Kieán Truùc Maùy Tính 02: Giaùo Trình

TRNG AI HOC A LAT
F7G
GIAO TRNH
KIEN TRUC MAY TNH 02
PHAN VAN NGHA
1998
Kien truc may tnh 02
MUC LUC
MUC LUC .......................................................................................................................... 2 CHNG 1: CAU TRUC C BAN CUA PHAN CNG & PHAN MEM MAY TNH ............................................................................................................................................. 4 1.1 CAC THANH PHAN CUA MAY TNH ............................................................... 4 a) Thiet b nhap (input device) .................................................................................. 5 b) Bo nh (memory)................................................................................................... 5 c) Bo logic va so hoc (Arithmetic and logic unit - ALU) ........................................ 6 d) Thiet b ra (output device)..................................................................................... 7 e) Bo ieu khien (control unit - CU) ......................................................................... 7 1.2 HOAT ONG CUA MAY TNH........................................................................... 7 1.3 CAU TRUC BUS .................................................................................................. 10 1.4 PHAN MEM (SOFTWARE) ................................................................................. 11 1.5 AC TRNG CUA MAY TNH ...................................................................... 13 1.6 OI NET VE LCH S PHAT TRIEN CUA MAY TNH................................. 15 CHNG 2: BIEU DIEN SO LIEU ............................................................................... 17 2.1 CAC LOAI SO LIEU............................................................................................. 17 2.2 HE THONG SO THAP PHAN (DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM) .................... 17 2.3 HE THONG SO NH PHAN (BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM) .......................... 18 2.4 HE THONG SO BAT PHAN (OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM) .......................... 19 2.5 HE THONG SO THAP LUC PHAN ( HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)20 2.6 MA BCD................................................................................................................ 21 2.7 MA ALPHANUMERIC ....................................................................................... 22 2.8 HE THONG SO CO DAU CHAM ONG (FLOATING-POINT NUMBER SYSTEM) ..................................................................................................................... 24 2.9 PHNG PHAP CHAN LE ( PARITY METHODE ) ........................................ 26 CHNG 3 : CONG LOGIC & MACH SO ................................................................... 27 3.1 AI SO BOOL ..................................................................................................... 27 3.2 BANG S THAT (TRUTH TABLE) ................................................................... 28 3.3 PHEP CONG LOGIC (OR)................................................................................... 29 3.4 PHEP AND LOGIC............................................................................................... 29 3.5 PHEP BU (NOT OPERATION) ........................................................................... 30 3.6 MO TA MACH LOGIC BANG AI SO BOOL ............................................... 31 3.7 TNH GIA TR CUA MOT BIEU THC BOOL............................................... 32 3.8 THC HIEN MACH LOGIC T BIEU THC BOOL ..................................... 32 3.9 CONG NOR, NAND VA XOR............................................................................ 33 3.10 CAC NH LY BOOL......................................................................................... 35 3.11 NH LY DE MORGAN................................................................................... 36 3.12 THIET KE MACH LOGIC TO HP ................................................................. 37 3.13 N GIAN HAM BOOL BANG PHNG PHAP AI SO ........................... 39 3.14 CAC MACH SO .................................................................................................. 40
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Khoa Vat Ly

3.15 FLIP - FLOP ........................................................................................................ 40 3.16 ONG HO VA FF CO ONG HO .................................................................... 42 a) Khai niem ong ho .............................................................................................. 42 b) FF co ong ho (Clocked Flip - Flops) ................................................................ 43 c) Cac loi vao khong ong bo.................................................................................. 45 3.17 NG DUNG CUA FF......................................................................................... 45 a)Lu tr va truyen so lieu:..................................................................................... 45 b) Mach em (counter) ............................................................................................ 48 CHNG 4: BO LOGIC SO HOC (ALU) .................................................................... 51 4.1 CAU TRUC CUA ALU ......................................................................................... 51 4.2 BO CONG NH PHAN ......................................................................................... 51 a) Bo cong nh phan mot na (half-adder).............................................................. 52 b) Bo cong ay u ( Full - adder) ............................................................................ 53 4.3 BIEU DIEN SO CO DAU .................................................................................... 54 4.4 BIEU DIEN SO CO DAU DUNG HE BU 2 ....................................................... 55 4.5 PHEP CONG TRONG HE BU 2 .......................................................................... 57 4.6 PHEP TR TRONG HE BU 2 .......................................................................... 58 4.7 CONG VA TR BCD.......................................................................................... 58 a) Cong BCD ............................................................................................................ 58 b) Tr BCD ............................................................................................................... 59 4.8 CONG VA TR HEX........................................................................................ 59 a) Cong hai so HEX ................................................................................................. 59 b) Tr hai so hex ..................................................................................................... 60 BAI TAP CHNG 2,3 & 4............................................................................................ 61
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
CHNG 1: CAU TRUC C BAN CUA PHAN CNG & PHAN MEM MAY TNH
1.1 CAC THANH PHAN CUA MAY TNH
May tnh so (digital computer) hay may tnh (computer) la thiet b tnh toan ien t co toc o rat cao. May tnh nhan cac thong tin a c so hoa (digitized), x ly chung theo theo mot danh sach cac lenh cha san ben trong may tnh va cho ket qua la thong tin ra. Danh sach cac lenh goi la chng trnh may tnh (computer program). Chng trnh may tnh c lu tr tai mot bo phan ben trong may tnh goi la bo nh (memory). Co nhieu loai may tnh. Chung khac nhau ve kch thc, toc o va gia thanh. Loai may tnh thong dung nhat la may tnh ca nhan (personal computer - PC). PC c s dung rong rai nha, trong cac c quan hay trng hoc. May tnh xach tay (notebook computer) co kch thc rat be co the at gon trong vali. Tram lam viec (workstations) la cac may tnh trong 1 mang may tnh. Mainframe va Supercomputer la nhng may tnh co cong suat tnh toan cc manh. Mainframe dung e x ly cac bai toan trong thng mai. Super computer dung trong cac ng dung ma o so phep toan phai tien hanh trong 1 giay la so rat ln (c 1013 phep tnh/s) nh d bao thi tiet, ieu khien cac chuyen bay vu tru, thiet ke may bay, nghien cu hat nhan ... dang n gian nhat, mot may tnh bao gom 5 thanh phan chnh oc lap (hnh 1-1): thiet b nhap (input), thiet b xuat (output), bo nh (memory), bo logic so hoc (ALU) va bo ieu khien (Control Unit) . INPUT MEMORY CU ALU
OUTPUT
Hnh 1-1 : Cac thanh phan cua mot may tnh Thiet b nhap nhan thong tin a c ma hoa t cac hoat ong cua con ngi, t cac thiet b c ien (chang han ban phm) hay t mot may tnh khac thong qua ng truyen tin ky thuat so. Thong tin nhan c hoac c lu tr trong thiet b nh e s dung sau nay hoac c x ly trc tiep e thu c ket qua nh mong muon. Cac bc x ly thong tin c quy nh bi chng trnh cha trong bo nh. Cuoi cung
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

ket qua c gi tr lai the gii ben ngoai thong qua thiet b xuat. Tat ca cac hoat ong tren ay c ch dan bi bo ieu khien. ALU va CU c che tao trong 1 chip goi la bo x ly trung tam (Central Processing Unit = CPU) hay n gian la Processor. T trung tam xuat hien vao thi ky au mi khai sinh may tnh, o cac tnh toan eu tap trung trong mot chip. Cac may tnh hien ai thng cha nhieu Processor, nhng thuat ng CPU van c dung rong rai. Cung can noi them rang, trong PC, Processor c goi la bo vi x ly (Micro Processor Unit =MPU). Cac thiet b dung e nhap va xuat d lieu c goi chung la thiet b vao ra (IO unit). Lenh (Instructions) hay lenh may (machine instructions) la ch dan e: Truyen thong tin gia cac may tnh hay trong pham vi mot may tnh va cac ngoai vi cua no. Ch ra cac phep toan logic so hoc phai thc hien tren so lieu. Mot tap cac lenh e thc hien mot nhiem vu goi la mot chng trnh (program). Thong thng chng trnh c lu tr trong trong bo nh. Bo x ly lay (fetches) lenh t bo nh. Lenh phai c giai ma (decoded), sau o no c thc hien. May tnh thc hien cac lenh trong chng trnh mot cach lan lt, tr khi no b ngat (interrupt) bi ngi ieu khien hoac bi cac thiet b ngoai vi noi vi may tnh. D lieu (data) la cac so hoac ky t a c ma hoa ma no c dung nh la cac toan hang (operand) cua lenh. Data bao gom moi thong tin a c so hoa. oi khi data cung c hieu la mot chng trnh hoan chnh ma mot chng trnh khac s dung no. V du khi bien dch mot chng trnh nguon (source program) ngon ng cap cao thanh chng trnh ngon ng may th chng trnh nguon c xem la data cua trnh bien dch (compiler). Thong tin a vao may tnh phai c ma hoa dang thch hp. Cac so, cac ky t hoac lenh c ma hoa thanh mot chuoi so nh phan goi la cac bits. Moi bit ch nhan mot trong 2 gia tr kha d 0 hoac 1. Cac ky t Alphanumeric cung c bieu dien bi ma nh phan. Ma ky t dung pho bien trong may tnh la ma ASCII.
a) Thiet b nhap (input device)

May tnh nhan thong tin a c ma hoa thong qua thiet b nhap. Qua trnh nay goi la oc so lieu. Thiet b nhap thng dung nhat la ban phm (keyboard). Keyboard c noi sao cho khi mot phm c nhan, ky t hoac so tng ng c t ong chuyen thanh ma nh phan va c gi trc tiep ti bo nh hoac vi x ly. Co nhieu thiet b nhap khac nh: chuot (mouse), may quet (scanner), ADC.
b) Bo nh (memory)
Chc nang cua bo nh la lu gi chng trnh va so lieu. Co 2 loai bo nh: bo nh s cap (bo nh chnh bo nh trong - Primary Memory Main Memory-
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Khoa Vat Ly

Internal Memory) va bo nh th cap (bo nh ngoai - bo nh phu -Secondary Memory Auxiliary Memory - External Memory). Bo nh s cap hay bo nh chnh (Main memory) la bo nh nhanh. Cac chng trnh c nap len bo nh chnh trong khi chung ang c thc hien. Bo nh chnh bao gom mot so ln cac o nh ban dan. Moi o nh cha c mot bit thong tin. Viec oc hoac viet thong thng c tien hanh vi nhieu o nh goi la t nh (memory word). Bo nh chnh c to chc sao cho noi dung cua mot t (n bit) co the c truy xuat bang lenh oc hoac viet bo nh. So cac bit tren mot t nh goi la o dai t (word length) cua may tnh. o dai t cua cac may tnh co the la 8,16, 32 hoac 64 bit. Tong so o nh tren bo nh goi la dung lng (capacity) cua bo nh. Dung lng bo nh trong cua PC co the la vai MB en hang tram MB. e co the truy xuat ti moi t nh tren bo nh, moi t nh c gan mot a ch (Address) rieng biet. T nh trong bo nh co the c truy xuat bang cach ch ra a ch va lenh oc viet tng ng. So lieu c x ly theo mot t, boi cua t hoac mot phan cua t. Khi bo nh c truy xuat, thong thng mot t cua so lieu c oc t bo nh hoac c viet vao bo nh. Chng trnh phai nam tren bo nh khi ang thi hanh. Lenh va so lieu co the c viet vao bo nh hay oc ra di s ieu khien cua vi x ly. Thi gian can thiet e truy xuat ti mot v tr nh trong bo nh goi la thi gian truy xuat bo nh (memory access time = Tacc). Cac bo nh co Tacc khong phu thuoc v tr nh goi la bo nh truy xuat ngau nhien (Random Access Memories = RAM). Tacc co gia tr vai chuc ns (nano second) trong cac may tnh hien ai. Mac du bo nh chnh rat quan trong, nhng gia thanh lai qua cao. V vay ngi ta dung them bo nh phu (secondary memory) khi muon lu gi mot lng ln thong tin khong s dung thng xuyen. Bo nh phu co the la a t (magnetic disks) hay a quang (Compact Disc).
c) Bo logic va so hoc (Arithmetic and logic unit - ALU)

Hau het cac hoat ong tnh toan cua may tnh c thc hien tai bo logic so hoc co trong vi x ly. Gia s rang can phai cong 2 so tren bo nh chnh. Hai so nay phai c chuyen vao ALU, ay phep cong c thc hien. Ket qua cua phep cong co the lu tr trong bo nh hoac van gi lai trong vi x ly e s dung ngay lap tc . Moi phep toan logic va so hoc, v du: nhan, chia hay so sanh 2 so eu c thc hien tai ALU. Khong phai tat ca cac toan hang can cho tnh toan phai trong bo nh chnh. Vi x ly co nhng phan t nh toc o cao, goi la cac thanh ghi (registers). Cac thanh ghi c dung e lu gi nhng toan hang c dung thng xuyen trong khi tnh toan . Moi thanh ghi co the lu gi mot t so lieu. Thi gian truy xuat thanh ghi la t 5 en 10 ns (nhanh hn thi gian truy xuat bo nh chnh) ALU va bo ieu khien thng la cac thanh phan co toc o hoat ong nhanh hn cac thanh phan khac noi vi he may tnh. ieu nay cho phep s dung ch mot vi
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Khoa Vat Ly

x ly e ieu khien mot so ln cac thiet b ngoai vi co toc o hoat ong khac nhau nh bo nh ngoai, man hnh, may in
d) Thiet b ra (output device).

Thiet b ra lam viec theo nguyen tac ngc lai vi thiet b vao. Chc nang cua thiet b ra la gi cac ket qua a c x ly ra ngoai. V du ien hnh cua thiet b xuat la may in (printer). Cac ket qua a c x ly bi CPU co the c gi ra ngoai thong qua may in. May in co nhieu kieu: may in kim ma tran iem, may in phun mc, may in laser ... Cong nghe ngay nay cho phep in khoang 15 PPM. o la toc o rat cao cua cac he thong c hoc tuy nhien no van la toc o rat cham oi vi vi x ly.
e) Bo ieu khien (control unit - CU)

Bo nh, bo logic so hoc va cac thiet b nhap xuat lu gi va x ly thong tin, thc hien cac tac vu nhap xuat. Hoat ong cua cac bo phan nay phai c phoi hp nhp nhang vi nhau. Bo ieu khien co chc nang thc hien viec phoi hp nay. Bo ieu khien mot mat gi cac tn hieu ieu khien en cac bo phan, mat khac no luon luon theo doi trang thai cua cac bo phan o e cho nhng tn hieu ieu khien hp ly. V du viec chuyen so lieu gia bo nh va cac ngoai vi phai c ieu khien bi bo ieu khien . Bo ieu khien phai tao ra tn hieu thi gian ma nh tn hieu nay cac hanh ong cua cac bo phan xay ra ung vao thi iem mong i. Co the noi rang bo ieu khien la mot n v oc lap va lien quan en tat ca cac bo phan khac trong may. Tren thc te, mach ien cua bo ieu khien c phan bo en khap ni trong may. Mot tap hp cac ng day ieu khien (control bus) mang cac tn hieu thi gian. Cac tn hieu nay dung e ong bo hoat ong cua tat ca cac bo phan trong may. Tom lai, hoat ong tong quat cua mot may tnh co the tom tat nh sau: May tnh nhan thong tin di dang chng trnh va so lieu thong qua thiet b nhap. Thong tin c lu gi trong bo nh may tnh. Thong tin c lu gi trong bo nh c lay vao ALU di s ieu khien cua chng trnh. Tai ALU, thong tin c x ly. Thong tin a c x ly c a ra ngoai thong qua thiet b xuat. Tat ca cac hoat ong ben trong may tnh c ch dan bi bo ieu khien.
1.2 HOAT ONG CUA MAY TNH

Trong phan 1.1 chung ta a noi rang hoat ong cua may tnh c ieu khien bi cac lenh (instructions). e thc hien mot nhiem vu cho trc, mot chng trnh tng ng bao gom mot tap cac lenh se c lu gi trong bo nh chnh. Cac lenh rieng re se c oc t bo nh vao vi x ly. Moi lenh se thc hien mot thao tac a
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Khoa Vat Ly

nh san . So lieu lu gi tren bo nh c s dung nh cac toan hang (operands). V du lenh: ADD AX, LOCA Lenh nay se cong toan hang tai v tr nh (a ch) LOCA vi toan hang cha trong thanh ghi AX (trong vi x ly), ket qua cua phep cong at vao AX. Noi dung ban au cua o nh tai v tr LOCA van gi nguyen, trong khi o noi dung ban au cua thanh ghi AX b xoa, thay vao o la ket qua cua phep cong. Lenh nay phai thc hien qua vai bc. Trc tien lenh c oc t bo nh chnh vao vi x ly. Tiep theo noi dung cua o nh tai v tr LOCA c oc vao ALU roi cong vi noi dung cua AX. Cuoi cung ket qua cua phep cong c lu gi trong thanh ghi AX. Viec chuyen so lieu gia bo nh chnh va vi x ly c bat au bang viec vi x ly gi a ch cua o nh can truy xuat va tn hieu ieu khien hp ly ti bo nh. So lieu sau o se c chuyen gia bo nh va vi x ly mot cach tng ng. Hnh 1-2 la s o noi gia vi x ly va bo nh chnh. S o ch co y ngha trong viec mo ta cac chc nang cua vi x ly va bo nh . Cung vi ALU va bo ieu khien, vi x ly con co cac thanh ghi dung cho viec lu tr tam thi so lieu. Thanh ghi lenh (IR - Instruction Register) gi lenh ang c thc hien. Bo em chng trnh (PC - Program Counter) cha a ch bo nh cua lenh se c thc hien. Sau khi thc hien lenh, noi dung cua PC se c cap nhat ti a ch cua lenh tiep theo. Bnh thng noi dung cua PC se tang len 1 neu chng trnh khong b mot lenh nhay hay lenh ngat nao khac.
Hnh 1-2: S o noi gia CPU va bo nh may tnh
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Ben canh IR va PC con co n thanh ghi a chc nang (General Purpose Register): R0 , R1 , RN-1 . Cac thanh ghi nay c s dung vao nhieu muc ch khac nhau. Co hai thanh ghi dung e giao tiep vi bo nh la: Thanh ghi a ch bo nh (MAR Memory Address Register) va thanh ghi so lieu bo nh (MDR Memory Data Register). MAR cha ia ch cua o nh can truy xuat, con MDR gi noi dung cua so lieu can chuyen ( gia Vi x ly va bo nh). Chung ta hay xem xet cac bc hoat ong c ban khi thc hien 1 chng trnh. Chng trnh cha trong bo nh chnh. Viec thc thi chng trnh bat au khi PC ch ti v tr nh ma lenh au tien cua chng trnh c lu gi. Noi dung cua PC c chuyen ti MAR va mot tn hieu ieu khien oc c gi ti bo nh. Sau thi gian can cho viec truy xuat bo nh (Tacc), noi dung cua t nh (lenh au tien cua chng trnh) c oc vao MDR. Tiep theo, noi dung cua MDR c chuyen en IR . Tai thi iem nay lenh a san sang cho viec giai ma va thc hien . Neu lenh la mot phep toan ma ALU phai tnh th can phai lay cac toan hang can thiet. Neu toan hang a co san ben trong bo nh (cac toan hang cung co the c cha trong cac thanh ghi dung chung) th no phai c oc vao ALU bang cach gi a ch toan hang ti MAR va khi tao chu trnh oc (read cycle). Toan hang sau o c oc t bo nh vao MDR roi chuyen ti ALU. Sau khi mot hoac nhieu toan hang c oc theo cach nay, ALU co the thc hien phep toan. Neu ket qua phep toan c lu tr trong bo nh th no c gi ti MDR. a ch o nh tai o ket qua c lu tr se c gi ti MAR va chu trnh viet (write cycle) se c bat au. Trong khi mot lenh ang c thc hien, noi dung cua PC se tang len sao cho no ch ti a ch cua lenh ke tiep. Ngay sau khi lenh hien hanh c hoan tat, lenh mi se c lay vao vi x ly e giai ma va thc hien. Cung vi viec chuyen so lieu gia bo nh chnh va vi x ly, may tnh truy xuat so lieu t cac thiet b vao va gi ket qua en thiet b ra. Do o co mot so lenh may cho phep chuyen so lieu vao ra. Viec thc hien mot chng trnh co the b ngat neu mot hoac nhieu thiet b ngoai vi yeu cau c phuc vu. Tn hieu ngat c tao ra bi cac ngoai vi e yeu cau vi x ly phai phuc vu chung. Ngat cung c tao ra bi lenh INT trong cac chng trnh. Vi x ly se cung cap mot dch vu theo yeu cau bang cach thi hanh mot chng trnh con phuc vu ngat (interrupt service routine). Trc khi phuc vu ngat, trang thai ben trong cua vi x ly phai c cat gi vao bo nh. Bnh thng, noi dung cua PC, cac thanh ghi a chc nang va mot so thong tin ieu khien phai c cat gi. Khi chng trnh con phuc vu ngat ket thuc, trang thai cua chng trnh chnh se c phuc hoi sao cho chng trnh chnh a b ngat co the tiep tuc. Bo vi x ly tren hnh 1-2 co the thc hien theo vai cach. Trong cac may tnh c nho va c trung, tat ca cac thanh phan cua vi x ly c che tao tren mot chip VLSI (Very Large Scale Intergrated ).
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 1.3 CAU TRUC BUS

Chung ta a phan tch cac thanh phan rieng biet cua may tnh. e toan bo he thong co the hoat ong c can phai noi cac thanh phan ay lai vi nhau. Co nhieu cach e lam ieu nay. Chung ta se xem xet ay cach lam n gian nhat va cung thng dung nhat. e at c toc o hoat ong cao, may tnh phai c to chc sao cho tat ca cac n v c noi song song vi nhau thong qua mot bus chung cua toan he thong (system bus). Bus la mot tap hp cac ng day dung e noi cac thiet b vi nhau. Trong kien truc may tnh 1 bus, tai mot thi iem ch co mot thiet b chiem quyen ieu khien bus ma thoi. Khi mot t so lieu c chuyen gia cac n v, tat ca cac bit c chuyen song song (moi bit c truyen ong thi vi cac bit khac tren nhng ng day rieng). Cac ng day dung e truyen so lieu goi la bus so lieu (data bus). Cung vi bus so lieu con co cac ng day dung cho a ch va ieu khien. Chung c goi tng ng la bus a ch (address bus) va bus ieu khien (control bus). Hnh 1-3 la s o noi cac bo phan cua may tnh bang mot bus duy nhat. Bi v bus c dung chung nen tai mot thi iem ch co 2 thiet b c phep dung bus . u iem chu yeu cua cau truc 1 bus la gia thanh thap va no cho phep noi he vi x ly may tnh vi cac ngoai vi mot cach mem deo (co the them hoac bt de dang).
Hnh 1-3: Cau truc mot bus cua may tnh Cac thiet b ngoai vi noi vi bus co the co toc o lam viec rat khac nhau: ban phm va may in tng oi cham con cac o a th nhanh hn. Vi x ly va bo nh chnh lam viec vi toc o rat cao. V tat ca cac thiet b lien lac vi nhau thong qua bus, nen c che truyen thong tin mot cach hieu qua la khong cng bc cac thiet b cham lam viec nhanh len ma can co bien phap dung hoa s khac biet ve toc o cua cac thiet b. Giai phap chung la dung cac thanh ghi em (buffer registers) e gi thong tin trong khi truyen. e mo ta ky thuat nay chung ta hay xem xet viec truyen cac ky t gia vi x ly va may in. Vi x ly gi cac ky t doc theo bus ti bo em cua may in. Do thanh ghi em tren may in co toc o rat nhanh nen viec truyen cac ky t gia vi x ly va bo em chiem rat t thi gian. Khi bo em may in a co so lieu, may in bat au in. Trong khi may in tien hanh in, bus va vi x ly hoan toan ranh roi, luc nay tren bus co the
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

tien hanh mot hoat ong khac do vi x ly ieu khien. Trong khi may in ang in so lieu trong thanh ghi em th no khong the nhan so lieu mi cho en khi viec in hoan tat. Nh vay la thanh ghi em lam giam s khac biet ve toc o gia vi x ly, bo nh va cac ngoai vi. ieu nay tranh cho vi x ly khoi b chet do cac ngoai vi cham trong khi chuyen so lieu.
1.4 PHAN MEM (SOFTWARE)

tnh. Phan mem la tap hp tat ca cac chng trnh e ieu khien hoat ong cua may
e ngi dung (user) co the nhap vao va chay cac chng trnh ng dung (application program), may tnh phai co mot vai phan mem he thong (system software). Phan mem he thong la tap hp cac chng trnh nham thc hien cac chc nang chnh sau ay: Nhan va thong dch cac lenh cua ngi s dung may tnh. Nhan va soan thao cac chng trnh ng dung, lu tr chung nh la nhng tap tin (files) tren bo nh ngoai. Quan ly viec lu tr va cap nhat cac tap tin tren bo nh ngoai. Chay cac chng trnh ng dung chang han nh chng trnh bang tnh ien t hoac tro chi ma so lieu c cung cap bi ngi dung. ieu khien cac thiet b ngoai vi trong viec xuat nhap thong tin. Dch cac chng trnh nguon c soan thao bi ngi dung thanh chng trnh ngon ng may. Lien ket va chay cac chng trnh ng dung c viet bi ngi dung bang cach s dung cac chng trnh con th vien chuan . Phan mem he thong co chc nang ket hp tat ca cac hoat ong tren he thong may tnh. Cac chng trnh ng dung thng c viet bi ngon ng lap trnh cap cao nh C, Pascal ... trong o cac lap trnh vien bieu dien cac bai toan di dang khong phu thuoc vao may tnh cu the ma chng trnh o se chay. Lap trnh vien dung cac chng trnh ngon ng cap cao khong can biet chi tiet tap lenh may. Mot chng trnh he thong goi la compiler se dch chng trnh ngon ng cap cao thanh chng trnh ngon ng may thch hp. Mot thanh phan rat quan trong cua phan mem he thong la he ieu hanh (operating system = OS). OS la mot chng trnh ln hoac tap hp cac chng trnh con. Cac chng trnh con cua OS thc hien cac nhiem vu phan phoi cac tai nguyen may tnh cho cac chng trnh ng dung rieng biet. Cac nhiem vu nay bao gom viec s dung bo nh chnh va bo nh phu cho cac chng trnh va cac tap tin so lieu, di chuyen so lieu gia bo nh va cac o a, thc hien cac tac vu vao ra. e hieu c nhng noi dung c ban cua OS, chung ta se xem xet mot he thong co mot vi x ly, mot o a va mot may in. Trc het chung ta hay xem xet cac bc khi chay mot chng trnh ng dung. Gia s rang chng trnh ng dung a
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

c bien dch t mot chng trnh ngon ng cap cao thanh chng trnh ngon ng may va c lu gi trong a. au tien tap tin nay c chuyen vao bo nh chnh. Khi viec chuyen tap tin vao bo nh hoan tat, viec thc thi chng trnh c bat au. Gia s rang chng trnh nay phai oc mot tap tin d lieu t a vao bo nh chnh, tien hanh mot so tnh toan tren so lieu roi in ket qua ra may in. Khi chng trnh thc thi en oan can tap tin d lieu th chng trnh yeu cau OS chuyen tap tin d lieu t a vao bo nh. Sau khi chuyen tap tin d lieu vao bo nh chnh, OS tra lai quyen ieu khien cho chng trnh ng dung. Chng trnh ng dung se thc hien viec tnh toan tren so lieu theo yeu cau. Khi viec tnh toan hoan thanh va ket qua a san sang e in, chng trnh ng dung mot lan na tra quyen ieu khien cho OS. OS se chay mot chng trnh con ieu khien may in e in ket qua. Hnh 1-4 la gian o thi gian mo ta s chia se (sharing) thi gian gia chng trnh ng dung va cac chng trnh con cua OS.
Hnh 1-4: S chia se thi gian trong PC Trong khoang thi gian to en t1, mot chng trnh con cua OS se nap chng trnh ng dung t a vao bo nh, ch cho en khi viec chuyen hoan tat, ieu khien thc thi chng trnh c tra cho chng trnh ng dung. Trong thi gian t2 en t3 va t4 en t5 cung xay ra hoat ong do chng trnh con cua OS ieu khien. Vao thi iem t5, OS co the nap va thc thi mot chng trnh ng dung khac. Cuoi cung can phai noi rang cac tai nguyen may tnh co the c s dung mot cach hieu qua hn neu co vai chng trnh ng dung cung c x ly. Lu y rang vao thi iem t t4 en t5, vi x ly va a la ranh. Luc nay OS co the nap va chay mot chng trnh khac trong khi may in ang lam viec. Tng t, vao thi iem t t0 en t1, OS co the ieu khien in ket qua cua chng trnh trc trong khi chng trnh hien
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

tai ang nap t a vao bo nh. Nh the la OS co nhiem vu s dung cac tai nguyen may tnh mot cach co hieu qua khi mot vai chng trnh ng dung c thc hien .
1.5 AC TRNG CUA MAY TNH

May tnh co nhieu ac trng nh so ng so lieu va a ch, dung lng bo nh, toc o ong ho, tong thi gian thi hanh 1 chng trnh Trong o tong thi gian can thiet e thi hanh mot chng trnh ng dung la mot trong nhng ac trng quan trong nhat cua may tnh. Bi v cac chng trnh ng dung c viet bang ngon ng cap cao, do o ac trng ve toc o tren ay co lien quan en cach thc ma trnh bien dch (compiler) dch chng trnh thanh ngon ng may. ac trng toc o cung b anh hng bi viec chon lenh ngon ng may va thiet ke phan cng cua may tnh. e co ac trng tot nhat can phai thiet ke trnh bien dch (compiler), tap lenh may (machine instruction set) va phan cng phu hp vi nhau. Trong phan trc chung ta a mo ta cach thc ma OS to chc e cac tai nguyen phan cng khac nhau co the lam viec vao cung mot thi iem khi vai chng trnh c thc thi cung mot luc. Ro rang rang viec thc thi nhieu chng trnh cung mot luc se cho ac trng toc o cao hn la thc hien chng trnh mot cach rieng re. Chung ta hay xem xet dong cac lenh va so lieu c truyen gia bo nh va vi x ly (hnh 1-5). Hnh 1-5 la mot phan cua hnh 1-3 c ve lai cong them bo nh em (cache memory).
Hnh 1-5: Vi x ly vi bo nh cache Vao luc bat au thc thi chng trnh, tat ca cac lenh va so lieu co lien quan a c lu gi trong bo nh. Trong qua trnh thc thi chng trnh, lenh lan lt c oc vao vi x ly. Khi thc hien cac lenh co lien quan en so lieu th so lieu phai c lay vao t bo nh chnh. Chung ta hay xem xet cai g se quy nh toc o thc hien thao tac nay.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Cac bo vi x ly ay u co the c che tao tren mot chip rieng re. Toc o ben trong cua vi x ly khi thc hien lenh la rat cao, nhanh hn ca toc o toi a khi lay lenh va so lieu t bo nh chnh. ieu nay co ngha la, neu di chuyen lenh va so lieu tren bus vi thi gian cc tieu se rut ngan thi gian thi hanh lenh. V du: gia s rang mot chng trnh thc hien nhieu lenh lap lai (trong mot vong lap chang han). Trong trng hp nay toc o x ly se tang len neu cac lenh va so lieu lien quan en lenh lap co san trong vi x ly. Trong cac vi x ly hien ai ngi ta che tao san mot bo nh toc o cao goi la bo nh cache (hnh ve 1-5) Trong cac he thong co cache, lenh va so lieu c x ly au tien se c at trong cache. Cac lenh tng t sau o se c thc hien nhanh hn v a co san trong cache. Sau ay chung ta se xem xet qua trnh thc hien chng trnh va cac lenh. Moi mot lenh cua chng trnh ngon ng may can mot so bc e thc hien. Moi mot bc can mot chu ky ong ho (clock cycle) cua bo ieu khien trong vi x ly e hoan thanh. ong ho la tn hieu co chu ky khong thay oi do mach tao ong ho tao ra. Ngi ta thng dung thuat ng tan so (frequency) e ch ac trng cua ong ho. n v o tan so la chu ky trong mot giay (cycle per second). Trong ky thuat ien va ien t thuat ng chu ky trong mot giay, goi la Hezt (Hz). Cac n v ln hn cua Hz la KHz (1.000 Hz), MHz (1.000.000Hz) va GHz (1.000.000.000 Hz). Cac vi x ly hien nay co tan so ong ho t khoang vai tram MHz en hang GHz. Mot vi x ly co ong ho 1000MHz (1GHz) th chu ky ong ho cua no la 1ns (nano giay =1 phan ty cua giay), ngha la no thc hien mot bc trong lenh het 1 ns ma thoi. Ro rang la vi x ly co tan so ong ho cang cao th toc o thc hien chng trnh cang nhanh. Goi T la tong thi gian can e thc hien mot chng trnh ngon ng cap cao. Trnh bien dch tao ra chng trnh ngon ng may tng ng vi chng trnh nguon. Gia s can N lenh ngon ng may e thc hien toan bo chng trnh. So N khong nhat thiet phai bang vi so lenh trong chng trnh a c bien dch. Mot so lenh phai thc hien nhieu lan va mot so lenh khong thc hien g ca tuy thuoc vao so lieu c s dung. Gia s S la so bc trung bnh e thc hien mot lenh ngon ng may. R la toc o ong ho (Hz). Tong thi gian thc hien chng trnh la:
( NxS ) R e co ac trng tot can giam N va S, ong thi tang R. Toc o ong ho R phu thuoc vao cong nghe c s dung e che tao vi x ly. e giam N va S can co tap lenh may va trnh bien dch tot. Vi x ly co tap lenh n gian se ch can S be hn vi x ly co tap lenh phc tap. Tuy nhien vi x ly co tap lenh n gian hn se co N ln hn. Cho en thi iem nay chung ta gia s rang khong co s giao nhau (overlap) trong khi thc thi cac bc lan lt cua lenh. ac trng toc o se c cai thien ang
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Khoa Vat Ly

ke neu co s giao nhau trong khi thc hien cac bc cua lenh. Ky thuat nay goi la ong dan (pipelining ). Xet lenh sau: ADD R1 , R2 Lenh nay cong noi dung thanh ghi R1 vi noi dung thanh ghi R2 roi at ket qua vao R1. e thc hien lenh nay, noi dung cua R1 va R2 c oc vao ALU, sau khi thc hien phep cong, tong co c se c chuyen vao R1. Gia s rang co mot lenh cong khac theo sau lenh cong nay. Cac toan hang cua phep cong th hai nay c chuyen vao cung mot thi iem vi viec ghi ket qua phep cong trc ra R1. Trong trng hp ly tng, moi lenh nh the se c hoan thanh trong mot chu ky ong ho. Noi chung trong cac he thong co pipelining, toc o x ly se tang ang ke do S trong bieu thc cua tien ti 1. Viec s dung bo nh cache va ky thuat ong dan lam tang ang ke toc o x ly.
1.6 OI NET VE LCH S PHAT TRIEN CUA MAY TNH

May tnh a ra i cach ay hn 50 nam. Trong mot thi gian dai trc o, ngi ta s dung cac thiet b tnh toan c hoc. Vao 300 nam trc, mot loat cac thiet b c hoc phc tap a c s dung e che tao nen may tnh. May tnh hoi ay ch thc hien c cac phep toan cong tr, nhan va chia. Giay uc lo la mot trong nhng phng phap c dung e a chng trnh vao may tnh. Cac lo tren giay c bo phan cam bien c hoc oc vao may tnh. Chung c dung e ieu khien mot cach lan lt cac thao tac tnh toan. Cac may tnh thi o co the tnh cac bang lng giac va logarit. Ket qua c in ra giay hoac the hien bang phieu uc lo. Trong thi gian chien tranh the gii th 2, cac thiet b relay c ien a c s dung e thc hien cac chc nang ieu khien logic tren may tnh. Cung vao thi gian nay, may tnh ien t au tien a c thiet ke va che tao tai ai hoc Pennsylvania da tren cong nghe en ien t . en ien t a c dung trong cac thiet b vo tuyen va radar. Trong may tnh ien t au tien, chung c dung e thc hien cac chc nang logic va lu tr so lieu. Cong nghe nay a m ra mot thi ky mi trong lch s phat trien cua may tnh: may tnh ien t so (digital computer). Da vao cong nghe c s dung e che tao may tnh, ngi ta chia may tnh thanh 4 the he: The he th nhat t 1945 en 1955. The he th hai t 1955 en 1965. The he th ba t 1965 en 1975 va the he th t t 1975 en nay. The he th nhat: Trong may tnh the he 1, nhng noi dung chu yeu cua viec lu gi chng trnh a c e xuat bi John von Neumann. Theo o chng trnh va so lieu c at tren bo nh chnh. Ngon ng Assembly a c dung e viet chng trnh va sau o no phai c chuyen thanh ngon ng may khi thc hien. Cac phep toan ai so c ban c thc hien ch trong vai mili giay bang cach dung cong nghe
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Khoa Vat Ly

en ien t e thc hien cac chc nang logic. May tnh the he th nhat a co toc o cao gap 100 en 1000 lan so vi may tnh da tren cong nghe relay c ien trc o. Bo nh dung day tre (delay line memory) a c s dung trc tien. Cac chc nang vao ra a c thc hien bang mot thiet b tng t may anh ch. Sau o bo nh bang xuyen t va bo nh dung bang t a c thay the cho bo nh dung day tre. The he th hai: Vao nam 1940, transistor a c phat minh bi phong th nghiem AT&T Bell (My). Transistor a nhanh chong thay the en ien t. Cong nghe transistor a anh dau s bat au cua may tnh the he th hai. Bo nh bang xuyen t va cac thiet b nh dung trong t a c s dung rong rai vao thi ky nay. Cac ngon ng cap cao, nh Fortran, a ra i lam cho cac lap trnh vien viet chng trnh de dang hn . Cac chng trnh he thong goi la Compiler a c phat trien e dch cac chng trnh ngon ng cap cao ra chng trnh hp ng tng ng. Cac bo x ly vao ra rieng biet cung a c che tao. Chung co the lam viec song song vi bo x ly trung tam trong khi chay cac chng trnh. ieu nay a lam tang ro ret ac trng toc o cua toan he thong. IBM la nha may san xuat may tnh chu yeu vao thi ky nay. The he th ba: Vi s ra i cua cong nghe mi, cong nghe IC (integrated circuit technology) a cho phep che tao cac bo x ly, cac bo nh lam viec nhanh hn va gia thanh thap hn. Cong nghe IC cho phep che tao nhieu transistor tren mot chip n tinh the. Cac bo nh IC a bat au thay the cac bo nh bang xuyen t. Cung vi cong nghe IC la ky thuat vi chng trnh ( microprogramming), ky thuat x ly song song (parallelism) va ky thuat ong dan ( pipelining). Cac phan mem he ieu hanh cho phep chia se mot cach co hieu qua tai nguyen cua he may tnh bi mot vai chng trnh khac nhau . Bo nh em (cache memory) va bo nh ao (virtual memory) cung a c phat trien. Cac mainframe computer 360 cua IBM va PDP minicomputer cua hang Digital Equiment la nhng san pham thng mai chnh vao thi ky nay. The he th t: Vao au nhng nam 70, ky thuat che tao IC a co the che tao cac bo x ly hoan chnh va phan ln cac bo phan cua bo nh chnh ngay tren mot chip. Khoang 10,000 transitors co the at tren mot chip. Ngi ta dung thuat ng VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated) e ch cong nhe nay. Cong nghe VLSI cho phep mot bo x ly hoan chnh co the che tao tren mot chip. No c goi la vi x ly (micro processor). Intel, National, Motorola, Texas Instruments. .. la nhng cong ty co nhng no lc va ong gop to ln cho s phat trien cua cong nghe vi x ly. Vao thi ky nay may tnh co kch thc nho nhng co kha nang tnh toan manh ma chung ta goi la may vi tnh (micro computer hay personal coputer - PC) a ra i. Sau the he th t la cac may tnh hien tai. Xu hng chung cua cong nghe may tnh ngay nay la lam cho may tnh ngay cang compact hn ve cau tao, toc o cao, gia thanh ha, kha nang tr tue nhan tao, kha nang giao tiep vi ngi dung thong qua ngon ng, kha nang ket noi Internet toc o cao...
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
CHNG 2: BIEU DIEN SO LIEU

2.1 CAC LOAI SO LIEU
Thong tin nh phan trong cac may tnh c lu tr trong bo nh hoac trong cac thanh ghi cua vi x ly. Thong tin o bao gom so lieu hoac thong tin ieu khien. Thong tin ieu khien la 1 bit hoac 1 nhom bit dung e ch ra cac tn hieu ieu khien can cho viec quan ly so lieu. So lieu la cac so va cac thong tin c ma hoa (nh phan) khac. Trong chng nay se trnh bay cac cach bieu dien so lieu trong may tnh. Cac loai so lieu trong may tnh co the phan loai thanh cac kieu sau: Cac so dung trong cac phep toan so hoc Cac ky t dung trong viec x ly so lieu Cac ky hieu dung trong cac muc ch ac biet khac Toan bo so lieu eu c bieu dien di dang nh phan hoac c ma hoa kieu nh phan. ieu nay la do cac thanh ghi cua may tnh c lam t cac Flip flop co 2 trang thai do o no co the lu tr c so 0 hoac 1.
2.2 HE THONG SO THAP PHAN (DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

He thong so ma chung ta ang dung goi la he thong so thap phan hay he c so (base) 10. He thap phan dung 10 ch so (digit): 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Mot so gom n ch so phan nguyen va 1 ch so phan thap phan c bieu dien di dang sau: an-1 an2a1a0 . a-1 Trong o an-1 la so co trong so ln nhat: MSD (Most Significant Digit) a0 la so co trong so be nhat: LSD (Least Significant Digit) So trang thai ma mot so thap phan n digit bieu th c la 10n, ngha la mot so thap phan co 2 ch so bieu th c 100 gia tr, t 0 en 99, mot so thap phan co 4 ch so bieu th c 1000 gia tr, t 0 en 999. Gia tr bang so cua mot so thap phan c tnh nh sau: an-110n-1 + an-2 10n-2 + + a1101 + a0100 + a-110-1 V du: so 125 = 1x100 + 2x10 + 5x 1 so 45.2 = 4x10 + 5x1 + 2x10 -1 = 45.2
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Kien truc may tnh 02 2.3 HE THONG SO NH PHAN (BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM)
Trong he nh phan ch s dung 2 so la 0 va 1 e bieu th cac so. Mot so nh phan c viet di dang sau: bn-1 bn-2 b1 b 0 . b-1 Cac bi goi la cac bit (binary digit) Trong o bn-1 la bit co trong so ln nhat MSB, con b 0 la bit co trong so be nhat LSB. Gia tr bang so cua no trong he 10 c tnh nh sau: bn-12n-1+ bn-2 2n-2 + +b1 21 + b 0 20 + b-12-1 Mot so nh phan n bit co the bieu dien c 2n gia tr khac nhau. Mot so nh phan 4,5,6,7 va 8 bit co the bieu dien c 16, 32, 64, 28 va 256 trang thai (ke ca trang thai 0). Bang sau ay cho thay 8 so nh phan au tien: DECIMAL 0 1 2 3 BINARY 000 001 010 011 DECIMAL 4 5 6 7 BINARY 100 101 110 111
Lu y rang cac so khong nguyen van c bieu dien nh trong he 10. V du: 0.123 = 1x10-1 +2x10-2 + 3x 10-3 trong he 10 0.101= 1x2-1 + 0x2-2 + 1x2-3 trong he 2 Bien oi t thap phan sang nh phan Co 2 cach bien oi t thap phan sang nh phan Cach 1: Bieu dien so thap phan di dang tong cua cac tha so la boi so cua 2. Can c ket qua co c e viet ra so nh phan. v du : 1010 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 23+ 0 + 22 + 0 = 10102 Cach 2: Chia lap so thap phan cho 2 (c so cua he 2) roi viet so d theo trat t ngc lai. v du : 10 :2 = 5 d 0 LSB 5 : 2 = 2 d 1 2 : 2 = 1 d 0 1 : 2 = 0 d 1 MSB
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Ket qua la 1010 = 10102 oi vi cac so co phan thap phan (phan le) th phan thap phan c bien oi nh sau: Nhan phan thap phan vi 2 (c so cua he 2) se thu c phan nguyen va phan thap phan mi. Phan thap phan mi nay lai nhan 2 cho en khi phan thap phan bang 0 hoac khi at c o chnh xac mong muon. Cac bit sau dau cham nh phan chnh la cac phan nguyen sau moi lan nhan 2. V du1: Bien oi 8.6875 sang he 2 Phan nguyen tng ng trong he 2 la 1000 Phan thap phan 0.6875 bien oi nh sau. 0.6875 x2 1.3750 x2 0.7500 x2 1.5000 x2 1.0000 Vay 8.687510 = 1000.10112 V du 2: Bien oi 15.25 sang he 2 Bien oi tng t nh tren ta c 15.2510=1111.012
2.4 HE THONG SO BAT PHAN (OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

He thong so bat phan la he thong c so 8. Cac digit ch nhan cac gia tr t 0 en 7. Trong he bat phan khong s dung cac ch so 8 va 9. Trong may tnh ngi ta s dung he c so 8 e bieu dien so lieu, lenh hay a ch mot cach tien li hn dung he nh phan mac du may tnh ch co the lam viec vi so nh phan. Co the bien oi de dang mot so bat phan thanh mot so thap phan bang cach nhan cac digit vi trong so tng ng nh bang sau ay. 84 83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3
V du: 3728 = 3x 82 + 7x81 + 2x80 = 3x 64 +7x8 + 2 = 25010 24.68 = 2x8 + 4x1 +6x 8-1 = 20.7510
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

oi t thap phan sang bat phan. Chia lien tiep so thap phan cho 8 roi viet so d theo th t ngc. V du: 26610 266:8 = 33 d 2 LSD 33 :8 = 4 d 1 4 :8 = 0 d 4 MSD Viet ngc so d 26610 = 4128 oi t bat phan sang nh phan va ngc lai. Quan he gia bat phan va nh phan c mo ta tren bang sau. Octal Binary Equivalent 0 000 1 001 2 010 3 011 4 100 5 101 6 110 7 111
Bang nay c s dung e oi mot so Octal thanh Binary bang cach chuyen tng ng tng digit cua so Octal sang Binary 3 bit. V du: 2578 tng ng vi 010 101 111 2 e chuyen mot so nh phan thanh mot so bat phan ngi ta nhom tng 3 bit nh phan t trai sang phai roi chuyen chung thanh mot digit bat phan tng ng. V du: 100 111 001 2 tng ng vi 4 7 1 8 em trong he 8. 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 100 276, 277, 300, 301
2.5 HE THONG SO THAP LUC PHAN ( HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

HEXADECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 DECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 BINARY 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
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8 9 A B C D E F 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
He thap luc phan dung c so 16, vi 16 digit 0, 1,, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Bang tren cho thay quan he gia he c so 16, he thap phan va nh phan. Gia tr bang so cua mot so Hex tnh trong he 10 nh sau: 2AFH = 2x162 + Ax161 + Fx160 = 512 + 160 + 15 = 687 10 oi t thap phan sang thap luc phan Chia lap cho 16 roi viet so d theo trat t ngc V du: 42310 423 : 16 = 26 d 7 LSD 26 : 16 = 1 d 10 1 :16 = 0 d 1 MSD Viet ngc 42310 = 1A7H oi t nh phan sang thap luc phan va ngc lai Nhom tng nhom 4 bit cua so nh phan t phai sang trai roi chuyen tng ng tng nhom 4 bit nh phan ay sang thap luc phan. V du 1: 1001 0000 1110 0011 2 tng ng vi 9 0 D 3 H e chuyen t so Hex sang so nh phan th chuyen tng ng tng digit cua so Hex thanh so nh phan 4 bit tng ng. V du 2: 2FDH tng ng vi 0010 1111 1110 2 Cung nh he c so 8 he c so 16 la mot cach bieu dien thuan tien trong may tnh.
2.6 MA BCD
Khi cac so, cac ky t hoac cac t c bieu dien bi mot nhom cac ky hieu theo mot qui tac nao o th chung ta goi la chung c ma hoa (Encoded). Cac ky hieu ay goi la ma (Code). Chung ta biet rang mot so thap phan bat ky co the bieu dien bi mot so nh phan tng ng. So nh phan co the xem la ma bieu dien so thap phan. Khi mot so
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thap phan c bieu dien bi mot so nh phan tng ng chung ta goi la s ma hoa nh phan trc tiep. Cac he thong so luon luon dung so nh phan cho cac hoat ong ben trong nhng the gii ben ngoai lai ch dung so thap phan. V vay can phai chuyen oi gia so thap phan va nh phan mot cach thng xuyen. Nhng s chuyen oi nay se dai va phc tap oi vi cac so ln. V ly do nay nen ngi ta dung mot bo ma co kha nang chuyen oi de dang gia hai he thong nay. o la ma BCD = BCD code (Binary Coded Decimal Code). Trong ma BCD moi ch so thap c bieu dien bi mot so nh phan 4 bit tng ng vi no.V so thap phan ch gom cac so t 0 en 9 cho nen co 6 gia tr sau ay khong dung trong ma BCD: 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 va 1111. Nhng gia tr nay c dung e phat hien loi trong khi lam viec vi ma BCD. V du 1: Chuyen so thap phan 847 sang BCD 1000 0100 0111 BCD Viec chuyen so BCD sang thap phan c tien hanh tng t nh viec chuyen mot so Binary sang so Hex. V du 2: Chuyen 0110 1000 0011 BCD sang thap phan 6 8 3 10 So sanh gia BCD va BINARY BCD khong phai la mot he thong so nh cac he thong so nh phan, bat phan hay thap luc phan. BCD cung khong phai la so nh phan trc tiep. Chung ta hay so sanh 2 trng hp sau ay: 13710 = 100010012 (8 bits) 13710 = 0001 0011 0111 BCD (12 bits) u iem chu yeu cua BCD la de dang chuyen oi gia thap phan va BCD. ieu nay ac biet quan trong ve phng dien phan cng v trong may tnh cac mach logic thng xuyen phai bien oi t BCD sang thap phan va ngc lai.
2.7 MA ALPHANUMERIC
So lieu va chng trnh thng c a vao may tnh di dang alphanumeric. Co nhieu bo ma alphanumeric a c e ngh va ang c s dung rong rai trong PC.
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Khoa Vat Ly

000 CC CC CC CC CC CC CC BEL BS CC LF CC FF CR CC CC 001 CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC Bang sau ay la bang ma ASCII. 010 011 100 101 SP 0 @ P ! 1 A Q 2 B R # 3 C S $ 4 D T % 5 E U & 6 F V 7 G W ( 8 H X ) 9 I Y * : J Z + ; K [ , < L \ = M ] . > N / ? O 110 a c c d e f g h i j k l m n o 111 p q r s t u v w x y z { } ~ DEL
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Bo ma au tien do Vien chuan quoc gia cua My (The American Standard Institute) e ngh vi ten goi la ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Ma ASCII dung 7 bit nh phan (128 trang thai) e bieu dien cac so va ch, cac ky t ac biet. Cac ky t CC (Character Control) la cac ky t ieu khien. V du mot so ky t ieu khien thng dung va ASCII cua chung nh sau: ASCII KEY Name 1B ESC Escape 07 BEL Bell 08 BS Backspace 0A LF Line feed 0C FF Form feed 0D CR Carriage return 7F DEL Delete V du: A co ma ASCII la 1000001 = 41H i co ma ASCII la 1101001 = 69H * co ma ASCII la 0101010 = 2AH Space co ma ASCII la 0100000 = 20H DEL co ma ASCII la 1111111 = 7FH Trong cac may tnh IBM ngi ta dung bo ma BCD m rong (Extended BCD Interchange Code) goi la EBCDIC trong o s dung 8 bit nh phan e ma hoa cac so va ch.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 2.8 HE THONG SO CO DAU CHAM ONG (FLOATING-POINT NUMBER SYSTEM)
Trong cac phan trc chung ta a mo ta cac he thong so vi dau cham co nh (fixed point). Khi may tnh tnh toan tren cac so kieu nay, cac phep toan c goi la so hoc vi dau cham co nh (fixed point arithmetic). Trong khoa hoc thng phai tnh toan vi nhng so rat ln hoac rat be, v vay cac nha khoa hoc e ngh mot cach bieu dien so di dang. N=MxBE (1) Trong bieu thc (1): M la phan nh tr (mantissa, significand or fraction) E la so mu (exponent) B la c so (base cua he thong so. Viec bieu dien cac so di dang (1) se thuan tien khi tnh toan . V du: ( ax10m ) x ( bx10n ) = axbx10m+n ( ax10m ) : ( bx10n ) = (a/b)x10m-n ( ax10m ) + ( bx10n ) = (a+b)x10m neu m=n . Viec lam cho m=n goi la m rong so (scaling number). Ro rang rang kho co the at c o chnh xac oi vi cac so qua ln hoac qua be. e giai quyet van e nay ngi ta dung 2 ky thuat sau ay: Tren may tnh dung mot chng trnh con dau cham ong (Floating-point routines) e scaling cac so nham at c o chnh xac mong muon. Chng trnh con nay ch s dung tren cac may tnh ch co cac phep toan dau cham co nh (fixed-point operations) Them cac phep toan dau cham ong (floating-point operations) vao phan cng may tnh. Mach logic cua may tnh se thc hien scaling t ong va theo doi so mu khi tnh toan. e lam c viec nay ngi ta dung he thong so dau cham ong (floating-point system). So co dau cham ong tren may tnh dung he so mu nh a mo ta tren ay. Trong khi tnh toan, may tnh theo doi ca phan mu lan phan nh tr. Mot v du ien hnh cho cac may tnh co mach thc hien cac phep toan dau cham ong la may tnh IBM. Mot so dau cham ong theo IBM gom 3 phan: Bit dau (signal bit): ch ra so am hay so dng . Phan so mu: goi la charateristic. Phan nh tr: goi la fraction. Hnh ve sau ay la dang cua mot so dau cham ong trong IBM PC co o dai t 32 bit (hoac 64 bit). 0 1 7 831(863) S Charateritics Fraction Bit au tien ben trai la bit dau S. Bit dau bang 0 la so dng, bit dau bang 1 la so am.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Cac bit t 1 en 7 la phan ac trng (Charateritic) goi la C. Gia tr bang so thap phan cua C la t 0 en 127. Cac bit t 8 en 31 (trong may co o dai t la 32 bit) va t 8 en 63 (trong may co o dai t 64 bit) goi la phan nh tr (phan sau dau cham). Gia tr bang so trong he 10 c tnh nh sau: (-1)S x 16C-64 x Fraction vi C la gia tr thap phan tng ng cua phan Characteritic. V du 1: so dau cham ong 0 1000001 11100 co gia tr bang : +1665-64x7/8 = +14 V du 2 : so co dau cham ong 1 1000011 1100 co gia tr bang : - 1667-64x3/4 = - 3072 Hau het cac PC ngay nay eu s dung chuan IEEE 754 (Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers) cho so hoc dau cham ong nh phan (binary floating-point Arithmetic) theo nguyen ly che so 1 (hidden 1 principle) trong phan he so. Dang tong quat cua mot so dau cham ong theo nguyen ly che so 1 nh sau. S (1 bit) E (8 bit hoac 11 bit) F (23 hoac 52 bit)
Gia tr bang so cua so dau cham ong theo nguyen tac an so 1 la: V=(-1)Sx2E-127x1.F cho so dai 32 bit V=(-1)Sx2E-1023x1.F cho so dai 64 bit Sau ay la vai v du. V du 1: So co dau cham ong 32 bit Floating-point format (Hex) 3F800000 BF800000 40400000 V du 2: So co dau cham ong 64 bit Floating-point format(HEX) 3FD000...00 C03E00..00 401C0000 (-1)Sx2E-1023x1.F 1x2-2x1.0 -1x24x1.875 1x22x1.75 Decimal value 0.25 -30 7 (-1)Sx2E-127x1.F 1x20x1.0 -1x20x1.0 1x21x1.5 Decimal value +1 -1 +3
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 2.9 PHNG PHAP CHAN LE ( PARITY METHODE )
Co mot phng phap c dung pho bien e tm loi trong qua trnh truyen so lieu la phng phap chan le. Ngi ta them 1 bit chan le (parity bit) vao au hoac cuoi day so lieu c truyen i. Thong thng bit chan le c them vao v tr MSB. Gia s ngi ta can truyen i so lieu di dang ma ASCII 7 bit, bit chan le se c them vao nh hnh sau: parity bit b6 B5 b4 b3 B2 b1 b0
Co 2 kieu chan le la: Chan le chan (even parity): Bit chan le c them vao sao cho tong so con so 1 (ke ca bit chan le) la mot so chan. Chan le le (odd parity): Bit chan le c them vao sao cho tong so con so 1 (ke ca bit chan le) la mot so le. Gia s can truyen i chuoi ky t HELLO theo phng phap chan le chan. Tai may phat se phai truyen i chuoi ky t sau (bit chan le tai LSB). H E L L O 01001000 1100 0101 11001100 11001100 11001111
Tai may thu sau khi nhan c chuoi ky t, mot mach logic se kiem tra tong so con so 1 xem co phai la so chan hay khong. Neu tong so con so 1 la so chan th so lieu la bnh thng. Neu tong so con so 1 la so le th so lieu a b sai trong qua trnh truyen. Luc nay may thu se yeu cau may phat truyen lai neu thay can thiet. Phng phap chan le ch tm c loi n. e phat hien cac loi nhieu bit phai s dung ma Hamming.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
CHNG 3 : CONG LOGIC & MACH SO

Trong chng nay chung ta cung se xem xet viec s dung ai so Bool e mo ta va phan tch cac mach logic. Mot phan cua chng nay se trnh bay cac mach so thng c s dung trong ky thuat may tnh. Noi dung cua chng nay la c s e tm hieu hoat ong cua bo ALU se c trnh bay chng 4.
3.1 AI SO BOOL
ai so Bool la c s toan hoc cua cac phep tnh tren so nh phan. Khac vi ai so thong thng trong ai so Bool cac hang va bien ch nhan 2 gia tr 0 va 1. Mot bien Bool la mot ai lng ma tai mot thi iem ch co the bang 0 hoac 1. Mot bien Bool thng dung e bieu dien mc ien the (Voltage Level) tren mot ng day hoac tai cac cong xuat nhap cua may tnh. V du, trong cac may tnh, gia tr 0 co the c gan cho cac ien the trong dai t 0 en 0.8 V, trong khi gia tr 1 c gan cho cac ien the trong khoang t 2 en 5V. Cac ien the trong khoang t 0.8 en 2V la khong xac nh. Nh vay la cac bien Bool khong bieu dien cac so chnh xac ma no ch dung e bieu dien trang thai hay che o cua cac ai lng vat ly ma ngi ta goi la mc logic ( Logic Level). Mot ien the tren mot mach so co the goi la mc 0 (level 0) hoac mc 1 (level 1) phu thuoc vao gia tr bang so thc te cua no. Trong lnh vc logic so, logic 0 va logic 1 c dung e mo ta cac trang thai sau: LOGIC 0 LOGIC 1 False True Off On Low High No Yes Open switch Close switch ai so Bool la c s toan hoc e thc hien cac phep toan tren bien Bool. Chung ta se dung cac ch cai e bieu th cac bien Bool nh trong ai so thong thng. Cac bien co the viet thng hoac viet hoa. V du bien a, A, b, B. Tai moi thi iem moi bien ch co the nhan gia tr 0 hoac 1. So vi ai so thong thng ai so Bool n gian hn. Trong ai so Bool khong co phan so, khong co so mu, khong co so am, khong co khai can, khong co logarith, khong co so ao ai so Bool ch co 3 phep toan c ban sau: a. Phep cong logic, goi la phep OR, ky hieu bi dau + b. Phep nhan logic, goi la phep AND, ky hieu bi dau *
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

b. Phep bu hoac ao logic, goi la phep NOT, ky hieu bi dau gach ngang tren au (over bar)
3.2 BANG S THAT (TRUTH TABLE)

Mach logic (Logic Circuit) la thiet b phan cng gom nhieu loi vao (Inputs) va thong thng co 1 loi ra (Output). Cac gia tr vao va ra la cac gia tr logic ma tai 1 thi iem co the nhan gia tr 0 hoac 1. Bang s that cho biet loi ra cua mach logic se thay oi ra sao khi cac loi vao thay oi trang thai cua chung. Sau ay la dang cua bang s that cua mach logic co 3 bien:A, B va C. A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F x x x x x x x x
Trong trng hp ch co 2 bien A va B, bang s that co dang:
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
F x x x x
Cac bien vao la A, B, C bien ra la F. Trong cac bang s that, to hp cac bien vao c xep t be en ln theo gia tr nh phan, con gia tr cua loi ra F la cha xac nh (anh dau x) v con tuy thuoc vao mach cu the.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 3.3 PHEP CONG LOGIC (OR)

Gia s rang A va B la 2 bien logic oc lap. Phep cong logic gia 2 bien A va B bieu dien nh sau: F = A+B oc la F bang A hoac B Trong bieu thc nay dau cong khong phai la cong ai so thong thng ma la phep cong logic theo qui tac c phan anh trong bang s that sau.
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
F = A+B 0 1 1 1
ac iem cua phep cong la ch can mot trong cac bien vao bang 1 th loi ra bang1. Ch khi tat ca cac bien vao bang 0 th loi ra mi bang 0. Cong OR . Trong mach so, mot cong OR la mot mach ien t co 2 hoac nhieu loi vao ma loi ra la OR cua tat ca cac loi vao. Hnh ve 3-1 la ky hieu cua cong OR co 2 loi vao.
Hnh 3-1: Cong OR Hoat ong cua cong OR nh sau: Loi ra se co mc logic cao (1) neu nh mot trong so cac loi vao co mc logic cao (1). Cong OR se cho mc logic thap (0) neu nh tat ca cac loi vao co mc logic thap (0).
3.4 PHEP AND LOGIC

Phep nhan gia 2 bien A va B, ket qua bang F c bieu dien nh sau: F = A.B = AB oc la A va B Bang s that cua phep nhan 2 bien A, B c mo ta tren hnh sau.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 F = AB 0 0 0 1
Cong AND Cong AND 2 bien vao c bieu dien tren hnh 3-2.
Hnh 3-2: Cong AND
Hoat ong cua cong AND nh sau: Cong AND hoat ong giong nh phep nhan thng gia 1 va 0 Loi ra bang 1 ch khi tat ca cac loi vao eu bang 1 Loi ra bang 0 khi mot trong cac loi vao bang 0
3.5 PHEP BU (NOT OPERATION)

Phep toan bu khong giong nh phep OR va AND phai can t 2 bien tr len. Phep bu ch can mot bien n. V du, neu A la bien th phep lay bu cua A co the bieu dien nh sau: F = A oc la F bang A ao Phep ao con goi la phep lay bu ( complement) ay dau ao e bieu th phep toan phu nh. Ro rang rang neu A = 0 th F=A =1 neu A=1 th F = A = 0 Cong NOT (inverter) Hnh 3-3 la ky hieu cua cong NOT (ao) hay con goi la Inverter.
Hnh 3-3: Cong NOT Cong NOT ch co mot loi vao va mot loi ra ma mc logic loi ra luon
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

luon ao ngc vi mc logic loi vao F = A.
3.6 MO TA MACH LOGIC BANG AI SO BOOL

Mot mach logic bat ky, cho du phc tap en au, cung co the mo ta bang cach dung ai so Bool. Cac cong logic OR, AND va NOT la cac cong c ban xay dng nen cac mach logic. V du chung ta xet mach logic tren hnh hnh 3-4. A AB F B C Hnh 3-4 Mach nay co 3 bien vao A, B va C. Loi ra la F. De dang thay c bieu thc loi ra cua mach se la: F = AB + C Bieu thc loi ra cua cong AND la AB. Loi ra cua cong AND lai noi ti loi vao cua cong OR . V vay loi ra cuoi cung F = AB + C. e tranh hieu lam, oi khi ngi ta s dung dau ngoac n trong bieu thc. ieu nay cung giong nh qui tac trong ai so thng e qui nh trat t phep toan. Chung ta hay xem xet hnh 3-5 sau ay:
Hnh 3-5 Ket qua F = (A+B)C. ay neu khong s dung dau ngoac n se gay hieu lam la lay B AND vi C roi OR vi A. Mach logic co cha cong ao Khi mot cong ao hien dien tren s o mach logic, th loi ra cua no ch n gian la ao cua bien vao. Xet s o hnh 3-6.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
A B
F Hnh 3-6 F=A +B
A B
Hnh 3-7 F = A+B
3.7 TNH GIA TR CUA MOT BIEU THC BOOL

Khi co c mot bieu thc ai so Bool cho mot mach logic ta co the c lng de dang gia F oi vi moi to hp kha d cua cac bien. V du: Cho bieu thc Bool F = ABC(A+D) Tnh F , biet A=0, B=1, C=1 va D=1. Cung nh trong ai so thng, co the at gia tr cac bien vao bieu thc Bool e tnh. Ket qua nh sau: F= = = = = 0.1.1(0+1) 1.1.1( 0+1) 1.1.1 (1) 1.0 0
3.8 THC HIEN MACH LOGIC T BIEU THC BOOL

Co the thc hien mot mach logic trc tiep t bieu thc Bool. V du e thc hien mach logic theo bieu thc F = ABC, co the dung mot cong AND 3 loi vao. e thc hien mach F = A+ B th can mot cong ao (cho A) va mot cong OR. Mach thc hien ham F = AC + BC + ABC cho tren hnh 3-8.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 3-8
3.9 CONG NOR, NAND VA XOR

Ngoai cac cong OR, AND va NOT con co 3 loai cong khac cung c s dung pho bien trong may tnh o la NOR, NAND va XOR. Cong NOR Ky hieu cong NOR giong nh cong OR ch co khac la no co mot vong tron nho loi ra (hnh 3-9) e ch ra rang: Cong NOR gom mot cong OR va mot cong NOT.
Hnh 3-9: Cong NOR Bang s that cho cong NOR nh sau: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 A+B 0 1 1 1 A+B 1 0 0 0
Loi ra NOR ch trang thai 1 khi tat ca cac loi vao eu trang thai 0. Cong NAND Ky hieu cua mot cong NAND 2 loi vao ch ra tren hnh ve 3-10
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 3-10: Cong NAND
NAND hoan toan giong cong AND ch khac la co mot vong tron loi ra e ch ra rang phai thc hien phep ao. Noi cach khac NAND giong nh mot cong AND va theo sau la mot cong INVERTER. Bang s that cua NAND nh sau:
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
AB 0 0 0 1
AB 1 1 1 0
Loi ra cua cong AND se len cao khi tat ca cac loi vao eu cao, trong khi o loi ra cua cong NAND se len cao khi co mot loi vao mc thap.
Cong XOR Cong XOR (Exclusive - OR) c thc hien t cac 2 cong AND, 2 cong NOT va 1 cong OR theo s o noi sau ay:
Hnh 3-11: S o noi ben trong cong XOR
Hnh 3-12: Ky hieu cong XOR
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Bang s that cua XOR nh sau. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 A+B 0 1 1 1 A B 0 1 1 0
Tnh chat cua XOR la neu 2 bien vao giong nhau (cung bang 0 hoac cung bang 1) th loi ra bang 0, neu 2 bien vao khac nhau th loi ra se bang 1. Ngi ta s dung ket qua nay e so sanh 2 bit vi nhau. Mach XOR cung c dung e phat hien loi theo phng phap kiem tra chan le trong cac qua trnh truyen so lieu.
3.10 CAC NH LY BOOL

a) Cac nh ly Bool cho bien n Trong cac nh ly sau, x la bien Bool no co the nhan gia tr 0 hoac 1. Co 8 nh ly Bool mot bien nh bang sau. x.0=0 x.x=x x+0=x x+x=x x.1=x x.x=0 x+1=1 x+x=1
b) Cac nh ly Bool nhieu bien Trong cac nh ly sau ay x, y, z la cac bien. x+y x.y x+ (y+z) x(yz) x(y+z) = y+x = y.x Hoan v phep cong Hoan v phep nhan Trao oi phep cong Trao oi phep nhan Khai trien phep cong Khai trien phep nhan
= (x+y)+z = (xy)z = xyz = xy + xz wy+wz+xy+xz
(w+x)(y+z) =
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

x+xy x+xy = = x+y x Nhom phep cong
nh ly cuoi cung co the kiem tra bang cach th so. Cac nh ly Bool co the dung e n gian cac bieu thc. Sau ay la vai v du minh hoa. V du 1: n gian bieu thc F = ABD + ABD Nhom so hang AB th F = AB( D+D ) =AB V du 2: n gian bieu thc F = ( A+B )(A+B ) F = AA + AB + BA +BB = AB+BA+B = B( A+A +1 ) = B
3.11 NH LY DE MORGAN
Nha toan hoc De Morgan co hai nh ly co y ngha rat quan trong trong ai so Bool. Chung c phat bieu di dang 2 bieu thc sau: ( x+y ) (x.y) = x. y = x + y
Co the phat bieu nh ly nh sau: Phu nh cua mot tong bang tch cac phu nh. Phu nh cua mot tch bang tong cac phu nh. Mac du nh ly c phat bieu cho x va y la cac bien n song no cung c ap dung cho cac trng hp x va y la to hp bat ky cua cac bien Bool. Ngi ta s dung cac nh ly DeMorgan e n gian cac bieu thc . V du: n gian bieu thc sau: F = (A+C).(B+D) Bien oi tch hai so hang thanh tong ta co: F = (A+C) + ( B+ D) = ( A.C) + ( B.D ) = A .C + B.D
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 3.12 THIET KE MACH LOGIC TO HP

Trong nhieu trng hp can phai xay dng mach logic theo mot yeu cau nao o. Cong viec can phai tien hanh la: a. Xac nh noi dung cua bai toan b. Xay dng bang s that mo ta bai toan c. Tm bieu thc logic cho bang s that theo cac bc sau. viet so hang AND cha cac bien vao oi vi cac trng hp F=1 cac bien trong so hang AND co the dang ao hoac khong ao tuy vao gia tr bang 0 hoac bang 1 tat ca cac so hang AND c OR vi nhau e co c bieu thc cua F. n gian bieu thc cua F d. Xay dng mach logic thc hien bieu thc F V du: Xay dng mot mach logic co 3 bien vao sao cho khi co 2 trong so 3 loi vao mc 1 th loi ra mc 1. T noi dung bai toan ta co bang s that sau. A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 F 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
F = ABC+ABC +ABC+ABC Co the n gian bieu thc nay theo mot vai cach . Cach nhanh nhat la viet ABC 3 lan nh sau: F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= BC( A+A) + AC(B+B ) + AB(C+C) = BC+AC+AB Mach nay c thc hien tren hnh 3-13. Co the viet F di dang sau: F = C( B+A)+AB
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Mach cho bieu thc nay c thc hien nh hnh 3-14. Trong thiet ke mach ngi ta chon kieu 3-14 v no t day noi hn 3-13 va co toc o thc hien nhanh hn.
Hnh 3-13
Hnh 3-14
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 3.13 N GIAN HAM BOOL BANG PHNG PHAP AI SO
Mot bieu thc Bool co the c n gian e tr thanh mot bieu thc cha t nhat cac so hang va cac bien do o co the thc hien mach logic vi so cong t nhat. e minh hoa, mach hnh 3-15 co the n gian thanh mach 3-16. Ro rang rang viec thc hien mach theo 3-16 n gian hn 3-15 nhieu.
Hnh 3-15
Hnh 3-16 Co 3 phng phap n gian mach logic. n gian bang phng phap ai so n gian bang phng phap bang Karnaugh n gian bang phng phap Mc Cluskey Trong khuon kho cua giao trnh nay chung ta se ch xem xet phng phap ai so. e n gian mach bang phng phap ai so ta dung cac nh ly cua ai so Bool, nh ly De Morgan va theo 2 bc sau ay: Viet bieu thc di dang tong cua cac so hang AND cua cac bien. Nhom va c lc cac so hang neu co the e thu c bieu thc cuoi cung n gian nhat. V du 1: n gian bieu thc F = ABC + A B (A C) Khai trien bieu thc thanh tong cac so hang AND nh sau: F = ABC + A B (A+C)
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

= ABC + ABA + ABC = ABC + AB + A B C = AC(B + B) + AB = AC + AB = A( C+ B) V du 2: n gian bieu thc F = ABC + ABC + A B C Co 2 cach e n gian bieu thc nay Cach 1: F = AB ( C+ C ) + ABC = AB + ABC = A( B + B C) = A(B + C) Cach 2: Co the viet lai bieu thc di dang sau: F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = AB ( C+C) + AC ( B+B) = A( B+C)
3.14 CAC MACH SO

Phan cng may tnh c xay dng t cac mach logic to hp ma chung c cau tao t cac cong logic. Trong may tnh, cac cong logic c dung e tao ra cac mach chc nang ma nong cot la cac thiet b sau: Flip- flop (FF) Mach em (Counter) Thanh ghi (Register). Phan sau ay se trnh bay mot cach s lc cac thiet b nay.
3.15 FLIP - FLOP

Thiet b c ban e lu gi thong tin tren may tnh la Flip-flop (FF). Co nhieu loai FF va mach thc hien chung. FF co cac ac iem sau.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

FF la thiet b ma loi ra cua no (X hoac X ) co 2 trang thai ben la trang thai 0 (0 state) va trang thai 1 (1 state). Nh tnh chat nay ma FF co the nh hay lu gi 1 bit thong tin. FF co the co nhieu loi vao va 2 loi ra ma trang thai logic cua chung phu nh lan nhau. Hnh 3-17 la s o khoi cua mot FF co ten goi la FF RS. R X
S Hnh 3-17: FF RS
ay. Moi FF co mot ten. Ten thng dung la mot ch cai nh X, Y, A hay B. Flip Flop tren hnh 3-17 goi la FF X. FF X co 2 loi ra la X va X ma chung co trang thai logic luon luon phu nh nhau. Trang thai cua FF la trang thai cua X. Nh vay neu loi ra X =1, chung ta noi rang FF X la trang thai 1. Tng t neu X =0, chung ta noi FF X trang thai 0. Co 2 loi vao tren FF RS. Nhng loi vao nay e ieu khien trang thai cua FF, chung ta goi chung la cac loi vao ieu khien . Cac loi vao ieu khien anh hng en trang thai ra cua FF nh bang s that sau. S 1 0 0 1 R 0 0 1 1 X 1 gi 0 cam
FF RS co 2 loi vao la R va S, 2 loi ra la X va X. e mo ta va phan tch hoat ong cua FF, chung ta s dung cac quy c sau
Loi vao S la loi vao at (Set), con loi vao R la loi vao xoa (Reset). RS FF dung 2 cong NOR mac theo s o hnh 3-18.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 3-18: FF RS
3.16 ONG HO VA FF CO ONG HO

a) Khai niem ong ho
Cac he thong so co the hoat ong che o ong bo (Synchronously) hoac che o khong ong bo (Asynchronously). Trong he thong khong ong bo, loi ra cua mach logic co the thay oi trang thai tai mot thi iem bat ky khi co s thay oi cua loi vao ieu khien. Trong he thong ong bo, loi ra cua mach logic ch thay oi trang thai khi va ch khi co mot tn hieu chung goi la ong ho (Clock). Tn hieu ong ho la mot chuoi xung hnh vuong nh hnh ve 3-19.
Hnh 3-19: Tn hieu ong ho Loi ra cua cac he thong ong bo ch thay oi trang thai khi co s chuyen (transition) cua tn hieu ong ho. S chuyen trang thai ch ra tren hnh ve 3-20.
Hnh 3-20: Xung ong ho vi cac sn chuyen PGT va NGT Khi ong ho thay oi t 0 len 1 goi la s chuyen mc dng (positive going transition - PGT). Khi ong ho chuyen t 1 ve 0 goi la s chuyen mc am (negative going transition - NGT).
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

b) FF co ong ho (Clocked Flip - Flops)
Trong FF co ong ho, ngoai cac au vao ieu khien con co loi vao ong ho, goi la CLK, CK hoac CP. ong ho co the lam cho loi ra chuyen trang thai tai PGT hoac NGT. Neu ong ho tac ong PGT ta ve tn hieu ong ho i thang vi 1 mui ten. Neu ong ho tac ong NGT ta ve dau tron trc mui ten nh hnh ve 3-21.
Hnh 3-21: FF co ong ho tac ong sn am FF SC co ong ho
Hnh ve 3-22 la s o FF SC co ong ho loai PGT
Hnh 3-22: S o kho FF SC Bang s that cho FF SC co ong ho tac dung sn dng nh sau. S 0 1 0 1 C 0 0 1 1 CLK X No change 1 0 Ambiguous
Bang s that cho FF SC co ong ho tac dung sn am nh sau. S 0 1 0 1 C 0 0 1 1 CLK X No change 1 0 Ambiguous
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

FF JK co ong ho
Hnh 3-23 ch ra s o mot FF JK hoat ong sn dng cua ong ho. Cac loi vao ieu khien J K co vai tro giong nh cac loi vao S C cua FF SC. Ch co mot ieu khac biet la khi J=K=1 th FF JK lien tuc thay oi trang thai khi co xung ong ho.
Hnh 3-23: FF JK Bang s that cho FF JK nh sau: J K CLK X 0 0 No change 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 Toggles Cung co FF JK kch bang sn am cua xung ong ho. FF D (delay FF) Hnh 3-24 ch ra ky hieu va bang s that cua FF D kch bang sn dng cua xung ong ho.
D 1 0
CLK
Q 1 0
Hnh 3-24: FF D Khong giong nh FF JK, FF D ch co mot loi vao ieu khien ong bo la D (data). Hoat ong cua FF D rat n gian: Q se nhan gia tr cua D trc khi co ong ho. FF D co the lam t FF SC hoac FF JK bang cach s dung mot cong ao nh hnh ve 3-25.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 3-25: FF D t SC FF
c) Cac loi vao khong ong bo

Trong cac FF chung ta a xem xet trc ay, cac loi vao S, C, J, K, D goi la cac loi vao ieu khien (control inputs). Nhng loi vao nay con goi la loi vao ong bo (synchronous inputs) bi v anh hng cua chung len loi ra ong bo vi loi vao ong ho. Hau het cac FF co mot hay nhieu loi vao khong ong bo (asynchronous inputs) ma hoat ong cua chung khong phu thuoc vao ong ho va cac tn hieu vao ong bo. Nhng tn hieu nay dung e at FF len 1 hoac xoa FF ve 0 tai mot thi iem bat ky khong phu thuoc vao trang thai cua cac loi vao khac. Hnh 3-26 la s o FF JK co 2 loi vao bat ong bo la DC SET va DC CLEAR Hai loi vao nay eu tac ong thap. Ngi ta dung cac ky hieu sau e ch cac loi vao khong ong bo . DC SET, SET Direct (SD), PRESET (PRE): at 1 cho FF DC CLEAR, CLEAR Direct (CD) hay CLEAR (CLR): xoa ve 0 cho FF
Hnh 3-26: FF JK vi cac loi vao ieu khien khong ong bo
3.17 NG DUNG CUA FF

a)Lu tr va truyen so lieu:
FF thng c dung e lu tr va truyen so lieu. Cac so lieu co the dang nh phan, BCD. Cac so lieu co the c lu tr tren mot nhom cac FF goi la thanh ghi (register). So lng bit tren 1 thanh ghi bang so FF.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Hoat ong thng xuyen oi vi so lieu c lu gi tren thanh ghi la chuyen so lieu. Viec chuyen so lieu bao gom chuyen so lieu gia cac FF hoac gia cac thanh ghi vi nhau. Hnh 3-27 la mach truyen so lieu gia cac FF loai SC, JK va D. Trong tng trng hp, gia tr nh phan c lu gi trong thanh ghi A c truyen cho thanh ghi B tai PGT cua xung chuyen ( transfer pulse).
Hnh 3-27: Truyen so lieu noi tiep gia cac thanh ghi Hnh 3-28 la s o truyen so lieu song song gia hai thanh ghi X va Y. Moi thanh ghi co 3 bit. Mach nay goi la mach chuyen so lieu song song (parallel transfer) do X1X2X3 c chuyen ong thi en Y1Y2Y3. Neu viec chuyen noi tiep c thc hien th noi dung cua thanh ghi X c chuyen tng bit mot cho thanh ghi Y.
Hnh 3-28: Truyen so lieu song song gia 2 thanh ghi 3 bit Truyen so lieu noi tiep . Thanh ghi dch
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Hnh 3-29 la mot thanh ghi dch (shift register) 4 bit. So lieu c truyen theo kieu noi tiep trong thanh ghi khi co xung chuyen. Thanh ghi dch nay c to chc t 4 FF JK. Data c a vao FF au tien. Gia s ban au trang thai cua thanh ghi la 0000. Xung ong ho au tien d lieu c truyen ti FF th nhat. Sau 3 xung ong ho, d lieu c chuyen en FF cuoi cung . Hnh 3-30 la s o truyen so lieu noi tiep gia thanh ghi X va thanh ghi Y. Sau moi xung ong ho d lieu c dch sang phai 1 bit nh bang sau: X2 1 0 0 0 X1 0 1 0 0 X0 1 0 1 0 Y2 0 1 0 1 Y1 0 0 1 0 Y0 0 0 0 1
Trc khi co xung ong ho Sau xung th nhat Sau xung th hai Sau xung th ba
Hnh 3-29: Thanh ghi dch 4 bit
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Hnh 3-30: Truyen so lieu noi tiep gia 2 thanh ghi 3 bit
b) Mach em (counter)
Mach em la thiet b nhan xung em loi vao. Loi ra cua mach em co the la so nh phan hay BCD. Trang thai loi ra phan anh so xung em xuat hien loi vao cua bo em. Co nhieu kieu bo em khac nhau, sau ay ta se xet mot vai loai bo em thong dung. Bo em nh phan Bo em nh phan (Binary Counter) la bo em ma ma so loi ra la so nh phan. Bo em nh phan cau tao t cac FF. Mot bo em nh phan co loi ra n bit th can n FF.
D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Hnh 3-31: Bo em nh phan 4 bit B A Number of clock 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 3 0 0 4 0 1 5 1 0 6 1 1 7 0 0 8 0 1 9 1 0 10 1 1 11 0 0 12 0 1 13
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 14 15 16 (recycles)
Hnh 3-31 la s o bo em nh phan khong ong bo 4 bit.Cac FF dung loai JK. Vi 4 bit bo em se em c 24 =16 trang thai. Mot chu trnh em se ket thuc tai xung th 15, xung th 16 bo em se bat au lai chu trnh em mi. Bo em tren hnh 3-31 goi la bo em khong ong bo (asynchronous counter) v moi FF ong vai tro nh la ong ho cho cac FF tiep theo. S khong ong bo la cho: Cac FF khong thay oi trang thai vao thi iem co xung ong ho. Ch FF A thay oi trang thai khi co ong ho, con FF B thay oi trang thai khi FF A thay oi. Bo em tren ay con goi la bo em MOD N=2n. ay n la so FF tham gia trong bo em. Bo em vi so trang thai < 2n Neu noi bo em vi n FF th co the em c N = 2n trang thai. e mach ch en vi so trang thai < 2n th an phai kiem soat trang thai theo cach sau ay: S dung ng day CLR e RESET bo em tng ng vi trang thai mong muon. V du e mach em 10 (t 0 en 9) th can phai co mach theo doi trang thai loi ra sao cho khi xuat hien trang thai 10 = 10102 th can RESET bo em. Co the s dung mach nh hnh 3-32.
Hnh 3-32: Kiem soat trang thai cho bo em 10 Mach em xuong (down counter) Trong mot so trng hp can phai em xuong t mot gia tr cho trc. e thc hien viec nay can phai s dung mach em xuong nh hnh 3-33.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 3-33: Mach em xuong 3 bit Mach em nay co s o noi nh mach em len 3 bit khong ong bo, ch khac la loi ra ao cua cac FF A va FF B c a en loi vao ong ho cua cac FF B va FF C. Gia s trang thai ban au cua bo em la 000. Xung ong ho th nhat lam cho bo em co gia tr loi ra la 111. Xung ong ho tiep theo, ket qua cua bo em la 110. C tiep tuc nh vay cho en xung ong ho th 7, trang thai loi ra cua bo em la 000. Xung ong ho th 8, trang thai bo em la 111 va mot chu trnh em mi c bat au.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
CHNG 4: BO LOGIC SO HOC (ALU)

Bo logic va so hoc cua may tnh la mot bo phan thuoc vi x ly. Hoat ong cua ALU do bo ieu khien ch dan, con so lieu cho cac phep tnh cua ALU c cung cap t bo nh. ALU thc hien mot loat cac phep tnh tren so lieu ma c ban la thc hien cac phep cong, tr, nhan, chia. Trong chng nay chung ta se xem xet nhng nguyen ly c ban can thiet e hieu hoat ong cua bo ALU trong may tnh ve phng dien phan cng khi no thc hien cac phep toan cong, tr nh phan, cung nh cac phep toan tren so BCD va so Hex.
4.1 CAU TRUC CUA ALU

ALU cua vi x ly bao gom cac thanh ghi, cac mach logic. Trong trng hp n gian ALU bao gom: 2 thanh ghi ( A va B) e cha cac toan hang cua phep toan . Mot mach logic c ieu khien bi bo ieu khien nham thc hien phep toan mong muon. 1 thanh ghi (C) e cha ket qua. Cac thanh ghi A, B, C co the la mot trong cac thanh ghi cua vi x ly nh thanh ghi tch luy (accumulator), cac thanh ghi dung chung (general registers).
4.2 BO CONG NH PHAN

e tien hanh cong 2 so nh phan can phai dung bo cong (adder). Co 5 trng hp kha d oi vi phep cong nh phan, o la: 0+0=0 0+1=1 1+0=1 1+1=10 = 0 nh 1 sang bit co trong so ln hn . 1+1+1=11=1 nh 1 sang bit co trong so ln hn. Trng hp cuoi cung xay ra khi cong 2 bit 1 va co nh 1 t bit co trong so be hn. Sau ay la vai v du: 011(3) +110(6) 1001(9) 1001(9) +1111(5) 11000(24) 11.011(3.375) +10.110(2.750) 110.001(6.125)
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Khong can thiet phai xem xet phep cong cua nhieu so nh phan v may tnh ch thc hien phep cong cua 2 so nh phan cung mot luc. Khi co nhieu hn 2 so c cong th may tnh se cong 2 so vi nhau roi lay ket qua o cong vi so tiep theo. Phep cong la phep tnh so hoc quan trong nhat trong may tnh. Nh chung ta se thay sau nay phep tr, phep nhan va phep chia cuoi cung eu quy ve phep cong.
a) Bo cong nh phan mot na (half-adder)

Trc het xet phep cong nh phan gia 2 bit va khong co bit nh vao. Trng hp nay goi la phep cong nh phan mot na. Gia s 2 bien la X va Y. Tong la S va C la bit nh ra. S dung bai toan thiet ke mach logic chng 3, ta co s o khoi mach cong mot na nh hnh 4-1. X Half-adder S
Y C Hnh 4-1: S o khoi bo cong nh phan mot na Bang s that cho phep cong nh phan mot na nh sau: X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 S 0 1 1 0 C 0 0 0 1
T bang s that, de dang suy ra: S= X Y va C=XY. Mach logic thc hien phep cong nh phan mot na ve tren hnh 4-2.
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Hnh 4-2: Mach cong nh phan mot na
b) Bo cong ay u ( Full - adder)

Bo cong mot na tren cha tnh en kha nang co bit nh vao khi cong 2 bit nh phan. Hay xet v du sau: 1011 1110 0101 tong rieng 11 bit nh 11001 tong cuoi cung S kien co bit nh vao trong khi cong 2 bit phai c tnh ti trong phep cong nh phan. Luc nay phai s dung bo cong ay u nh s o khoi hnh 4-3. X Y Ci Full adder Co S
Hnh 4-3: Bo cong nh phan ay u e xac nh S va C0, chung ta lai s dung bai toan thiet ke mach logic chng 3. Trc het xay dng bang s that mo ta phep cong ay u nh sau:
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

X 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Ci 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 S 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 Co 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
T bang s that, viet bieu thc cho S va C0. Sau khi n gian, ta thu c: S = X Y Ci Co = XY + Ci(XY) Co the dung cac cong XOR, AND va OR e thc hien mach cong nh phan ay u. Nhng neu lu y en bieu thc logic cho mach cong mot na tren, chung ta co the dung 2 mach cong nh phan mot na ghep lai va them mot cong OR e co c manh cong nh phan ay u nh hnh 4-4.
Hnh 4-4: Mach cong ay u
4.3 BIEU DIEN SO CO DAU

Trong may tnh, so nh phan c bieu dien bi tap hp cac thiet b lu tr nh phan (cac flip flop). Mot thanh ghi 8 bit bieu dien 1 so nh phan 8 bit. S bieu dien nh vay goi la bieu dien gia tr cua so. Tuy nhien can phai co cach e bieu dien cac so co dau. e bieu dien dau ngi ta dung them 1 bit goi la dau (sign bit). Bit dau
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

thng c them vao v tr MSB. Bit dau co gia tr bang 0 oi vi so dng, bang 1 oi vi so am. V du sau ay cho thay bieu dien so +52 va -52 (bit A6 la bit dau). A6 0 A6 1 A5 1 A5 1 A4 1 A4 1 A3 0 A3 0 A2 1 A2 1 A1 0 A1 0 A0 0 A0 0
Cach bieu dien cac so co dau nh tren ay goi la bieu dien bien o- dau, tuy nhien may tnh khong s dung cach bieu dien nay v mach logic e thc hien cac phep toan tren chung rat phc tap. Thay vao o ngi ta s dung rong rai he bu 2 (2s complement system ) cua so nh phan. So bu 2 cua mot so nh phan co c t so nh phan nguyen thuy (original binary) bang cach lay ao so nh phan nguyen thuy (bu 1) roi cong vi 1. V du1: so nh phan nguyen thuy cua 4510 la 101101. So bu 2 cua 101101 co c nh sau: 101101 so nh phan nguyen thuy 010010 lay bu 1 1 cong them 1 010011 la bu 2 cua 101101 V du 2: So nh phan nguyen thuy cua 1210 la 1100. So bu 2 cua 12, theo cach tnh tren ay la 0100 Nhan xet: Cho mot so nh phan nguyen thuy co n bit. Ta co: So bu 2 + nh phan nguyen thuy = 2n. V du: Trng hp 4 bit, bu 2 cua 12 la 4, v 4+12=16=24. Trng hp 5bit, bu 2 cua 25 la 7, v 7+25=32=25.
4.4 BIEU DIEN SO CO DAU DUNG HE BU 2

He bu 2 cua so co dau c bieu dien nh sau: Neu la so dng, th gia tr cua no c bieu dien di dang nh phan nguyen thuy vi bit dau la 0 v tr MSB. Neu la so am th gia tr cua no c chuyen sang dang bu 2, sau o them bit dau la 1 tai MSB. Bieu dien so +4510 va -4510 trong he bu 2 (dung 7 bit trong o bit MSB la bit dau) la:
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
He bu 2 c s dung v nh chung ta se thay sau nay, no cho phep thc hien phep tr cung nh phep cong. ieu nay rat quan trong v may tnh dung ch mot mach logic e lam phep cong cung nh phep tr, do o co the n gian phan cng. Cach tong quat e lay bu 2 cua 1 so la: a) viet so o di dang nh phan roi them bit dau bang 0. b) neu la so dng th gi nguyen ket qua bc a) c) neu la so am th lay bu 2 toan bo so co c bc a) V du 1 : Lay bu 2 cua 9 ( 4 bit gia tr va 1 bit dau) a) viet 9 di dang so nh phan vi bit dau bang khong 01001 b) v so am nen lay bu 2 toan bo so 01001. Ket qua bang10111 la bu 2 cua 9. Bien oi t dang bu 2 ve dang nh phan nguyen thuy Lay bu 2 cua so bu 2 se c so nh phan nguyen thuy. V du 1: so nh phan nguyen thuy la 10110 bu 1 cua no la 01001 cong them 1 1 01010 la bu 2 cua 10110 lay bu 2 cua lay bu 1 cua 01010 cong them1 01010 10101 1 10110 la so nh phan nguyen thuy Cac trng hp ac biet Khi bit dau bang 1 con tat ca cac bit khac eu bang 0 th no tng ng vi 2N trong o N la so bit cua phan gia tr. V du: 1000 = - 23 = -8 10000 = - 24 = - 16 100000 = -25 = - 32 Vung gia tr ma mot so co dau gom N+1 bit co the bieu dien trong he bu 2 la: -2N en + (2N -1 ) gom 2N+1 gia tr ke ca gia tr 0. Sau ay la bang cac so co dau trong he bu 2 (3 bit gia tr va 1 bit dau)
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Decimal value -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 Signed binary Using 2s complement 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 Hecxadecimal Equivalent 8 9 A B C D E F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
So bit cua so di dang bu 2 co the la tuy y, tuy nhien trong may tnh thng s dung 8, 16 hoac 32 bit (ke ca bit dau). V du thanh ghi AX=FFFF la thanh ghi 16 bit. No bieu th cho so 1 trong he 10. Thanh ghi BX=7FFF bieu th so dng 32767 trong he 10. Trong trng hp bieu dien co dau dung 16 bit th vung gia tr cac so la t 32767d en +32768d. Cac so t 0000h en 7FFFh la cac so dng.Cac so t 8000h en FFFFh la cac so am.
4.5 PHEP CONG TRONG HE BU 2

Quy tac: Phep cong trong he bu 2 c tien hanh tng t phep cong nh phan, moi s tran so eu b bo qua (khong tnh). Neu bit dau la 0 th ket qua la so dng Neu bit dau la 1 th ket qua la so am trong he bu 2 Hai so phai co cung so bit
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
Kien truc may tnh 02 4.6 PHEP TR TRONG HE BU 2

Quy tac: Viet ca so b tr va so tr di dang bu 2 co dau (so dng dang nh phan nguyen thuy bit dau la 0, so am chuyen sang dang bu 2 co dau). Lay bu 2 cua so tr (a c chuyen sang he bu 2 co dau bc th nhat). ieu nay se lam so tr la dng chuyen thanh so am va ngc lai. Noi cach khac, ta thay oi dau cua so tr. Sau khi lay bu 2 so tr bc th hai, no c cong vi so b tr. Bit dau cua ket qua cho biet so dng hay so am. Moi s tran so b bo qua. Neu ket qua la so am th phai lay bu 2 e biet gia tr nh phan cua no. Hai so phai co cung so bit. Y ngha: Theo tren ta thay rang bang cach s dung he bu 2, may tnh thc hien phep tr nh phep cong.
4.7 CONG VA TR BCD

a) Cong BCD
BCD la mot bo ma s dung 4 bit nh phan e bieu dien cac so thap phan. Phep cong BCD c thc hien nh oi vi phep cong nh phan cho tng nhom bit BCD. Co 2 trng hp sau ay: Tong 2 so nho hn hoac bang 9: xet trng hp 5+4 5 0101 BCD for 5 4 0100 BCD for 4 9 1001 BCD for 9 xet trng hp 45+33 45 0100 0101 BCD for 45 33 0011 0011 BCD for 33 78 0111 1000 BCD for 78
Tong hai so ln hn 9: Xet 6+7 6 0110 7 0111 13 1101
BCD for 6 BCD for 7 invalid code group for BCD
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

e sa sai ngi ta cong them 6 (0110) vao ket qua nh sau: 1101 0110 0001 0011 BCD for 13
Nh vay la trong phep cong BCD, he so sa sai (0110) se c cong vao ket qua neu: Ket qua cong 2 so BCD tao ra invalid code for BCD (so ln hn 1001) Phep cong BCD tao ra bit nh sang v tr bit co trong so ln hn.
b) Tr BCD
Phep tr BCD c tien hanh nh oi vi phep tr nh phan va phai tr i he so sa sai (0110) khoi ket qua e sa sai trong nhng trng hp sau: Ket qua tr 2 so BCD tao ra invalid code for BCD (so ln hn 1001) Phep tr BCD tao ra bit mn sang v tr bit co trong so ln hn. v du: 17 -9 0001 0111 0000 1001 0000 1110 - 0110 0000 1000 (1110 invalid code for BCD)
4.8 CONG VA TR HEX

a) Cong hai so HEX
Cong trc tiep cac digit cua 2 so hex nh cong thap phan. Neu ket qua ln hn 15 th tr i 16 va nh 1 sang bit co trong so ln hn. Sau ay la vai v du cong 2 so hex. V du 1: 97H + 98H 1810 1510 12FH V du 2: 7AH
Ket qua trung gian
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

+ 3FH 11102510 B9H Ket qua trung gian
b) Tr hai so hex
Cung nh vi phep cong, co the tr 2 so hex nh tr thap phan vi lu y rang so mn la 16. Sau ay la vai v du ve tr 2 so hex. V du 1: FCH - 25H 1310 710 D7H V du 2: A7H - 3BH 610 1210 ket qua trung gian 6CH ket qua trung gian
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly
BAI TAP CHNG 2,3 & 4

1. oi cac so thap phan sau ay thanh so nh phan va so Hex: a) 24 b) 15.25 c) 512 d) 127 e) 2048 f) 65535 2. Tm gia tr thap phan tng ng cua cac so hex sau: a) 15 b)31FD c) FFFF d)C0A 3. Tm gia tr thap phan tng ng cua cac so nh phan sau: a) 11001111 b) 10000000 c) 111111 00 d) 10000111 4. Bieu dien cac so thap phan sau trong he bu 2 (dung 8 bit va 16 bit) a) 255 b) 5 c) 12 d) 1 5. Hay liet ke cac so lien tiep trong he 8 bat au t 668 en 2008 6. Hay liet ke 20 so lien tiep trong he Hex t 9h. 7. Tra bang ma ASCII roi gan them bit chan le chan tai MSB cho chuoi: THIS IS A MESSAGE. Bieu dien ket qua ra Hex. 8. Mot ng pho co 1000 ngoi nha. Ngi ta muon anh a ch cho chung bang so nh phan ( bat au t 0). Hoi phai s dung so nh phan bao nhieu bit e co the a ch cho 1000 ngoi nha nay? Viet ra vung a ch cua 1000 ngoi nha o di dang nh phan va hexa. 9. Cho oan ma sau trong bo nh may tnh : 1000 0011 1000 0111 oan ma co the la : 1 so nh phan nguyen thuy 1 so trong he bu 2 ma BCD
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Ch lap trnh vien, ngi a go oan ma nay vao may tnh mi biet c no bieu dien cho cai g. Hay tm gia tr thap phan tng ng cua oan ma trong tng trng hp. 10. Sau ay la ten va noi dung ( dang HEX) cua cac thanh ghi 16 bit trong vi x ly: AX= 1234, BX= 000A, CX= FFFA, DX= 7FFF Hay tm gia tr va dau cua chung trong he 10. 11. Thiet ke mach logic e phat hien loi trong ma BCD. Loi vao la ma BCD, loi ra trang thai 1 khi co loi.
12. Lam the nao e xay dng 1 cong AND co 2 loi vao t nhng cong NOR 2 loi vao.
13. Thc hien cac phep toan sau trong he nh phan nguyen thuy: a) 12 + 39 b) 9+4 c) 18 + 37 d) 2+7 14. Thc hien cac phep toan sau trong he Hex a) 12 + 34 b) FF + F0 c) DFA FFF d) 123 - CD 15. Bieu dien theo chuan IEEE 32 bit cac so sau: a) +27.25 b) 27.25 c) +12 d) 12
Phan Van Ngha
Khoa Vat Ly

Kieán Truùc Maùy Tính 02: Giaùo Trình

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Kieán Truùc Maùy Tính 02: Giaùo Trình

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TRNG AI HOC A LAT

KIEN TRUC MAY TNH 02

PHAN VAN NGHA

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

a) Thiet b nhap (input device)

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

c) Bo logic va so hoc (Arithmetic and logic unit - ALU)

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

d) Thiet b ra (output device).

e) Bo ieu khien (control unit - CU)

1.2 HOAT ONG CUA MAY TNH

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Hnh 1-2: S o noi gia CPU va bo nh may tnh

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02 1.3 CAU TRUC BUS

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

1.4 PHAN MEM (SOFTWARE)

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

1.5 AC TRNG CUA MAY TNH

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

1.6 OI NET VE LCH S PHAT TRIEN CUA MAY TNH

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

CHNG 2: BIEU DIEN SO LIEU

2.2 HE THONG SO THAP PHAN (DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

Phan Van Ngha

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

2.4 HE THONG SO BAT PHAN (OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

Phan Van Ngha

Kien truc may tnh 02

2.5 HE THONG SO THAP LUC PHAN ( HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)

Phan Van Ngha

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Phan Van Ngha

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Phan Van Ngha

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Phan Van Ngha

Phan Van Ngha

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Phan Van Ngha

Phan Van Ngha