Nuclear Chemistry

Chapter 25

Nuclear Radiation


Section 25.1

Nuclear Reactions
1. Occur when nuclei emit particles and/or rays. 2. Atoms are often converted into atoms of another element. 3. May involve protons, neutrons, and electrons 4. Associated with large energy changes. 5. Reaction rate is not normally affected by temperature, pressure, or catalysts.


Wilhelm Roentgen
1845-1923
1895: When electrons bombarded surface of certain materials, invisible rays were emitted 

Henri Becquerel


1852-1908
studied minerals that when exposed to sunlight, emit light phosphorescence discovered uranium salts (pitchblende)

Marie Curie
1867-1934
Marie & Pierre Curie isolated components emitting rays identifed Po & Ra 

MORE HISTORY


Rutherford (1871-1937) identied alpha, beta, and gamma radiation

PROPERTIES OF RADIATION
1. Alpha () 4 He, helium nuclei 2 Blocked by paper; 6.64 x 10-24 kg Slow moving due to mass and charge! Beta () 0 or 0 e, electrons -1 -1 Blocked by metal foil; 9.11 x 10-28 kg Fast moving Emitted from a neutron of an unstable nucleus Insignicant mass compared with mass of nucleus Greater penetrating power than alpha particles Gamma () 0 , photons 0 Not completely blocked by lead or concrete; 0 kg High energy electromagnetic radiation Almost always accompanies alpha and beta radiation

2.

3.

Radioactive Decay


Section 25.2

NUCLEAR STABILITY
Correlated with atoms neutron-toproton ratio. < 20 atomic number most stable


BETA DECAY
Instability of isotope due to too many neutrons relative to its number of protons.


ALPHA DECAY
All nuclei with more than 83 protons decay spontaneously


POSITRON EMISSION
Positron is a particle with the same mass as an electron but the opposite charge 01 or 01e During emission, a proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron and a positron

1 1p --> 1 0 n + 0 1

ELECTRON CAPTURE
Nucleus of an atom draws in a surrounding electron (from lowest energy level) Captured electron combines with a proton to form a neutron

1 0 e --> p + 1 -1 1 0n

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?


PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

mass


atomic #Po

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

2He

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

2He +

How did I get 20682 ?


206 82

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

2He +

How did I get 20682 ? The numbers must add up the same on both sides of the equation (top #s =, and bottom #s =)


206 82

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

2He +

How do you determine the element? By atomic number!


206 82

PROBLEM
What particle is formed when polonium-210 undergoes alpha decay?
210 Po 84

-->

2He +

How do you determine the element? By atomic number!


206 82

Pb

PROBLEM
What would the decay process of iodine131 into xenon-131 look like?


PROBLEM
What would the decay process of iodine131 into xenon-131 look like?
131 I 53

-->

131 Xe 54

+ ?

PROBLEM
What would the decay process of iodine131 into xenon-131 look like?
131 I 53

-->

131 Xe 54

What type of radiation: 0-1?

-1?

PROBLEM
What would the decay process of iodine131 into xenon-131 look like?
131 I 53

-->

131 Xe 54

What type of radiation: 0-1? Beta!

-1

RADIOACTIVE SERIES
A series of nuclear reactions that begins with an unstable nucleus and results in the formation of a stable nucleus.


TRANSMUTATION


Section 25.3

TRANSMUTATION
Conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element In all but gamma emission nuclear reactions


INDUCED TRANSMUTATION
Striking nuclei with high-velocity charged particles Must be moving at high speeds to overcome electrostatic repulsion of target atoms nucleus Use particle accelerators (atom smashers


TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS
Elements immediately following uranium in the periodic table Atomic number of 93 or greater Developed in the laboratory by induced transmutation Radioactive


PROBLEM
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the induced transmutation of aluminum-27 into phosphorus-30 by alpha particle bombardment. A neutron is emitted from the aluminum atom in the reaction.


PROBLEM
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the induced transmutation of aluminum-27 into phosphorus-30 by alpha particle bombardment. A neutron is emitted from the aluminum atom in the reaction. 

Write all symbols on proper sides of the equation. Make certain numbers add up!

PROBLEM
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the induced transmutation of aluminum-27 into phosphorus-30 by alpha particle bombardment. A neutron is emitted from the aluminum atom in the reaction. 

Write all symbols on proper sides of the equation. Make certain numbers add up!
27 Al 13

4 He 2

--->

0n +

30 P 15

PROBLEM
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the induced transmutation of aluminum-27 into phosphorus-30 by alpha particle bombardment. A neutron is emitted from the aluminum atom in the reaction.
27 Al 13

4 He 2

How did I know the symbol for a neutron? A neutron has mass but no nuclear charge!

--->

0n +

30 P 15

HALF-LIFE
Time required for one-half of a radioisotopes nuclei to decay into its products. Exponential decay! Strontium-90 has a half-life of 29 years. So, if you had 10 g of this, in 29 years you would have 5 grams left.


HALF-LIFE
Amount remaining = (initial amount)(1/2)n
n

is equal to the number of half lives that has passed OR Amount remaining = (initial amount)(1/2)T/t 1/2 T is equal to the elapsed time and t 1/2 is the duration of the half-life

PROBLEM
Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after 133.5 days?


PROBLEM
Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after 133.5 days? 

Amount remaining = (initial amount)(1/2)n

X = 2.000 (1/2)133.5/44.5

PROBLEM
Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2,000 mg sample will remain after 133.5 days? Amount remaining = (initial amount)(1/2)n X = 2.000 (1/2)133.5/44.5 Amount remaining = 0.2500 mg 

RADIOCHEMICAL DATING
Process of determining an age of an object by measuring the amount of a certain radioisotope remaining in that object Uranium
Half-life of 4.5 c 109 years Meteorites; have estimated age of solar system at 4.6 x 109 years 

Carbon dating
146C ---> 147N + 0-1 Half-life of 5730 years Limited to accurately dating objects up to 24,000 years of age

Fission and Fusion of Atomic Nuclei



Section 25.4

E =


2 mc

I lied! (kind of) For most practical situations, mass is conserved, but Energy and mass can be converted into each other! It has been determined that the mass of the nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the individual protons and neutrons that comprise it. (CALLED MASS DEFECT) The missing mass provides tremendous energy required to bind the nucleus together.

NUCLEAR FISSION
Heavier atoms (mass # > 60) tend to fragment into smaller atoms to increase their stability This is accompanied by a very large release of energy


NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Use ssion to generate power UO2 encased in corrosion-resistant fuel rods Enriched to contain 3% uranium-235 (meets critical mass to sustain the chain reaction) Control rods of cadmium or boron absorb neutrons released during the reaction, controlling the ssion process Water circulates throughout the core to carry off the heat generated This is used to power stream driven turbines which produce electrical power Dense concrete structure encloses the reactor


NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Drawbacks Hazardous radioactive fuels and ssion products Limited supply of uranium-235 Where to store spent fuel rods? Require 20 half-lives to decay to safe levels Amount of spent fuel for a lifetime/person would equal the size of a basketball 

NUCLEAR FUSION
Binding together two light (mass # < 60) and less stable nuclei Capable of releasing very large amounts of energy The sun! Requires temperatures of 40,000,000 K! Can achieve this by atomic explosion (not safe!) Dont have materials capable of withstanding these high temperatures


ATOMIC BOMB
Utilizes principles of ssion (uncontrolled!) Equal to effect of 20,000 tons of TNT


HYDROGEN BOMB
Never used in warfare Explosive force 1000 X greater than atomic bomb Fission reaction triggers a fusion reaction of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium) Equal to 15 million tons of TNT


Applications & Effects



Section 25.5

IONIZING RADIATION
Radiation energetic enough to ionize matter with which it collides Detected by:
Geiger counter
Metal tube lled with a gas; gets ionized; creates an electrical current 

Scintillation counter
Radiation energizes a phosphorcoated surface that releases bright ashes

USES OF RADIATION
Neutron activation analysis
Determine quality of silicon wafers used in computers


Radiotracers
Trace biological pathways

PET
Imagery used in medical diagnoses

Radiation to kill cancer cells Irradiation of meats, fruits

ASSIGNMENT
Do problem solving lab Page 830