
 STEEL IS THE MATERIAL THAT IS MOST USED IN FRAMED STRUCTURE BECAUSE OF ITS GOOD COMPRESSIVE AND
TENSILE STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO.
 THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF HOT ROLLING STEEL AND COLD FORMING STEEL STRIP PRODUCES A WIDE RANGE OF
SECTIONS SUITED TO THE FABRICATION OF ECONOMICAL STRUCTURAL FRAMES.

DURABILITY AND FREEDOM FROM MAINTENANCE:

 ON EXPOSURE TO AIR AND MOISTURE, UNPROTECTED STEEL CORRODES TO FORM AN OXIDE COATING, i.e. RUST,
WHICH IS PERMEABLE TO MOISTURE AND THUS ENCOURAGES PROGRESSIVE CORROSION WHICH MAY IN TIME
ADVERSELY AFFECT THE SRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS.
 TO INHIBIT RUST, STEEL IS EITHER PAINTED OR COATED WITH ZINC. PAINTED SURFACES REQUIRE PERIODIC
REPAINTING. ZINC COATINGS THAT ARE PERFORATED BY CUTTING AND DRILLING WILL NOT PROTECT THE EXPOSED
STEEL BELOW WHICH WILL CORRODE PROGRESSIVELY.
 FIRE SAFETY:
• THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FIRE RESISTANCE OF STRUCTURE DO NOT
APPLY TO ROOF STRUCTURES UNLESS THE ROOF IS USED AS A FLOOR,
NOR TO SINGLE-STOREY STRUCTURES SUPPORTING A ROOF EXCEPT
WHERE A WALL IS CLOSED TO A BOUNDARY AND IS REQUIRED TO
HAVE RESISTANCE TO THE SPREAD OF FIRE BETWEEN ADJACENT
BUILDINGS HAVING REGARD TO THE HEIGHT, USE AND POSITION OF
THE BUILDING.
 THE FOLLOWING POINTS REGARDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
STEEL ROOF TRUSSES SHOULD BE NOTED:

 STEEL ROOF TRUSSES SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN SUCH A WAY THAT ALL THE MEMBERS OF A TRUSS ARE EITHER IN
COMPRESSION OR IN TENSION AND DO NOT HAVE ANY BENDING STRESS IN THEM. THE TRANSVERSE STRESSES ARE
UNAVOIDABLE, SUCH AS IN A TIE-BEAM WITH THE CEILING ATTACHEDTO ITS UNDERSIDE, OR PRINCIPAL RAFTER
CARRYING A PURLIN, ETC.

 THE COMPRESSION MEMBERS SUCH AS STRUTS SHOULD BE AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE TO AVOID BUCKLING AND THE
PRINCIPAL RAFTERS SUBJECTED TO TRANSVERSE STRESSES SHOULD NOT BE LONGER THAN 3 METRES MAXIMUM.
THE TENSION MEMBERS SHOULD BE BRACED TOGETHER.

 T-SECTIONS ARE BEST SUITED FOR USE AS PRINCIPAL RAFTERS, WHEREAS ANGLE IRONS OR CHANNEL SECTIONS
ARE USED AS STRUTS. THE TENSION MEMBERS SHOULD PREFERABLY BE OF A ROUND OR A FLAT SECTION. THE
VARIOUS MEMBERS MAY BE BUILT OF TWO OR MORE SECTIONS, e.g., A PRINCIPAL RAFTER MAY BE MADE OF TWO
ANGLES PLACED SIDE BY SIDE. IN AN IDEAL DESIGN ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE STRUCTURE SHOULD FAIL
SIMULTANEOUSLY. IN PRACTICE, ANGLES LESS THAN 50 x 50 x 6 mm ARE NOT USED.

 LARGER TRUSSES ARE USUALLY FABRICATED AND ASSEMBLED TOGETHER AT THE JOB SITE OWING TO THE
DIFFICULTY OF TRANSPORTATION. TRUSSES ARE ERECTED BY A CRANK GANTRY AND CONNECTED TO THE
BUILDING BY MEANS OF RAG BOLTS. ALL THE MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES MUST BE PAINTED AT INTERVALS
• TOTHE
ALL PREVENT CORROSION.
MEMBERS OF THE TRUSS SHOULD BE ARRANGED TO FORM TRIANGLES SO THAT THE TRUSS WILL NOT DEFORM TO A
GREATER EXTENT. REACTIONS AT THE ENDS OF TRUSSES ARE VERTICAL FOR FREE ENDS AND INCLINED FOR FIXED ENDS.

• THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE STEEL ROOF TRUSSES SHOULD NOT EXCEED 3 METRES. THIS DISTANCE OR SPACING IS MORE
FOR LIGHT ROOFS.

• THE JOINTS OR CONNECTIONS OF MEMBERS TO EACH OTHER ARE CALLED NODES OR PANEL POINTS AND ARE MADE BY
MEANS OF THIN FLAT PLATES CALLED GUSSET PLATES OR GUSSETS TO WHICH THE ENDS OF MEMBERS ARE RIVETED OR
BOLTED. THE PANEL POINTS OR NODES ON RAFTERS ARE USUALLY SPACED AT ABOUT 2 m CENTRES FOR AVERAGE CASES BUT
IN NO CASE MORE THAN 3 METRES.
  IN RIVETING, THE PITCH OF THE RIVETS SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 3 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF
THE RIVETS. THE MAXIMUM PITCH IS 15 cm FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS AND 20 cm FOR TENSION
MEMBERS. A MINIMUM DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE OF THE RIVET TO THE EDGE OF THE MEMBER
MUST NOT BE LESS THAN 25 mm FOR 15 mm DIA. RIVETS. GENERALLY 15 mm DIA. RIVETS ARE USED
FOR SMALLER SPANS AND 20 mm RIVETS ARE USED FOR BIGGER SPANS. MINIMUM TWO RIVETS
SHOULD BE USED FOR ALL CONNECTIONS.
 THOUGH THE THICKNESS OF GUSSET PLATES DEPENDS UPON THE BEARING VALUE OF THE RIVETS
EMPLOYED, THICKNESS OF 6 mm AND 10 mm ARE PROVIDED FOR SMALL AND LARGE ROOF TRUSSES,
RESPECTIVELY.

• IN LARGER SPANS, A CAMBER IS VERY OFTEN INTRODUCED TO REDUCE THE

EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF THE STRUTS. BOW-STRING TRUSS AND ARCHED
TRUSS ARE USED UNDER SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OR FOR SPECIAL
PURPOSES. BOW STRING TYPE TRUSSES ARE USED FOR VERY LARGE SPANS.
ARCHED TRUSS IS USED FOR SPANS UP TO 20 METRES ONLY WHERE IT IS TO
BE ERECTED ON STEEL STANCHIONS FOR GREATER HEIGHTS.

• FOR LONG SPAN TRUSSES , ONE END SHOULD BE FIXED, AND THE OTHER END
IS MOUNTED ON STEEL ROLLERS FOR A
FREE LATERAL MOVEMENT FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES.
• FOR A SERIES OF TRUSSES, WIND TIE AND DIAGONAL BRACES BETWEEN THE
TWO END TRUSSES SHOULD BE PROVIDED ON
EITHER SIDE TO PREVENT THE GENERAL DISTORTION OF THE ROOF DUE TO
WIND ACTION.
Column bases
Column bases can be designed as nominally pinned (simple) or
moment resisting (rigid). Nominally pinned bases are only required to
transmit axial and shear forces into the foundation, and are provided in
braced structures and in portal frames. They are generally preferred to
moment-resisting base connections for reasons of cost and practicality.
Uplift due to internal wind pressure and external wind suction may have to
be considered in single-storey structures, which leads to a minimum size of
foundation for a given building size.
Moment-resisting bases may be required in rigid-frame structures in
order to reduce the effects of sway and deflections. These bases and their
foundations are considerably larger than for nominally pinned column bases.
Holding down (HD) systems are designed to satisfy the following
requirements:
1,In service, they must transmit shear from the column to the foundation; if
HD bolts are
fitted using oversize holes in the base-plate, then shear must be resisted
by other means.
2,During erection, they must be capable of stabilising the column and other
structural
elements. Thus, four bolts are provided, even in a nominally pinned
connection.
3,They must resist uplift, depending on the design condition.
The base plate should be of sufficient size, stiffness and strength to
transmit the compressive force and bending moment from the column to the
 Generally, the thickness of the base plate is chosen so that it does
not require additional stiffening. However, there may be architectural 2e;i
in using shaped stiffeners in exposed applications.
To allow for tolerances in the concrete foundation, the top surface
of the concrete is designed to be 30 to 50 mm below the bottom of base
plate. The column is temporarily supported on steel packs and wedges
which permit vertical adjustment of the column. High-
Strength grout is then injected under the plate, and the wedges
areremoved when the grout has gained sufficient strength. Where column
bases are required to be concealed, an allowance for this gap and for the
end-plate and the projecting bolts must be made when determining the
covering to this detail (typically 100 to 120 mm should be allowed). This
may increase to 300 or 450 mm where rainwater downpipes are also
located in the column zone.
 Lattice girders comprising heavier sections
Long-span lattice girders often comprise UC sections or tubular
sections rather than angles in order to increase their compression
resistance. Heavy members may be required in special applications, such
as transfer structures between floors which support point loads from
columns above. [n some cases, they are designed as storey-high
assemblies. Deflection control is particularly important in long-span
applications, and welded or friction grip bolted connections may be
preferredand
Bracing to avoid the cumulative effects of bolt slip.
tie-members
Vertical and horizontal bracing members resist wind and other
horizontal loads applied to the building or structure, and transfer the loads
'0 the foundations or other stabilising elements, e.g. concrete cores. In
general, there are five forms of bracing and tie-members that may bj
considered: angles, flats, cables, rods and tubes. Some of them are only
suitable for resisting tension, which dictates the form of construction in
which they can be used.

Gusset plate
(6No. bolts)

Bracing connection to beam Bracing X-Bracing (back to back or single

connection to angle)
either beam or
 The simplest form of bracing member is the steel angle, either
placed singly or in pairs back to back. Single angles are less efficient in
compression than double angles. Various forms of bracing assemblies may
be used, such as X- and K-bracing, in which the members may be designed
to resist tension or compression.Typical bracing connections using angle
sections are shown in Figure above. Angles designed for tension only will be
more slender than those designed to resist both tension and compression.
Tubular connections are often preferred for bracing connections bec.mse of
their good compression resistance
alternately in tension and compression. In lightweight buildings,
wind uplift can be significant and 'may cause reversal of the forces
acting on the truss.

Fink, Howe and French trusses

These particular shapes of pitched truss form the shape of the
finished roof. The apex and eaves joints between the chords are
pinned. They are often used in housing and modest span roof
trusses, and generally comprise Tees and angle members.

Vierendeel girder
This is a different form of structure in which the diagonal bracing
members are eliminated, and the connections between the
horizontal and vertical meJTlbers are made momentresisting.
Vierendeel trusses are expensive in the use of steel and in
fabrication, and are only appropriate for use in special
circumstances, such as when the size of the openings is
maximised to permit the passage of services. However, it is
possible to design one Vierendeel panel in the centre of an
otherwise standard Warren or Pratt girder, especially if the girder
achieves composite action with a floor slab.

Bowstring truss
One chord of a bowstring truss is curved in elevation and is tied
between its supports. Light trusses of this form may also be
Warren or Pratt Lattice Girders
Lattice girders have broadly parallel top and bottom chords in
which the bracing (diagonal) members are arranged in a W or N
form, respectively. In a Pratt girder (N form), the orientation of
the bracing members normally changes at mid-span. The top
chord is generally designed to be restrained against out-of-plane
buckling by the regular attachment of roof purlins or of the floor
slab.

A stricking example of a structure formed from. what is

essentially a circular three-dimensional Warren girder is the
London Eye, designed by Marks Barfield Architects.
Pratt girders are a traditional form of construction often using
angle and T-sections. The.' are efficient at supporting vertical
loads because all the corlpression members are short (Le. the
vertical members) and the longer diagonal members are. in
tension.
Warren girders (W form) are often fabricated from tubular
sections as they are efficient as bracing members which act

(a) RHS or SHS (b) 'T' Secli~n (c) ue

Scissor truss
The scissor truss is a variant of a standard truss form and offers
architectural possibilities and greater headroom, but is structurally less
efficient because of its shallower depth.

North light roof truss

North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial
workshop-type buildings. They allow maximum benefit to be gained from
natural lighting by the use of glazing on the steeper pitch which generally
faces north or north-east to reduce the solar gain.

Developments of rooff[lrm
Most of the above lattice girders and trusses can be further developed into
more interesting structural and architectural forms. Some possibilities,
induding curved and mansard roofs, are illustrated in Figure below.

Curved 3-dimensional Warren girder (spans> 20 m) Tied rafter

truss (spans < 15 m)
Advantages of steel construction

•The modular nature of its fabrication (a 'kit of parts'), which can be delivered
'just in time' site when required.
•The potential for rapidere~tion of the framework on site, which also reduces
local disruption, noise and site storage.
•It is prefabricated to a high degree of accuracy.
•Long spans can be achieved economically by a variety of structural systems in
steel and composite construction, permitting greater usable space.
•Steel or composite frames are lighter than concrete frames of the same span,
thus reducing foundation costs.
•Steelwork permits adaptation in the future, and components can be re-used by
unbolting.
•Composite steel-concrete floors can contribute to a thermally efficient building.
•A high proportion of steel production is recycled from scrap, and all steel is
recyclable.
advantages

•100% non-combustible
•Long clear-span capabilities
•Limitless roof and ceiling profiles--just like
wood trusses
•Lightweight
•Pre-engineered and pre-fabricated by truss
professionals
•Reduce or eliminate attic sprinkling
systems
•Compatible with almost any decking/roofing
system
•Relieves design firms of costly, time
consuming roof design work--frees them up
for more productive endeavors
 STEEL PORTAL FRAMES

 RIGID PORTAL FRAMES ARE AN ECONOMIC ALTERNATIVE TO LATTICE TRUSS AND LATTICE BEAM ROOFS.
 TO BE EFFECTIVE A PITCHED ROOF PORTAL FRAME SHOULD HAVE AS LOW A PITCH AS PRACTICAL TO
MINIMISE SPREAD AT THE KNEE OF THE PORTAL FRAME (SPREAD INCREASES WITH THE PITCH OF THE
RAFTERS OF A PORTAL FRAME).
 THE COMBINATION OF LOW PITCH STEEL PORTAL FRAMES AND PROFILED STEEL ROOF SHEETING AND
DECKING HAS LED TO THE ADOPTION OF THIS FORM OF STRUCTURE, PARTICULARLY FOR SINGLE- BAY
STOREY BUILDINGS.
 A PORTAL FRAME IS DISTINGUISHED BY THE RIGID CONNECTION OF THE RAFTERS TO THE POSTS OF THE
FRAME SO THAT UNDER LOAD MOMENTS ARE DISTRIBUTED THROUGH THE RAFTER AND THE POST.
 PORTAL FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF UPTO15 m ARE DEFINED AS SHORT SPAN, FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF 16 m
TO 35 m AS MEDIUM SPAN AND FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF 36 m TO 60 m AS LONG SPAN.
• LONG- SPAN PORTAL FRAMES MAY HAVE A PIN JOINTED TO FOUNDATION
BASESTO ALLOW FLEXURE OF POSTS DUE TO SPREAD AT THE KNEES
UNDER LOAD.
• LONG-SPANSTEEL PORTAL FRAMES ARE USUALLY SPACED AT FROM 8.0
TO 12.0 APART TO ECONOMISE IN THE NUMBER OF COMPARATIVELY
EXPENSIVE FRAMES, WITH CHANNEL, I-SECTION OR LATTICE PURLINS
AND SHEETING RAILS TO SUPPORT ROOF SHEETING OR DECKING AND
WALLING.
• BECAUSE OF THE VERY CONSIDERABLE SPANS PRACTICAL WITH STEEL
PORTAL FRAMES THERE IS LITTLE IF ANY ADVANTAGE IN THE USE OF
MULTI-BAY STEEL PORTAL SYSTEMS.
Cantilevered truss
North light truss and lattice girder roof
 SPAN – 8 Mts

SPAN – 12 Mts
HOWE TRUSS &VALLEN TRUSS WITH VERTICALS
DETAILS
COLOUM AND SUPPORTING LADDER STANCHEON

TROLLEY
MOVING ON
CHANNELS
PROVIDED ON
BOTH SIDE OF
THE TRUSS

DETAIL OF THE CHANNELS

GIDC, MAKARPURA, VADODARA
SPAN - 18Mts

DETAILS OF THE
ROOF TRUSS
DETAIL AT THE JUNCTION OF STANCHEON
HORIZONTAL MEMBER AND A
COLUMN
DETAILS AT THE
HORIZONTAL
SUPPORTS
Truss at a commercial complex