Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Forestry Research Center

Research Project On:

BAMBOO MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION IN SELECTED DISTRICTS OF ETHIOPIA

Initially (in 2008) developed by Yigardu Mulatu (MSc ), Berhane Kidane (MSc.), Demelash Alem (MSc.), Tesfayhe Hunde (MSc.),Seyum Kelemeworek (PhD.), Alemayehu Rifera (MSc.), Abreham Yirgu (MSc.), Yohans Adane (MSc.)and Abayneh Deraro (PhD.)

Revised (in 2011, Based on M & E report ) by Mehari Alebachew

Finally Revised (during the 2013 national research review, based on progress of the project) by Yigardu Mulatu (PhD), Forestry Research Center,
Addis Ababa

April, 2013

1. BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION

Bamboo is a perennial plant, which belongs to the Poaceae (sometimes called ramineae) family (Wong, 2004). In terms of taxonomy, it is considered as a giant grass. Ecologically, bamboo plants have tree-like functions (Dwivedi, 1993; John & Nadgauda, 2002; Yuming et al., 2004).Bamboos range from the size of grass to a giant of 40 meters in height and 30 cm in diameter (Dwivedi, 1993; Kosso, 2001). Once established, most bamboo species continue to be perennial until they flower and then die (Lakshmana, 1994; John & Nadgauda, 2002). Although many bamboo species are characterized by simultaneous flowering at long intervals of up to 120 years, few studies have revealed the length of the flowering interval for very-long-lived bamboo species by observing the whole life cycle of a single clone (Isagi et al., 2004) and it is impossible to predict exactly when flowering is likely to occur (Anantachote, 1988). According to Dwivedi (1993), the period between two gregarious flowerings of bamboo species over the same area is believed to be rather constant and is called the physiological cycle. There are about 75 genera (Scurlock et al., 2000) and 1500 species of bamboos in the world (Bystriakova et al., 2004), the largest proportion being in Asia, which account for about 1000 species and covering an area of over 180 000 km2 (Scurlock et al., 2000). Five hundred species in 40 genera are recorded in China (Yuming et al., 2004). On area basis the largest proportion of bamboos are found in India, consisting of 136 species over an area of ten million hectares (Jamaluddin et al., 1999). Africa has about 43 bamboo species on over 1.5 million hectare of land (Kigomo, 1988). But the diversity is the lowest, where five species representing five genera occur. Madagascar has 40 species of which 32 are endemic. From the mainland Africa, Tanzania has the largest number of species (4), followed by Malawi, Uganda and Zambia (3 species each). The greatest potential wealth of bamboo (two co-occurring species) is in East Africa, especially around Lake Victoria, and in southern Africa in Zambia and Zimbabwe, while the countries of West Africa have only a single species of woody bamboo, principally O. abyssinica, (Bystriakova et al., 2004). On area basis, Ethiopia has the largest bamboo in Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000) and contains 67 % of the bamboo in Africa (Kassahun, 2003). The bamboo species found in Ethiopia are the African alpine bamboo (Yushinia alpina) and the lowland bamboo (O. abyssinica). Yushinia alpina was previously called Arundinaria alpina (A.alpina). These two species are indigenous to Ethiopia and endemic to Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000). The solid-stemmed O. abyssinica covers an area of more than 800, 000 ha, which accounts 85% of bamboo area coverage in the country (Embaye, 2000). In Ethiopia, O. abyssinica is prominent in river valleys and locally on the escarpment of western part of the country such as the Benshangul Gumuze regional State (Ensermu et al., 200). It co-exists with several other species especially the Combretum-Terminalia broadleaved deciduous woodland vegetation common to this part of the country (Sebsebe Demsew et al., 2003).

Bamboo has a considerable potential to the socioeconomic development and environmental protection (Baghel et al., 1998; Kumar et al., 1998; Perez et al., 1998; Sharma et al., 1998; Kumar and Sastry, 1999). It is becoming so increasingly important in the worlds forest economy, because 1) it is a superior wood substitute, 2) it is cheap and efficient, 3) it is environmentally friendly i.e. it has high potential for environmental protection and wide ecological adaptation 4) the world forest is shrinking. Globally, 1 billion people live in bamboo houses; the economy of 2.5 billion people comes from bamboo. Annual trade earns 5-7 billion USD from bamboo (tropical timber earns 8 billion USD) (Maxim, 2005). The values of bamboo are being satisfactorily utilized by tropical Asian countries. For instance, there are 25,000 bamboo based industries in India providing employment for about 20 million people (CIBART, 2004). China, which has 4.2 million hectares of bamboo, generates an approximate total of 40 billion birr annually. It earns US$ 130 million from export of edible bamboo shoots. Annual export of woven bamboo is valued at 117 million. Bamboo is also important raw material for many pulp and paper industries in China, India, Thailand and other Asia countries. Bamboo provides major uses in the rayon, handloom, fishing and sericulture industries, where it supports the livelihood of million of people (Kumar and Sastry, 1999). However, bamboo resource of Ethiopia is underutilized and has been neglected by development practitioners. Currently, its use is by far below its potential; Its uses have been customary and mainly limited to hut construction, fencing and to a lesser extent production of handicrafts, furniture, containers for water transport, and storage, baskets, beehive, firewood, fodder, house utensils, and various art-facts, walking sticks (Embaye, 2004). In some localities farmers generate income by selling raw bamboo culms and some communities like the Gumuz people in Benshangul Gumuz region state use bamboo shoot as food. The country should have potential to generate an approximate of 9.5 billion birr annually. Based on the CSA (Central statistical Authority) survey of 1997 this output accounts for almost three times of the gross value of production on handicrafts, urban informal sector operators and small scale manufacturing establishments in Ethiopia. Based on detailed studies carried out in Ethiopia (Luso consult, 1997; as cited by Pole, 2002), it would be possible to harvest one third of the total stock every year on sustainable basis (3 million tones of oven dry biomass). This could be used to supply part of the particleboard, fiberboard, pulp, furniture, construction and energy requirement of the nation. Its potential for industrial use has yet to be popularized, as it is presently undertaken in many tropical Asian countries (Embaye, 2000). Currently, there is indiscriminate forest loose and depletion hence the unique bamboo resource will be disappearing before its economical and environmental advantage is appreciated, unless important reversing mechanisms could not take place (ibid, 2004). The current economic policy of the nation strongly urges development practitioners to contribute to the economic development of the country. By the year 2020, Ethiopia is envisioning to reach middle income group countries of the world. In this regard bamboo can contribute more in generating income since it can be processed in to products for domestic use and export market. It can also create employment opportunity to a considerable portion of the society and harness environmental degradation problems. Despite these facts; research and development activities on bamboo resource of the country is scanty. Bamboo is not included in tree planting programs in which millions of tree seedlings have been established every year. Up to now only a very limited research works have been undertaken: vegetative propagation of highland bamboo (Tesfaye Hunde and Yohannes Adane, 2005),propagation of lowland bamboo by seed (Kassahun Embaye et al, 2003), utilization-

suitability of Yushania alpina for oriented particle board (Seyum Kelemework, 2005), the use of lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica)as re-enforcement in construction (Melaku Abegaz, 2004) and ecological aspects and resource management of bamboo (Kassahun Embaye, 2003), Socioeconomic study (Ensermu et al., 2000) seed and fruit characteristics of lowland bamboo (Demelash Alem, 2006), Natural Regeneration and Growth Habitat Assessment of Lowland Bamboo in Mandura Woreda, Metekel Zone (Yigremachew Seyoum et al, 2007), ongoing research activities by Pawe and Holetta Research Centers and, studies by the UNIDO (United Nation Industrial Development Organization)/East African Bamboo Project (2006-2007). As compared to the significance of the commodity (bamboo resource), the research conducted so far is scarce. Information generated from the aforementioned research activities is an eye opener to create awareness and plan further research. Currently there area many research questions from different stakeholders such as farmers, investors and development practitioners on the propagation, management and utilization of the resource. There is also a need to establish bamboo plantations to fetch the benefits that can be accrued from the resource. Based on this understanding the following eight research components are identified to be addressed under this project proposal. Research Gap The following are research questions are not yet answered: Propagation methods Management methods for optimum yield stand dynamics Suitability of bamboo for different products, nutritive value of bamboo shoots, Important pests and disease and their control measures Performance of introduced bamboo species in the country Seed storage nature of lowland and highland bamboo Economic contribution and ethno-botany of bamboo

2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

2.1. Long-term objectives
To develop improved technologies of bamboo for sustainable production and utilization thereby contribute to environmental protection and food security of the country.

2.2 Specific objectives:

1) Determine the best propagation techniques for bamboo employing offset and layering techniques 2) To develop an efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol for bamboo 3) Investigate regeneration, culm characteristics and yield of bamboo under different harvesting intensities 4) To determine best weeding frequencies on the early performance of O.abyssinia seedlings. 5) Investigate and determine nutrient content of bamboo shoots 6) Evaluate the performance introduced bamboo species 7) Assess important pests and diseases.

8) To determine the best storage medium and storage time for O.abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds. 9) Develop silvicultural management techniques to maximize productivity of lowland bamboo stands (Technique and intensity of harvesting)

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The project is composed of six main components and six sub-components. The main components include 1) Developing propagation techniques, 2) Bamboo stand characterization and management, 3) Nutritive value of bamboo shoot, 4) Assessment of potential pests and diseases, 5) Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species.

3.1 Rationale of project components and sub components

3.1.1 Developing propagation techniques for highland and Lowland bamboo in Ethiopia
Success in plantation development relies on the combined applications of the various disciplines in forestry, the most important aspect being the availability of quality planting materials (seedlings). This is because; the performance of plants on reforestation (afforestation) sites depends on the ability of the planting materials (seedlings) to adapt to the field conditions. It must, therefore, be noted that the supply of quality planting materials through improved techniques is a prerequisite for any successful large-scale forest plantation program. According to Merlyn (2006), bamboos can be propagated either by sexual (reproductive) or asexual (vegetative) means. Sexual propagation is by means of seeds. However, this is not popular in the country due to the irregularity and rarity of flowering of common bamboo species. Vegetative or asexual propagation makes use of different parts of bamboo plants as propagation material. There are various methods of vegetative propagation described by various authors, ERDB-DENR/FAO/UNDP (1994) and PCCARD (1991). These are: (a) Clump division, (b) Basal Culm Division or Offset, (c) Culm cutting, (d) Branch cutting, (e) Ground layering, (f) Branch Marcotting (air layering), (g) Tissue culture: Given these various propagation methods, the most common method practiced in Philippines and Asian countries is culm cutting with some procedural variations found practical and effective by individual propagators. Offset method is found to be effective in propagating species where culm cutting is not so successful. In Ethiopia, the indigenous knowledge of farmers in propagating bamboo is by using the offset method. Offset method is superior to culms and culm cuttings (Tesfaye Hunde & Yohannes Adane, 2005). However the problems in using this method are 1) excavating out offsets is a Tire sum and labor intensive work 2) offsets are also difficult to transport for long distances because of their heavy weight and long length, 3) Excavating out offsets can damage the adjoining rhizome so the neighboring culms. Establishing large scale plantation by using this technique is very expensive and unfeasible. Previous research works in the propagation of bamboo in the country are not successful in bringing effective technique and hence further research that focuses on different techniques that were not tested well in previous researches is of paramount importance both on lowland and high land bamboo species.

From experience, an offset of a highland bamboo weighs 20-30 kg. Minimizing at least the culm weight by removing it at effective height can help. Producing seedlings from the stand itself while the mother plant is within the stand can be another option, so evaluating the response of bamboo for both ground and air layering and coming up to a decision is important.

Many important crop plants are increased vegetatively and grown as clones. Suitable methods for vegetative propagation have been developed over many centuries. These traditional macropropagation techniques (or macro-methods) which utilize relatively large pieces of plants, have been refined and improved by research. For instance, methods of applying fine water mist to prevent the desiccation of cuttings, better rooting composts and the control of temperature in the rooting zone, have considerably enhanced the rate at which many plants of horticultural or agricultural interest can be multiplied. In recent years, micro propagation techniques are also advancing for plant multiplication (George et al. (eds.), 2008). Over the centuries, villagers have replanted bamboos by dividing up clumps and their underground stems or cutting up the underground stems (rhizomes) of clumping species. However many species produce extremely large plants and it is not always easy to dig out pieces for propagation. A number of other techniques have been developed for a variety of species in many areas of the world. Many of them have been refined by appropriate research over the past 20years (Banik, 1995). Vegetative propagation has been found to cut costs of bamboo plantations in comparison to the use of more conventional vegetative methods. Starting from very recent years, the need of planting bamboo in larger scale than ever before has become increasing in Ethiopia, accordingly, cost effective and efficient techniques of propagation are required. Though, viability of seeds of O. abyssinica is relatively longer (three years, unpublished works of the Forestry Research Center) and has higher germination rate, seeds are not available on regular basis (LUSO, 1997; Azene Bekele, 1993). Besides, culms produced from seed longer period (seven years) to reach harvestable size. Under these circumstances, other techniques of propagation become important. Propagation methods by clonal/vegetative propagation is cost effective and desirable for large-scale application (Reddy, 2006). Several methods of vegetative propagation techniques using offsets, rhizomes, culm and branch cuttings, layers, and macroproliferation of seedlings are being practiced for different species (Banik, 1995; Kleinhenz and Midmore, 2001; Pattanaik et al., 2004; Othman, 2005). These methods also suit to the requirements of farmers and non-government organizations (NGOs) for their low cost and ease of management. Unlike tissue culture/micropropagation techniques, macropropagation techniques do not requires laboratory facilities, expensive chemicals, etc. (Jimnez and Guevara, 2007). Rhizome-based propagules can be directly planted into the field. In the cutting methods, culm cuttings or branch cuttings of desirable sizes are planted in polybags or nursery beds to raise saplings (Koshy and Gopakumar, 2005). Clump-based vegetative propagation technique is a time-tested and widely practiced method in Asia (NMoBA, 2004; Banik, 1995). A segment of the rhizome is severed or separated from the parent rhizome and nurtured to develop into an independent source of planting material. The detached portion of the rhizome carries all the elements needed for the growth of a new plant. It may be separated with other parts of the plant such as rhizome offsets, roots and culm. Common to all methods of rhizome-based propagation is the cutting away of a part of the rhizome from a healthy and mature clump. Nevertheless, studies on vegetative propagating Ethiopian bamboo species are limited.

Tissue culture techniques have offered many practical advantages to various aspects of development in tropical forestry. These advantages include production of disease free plants as in populous spp. (Ahuja, 1993), selection of mutant varieties and in vitro clonal propagation (Rani and Raina, 2000), preservation of selected genotypes, somatic hybridization and genetic engineering, as in white pine (Pinus monticola) (Percy et al., 2000). It has also been used as a tool for the production of important secondary compounds from in vitro plant materials (Mulabagal and Sheng, 2004). This is of great importance for commercialization of potential tree species. The sole aspect of tissue culture that has so far been widely applied in tropical forestry is the possibility of propagation of elite, endangered, or difficult to propagate trees (Pena and Seguin, 2001). Micro propagation and morphogenesis have been attained through organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis of many important trees (Steven and Ben, 1999). The development of successful protocols for axillary budding (particularly for hardwoods), adventitious budding (particularly for conifers) (Minocha et al., 1995) and somatic embryogenesis for a number of tropical tree species (Raghavan, 1986; Anonymous, 1998), have been reported. However, unlike agricultural crops and horticultural plants, tissue culture of forest species in the tropics is still lagging behind. This is mainly because several difficulties arise, which can seriously affect the performance of explanted tissues from trees. These problems include difficulties to obtain sterile explant materials, tardiness of in vitro responses of explants, vitrification, browning of cultures, and difficulties in acclimatization of plantlets to field conditions, and somaclonal variations. Despite the profound research endeavors, tissue culture of bamboos is not yet advanced. Tissue culture of bamboos has never been worked up on so far in Ethiopia.

3.1.2. Management of bamboo stands

3.1.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands

Appropriate harvesting techniques are important to establish sustainable utilization and conservation management schemes. Felling cycle and thinning are the key harvesting activities that require appropriate decision. Thinning activities are important for bamboo culm vigor from rhizome. These silvicultural operations depend on the rhizome characteristics; shoot recruitment rate and density of stumps of the bamboo forest. Though there are no comprehensive rhizome characterization studies done so far on Ethiopian bamboo species, rhizomes of highland bamboo have relatively longer rhizome neck (spacer length) hence can be selectively harvested in area basis by introducing different intensities. In lowland bamboo, the rhizome is purely sympodial/ pachymorph, hence all the clumps are congested; hence one should know what harvesting technique to employee before applying different intensities. Proper harvesting of bamboo stands is important measure to maximize productivity and increase stand value. If not harvest, the rate of increment in bamboo culms is reduced due to the limited space available for the newly grown culms to survive (Parkash and Xhanna, 1979). According to Kadambi (1949), after each cleaning and thinning there was an increase in culm production on some species of bamboo. Harvesting is considered as one of prime operation in bamboo plantation establishment for two reasons: it leads to the sustainable production of culms and it can improve future pole production quantitatively and qualitatively (Bamboo farming, 1994). A 4-year felling cycle was most widely used but in the Philippines a 2year cycle is practiced. However, the thinning and felling intensity should be determined based on the species type and local biophysical conditions.

O. abyssinica (lowland bamboo) is a clump forming bamboo that extend 3-13 m high and 5-10 cm in diameter, nearly solid (Phillips, 1995). According to FAO and INBAR (2005), the major portion of Ethiopias bamboo (85%) is the lowland bamboo found in the Comb retum Terminalia-Deciduous woodlands of western Ethiopia together with other associated grasslands. In Ethiopia, the species is found in two forms in the altitudinal limit of 1200-1800 masl: (1) dense and as extended natural bamboo stand; with or without some scattered bushes/trees (2) sparsely populated or scattered natural bamboo stands: found with bushes and scattered tree, constituting roughly about 20% of vegetation (WBI, 2003) Appendix 1). Estimates by LUSO Consult reported the number of culms per ha as 8124 or 19.53 t/ha dry weight (LUSO, 1997). If managed, a clump produces 10-15 culms per clump per year. According to the local community, as reported by Demissew Sertse et al. (2011), lowland bamboo flowers every 30-35 years. During the 2010 mass flowering period that started before seven years in, Guba and Mankusha areas of Metekel Zone caused mass death of over 85% of the estimated total 400,000 ha bamboo in Benishangul-Gumz region (Demisew Sershe, 2010), As O. abyssinica is a clumping bamboo species and has no management, stand congestion has becomes a serious problem. Congested clumps pose a problem not only for the felling of the culms but also of fire due to the enclosed dead and dry culms (Ram Prasad (1988). Congested clumps do not allow new shoots to come up easily; even if any shoot comes up it becomes malformed (Suwannapinunt, 1988). Many working plans prescribe retention of a minimum number of old culms varying from 6 to 10 for providing support to the new culms (A. N. Chaturvedi, 1988) and avoidance of unnecessary retention of the dead and dried culms in a clump for quite a long period so as to allow the new shoots to come up in more beneficial way Suwannapinunt, 1988). In most bamboo forests, the cutting cycle ranges from three to four years, based on working convenience N. Chaturvedi (1988). Development of new culms, however, takes place near the previous years culms. Consequently, culms older than three years do not provide any support to the new culms. Prescription for management of clumping bamboos are forwarded in different countries for obtaining high productivity with the desired quality of culms. For instance in India, horseshoe harvesting technique is recommended for G. hasskarliana, a sympodial type rhizome, as older culms are often inside the clumps (Suwannapinunt, 1988). The clump is worked into a horseshoe to enable a man to get into the clump easily and work on all three sides and harvest old (older than three year old) culms. The frequency of cutting cycles is based on working convenience (Chaturvedi, 1988). Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral. The productivity of bamboo forests depends on the production and size of new culms. The management, in general, involves a selective felling system with a felling cycle of four years in Kerala, India with prescribed felling rules (Kumar, 1988). Culms less than two years old should not be cut and removed; All the new culms and 25 percent of the old culms should be retained; No clump should be clear felled except after flowering and when seeding has been completed; Culms should be cut as low as possible leaving one internode above ground; Cutting should begin from the side opposite to where new sprouts are emerging. On the other hand, X-shaped harvesting techniques is a recommended technique due to the least destruction and lower initial removal of bamboo culms for natural stands of Giaganthocloa scortechinii (most extensively found clumping bamboo in Malaysia) bamboo clumps with

minimum number of 26 culms/clump (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009). The same report indicated that higher number of culms and lower dying culms were produced employing X-shaped harvesting technique as compared horse shoe shape harvesting (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009). Harvesting is done by cutting culms older than three years while leaving the younger ones since these are physiologicaly more active, have vigorous rhizomes and can produce more culms (Ueda 1960; 1968). In management, therefore, the selection system with a three or four year rotation is recommended and those culms more than three years old are harvested from each clump. In bamboos with sympodial type of rhizome, older culms are found inside the clumps, therefore the horseshoe harvesting technique is recommended (Suwannapinunt, 1988). However, other Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral (Chaturvedi, 1988). In Ethiopia, information on the type of harvesting technique and harvesting intensity is lacking for bamboo stands. Therefore, the objectives of this research is to determine the effects of (1) different harvesting techniques and (1) determine the intensity of harvesting on productivity and culm size of natural lowland bamboo stands from field experiment.

3.1.2.2. The effect of different weeding frequency on the early Performance of O. abyssinica
Since lowland bamboo currently is flowering gregariously, plantation establishment and subsequent management activities are important options to safeguard the extinction of this species are indispensable. Taking the versatile use of lowland bamboo to the local community and its potential to bring an additional household income to the farmers, this activity is believed to bring a solid contribution to food security. Among the various management practices that should be practiced on young seedlings, weeding is of a paramount importance. Because resources are limited, different plants, if planted together, compete each other. And hence optimum level of spacing is required to get better yield. As far as possible this competition should be kept to the possible minimum through different management options (Dupreiz & De Leener, 1998).The frequency of weeding and cultivation should also be looked for in order to Identify optimum level of management for better performance of the species. But there are no research works done on this species with this regard to plantation establishment and management despite the indications that O.abyssinica could grow together with other species and it is one of the shade loving plants especially during its establishment phases. Therefore determining appropriate weeding frequency is very important for the growth and development of the species since site specific managements are very important especially in the tropics (Shreppers et al., 1998). Establishment of this type of experiment will also be used as a demonstration site for the farmers so that they will use the technology for the development of the species in the surrounding and to consider it as one of the economic species as the success of Demonstration sites and bases will help encourage farmers to mobilize more technical inputs into the production of bamboo resources and products (Yushan, 2001).

3.1.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses

3.1.3.1 Bamboo shoots

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Ethiopian native bamboo species shoots are not widely used as edible food. However, bamboo shoots are used very widely in Asian-Pacific countries for a long time. Shoots are famous for various delicious dishes as main courses and ingredient. Its considered as a healthy food rich in nutrition, which contains about 16 kinds of amino acids. Bamboo shoots contains several nutritive Substances that human body needs such as carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber and many other inorganic substances and vitamins. Moreover, bamboo shoots have certain extent of hygienic and pharmaceutical values. In this research the nutrient values of Ethiopian bamboo shoots and harvesting time will be determined. In addition to these best shoot preserving and fresh shoot processing techniques will be identified.

3.1.4. Assessment of bamboo pests and disease

3.1.4.1 Bamboo disease

The productivity and suitability of bamboo is affected by different types of pathogens. These pathogens can attack different parts of bamboo stands (Mahanan, 1997). Fungi is one of the major responsible pathogen that affect seeds, rhizomes, root stem (culms and culm sheath),

flowers in the natural habitat and also in storage. Moreover, the bamboo litter is colonized by a variety of fungal species which are saprophytic, sap staining and soft rot fungi, several root pathogens and sheath rot fungi also perennate in the litter (Jamaluddin and Tiwari, 1999).

3.1.4.2 Bamboo insect pests

Different parts of bamboo are affected by a variety of insect pests. The culms are more susceptible to different types of beetles, termite and shoot borers than hard and soft woods, as it does not contain toxic substances unlike the other species (Kassahun, 2003). Insect pests feeding on the seeds may have an impact on the establishment of the new plantations. Bamboo under storage condition either as culms or as finished products is very susceptible to different insect Damage. From field observation, such problem is found to exist on Ethiopian bamboo species; there are conditions in which standing bamboo culms are attacked by unidentified pests. It is also recognized that it is limiting the end use by shortening the service life span of the products. This might also have an impact on the performance and productivity of the species and will limit the Uses and income that will be obtained from this resource in the future. Despite, these facts, there is no any study conducted in the identification of this pest so far. Therefore at this juncture, identification of the pests and their level of damage are important; as it is the primary work that should be done before taking any preventive/controlling measures.

3.1.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species

3.1.5.1. Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species

There are about 1500 bamboo species in the world (Zhaohua, 2004); Africa alone has 43 species (Kigomo, 1993). Ethiopia has narrow genetic diversity in this resource, it has only two species: Yushania alpine and Oxytenantera abyssinica. With these limited species, it is very difficult to sustainably supply bamboo raw material and products. Due to mysterious death of bamboo Rhizomes after flowering and seed setting, some areas that were covered with bamboo are currently devoid of the species. This is further aggravated by the increasing need for agricultural and grazing land. Among the various measures that should be taken in averting these problems,

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widening the genetic base of the resource is indispensable. These require introduction and evaluation of different potential species from different parts of the world.

3.1.6 Effect of different storage conditions on germination and field Emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds.
The poor viability of seed, flowering at long intervals and limited availability of seed is the practical problem in bamboo propagation using seeds both Oxytenanthera abyssinica and Yushinia alpine. Some studies have been reported on suitable methods for storage of bamboo seeds (Somen & Steethakshmi, 1989). Therefore devising appropriate storage mechanisms is very important. Seeds locally can be stored in different storage media such as bottle, sacks, plastic Boxes, Tin boxes, polyethen bags, cloth bags and jute bags. The storage time for the seeds of the species is not known.

3.2. Inputs of the project:

The project also includes capacity building (training, field and laboratory equipment, vehicle) and human resource requirement. This project is expected to be financed by government budget.

3.2.1 Human resource (See Table 1)

Table 1. Research staff available at Centers where the project is to be executed S.N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total Research Centre FRC FRC FRC Holetta Holetta Pawe Assossa Jimma D/Zeit Discipline PhD Silviculture Production Forestry Ecology Forest Genetics Forestry General Forestry General Forestry General Forestry General Forestry MSc 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 7 1 1 2 6 1 5 2 Qualification BSc Diploma Others 2 2

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3.2.2 Facilities
Table 2.The status of facilities currently available at centers where the project is to be Executed Center Facility Office FRC Pawe Assossa Holetta D/Zeit Lab Green house Nurs ery Vehi cle Comput er Photocopier Cold room Store Communication Library/Information

** *** ** ** **

**

* ***

**

*** *** *** *** ***

** * * * *

*** ** ** *** **

* ** ***

** ** *** ***

**

***

*** *

None * In adequate

*** adequate ** modest/moderate

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4. METHODOLOGY TO BE FOLLOWED
4.1. Developing propagation techniques for highland and lowland Bamboo in Ethiopia 4.1.1. Treatments (for highland bamboo)
1. Offsets (farmers method) 2. Rhizome, with out culm 3. Offset (two nodes) 4. offsets (four nodes) 5. offsets (six nodes)

Treatments (for lowland bamboo)

1. Offset 2. Rhizome (with out culm), 3. Offset (with two nodes) or stump, 4. whole culm and 5. Culm cuttings 6. Branch cuttings Besides testing on the field, whole culm, culm cuttings and branch cuttings will also be evaluated in nurseries on propagation beds for lowland bamboo.

Experimental Design: RCBD, Number of replication=3; Number of plants per treatment=9,

Spacing between Plants: 4 m in the field. Under nursery condition raised beds will be used and spacing between propaguoles for whole culm and culm and branch cuttings may be reduced to 20 cm based on the size of the propaguol.

Set 3: Tissue culture (Development of mass micro propagation protocols for Bamboo)

Methodology checklist Basal media

Literatures suggest that bamboo responds so well to either of the following basal media: Gamborge basal medium, the MS basal medium and the woody plant medium (WPM). However, fine tuning of protocols developed elsewhere to Ethiopian condition is necessary. Fine tuning is usually done by selection of the appropriate growth regulator and its amount that should result in better performance the plant in vitro.

Growth regulators
Auxins: 2,4-D and NAA in various concentrations Cytokinins: TDZ, Kinetin, Zeatin Accessories: Activated charcoal, coconut water PH 5.7

Explants

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Shoot-tips, Leaves, Nodal buds, Seeds (if available0

Culture condition In dark for somatic embryogenesis and in light for organogenesis

4.1.2 Data to be collected and analysis

The data to be collected includes: date of shoot emergence; date of root emergence and root length (using planting materials planted at the border so as not to damage the sample plants from which subsequent data is to be collected); length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging shoot;. Shoot recruitment rate against time, yield increment against time, shooting performance of rear and fore ends of a rhizomes structure. The data will be summarized using MS-EXCELL software and will be subjected for analysis using SPSS and Descriptive statistics.

4.1.3 Procedure: (Steps in site selection, production of planting materials from different clonal propagation techniques and tending operations) Site selection
The planting site to be used will be a well drained soil (gently slopped) and nearer to bamboo forests and other vegetations so as to use them as plus plants (wind break). It will also be nearer to a water source so as to provide supplemental watering for the four months period after planting.

Bed Preparation and soil mix to be used

Planting beds should gently sloped or raised with multi-layered particles. A 3-layered structure made using a layer of gravel, medium sized sand and fine sand will be used. The bottom layer will be gravel followed by large size and medium sized sand; and the top will be fine sand. Each layer will be 7-10 cm deep.

Preparation of planting material

Preparation of planting materialswas done by following the Tropical Bamboos Propagation Manual by Ronald (2005), Manuals for Vegetative Propagation of Bamboos by Banik (1995) and NMoBA (2004). Age of planting materials: all will be obtained from only one year old plants.

Rhizome with roots (Rhizome): In this method, the whole rhizome with the
accompanying root system will be severed from the parent rhizome.

14

Rhizome with roots and culm (offset) or the traditional method in Ethiopia: In
this case rhizome was severed together will all aboveground plant parts. The upper most part of the culm was removed, so that bigger portion (12-15 node for big culms) and the corresponding branches and leaves were retained with the rhizome.

Rhizome with culm-stock (Rhizome-offset): The procedure followed was similar to

that in propagation through offset. The difference was that only the base or lowermost portion of the culm (2-3 nodes) was retained.

The whole culm method: The culm together with the stump (that keeps moisture and can
also produce new sprouts) was severed from the system. The top was cut with a slanting cut leaving 12 to 15 nodes for big culms. All primary branches were pruned to two nodes.The rhizome used in this method need not be big like the offset, rhizome-offset and rhizome methods. Culms having smaller rhizomes than propagules used under the rhizome-based techniques were selectively used.

Culm cuttings: culm segment of bamboos of 2 nodes bearing healthy branches were used
after trimming-off the branchlets to two internodes. The upper most and lower most parts of culms were not included. Then the cuttings were planted horizontally.

Branch cutting (branches having aerial roots at the base): Prominent primary
branches with five-six nodes were used after trimming-off the branchlets to two nodes. The cuttings were buried in prepared trenches by slanting roughly by 15o so as to leave its tip sticking out.

Season of planting: Planting was done on 10 July, 2009, when the soil got sufficiently wet.
The farmers in the area plant bamboo under this moisture regime. This is the time for new shoots to come out from the actively dividing buds. This is also the starting time of the winter season hence adequate moisture is available starting from planting.

Regular tending operations

Fencing: The site was fenced to protect intervention by livestock, wild animals or human beings. Watering: supplemental watering was done when there was no rain for more than a day in September and October. Mulching: A layer of mulch of sorghum straw was applied to plots to retain moisture and protect them from weather extremes. Weeding and hoeing: was done twice in the rainy season of 2009 (August and September) and two times in 2010 rainy season (July and September).

15

Control stress factors: avoid extremes such as inadequate or too much water and temperatures. Light availability for species that take longer periods to root and shade is beneficial. Shading, when needed, should be such that 50-60% of sunlight reaches the bed. Shading should not be continuous. It should be avoided during the rainy season or overcast days.

Data analysis
After data was summarized using MS-Excell, analysis will be made employing the different functions of PASW Statistics 18 (latest version of SPSS, Predictive Analytical Software). Descriptive statistics was used before the actual analysis to see into the distribution of observations and outliers. Shapiro-Wilks (n<50) test value was used to check whether the normal distribution of observations was fulfilled or not. The Levenes test will also used to check whether the assumption of homogeneity of variances was met or not. Univarate analysis of the General Linear Model (Three-way-ANOVA, taking replication as one factor). Tukey's Honest Significance Difference (HSD) test will be used (p < 0.05) is observed. when statistically significant differences

Budget required for developing propagation techniques of lowland bamboo

Table 2. Budget requirement for developing propagation of lowland bamboo for the coming five years Budget code 6113 6114 6212 6217 6218 6219 6221 6223 6231 6232 Description Budge for contract staff Casual laborer 8,000.00 Stationary 1,000.00 Fuel and lubricants Farm supplies 3,500.00 Office supplies Farm inputs 6,000.00 Laboratory supplies Perdium 5,000.00 Transportatio n 500.00 5,000.00 500.00 5,600.00 500.00 5,600.00 500.00 5,600.00 500.00 7,500.00 7,000.00 5,000.00 25,000.00 1,000.00 4,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 4,800.00 1,000.00 4,800.00 1,000.00 5,525.00 1,500.00 6,000.00 1,500.00 7,000.00 7,500.00 6,500.00 4,000.00 3,000.00 2013/14 2014/115 2015/16 2015/17 2015/18 Total

8,000.00

8,500.00

9,000.00

8,000.00

10,000.00

43,500.00 29,000.00 6,000.00 28,125.00 7,500.00 5,000.00 50,500.00 26,800.00

16

2,500.00
6241 6245 6271 6313 Total 57,800.00 53,300.00 41,475.00 Maintenance 2,000.00 Barbed wire 8,000.00 Training Fixed asset 10,000.00 4,000.00 3,350.00 3,350.00 41,950.00 3,350.00 63,950.00 5,000.00 5,000.00 7,500.00 2,000.00 2,000.00 2,000.00 2,000.00

10,000.00 15,500.00 10,000.00 24,050.00

258,475.00

Location: Assossa for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland bamboo Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2013 for highland bamboo
The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008). The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because of flowering of the propaguoles. Because of these reasons that make the experiment not to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland and highland species

Responsibilities: Dr. Yosef Amha (Tikureinchine), Mohammed Dololo and Sintayehu Eshetu
(Assossa), Zebene Tadesse and Yared Kebede (Injibara), Dr Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)

4.2. Management of bamboo stands

4.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands
Treatments (for highland bamboo): 1. 0 % thinning intensity 2. 25% thinning intensity 3. 50% thinning intensity 4. 75% thinning intensity 5. Clear felling For highland bamboo, the plot size to be used will be 20 m*2 0m., replicated 3 times, with in 0.6 ha of land. Procedure: Select stands of highland bamboo that are homogenous in density; Year 1: Mark the new shoots Year 2: Mark the new shoots Year 3: Mark the new shoots; remove all unmarked ones Year 4: Start application of treatments Year 5: Application of the treatments on 3 year old culms, Remove all the remaining 4 year old culms from all the plots

17

Treatments (for lowland bamboo): For lowland bamboo, harvesting in area basis is not a preferable silvivicultural practice, , rather considering clumps is advantageous. Besides, technique of harvesting is another factor while harvesting. Accordingly, there will be two experimental factors (Factor 1 with two levels and Factor 2 with 6 levels) making 12 treatments when factorially combined and making the total number of treatments 13, including the control (no harvesting technique and no harvesting intensity applied). Factor I: Harvesting techniques (2 levels): 1. Horse shoe harvesting technique; 2. X-shaped harvesting technique Factor II: Harvesting intensity (6 levels): 1. 50% cutting of culms older than two years; 2. 75% cutting of culms older than two years 3. 100% cutting of culms older than two years; 4. 50% cutting of culms older than three years; 5. 75% cutting of culms older than three years; 6. 100% cutting of culms older than three years. Three blocks each constituting sufficiently homogenous lowland bamboo stand and clump size will be selected. From each block, 52 clumps will be identified and the thirteen treatments, including the control, will be applied allocating four clumps per treatment. Accordingly, the total number of clumps to be used for the study will be 156 in number. The experimental design will be factorial randomized complete block design (RCBD).

18

Figure 1. (a) Mature plantation stand of lowland bamboo; (b) horse-shoe and X-shaped techniques of harvesting of clumping bamboo species

19

Data to be collected Initial data on the number of number of culms per plot, number of clumps per ha, number of culms per clump, diameter and height of culms will be recorded prior to application of the treatments. The number of newly coming shoots, number of recruited culms and number of aborted shoots will be counted during the shooting season (June-September), after application of the treatments. Time of shoot sprout; internode length, number of nodes, height, diameter, leaf size (leaf width and length) of newly produced culms will be recorded. Diameter at breast height and height of the newly recruited culms will be measure at the end of the shooting season (September).

Data analysis
Data analysis will be made employing SAS 9. Descriptive statistics will be used before the actual analysis to check the distribution of observations and to check outliers. One-Way-ANOVA and two-way-ANOVA will used for mean comparison. Sigma Plot 10 will used to construct graphs.

Budget requirement
Table 2. Budget requirement for harvesting intensity for the coming five years Budget code 6113 6114 6212 6217 6218 6219 6221 6223 6231 6232 6241 6245 6251 6256 6271 6313 Total Description Budge for contract staff Casual laborer Stationary Fuel and lubricants Farm supplies Office supplies Farm inputs Laboratory supplies Perdium Transportation Maintenance Barbed wire Service charge Land rent Training Fixed asset 2013/14 0 10,000 1000 4800 2000 1000 0 0 5000 500 2000 30,000 0 0 0 10,000 66300 0 5000 500 2000 2000 0 0 0 4000 31800 2014/115 0 9500 1000 4800 2000 1000 0 2015/16 0 9000 1000 5525 2000 1000 0 0 5600 500 2000 2000 0 0 0 3350 31975 2016/17 0 10,000 1000 5590 2000 1000 0 0 5400 500 3000 2000 0 0 0 4600 35090 20117/18 0 9500 1000 6500 2000 1000 0 0 5500 500 3000 2000 0 0 30,000 3500 64500 Total 0 48,000 5,000 27,215 10,000 5,000 0 0 26,500 2,500 12,000 38,000 0 0 30,000 25,450 229,665

Location: Pawe for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland bamboo Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2015 for highland bamboo
The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008). The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because of flowering of the experimental plot. Because of these reasons that make the experiment not to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to

20

extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland and highland species Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff) Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Yigardu Mulatu (FRC); Mohammed (AARC)

4.2.2 The effect of different weeding frequency on the early Performance of O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition
O. abyssinica fruits will be collected in December from the gregarious flowering of bamboo in the surrounding and the seeds will be processed to extract seeds out of the fruits. They will be raised in nurseries to produce seedlings to carry out plantation for the establishment of the experiment. After the necessary land size is secured and cleared for the research, planting holes will be prepared with 3m*3m spacing. The dimension of the holes will be 60cm wide, 60m deep. This will be done two weeks before the onset of the rainy season. Equal sized seedlings in terms of height and diameter will be selected and used for the experiment by grading while they are in the nursery. The seedlings will be planted after the depth of soil moisture reached 30cm, which mostly occurs after three to four days continuous rain. The field lay out will be arranged in randomized complete block design Where four levels of weeding (non-weeding, every month, every two months and every three months) will be tried. Weeding will be made during the rainy season and during the dry season they will be left as they are except data taking and other observations. The number of seedlings to be used for each treatment will be 20. Other managements will be applied uniformly to all experimental units. For the determination of different parameters six central seedlings will be selected from each treatment in each block. Every month starting from the date of plantation, height, root collar diameter, number of leaves, number of nodes and internodes will be counted or measured. Survival count will be taken two times, two weeks after planting and at peak hot month of the year (April). Starting from the second year, other than the above-mentioned parameters number of newly emerged shoots from each planted sample seedling will be counted their corresponding height and diameter at the ground level will be measured. Number of nodes and their internodes will also be counted and determined.

Data to be collected Survival count, root collar diameter, height, number of leaves and leaf area, number of nodes and internodes, time of shoot after planting, number of shots sprout, new shoot height, survival of new shots, diameter of new shoots, observable disease and pests. Data analysis: Both descriptive and inferential statistics will be used. Data will be checked for normality and homogeneity of variance and the necessary data transformation will be conducted. ANOVA will be used to test the significance difference at P=0.05. Mean separation will be done for those parameters which showed statistical significance difference using least significance difference (LSD), which is built in SAS.

21

4.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses 4.3.1. Bamboo shoots

Sample collection Fresh bamboo shoots will be harvested from six major bamboo areas namely Hagere-Selam, Tikureinchine, and Assosa. Fresh shots will be harvested during the rainy season after new shoots are emerging from rhizomes. Fresh shoots will be classified according to their sizes during harvesting as follows: -large size, medium size and small size 5 kg weight of fresh shoot from each sizes and a total of 90 kg shoots will be collected from six sites. Samples handling The following precaution will be taken to handle fresh bamboo shoots before testing nutrient Values 1. Fiberization degree: guarantee the flavor and enhance preserving 2. Cutting area control: reduce the cutting area, which may cause wound respiration in harvesting 3. Harvesting approach: select edge tools and shoot cell sprain 4. Moisture-molding technology; pilling up after harvesting guarantees the least moisture diminishing. The above mentioned precautions will be taken for two reasons: To prevent the rotting that comes from the bacterial microorganisms invasion and infection during harvesting time To prevent the diminish of the physiological activity, to delay the reparation climax and to avoid moisture diminishing and structure aging Sample transportation and storage Sample shoots will be transported by ice-boxes using ammonium liquid for preserving fresh shoots. The nutrient values of shoots will be tested in Ethiopian Food Research Institute. Data analysis & experimental design Completely randomized design (CRD) with factorial experiment will be used to conduct this experiment. Two factors (6 sites and 3 shoot sizes) are considering evaluating the effect of site and shooting sizes on the nutrient values. Statistical analysis software (SAS) will be used to analyze the data using analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure and Duncans multiple range test (DMRT) is used for mean comparison. Based on the nutrient content of the shoots, appropriate edible shoots grown in each sites will be identified and high grade (sweet shoot) standard will be recommend.

4.4. Assessment of bamboo insect pests and disease

22

4.4.1 Bamboo insect pest survey

Survey of insect pests attacking bamboo in different parts of the country will be made to collect, identify and preserve economically important insect species. In this survey the type insect pest attacking the plant, the time and season of attack, plant parts attacked, the stage of the plant vulnerable to be attacked, the occurrence of the pest and the frequency of the pest infestation and ecology in general will be recorded. Samples of insects and attacked bamboo plant parts are collected. Specimens will be prepared for future reference. Information will be gathered from local people and different sources. Informal questionnaires will be prepared and informants will be asked to respond to them. In the survey, the environmental condition that favored the pest attack and the frequency of the pest infestation will be gathered as much as possible from different sources and informants. Survey area: Injibara, Shenen for Highland bamboo and Pawe/ Mankush, Assosa for Low land bamboo

4.4.2 Identification
Important insect pest (s) found attacking the bamboo plant will be identified before any subsequent works shall be followed. The insect feeding habit, attacking season, plant parts Attacked etc., have to be well identified and literature review works shall also be well done to Avoid duplications.

4.5.3 Study on Insect Biology and Population Dynamics

The biology of the important insect pest should be well known that will help to find the weak Point of the pest and to devise its control strategy. The biology of the insect could be achieved from different sources (journals, books, internet, research paper reprints, etc.) and this will help to reduce time, extra cost and redundancy. Biological study will be done in the laboratory and/or in the field if sufficient information could not be retrieved from different sources mentioned above. Data to be collected: The biological study may include its life cycle, method of feeding, its reproduction methods, seasonal abundance, insect ecology that favored its multiplication, its behavior, etc. Data analysis methods The method of analysis will be dependant on the type and quality of the data to be obtained. Therefore appropriate software will be employed.

4.5.4 Insect Pest Control Activities

Control method will be studied against the important insect pests found attacking the bamboo tree, bamboo products and byproducts and which passed the identification process. These control methods will encompass the cultural method (s), physical method(s), biological method(s), chemical method(s) and a combination of above mentioned appropriate methods.
Data to be collected

Pre and post spray (or any control method) pest population, Number and type of other pests, etc. 23

4.5.2 Bamboo disease survey

Sample collection and isolation Symptomatic plant parts will be collected from all parts of the plant and will be kept in paper bags for transport to FRC laboratory for further laboratory works. Segments or portion of these parts will be incubated in moist chamber at room temperature for 2-3 days to initiate development of fruiting structures. These masses of fruiting bodies that will emerge from the section will be transferred to Petri plates containing 2% Malt Extract Agar (MEA) that is amended with streptomycin and will be incubated at 250C. Isolation will be made by directly plating symptomatic tissues onto MEA. The pure culture will be stored in MEA slants at 50C. Characterization and identification of isolates Pure isolates from earlier activity will be transferred to water agar with sterile pine needles laid on the surface to promote production of fruiting structure. The plates undergo sporulation process will be incubated for 5-10 days under alternating cycles of 12 h light and 12 h darkness at room temperature. Single spores will be made from resulting fruiting structures by spreading spore masses on MEA in a drop of sterile water. The morphology of the single spore colony and spore features will use for the characterization and identification of the species to the genus level. Pathogenicity test Each of the isolated fungi will under go inoculation trial in the respective plant part of the same species on which isolation was made. Prior to inoculation, healthy and asymptomatic plant parts will be selected and surface sterilized using either ethanol or sodium hypochlorite. The isolates that will under this trial will first grow on MEA for 10 days at 250C. Each isolates will be treated in 10 plants and another 10 plants that are treated with sterile distilled water or agar block will serve as control for the all the treatments. After 2 months of post inoculation, lesion length or appearance of symptom will be evaluated. Re-isolation of symptomatic plant parts will be made in order to fulfill Kochs postulate.

4.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species and provenances

4.6.1 Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species Identifying potential species (from the already introduced once) The bamboo species that are already introduced include:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Dendrocalmus gigantus- a giant bamboo as the name indicates: Dendrocalmus brandisii Dendrocalmus membranaceous Dendrocalmus hamiltoni Dendrocalmus Vulgaris var. vittata Dendrocalmus tulda B. vulgaris green Guadwa amplexifolia Dendrocalamus asper Bambusa bambos Phylostachyus pubsence

Planting material source for species 1 will be Munesa Shashemene Wood Enterprise, for the other species the source will be the East African Bamboo Project of the Ministry of agriculture and Rural Development.

Multiply seedlings on propagation bed at FRC and Debre Zeit Research Center as much as 48 seedlings per site can be obtained.

24

 Group the species as highland type and lowland type, using references and their preliminary performance in the nursery. Prepare planting sites that can also nurse the new seedlings as much as possible (nursery sites are preferable) 1. 16 plants will be planted per plot, and the experiment will be replicated three times (48 seedlings per species per site). The experimental design to be followed will be Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Data to be collected Number of shoots; length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging shoot; number of leaves, leaf size (diameter and width); culm diameter; shoot recruitment rate against time, useable culm yield against time, internode length, number of nodes, height, diameter of culms, mortality, disease and pest incidence/resistance Data analysis: The data on the performance and soil conservation potentials of bamboo will be Summarized using MS-EXCELL software and will be subjected for analysis. Descriptive statistics will be used. Location: This experiment was established in June 2010 at Chagni, Jimma and Holeta, and before four years at Gambo). It will also be established this year (2013) at Alemaya, Tepi, and Kulumsa. Duration: Currently, there is more opportunity to test the species at newly opened centers and higher learning institutes (researchers already employed to handle research on Non-Timber Forest Resources), hence there is need of extend the duration of the trial for more years (up to 2018).

Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff) Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Negash (JARC), Mohammed (AARC), Eyasu (HU), Mussa (TARC), Getaneh (KARC)Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)

4.8. Effect of different storage conditions on germination and Field emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds
Seed collection and processing Mature fruits of O. abyssinica and yushinia alpina seeds will be collected from at least twenty five clumps for representativeness. Seed collection will be conducted in Pawe special Woreda, Mandura, and Bullen districts for lowland bamboo and Masha and Dawro area for highland bamboo since there exists gregarious flowering and seed setting of the species. Seed processing will be done according to the method followed by Demelash Alem (2006). The fruits will be airdried and separated in to single fruits. The fruit aggregates will be threshed manually to extract seeds. The seeds will be stored properly until initial germination test is carried out. Initial germination test will be done using 100 seeds with four replications. These sample seeds will be taken by thoroughly mixing the bulk seeds and taking randomly by hand. Approximately, equal sized seeds will be used for the study in order to avoid the effect of seed size on the germination test. The sample seeds will be taken out from bulk sample for initial germination test. The test will be carried out in Pawe and Forestry agricultural research center laboratory simultaneously with initial germination test, enough amounts of seeds (0.5kg per each collection medium) will be stored and will be used in subsequent germination testing periods. The necessary storage medium

25

will be purchased or prepared locally. After initial germination test, seeds to be used for subsequent germination test will be stored in different storage medium: such as stoppered glass bottles, screw top plastic boxes, tin boxes, polythen bags (with mouth folded three times and tied), mouth tied cotton cloth bags and jute bags. The experiment will be continued for 24 months, starting from the first germination test. At intervals of four months, seed samples will be taken out from each storage container and will be tested for standard germination for two consecutive years. Four hundred seeds in four replications of 100 seed each will be used in each test (ISTA, 1996). The germination test will be conducted on non-toxic moist germination paper on Petri dishes. Field emergence test will be conducted by sowing seed in potting mix of soil. The Observation on germinating seeds/ emerging seedlings will be recorded until no seeds will Germinate/emerge).

Initial moisture content and seed characteristics

The initial moisture content will be determined by using 25 seeds in 5 replicates of 5 seed each. For measuring seed size (seed length and width) 100 seeds were randomly selected from collected seeds. These seeds will be divided in to five replicates of 20 seeds each and their size measured using a caliper. To determine thousand seed weight, 5000 seeds will be taken randomly from the collected seeds and divided in to five replicates of 1000 seed each. Each replicate will be weighed using sensitive balance. Germination test Before conducting this test, the germinating medium, i.e. Petri dishes (9.5 cm diameter) with moist blotting paper, will be set up in the laboratory Pawe Agricultural Research Center (PARC). The pure seeds will be mixed, and randomly counted to select seeds for the germination test. Germination test will be carried out using four replicates of one hundred seeds. Seeds will be sown uniformly and will be watered as needed and will be kept moist but not wet, as this would have negatively affected those (Kassahun et al., 2003). No seed treatment will be applied; bamboo seeds do not have dormancy (Banik, 1994; Kassahun et al., 2003). Seeds will be considered to have germinated after the emergence and development of the radical and plumule from the seed embryo (FAO, 1985). Each day the number of germinated seeds will be recorded, and the germinated seeds will be removed so that they will not be counted again (Gulzar & Khan, 2001). Abnormal seeds, seeds infected with fungus, and ungerminated seeds will be considered as non-viable. When no further germination appeared, the total number of germinated seeds for each treatment/factor combination will be added, to determine the germination percentage of bamboo seeds (Palzer, 2002). Ungerminated seeds will be inspected for viability and for the cause of any seed defect. From the data collected, the other required germination parameters will be determined. Seed viability will be determined by adding the values for the germination percentage and the viable but ungerminated seeds during the germination period. Germination energy This will be determined in the seed viability test by recording the germination data until the number of germinated seedlings declines or falls off. According to Schmidt (2000), germination energy can be found in one of the three ways. These include (1) by taking data up to the day of peak germination; (2) so as not to exclude germinable seeds, it can also be regarded as lasting until daily germination falls to less than 25% of the peak germination or (3) it can also be calculated based on the number of days required to attain 50% of

26

the germination capacity. Therefore, the germination energy of O. abyssinica will be determined based on these three methods. Germination value The germination value aims to combine in a single figure total germination together with an expression for germination energy or speed of germination. From the germination test data, the germination value of O. abyssinica seeds will be computed according to the method of Djavanshir & Pourbeik (1976):

GV =( DGs )GP N 10 Where

GV= Germination value GP= Germination percent at the end of the test DGS= Daily Germination Speed, obtained by dividing the cumulative germination percentage by the number of days since sowing. DGS = The total obtained by adding every DGS figure obtained from the daily count N= the number of daily count, starting from the date of first germination 10= Constant Germination speed According to FAO (1985), germination speed, which is expressed as peak values and is the maximum mean daily germination (cumulative percentage of full seed germination divided by the number of days elapsed since sowing date) reached at the time during the period of the test. The value will be calculated from the germination values for the germination test. Field emergence test According to the randomization and lay out used for the laboratory word O. abyssinica seeds will also be sown on the nursery soil bare rooted and their field emergence will be tested for each storage time and storage conditions. To do so the nursery in our research compound will be used. Except the treatment, all the necessary nursery activities will be carried out as usual. Those nongerminated seeds will be scrutinized for the cause of failures. Desiccation & storage under laboratory condition Desiccate seeds by mixing with an equal amount silica gell Placing container under ambient temperature (25-30). In this trial the Controls stock will be placed in similar containers with vermiculite in place of silca gel. Seeds will be aerated by mixing once or twice daily to avoid Anoxia. Dry the seed till targeted moisture content 50%, 70% and 80% of the initial moisture content reaches. For Target moisture content calculation use the following formula Weight of seed (g) at TMC= (100-MC after processing) (100-TMC)*initial seed weight When the target moisture content is reached a sample will be taken for germination and moisture content determination. After determining the required moisture content, store the seed under laboratory at +5 oC. Experimental design The experiment will be laid out in factorial randomized complete block design with four replication. The storage materials will be arranged randomly in each replication in the laboratory. The storage periods will also be randomly in each storage materials. The factors are storage condition with six levels and storage time with seven levels and + 5 oC under FRC seed laboratory, Addis Ababa. The details of storage condition and storage period is given below Storage condition storage periods (after seed collection)

27

T0= control T1 = Glass bottles P1= 0 Months T2= Plastic boxes P2=4 Months T3 = Tin boxes P3=8 Months T4= Polythen bags P4=12 Months T5 =Cloth bags P5=16 Months T6= Jute bags P6=18 Months T7= Clay Pots P7 = 24 Months T8= Kil T9 = +5 oC FRC seed laboratory3 Data to be collected: Germination percentage, seed viability, date of 50% germination, date of complete germination, germination energy, field emergence of seeds, cumulative germination energy, observable pests and diseases Data analysis: data will be checked for normality and homogeneity of variance and the necessary data transformation will be carried out to normalize the data. The SAS software will be used for analysis and mean separation will be done using LSD, which is built in SAS.

5. Location of the project

Table 5. Location of the project (locations for lowland bamboo and highland bamboo) S/N Research components/sub components Location Highland bamboo Lowland bamboo
1 Component 1: Developing propagation techniques for highland and lowland bamboo in Ethiopia Component 2: Bamboo stand management Sub Component 1:Management of existing highland bamboo and lowland bamboo stands Sub comp 2: The effect of different weeding frequency on the early performance of O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition Component 3: Evaluating bamboo for different end uses Component 4: Assessment of bamboo pests and diseases Sub component 1: Assessment of bamboo pests Sub component 2: Assessment of bamboo diseases Component 5: Introduction and evaluation of bamboo species Effect of different storage condition on germination and field emergence of bamboo Injibara,TikureInchine Assossa

2 2.1 2.2.

Injibara, Tikureinchine

Assossa

3 4

Bore/Hagereselam,Mash a,Injibara and Shenen

Pawe ,Mandura and Assossa

Injibara,Shenen Injibara,Shenen Holetta, FRC, DebreZeit Dawro ,Masha

5 6

Pawe,Mankush and Assossa Pawe,Mankush and Assossa Chagni, Gambo, Jimma Pawe

Table 6.Administrative boundaries of the research areas S. Research area Administrative Administrative N region Zone 1 Pawe Benishangule Metekel Gumuze

wereda Pawe special wereda

Agro ecology lowland

28

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Assossa Injibara Shenen/TikueInchine FRC Holetta DebreZeit Jimma

Amhara Oromia Addis Ababa Oromia Oromia Oromia

Assossa Awi West shewa Bole Special zone East Shewa Jimma Zone

Assossa Banja Tikureinchine Bole Welmera AdaA Jimma

lowland highland Highland Highland Highland midland midland

6. Expected outputs of the project

The best propagation techniques of both highland and lowland bamboos will be identified;

Efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol developed.

Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland bamboo under different harvesting intensities will be investigated; Optimum harvesting intensity and techniques of lowland bamboo will be determined Nutritive value of bamboo shoots identified The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies; Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known; The storage behavior of bamboo seed and its germination potential will be know

7. Institutional arrangement
The organizational structure of the project is to be seen in accordance with the business process re-engineering of the institute that is currently underway. EIAR/Holetta will coordinate and supervise the implementation of this project. The monitoring and evaluation team of Forestry Research process, researchers, woreda agriculture officials and experts, farmers, potential investors, small scale bamboo processors of the nearby research centers will be involved in monitoring and evaluation of the project.

8. Duration of the project

Duration of the project is five years (2008 2018 E.C.). Some of the project components will be finalized in a year time; some others take 2, 3, 4 and 5 years.

Beneficiaries and impact

29

Beneficiaries of the project are farmers, investors, NGOs, GOs, handicrafts, cottage industries. This project will have great economic, social and environmental role. It also has significant impact on the target farmers livelihood. The outputs of the project have great potential for scaling-up to a larger number of users/beneficiaries. Economic benefits Provide raw material for industries thereby increase the income of investors Diversify and increase farmers income. Create employment opportunities to the community Social benefits The community participation will increase as it is income generating plant The output of the research will have great contribution in poverty alleviation as it is income generating plant species with diverse products and services Great number of the community including especially small income farmers, investors, small The project Number of beneficiaries specifying the major social groups that benefit most Environmental benefits The output of the project will have great contribution to the environment as the species has important characteristics for soil and water conservation and environmental amelioration. The project will also have great role in the conservation of remaining forest resources as it is reports, progress reports, research project evaluating team report, review meetings and travelling workshops.

10. Dissemination strategy

The nationwide production package popularization program by the Federal Government, field days, field visits, workshops, training of extensionists and farmers, technical manuals, leaflets, posters, annual report, publications and mass media, Farmers Research Groups (FRGs) will be used to disseminate the technologies to be generated by the project.

11. Monitoring and evaluation plan

The mid term evaluation of the project will take place on June 2009 whereas the final evaluation will be made in June 2012.The monitoring tools that are usually used by the program include quarterly reports, annual Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

12. Milestone of the project

Deliverables Date (Month, Year) 30/07/2013 30/07/2013;

The storage behavior and germination potential of lowland and highland bamboo seeds will be known The best propagation techniques for highland and 30

lowland bamboos will be identified; Efficient micro propagation and invitro regeneration protocol developed. Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland and lowland bamboos under different harvesting intensities and techniques will be investigated; Nutritive value and preservation techniques of bamboo shoots identified The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies; The phenotypic variation of different provenances and genetic variability of Ethiopian highland bamboo will be known and the best performing and with Desirable characteristics will be selected. Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known; Table 7. Work plan for old bamboo project S.N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Major Activities Seed collection Seed extraction and storage Conduct germination test lab Conduct germination test nursery Marking of new shoots removing of un marked shoots Conduct thinning Lowland bamboo shoot collection Bamboo shoot nutrient analysis Protocol set up using tissue culture Seedling propagation in the nursery Propagation of seedlings in tissue culture using biotechnology Identification of genetic variation using molecular markers Assessment of disease and pest Site clearing and preparation Field layout and planting Weeding and cultivation Quantity kg kg month month ha ha ha area month # spp no no month location ha ha ha ha m2 ha 31 Measuremen t

30/07/2015 30/06/2012 30/07/2013

30/01/2012 30/07/2013; 30/07/2018 30/07/2013

30/07/2013

Fiscical year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 10 205 100 5 200 100 100 8 2 3 3 8 2 3 3 1.8 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 300 50 50 100 100 25 1000 250 0 250 250 8 4 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 2 1.5 5 5 2.5(2 4 x) 400 5 40 0 800 5 1.5 5 2.5(1 6X) 2

5(3 times)
2.8(8xmonth)

18 Watering 19 Conduct fencing and strengthening 20 Data collection

3200 10

21 Follow up and supervision 22 Report writing Manuscript development for 23 completed activities

month no no

8 5 2

24 1

24 1

24 1

24 2 2

13. Budget requirement for the project

S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Budget code 6113 6114 6212 6217 6218 6219 6221 6223 6231 6232 6241 6245 6251 6256 6271 6313 Total Description Contract staff Casual staff Office supplies Fuel and lubricants Farm supplies Inputs Chemicals Perdium Transport Maintenance Barbed wire Land rent Service charge Training Fixed asset Budget required 2004 2005 0 0 158584 202987.52 17200 20778.88 63726 81569.28 17200 22016 17200 22016 23965.80 30676.224 37840 48435.20 64500 82560 8600 11008 24510 31372.80 27520 35225.60 24080 30822.40 6020 7705.60 18920 24217.60 51600 66048 561465.80 717439.10

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