In partial fulfillment of project in Biology By VIKAS OJHA... (XII A)..

Laboratory certificate
This is to certify that the project work titled Is a bonafide record done by: VIKAS OJHA Reg. No. In partial fulfillment of the project in Biology during the year 2011-2012.

Mrs. Anitha Sharma BIOLOGY K.V A.F.S THANE(W) PRINCIPAL

Certified that the candidate was examined by us in the project work/viva voce examination held at the school on.

Internal examiner

External examiner

INTRODUCTION by Jeffrey E Barlough,D.V.M., PhD., Margaret Barr,D.V.M., PhD., Fred W Scott,D.V.M., PhD., and James R Richards,D.V.M. Cornell Feline Health Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University

A virus, in the words of one eminent scientist, can be thought of as "a piece of bad news wrapped in protein." Unlike bacteria and fungi, viruses are not living organisms; rather, they consist in essence of a length of nucleic acid-their genetic material-that is surrounded and protected by a protein coat. (Some viruses have, in addition to this coat, a soft outer envelope, which confers some special properties.) The genetic material of viruses is composed of one type of nucleic acid, which may be either ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Viruses carry out no independent metabolism: they do not respirate, they do not process nutrients, they do not generate waste products, and they rely on living cells of the host for their reproduction. A virus outside a cell is an inert bit of particulate matter; once inside, however, the virus seizes command of the cell's biosynthetic machinery, converting the cell into a "high-tech" factory for the production of new virus particles. Many viruses eventually kill their host cells, resulting in disease and provoking an assault by the immune response of the host. Sometimes, this response goes away, so that the harmful effects of the immune response are actually more serious than those of the viral disease itself Other viruses provoke little, if any, reaction, and some can remain dormant, or latent, in the host for years. The vast majority of all virus infections appear to be asymptomatic in nature that is, the infections are so mild and the host response so effective that clinical signs of disease never develop.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Many people have taken great pains to make this project a reality. First of all I convey my deep thanks to Mrs.Anitha Sharma, Dept. of Biology without whose guidance this project would have become nothing. Also I am deeply indebted to Mrs. Umesh Srivastava , Dept. Of Science ,who too was instrumental in collecting the data required for this project. Last but not the least I deeply acknowledge the help given to me by my classmates whose valuable tips and suggestions helped me bring about such a project. I am deeply indebted to them for also helping me collect the relevant information from many sources and also providing many diagrams required to emphasise my project.

VIRUS An Introduction : A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants tobacteria and archaea. Virus particles (known as virions) consist of two or three parts: the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that protects these genes; and in some cases an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell. The shapes of viruses range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. The average virus is about one one-hundredth the size of the average bacterium. Most viruses are too small to be seen directly with a light microscope. Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on the sap of plants, such as aphids; viruses inanimals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecaloral route and are passed from person to person by contact, entering the body in food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The range of host cells that a virus can infect is called its "host range". This can be narrow or, as when a virus is capable of infecting many species, broad. Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been developed.

Viral Infections
Viruses are microscopic pathogens, just a fraction of the size of a bacterium, that consist simply of genetic material (DNA or RNA) and a container. Because they cannot replicate on their own, viruses invade host cells, commandeering the machinery needed for normal cell function. A large number of zoonotic illnesses (diseases that pass from animals to humans) are caused by viruses, including rabies, ebola, and recently emerging diseases such as avian influenza and the H1N1 swine flu. Illness from viral infections can be prevented with vaccines, which prime the immune system to attack and clear invading pathogens; however, many viruses mutate rapidly, resulting in new strains that the immune system no longer recognizes. Viruses also have the ability to remain dormant within a host cell. During these times, the immune system is unable to recognize and destroy the invading pathogen.
Structural characteristics -

Basic structural characteristics, such as genome type, virion shape and replication site, generally share the same features among virus species within the same family. There are currently 21 families of viruses known to cause disease in humans. There are five double stranded DNA families: three are non enveloped (Adenoviruses, Parvovirus and Polyomavirus) and two are enveloped (Herpesvirus and Poxvirus). There is one family of single stranded DNA viruses that infect humans: the Parvoviridae. There are two additional viruses (Hepatitis D and Hepatitis E) which have not yet been assigned to a family but are clearly distinct from the other families infecting humans.

VIRAL DISEASES
Viral diseases are extremely widespread infections caused by viruses, a type of microorganism. There are many types of viruses that cause a wide variety of viral diseases. The most common type of viral disease is the common cold, which is caused by a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat). Other common viral diseases include: Chickenpox Flu (influenza) Herpes Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/AIDS) Human papillomavirus (HPV) Infectious mononucleosis Mumps, measles and rubella Shingles Viral gastroenteritis (stomach flu) Viral hepatitis Viral meningitis Viral pneumonia

y y y y y y y y y y y y

ABOUT THESE DISEASES : Viral diseases are contagious and spread from person to person when a virus enters the body and begins to multiply. Common ways that viruses spread from person to person include: Breathing in air-borne droplets contaminated with a virus. Eating food or drinking water contaminated with a virus. Having sexual contact with a person who is infected with a sexually transmitted virus. Indirect transmission from person to person by a virus host, such as a mosquito, tick, or field mouse. Touching surfaces or body fluids contaminated with a virus. In some cases, viral diseases can lead to serious, possibly lifethreatening complications, such as dehydration, bacterial pneumonia, and other secondary bacterial infections. People at risk for complications include those who have a chronic disease or a suppressed or compromised immune system, and the very young and very old. In addition, certain types of sexually transmitted viral infections, such as HIV/AIDS and HPV, can lead to serious complications and death. Seek prompt medical care if you think you have a viral disease, especially if you are at risk for complications, or if you believe you have been exposed to a sexually transmitted disease. y Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have serious symptoms of an illness or a viral disease, such as shortness of breath, chest pain, passing out (fainting), or a change in alertness or consciousness.

y y y

Clinical characteristics
The clinical characteristics of viruses may differ substantially among species within the same family:
Typ e Family Transmiss ion Diseases Treatment

droplet contact (mainly) fecal-oral venereal direct contact (ocular infections )

  

acute febrile pharyngitis pharyngoconjunctival fever epidemic keratoconjunctivitis infantile gastroenteritis None

adenovirus

adenoviridae

 

fecal-oral, Coxsackievi Picornaviridae droplet rus contact EpsteinBarr virus Herpesviridae Saliva

Coxsackie infections

None

 

infectious mononucleosis Burkitt lymphoma

None Immunoglobulin( post-exposure prophylaxis)

Hepatitis A Picornaviridae fecal-oral virus

acute hepatitis

All body fluids(blo  Hepatitis B Hepadnavirida virus e od, semen,

 

acute hepatitis chronic hepatitis hepatic cirrhosis hepatocellular carcinoma

saliva,  mother's

Typ e

Family

Transmiss ion

Diseases

Treatment

milk etc.)


acute hepatitis chronic hepatitis hepatic cirrhosis hepatocellular carcinoma primary HSV-1 infection


Hepatitis C Flaviviridae virus

 

blood (sexual)

   

Pegylated interferon alfa-2 Ribavirin

(gingivostomatitis in children, tonsillitis & pha

Herpes direct contact simplex Herpesviridae with saliva virus, type 1 and lesions


ryngitis in  adults,keratoconjunctiviti  s) latent HSV-1 infection (herpes labialis, cold sores)



acyclovir famciclovir foscarnet penciclovir

acyclovir famciclovir foscarnet penciclovir cidofovir

Herpes simplex Herpesviridae  virus, type 2 

sexually birth

  

primary HSV-2 infection latent HSV-2 infection aseptic meningitis

   

Human herpesvirus, Herpesviridae type 8

 

Kaposi sarcoma multicentric Castleman disease primary effusion lymphoma many in evaluation-stage

 

sexual blood mother's milk



HIV

Retroviridae

 

AIDS

HAART

amantadine rimantadine zanamivir oseltamivir

Influenza virus

Orthomyxoviri droplet dae contact

 

influenza (Reye syndrome)

  

Typ e

Family

Transmiss ion

Diseases

Treatment

measles virus Mumps virus

Paramyxovirid droplet ae contact Paramyxovirid droplet ae contact

 

measles postinfectious encephalomyelitis None

Mumps

None

hyperplastic epithelial lesions (common, flat, plantar a nd anogenital warts, laryngeal   liquid nitrogen laser vaporization  cytotoxicchemi cals   interferon cidofovir

Human Papillomavirida papillomaviru direct contact e s

papillomas, epidermodysplasia verruciformis) 55+ (hands/ feet) 30+ (anogenital/ some are oral/ throat/ respiratory)  Malignancies for some species (cervical carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas)  croup pneumonia bronchiolitis common cold

Parainfluenz a virus

Paramyxovirida droplet e contact

  

None

Poliovirus

Picornaviridae

fecal-oral Animal bite  droplet contact

Poliomyelitis

None

 Rabies virus Rhabdoviridae

Rabies

Post-exposure prophylaxis

TREATMENT
Prevention of Human Rhinovirus infections
Human rhinovirus (HRV) causes over 80% of the common cold in the fall. Developing vaccines against HRV is unfeasible because HRVs have at least 115 antigenically distinct serotypes.One of the proven methods to prevent and inhibit viral infections is to block host cell receptors that are used by viruses to gain cell entry. Receptor blockage is commonly achieved via application of MAbs that bind to specific epitopes on the receptor molecules. A plethora of in vitro studies have reported effective viral inhibition by receptorblocking MAbs. However, these works have not yielded yet any approved drug on the markers. High avidity is achieved by multivalency. To improve avidity of HRV receptor blocking antibody, a novel tetravalent recombinant antibody, CFY196, has been generated against ICAM-1. CFY196 is composed of Fab fragment of a humanized version of MAb 1A6 fused with a linker derived from human immunoglobulin D (IgD) hinge and a tetramerization domain derived from the coiled-coil sequence of human transcription factor ATF. CFY196 is expressed in bacteria and purified as a homogenous tetrameric molecular complex. CFY196 exhibited almost two-orders-of-magnitude improvement in functional affinity compared with its bivalent counterpart based on the kinetic parameters measured by BIAcore analysis. Such kinetic improvement also directly leads to functional superiorities of CFY196. In in vitroassays, CFY196 consistently and significantly outpaced the best commercial anti-ICAM-1 MAbs in preventing HRV infection as measured by reduction of cytopathic effects and HRV viral titers. The preclinical findings of CFY196 bode well its efficacy in human since MAb 1A6, from which CFY196 is derived, has already exhibited positive effects in a human trial. Moreover, to prevent possible immunogenicity, CFY196 is humanized.

2. Biochemical Prevention and Treatment via targeting on viral mRNA Targeting viral mRNA is one of the most active areas of research and development. Several strategies have emerged over the years and are being tested pre-clinically and clinically. They include: antisenseoligonucleotides (AS-ONs), ribozymes, and recently, RNA interference (RNAi). All these strategies share the features of conceptual simplicity, straightforward drug design and quick route to identify drug leads. However, the challenges have been to improve potency, pharmacokinetics and, most importantly, intracellular delivery of the drug candidates. As the oldest strategy, AS-ON technology has produced to date one drug in the market place, Vitravene. A number of clinical trials of drug candidates from these technologies are currently ongoing. Antisense-oligonucleotides Antisense-oligonucleotides (AS-ONs) are short synthetic oligonucleotides that form complementary pair with specific viral mRNA targets. AS-ONs inhibit viral protein production by both blocking viral mRNA translation and triggering its degradation. Since the discovery of viral inhibition effect of AS-ONs by Zamecnik and Stephenson in 1978 , antisense technology has been developed as a powerful tool for target validation and therapeutic purposes. Vitravene is the first AS-ON based drug approved by FDA. Vitravene, or fomivirsen sodium, is a 21-base phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide complementary to the messenger RNA of the major immediate-early region proteins of human cytomegalovirus, and is a potent and selective antiviral agent for cytomegalovirus retinitis, a herpes-like eye disease that afflicts the immunesuppressed.

Useful rules of thumb Among the human infecting families there are a number of rules that may assist physicians and medical microbiologists/virologists. As a rule DNA viruses replicate within the nucleus while RNA viruses replicate within the cytoplasm. Exceptions are known to this rule: poxviruses (DNA viruses) replicate within the cytoplasm and orthomyxoviruses and hepatitis D virus (RNA viruses) replicate within the nucleus. Four families have segmented genomes: Bunyavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Arenavirus and Reovirus (acronym BOAR). All are RNA viruses. Three families are transmitted by arthropods: Bunyavirus, Flavivirus and Togavirus. All are RNA viruses. Only one family of enveloped viruses causes gastroenteritis (Coronaviridae). All other viruses associated with gastroenteritis are non enveloped.
Family Baltimore group Important sp ecies Virion shape

Herpesviridae

dsDNA

Herpes simplex, type 1, Herpes simplex, type 2, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-barr virus, Human cytomegalovirus, Human herpesvirus, type 8

complex

Poxviridae

dsDNA

Smallpox

complex

Hepadnaviridae

dsDNA andssDNA Hepatitis B virus

icosahedral

Parvoviridae

ssDNA

Human bocavirus, Parvovirus B19

icosahedral

Family

Baltimore group

Important sp ecies

Virion shape

Picornaviridae

+ssRNA

coxsackievirus, hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, rhinovirus

icosahedral

Coronaviridae

+ssRNA

Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus

helical

Flaviviridae

+ssRNA

Hepatitis C virus, yellow fever virus, dengue virus, West Nile virus

icosahedral

Retroviridae

+ssRNA

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

icosahedral

[2]

Orthomyxoviridae -ssRNA

Influenza virus

helical

Arenaviridae

-ssRNA

Guanarito virus, Junin virus, Lassa virus, Machupo helical virus, Sabi virus

Bunyaviridae

-ssRNA

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus

helical

Filoviridae

-ssRNA

Ebola virus, Marburg virus

helical

Paramyxoviridae -ssRNA

Measles virus, Mumps virus, Parainfluenza virus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Human metapneumovirus

helical

Rhabdoviridae

-ssRNA

Rabies virus

helical, bullet shaped

Reoviridae

dsRNA

Rotavirus

icosahedral