Bonds

Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as a unit. Bond energy
the

energy required to break a bond.

It

gives us information about the strength of a bonding interaction.

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Bond Length
The distance where the system energy is a minimum.

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Achieving Noble Gas Electron Configurations (NGEC)

A nonmetal and a representative group metal react (ionic compound): The valence orbitals of the metal are emptied to achieve NGEC. The valence electron configuration of the nonmetal achieves NGEC. Two nonmetals react: They share electrons to achieve NGEC.
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Ionic Compounds

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Isoelectronic Ions
Ions containing the the same number of electrons (O2, F, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+) O2> F > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
largest smallest

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Approximate atomic and ionic radii in pm (1 pm = 10-12 m)

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Formation of an Ionic Solid

(Born-Haber Cycle)

1.

2.
3. 4.

5.

Sublimation of the solid metal M(s) M(g) [endothermic] Ionization of the metal atoms M(g) M+(g) + e [endothermic] Dissociation of the nonmetal 1/2X (g) X(g) [endothermic] 2 Formation of X ions in the gas phase: X(g) + e X(g) [exothermic] Formation of the solid MX (lattice energy!) M+(g) + X(g) MX(s) [quite exothermic]
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Lattice Energy
An estimate of the strength of the bonds in an ionic compound can be obtained by measuring the lattice energy of the compound, which is the energy given off when oppositely charged separated gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic solid. M+(g) + X(g) MX(s)

Lattice energy is negative (exothermic) from the point of view of the system.
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Lattice Energy = 2.31 x 10-19 J nm (Q1 Q2) r

Q1, Q2 = charges on the ions

r = shortest distance between centers of the cations and anions Same as Step 5 - Formation of the solid MX M+(g) + X(g) MX(s) [quite exothermic]
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Covalent Compounds

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Understanding covalent molecules using models

Models are attempts to explain how nature operates on the microscopic level based on experiences in the macroscopic world.

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Fundamental Properties of Models

A model does not equal reality.

Models are oversimplifications, and are therefore often wrong.

Models become more complicated as they age. We must understand the underlying assumptions in a model so that we dont misuse it.
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Bond Energies
Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic). Bond formation releases energy (exothermic).

DH = SD (bonds broken) SD (bonds formed) energy required energy released DH = enthalpy (heat flow at constant pressure) D = bond energy per mole; always positive!
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Localized Electron Model

A molecule is composed of atoms that are bound together by sharing pairs of electrons using the atomic orbitals of the bound atoms. Covalent bonds
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Localized Electron Model

1. Description of valence electron arrangement (Lewis structure). Prediction of geometry (VSEPR model). Description of atomic orbital types used to share electrons or hold long pairs.
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2. 3.

Lewis Dot Symbols represent the elements and the valence electrons as dots around the element. Named after the American chemistry Gilbert N. Lewis *1875-1946) who developed this theory of bonding
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Lewis Structure
Shows

how valence electrons are arranged among atoms in a molecule. central idea that stability of a compound relates to noble gas electron configuration.

Reflects

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Rules for Writing Lewis Structures an alternative description (1) Ionic or Molecular? metal-nonmetal binary = ionic metal with more than one other atom = metal with polyatomic anion! if ionic, balance + and charges to make neutral, and transfer electrons appropriately in Lewis Structure nonmetal-nonmetal binary = molecular (2) Molecules and polyatomic ions will require you to solve their Lewis Structures. Add all of the valence electrons of the neutral atoms. Add or subtract the necessary electrons for ions. (3) Write the symbols of the atoms in a skeleton arrangement. The central atom usually listed first in the formula, and it is usually NOT O or H. (4) Use the 6N +2 rule. Count the number of total electrons. Let N = the number of atoms other than H in the formula. If 6N + 2 electrons are present, there will be only single bonds in the Lewis Structure. If there are two less than 6N +2 electrons present, there will be one double bond present. If there are four less Copyright2000 bybe Houghton 22 than 6N + 2 electrons present, there will a triple bond or two double bonds.
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In Lewis Structures, electrons will be shared to satisfy the octet rule/duet rule for each atom
Octet Rule: Atoms of the representative elements form bonds so as to have access to eight outer (valence) electrons. Duet Rule: Some lower atomic-number atoms (H, He, Li, and in cases, Be) follow a rule which simply pairs their existing valence electrons.
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Complete the following Lewis Structures:

I2 N2

CH4
CO2

HCN
O3 (ozone)

H2O
CO32-

SO2
N3-

ClO3H3O+

NH4+
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Comments About the Octet Rule

2nd row elements C, N, O, F observe the octet rule. 2nd row elements B and Be often have fewer than 8 electrons around themselves; they are very reactive and are often stabilized by simply pairing their existing valence electrons, giving Be 4 valence e- and B 6 valence e-. They are incomplete octet exceptions. 3rd row and heavier elements CAN exceed the octet rule using empty valence d orbitals, given them expanded octets. When writing Lewis structures, satisfy octets first, then if there are extra electrons, place them around central atoms having available d orbitals.
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Complete the following Lewis Structures:

PCl5 SF4 ICl3 SbF5

BrF3 XeF5+ XeF4 SF6

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Resonance
Multiple, equally plausible Lewis structures for one compound.

These are resonance structures. The actual structure is an average of the resonance structures. Copyright2000 by Houghton 27
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Resonance Structures multiple equally plausible Lewis structures for one compound. The actual structure is actually a resonance hybrid of the multiple structures, i.e. something inbetween.

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Electronegativity
The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself

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Polarity
A molecule, such as HF, that has a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge is said to be polar, or to have a dipole moment.

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See http://chemsite.lsrhs.net/ChemicalBonds/images/custom_dipole2.swf
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Nonpolar covalent (equivalent atoms)

Polar covalent

Ionic

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Polarity is more complex in molecules with more than two atoms

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Think symmetry!
(think vectors too)

The combination of each of the bond dipoles may or may not result in a molecular dipole, depending on the symmetry of the forces
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Formal Charge
The difference between the number of valence electrons (VE) on the free atom and the number assigned to the atom in the molecule. We need: 1. # VE on free neutral atom 2. # VE belonging to the atom in the molecule
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Formal Charge
FC = what you came in with what you end up with

FC = valence e- (unshared e- + bonding e-)

O C O
(-1) (0) (+1)

O C O
(0) (0) (0)

Not as good

Better
39

Always strive to minimize formal charges Copyright2000 by Houghton when possible

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VSEPR Model
The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions.

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Predicting a VSEPR Structure

1. 2. 3.
4.

Draw Lewis structure. Put pairs as far apart as possible. Determine positions of atoms from the way electron pairs are shared. Determine the name of molecular structure from positions of the atoms.

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