Essential Music Theory PDF

iUii*iitllj|>irtiliii>'.-m?;<'.?<ntiwm.
i>tJw<>M>MMtHi
THEORY
tl^lCMENTARY'
rÂll/E/GARDNEia'^
MMUunxn
BOSTON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MUSIC

LIBRARY
^'^.^Â
19//
No.
^*
ESSENTIALS OF
MUSIC THEORY
ELEMENTARY
BY
CARL
E.
GARDNER
Author of "Music Composition"
NEW YORK CARL FISCHER

1912
Boston University College of Music
Copyright, 191 2,
BY
CARL FISCHER
International Copyright Secured
PREFACE.
''
^HE
--
primary object in the following pages is to supply the teacher and student with a text book to accom-
pany the work on instrumental or vocal technic. of the great amount of time required to obtain
technic, text
Because
proficient
axe usually ignored.

this
books are often neglected, and, if exhaustive, Brevity and conciseness characterize
it is
volume and
planned to meet the needs of the busy
teacher and student.
Many pupils may not see the importance of some of the following text, such as the research for theoretical keys; but the results thus obtained are nothing more than the natural
of simple mathematical reasoning, and are inevithe structure of the scales is understood. Pupils should be impressed with the structure of scales rather than
outcome
table
if
be taught their keys and signatures by rote. Rote methods have little to recommend them in modern pedagogical ideals,
and are used principally in teaching the young. The lack knowledge of the whys and wherefores of scales, intervals, and chords among instrumentalists and singers is appalling, and is due partly to the neglect of text books and partly to
of
incompetent teachers.
further object of the text
is
to offer a course of prepara-
harmony, composition, and appreciation. Music Appreciation, as a cultural course of study, is growing in popularity and large enthusiastic classes in this subject are to
tion for the study of
be found in
all
our colleges.
These students
in
are
frequently handicapped
by poor preparation
the
PREFACE.
essential rudiments of
music such as are treated in
this
volume.
author's gratitude for valuable aid, criticisms, and suggestions is due his wife, Marion Dillon Gardner, and his
sisters,
The
Mabel Gardner Bankart and Lena Gardner Lewis.
CONTENTS.
Page
Preface
I.
iii
Rhythm: Note Values: Time Signatures: Tempo
3,
II.
Theory of Scales (Major and Minor)

The Major The Minor
Scale
10
11
Scale
21
III.
Intervals and Chord Building

Inversion of Intervals
32
36
38
Chord Construction
Inversion of Triads
40
41
43,
The Seventh Chord

Inversion of Seventh Chords IV.
Epitomized Acoustics
47
ci
V.
Ear Training
The Normal The Normal
Intervals of the Intervals
Major Scale of the Minor Scale
... ...
^.z-
55
Altered Intervals
Arpeggio Chords Two Voiced Chords The Four Voiced Chord
56 60
61
.
63
Boston University College of Music

Library
ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY
CHAPTER
RHYTHM.
Sound
is
I.
waves which
the effect produced by propagated atmospheric affect the sense of hearing. Irregular impulses,
air,
propagated through the produce musical tone.
produce noise.
Regular impulses
The
or
duration of tone
is
is
indicated by symbols called notes.

:
Following
list
of notes
n
I
Double whole note or Breve.
Whole note
or Semibreve.
Half note or Minim.

Quarter note or Crotchet.
^
\
s
j^
Eighth note or Quaver.

Sixteenth note or Sefniquaver.
Thirty-second note or Demisemiquaver.

(
Occasionally the sixty-fourth note

is
is
used.
Following
a table of the relative value of notes:
/A
/\
/\
/\
AA
AA A A A AAA AAA AAA

/^
Boston University
4
The
as
it is
ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY.

breve or double whole note
is
but seldom used.
The
value of
not given in this table it is twice the whole
note, four times the half, etc.
note is represented by an open oval the half, and stem the quarter, by a closed head and oval an open by stem the eighth note is the same as the quarter with a flag
;
; ;
The whole
the sixteenth, the same with two flags the thirty-second, the same with three flags. As is seen in the table, the eighth, six;
teenth and thirty-second notes are often grouped than one occurs in succession.
when more
Suspension of tone
Each note has

rests
:
its
indicated by symbols called rests. equivalent rest. Following is a list of

is
]:
i^?:
lil
j
Double whole
rest.
Whole
Half
rest.
rest.
Quarter
rest.
1 H
Eighth
rest.
Sixteenth rest.
Thirty-second
is
rest.
The
rate of vibration
called pitch.
Rapid vibrations
" " shrill ) tones. Slow vibrations produce produce ( high " low " tones. More complete information on sound, tone
and pitch
The
" Acoustics." is given later under the heading notes are written on the staff which consists of five
horizontal lines together with their spaces. The duration of a tone is determined by the note used the pitch, by the note's position on the staff.
;
A A
dot placed after a note or rest adds one half its value. " tie " is a curved line connecting two notes of the same
pitch.
Examples
of dots
and
ties
equals
^^
i*
RHYTHM.
J
J
^
equals
J
^^
or | -f i-
equals J
etc., etc.
or J
|.
A double dot adds one half and one fourth its value, thus
a
. .
equals
J
J
or
-f i
+ + +
i-
J.,
J
^ ^
^q^^^ls
/
^^^
orj
or J
+
+
f.
equals J
etc., etc.
^^
^V-
Bars are lines drawn vertically across the
staff
dividing
is
music into measures.
The
contents of the measure
deter-
mined by the fraction at the beginning. The denominator of the fraction shows the kind of notes, and the numerator, the number of that kind contained in a measure. Each measure must contain the number and kind of notes or rests designated
by the
fraction, or their equivalents.
Artificial groups are groups of notes played and summed in other than their fractional value. The most common artificial
groups are the

its
triplet
and
sextiiplet.
A triplet is a group
in the value of
of three notes played in the time
and summed
is
two of
a group of six notes sextuplet in in the time and summed the value of four of its played own kind. of five notes is group played in the time and
kind.
own
summed in
notes
its
is
the value of four of

in the time
its
own kind.
A group of seven
played
kind.
and summed
in the value of six of
Occasionally a group of two notes occurs. from other artificial groups inasmuch as it is played more slowly than the tempo notes. A group of two notes is played in the time and summed in the value of
own
This group
differs
6
three of

its
own
kind.
curved
line over or
Artificial groups are designated by a under the notes with a figure showing the
:
kind of group, thus

triplet
3
I
,
^
6
sextuplet
S s
2
S S 4
:roup of
two notes
.
|
In "counting" music, it is customary to give as many counts to each measure as the numerator of the fraction
indicates.
Each
of these counts
is
called a pulse.
Pulses
should occur regularly unless otherwise marked. Irregularities in the occurrence of pulses are marked in various ways.
The
ritardando, the hold
(^, and
the
accelerando
ritarda7ido
are
the
principal marks
of irregularities.
The
(abbre-
viated riiard, or rit^
means
to lessen the speed, the accelerando
to (abbreviated accel.) to quicken the speed, and the hold hold the note, over or under which it is placed, as long as musical taste dictates.
(^
This occurrence of pulses
is
,
called rhythjn.
12
|, |, |, |, |, |,
The most
and | or
common rhythms
are
or
^ also called alia breve.
681216343
On
the
first
4' 4 4' 8' 2' 2' 2' 2' 16'
and
all
Other rhythms not so common are less uiicu often 15 5 aim and 5 cn^. etc ^, ^, g ^g,
kinds of rhythm
is
pulse
of
a primary
accent called
Secondary accents, called arsis, occur in in s on the fourth count. count the third and on These 4 " " to the music. can natural accents give a swing They only
thesis.
be displaced or overshadowed by
designated
in various
artificial
accents which are

artificial ac-
ways. cents are \ht.forzando (designated thus
The most common

:
> A
,
ox/z),,
meaning
RHYTHM.
a sudden strong accent to the note or chord over or under
which
it
is
placed
marked
as the forza?ido)
the rinforzaiido (which is not quite so the staccato (designated by a dot

;
placed over or under the note or chord) which makes the note thus indicated short and crisp, and the syncopatmi, which is a
form of rhythm displacing the natural accent by the note's entrance on an unaccented part of the measure and its sustentation through the pulse. The rapidity of the occurrence of pulses
is called tempo^ indicated at the beginning of a movement by Italian words usually, the most common of which are as fol-
which
lows
is
Grave, slow and solemn (the slowest tempo). Largo, slow, a trifle faster than Grave. Larghetto, a trifle faster than Largo.
Adagio, a
trifle
faster than Larghetto.
Lefito, slow.
Andante, moderately slow. Andantino, translated literally means slower than Andante, but it is more often used incorrectly meaning faster than
Andante.
Moderato, moderate
Allegretto, cheerful.
;
the mediate between fast and slow.
Allegro, quick.
Vivo, quick.
Presto, very quick.
To many of the above words is added the ending issimo which gives the word to which it is added its superlative deOther terms are oftentimes combined with the above gree.
words to characterize the movement. Every pupil should have a dictionary of musical terms for constant reference. The majority of piano students have an absolute disregard for note values and tempo marks which are so important
that the pupils fail to gain any good results from their study unless they understand and pay strict attention to these
marks.
The incompetency
of so
many
teachers
is
somewhat
responsible for this state of affairs, but the majority of piano In second studies and methods is more largely responsible.
grade studies, there are many which, if written in a judicious manner, would be excellent second grade work, but when
played as they are written and as their tempo mark demands These studies require a virtuoso to execute them correctly.
have led pupils to playing allegro movements in largo tempo. At the end of a week's practice a mo derato tempo may be the
result.
but
habitual
Continued enforced disregard can produce nothing The teacher disregard for tempo marks.
far as possible,
should constantly remind the student of these facts and, in as omit such studies as cannot be played a tempo.
rewritten in a playable manner by so the teacher, who, by doing, would not only impress the with the importance of tempo marks, but would depupil
Many
exercises
may be
velop his ability to read from manuscript, an ability which, unfortunately, is almost universally lacking in pupils.
EXERCISES.
Oral and Written.

1.
What
What
is
sound?
2.
Tell the difference between noise

is
and musical tone^
3.
4. 5.
a note
Describe the most
common
notes.
Write a table of the relative value of notes comnote.
mencing with the whole

6.
Write a table of the relative value of notes comhalf note.
mencing with the dotted

7.
Describe the
rests.
EXERCISES.
8.
g
its
For each dotted note, show
equivalent by two
its
tied notes.
9.
For each double dotted note, show

Describe measure
equivalent by
three tied notes.

10.
and bar and upon what the

of
measure's contents depends. 11. Describe the manner

rhythms.
counting the different

in
Name the marks that designate irregularities and describe the character of each mark. rhythms
12. 13. 14.
Describe the natural accent.
Name
What
the most
common
?
artificial
accents and de-
scribe the character of each.

15.
is
meant by tempo
16.
17.
Name and
define twelve different

artificial
tempo marks.
Explain and notate
groups.
CHAPTER
II.
THEORY OF SCALES.
Major and Minor.
(Chapter i, page 4), the rate of vibraTones vibrating an equal number of times produce an unison which is a perfect concordance and
tion
is
As
stated before
called pitch.
is
ratio of
pleasant to the ear. Equally as pleasant to the ear is the two vibrations against one. A tone vibrating twice as fast as a given tone is called the given tone's octave. Be-
tween these two tones many tones may be found. example, suppose a note vibrating two hundred times
second,
its
For
in a
octave would vibrate four hundred times in the Between these two tones there would be ( avoiding fractions which would produce more different pitches ) one hundred and ninety-nine tones of different pitch. The ear is incapable of locating all these tones and modern custom
second.
has divided
all
octaves into twelve parts, each part being
These called a half step or, literally incorrect, a semi-tone. semi-tones sounded successively upwards or downwards from
any tone to
its
diatonic scale
octave produce the chromatic scale.* is a progression from any tone to
its
oc-
In modtave in which certain chromatic steps are omitted. em music there are three forms of diatonic scales, called :
1.
Major.
2.
Harmonic minor.
Melodic minor.
3.
* All references to scales, intervals and enharmonic changes treat of the tempered
scale.
10
THEORY OF SCALES.
octave of the
II
All three forms have eight tones, the eighth being the first and is given the same name.
The
ways
:
tones of the diatonic scale are
named
in four different
1.
2.
3.
4.
by by by by
numerals (Arabic and Roman), the first seven letters of the alphabet,
the Italian syllables the theory
(
do, re, mi, fa, sol^ la, sz,)
and
names
fom^:, supertonic,
mediant, sub-
domina7it, doinifiafit, submediant
and
siibtonic).
is built.
The key-tone
that
I
is
the tone from which a diatonic scale

is
The numerical system

is
a movable system which
means
is i.
The theory name system always the key-tone. a movable system, the tonic being always the key-tone or
alphabet system
is
The
a fixed system which
means
that a
Italian
letter is
system
always the same tone or its octave. as both a fixed system and is treated
The
a movable
system. the key-tone,
This book treats of the movable

i
do,
do always being
and
tonic.
The Major
Scale.
major scale is a progression from any tone to its octave 2 in which chromatic steps are omitted between i and 2 to from and 6 and and and 3, 4 6, 7 3 4 and 5, 5
from
8 half steps are made. Following is a diagram of a two octave keyboard:

7 to
C| Df
or or
d!>
eT?
n or
Gt
Gi A
or or
A!>
or
or
n or
Gl>
G# A
or
or
BV
Db eV
A^
B!>
12
The keyboard shows white and black keys. The black keys are in groups of two and three. As can be seen in the
diagram, the white key next to the left of the group of two The white keys in order to the right of c are black keys is c. Following ^ is a repetition of respectively d, e^f^g, a and b.
c at the distance of
an octave. Notice that between e and/" no black key as is also the case between b and c. In these two cases, where no black key separates the white keys, Two white keys septhe white keys are one semi-tone apart.
there
is
arated by a black key are one whole step apart. black key is at the distance of a semi-tone from an adjoining white key. The black keys derive their letter names from the white
keys.
black key
it is
is
between which
is
situated.
)
named from either of the white keys The black key between c and d
in
named
sharp (#
or dflat (b).
Starting at c
and sounding the white keys
order to
the right as far as the octave produces the ascending major scale of C ; sounding in order to the left produces the de-
Notice that no black keys are scending major scale of C. in of the the C major scale, the whole and case necessary
between
namely, whole steps and 2, 2 and 3, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, 6 and 7, and half steps between 3 and 4 and between 7 and 8. The student must constantly keep in mind the order of whole and
half steps being in their proper places
i
;
In each scale explained half steps in all scales explained. the letters will be numbered and a curved line will connect
those figures representing tones one half step apart.
All major keys except major require one or more black of The number or flats required for a key is sharps keys.
placed at the beginning of the

signature.
staff
and
this is called the
step and a
sharp (#) placed before a note raises the tone one half flat (b) lowers a tone one half step.
THEORY OF SCALES.
The sharp keys
Rule
I.
13
will
be considered
first
and a sharp major
scale will be built from each of the twelve tones.
The Fifth
of a Scale is the Tonic (or i) of the Scale

of Sharps.
having the next Number
nCtias no sharps, the fifth of Cis ^ and therefore by followhas one sharp. The scale of ing the rule, we find that
is
as follows
Gabc
I
de f#G
5
3^
7^8
is
Notice that the seventh of the scale
a black key.
:
The
fifth of G'ls
d and
has two sharps
D
I
e f^
2
g a b c^
5
3j
7^
remains sharped and the added sharp is the seventh of the scale. This is always the case, the added *"**" sharp is the seventh of the new scale. IS a and has three sharps "The fifth oi
Notice that
A
I
b
2
c#d
e
5
f^gÂ
6
3^4
7^
:
The
fifth of -^ is ^
and has four sharps E fftgâ b c#d#E

I
3^4
The
fifth of
^
B
7^
sharps
is
and has
2
five
B c#d#e f#g#a#B
I
3^
7^
:
The
fifth of
is
y# and has six sharps F??g-â^bcS dê#F#

I
3^
7^
Notice that e^ is not a black key but the white key which It must be called e^ has been previously considered as f.
to retain the alphabetical order.
14

fifth of F'^ is
The
c^
and has seven sharps

5
as well as
C#d#e#figSa#b#C#
I
3j^
In this scale
the
e'^ is
7^
The ^#
all
the notes are sharped.
a white key.
The fifth of C# is g^ and has eight sharps. This key necessitates one double sharp and /"is double sharped. The double sharps are added in the same order that the single
sharps are.
The double sharp

step.
(designated thus
raises
a tone one whole
G#
I
a# bS c# d# e# fx
2
G^
3^4
5678
6
The
fifth
of
G^
sharps, /"and r):
is
d^ and has nine sharps (two double
D|^ es fx
2
is
^ a# bS ex D#
5
3^4
îj^
7^
(
The
fifth of D'if
sharps, y,
ând ^):
and has ten sharps
three double
A# b#
I
3^4
ex d+t e#fx gx 5 6
A^
four double
7^
(
The
fifth of
^,
^+^
is
e'-^
sharps,/,
g and
d)-.
fx
2
and has eleven sharps

gx a# b# ex dx E#
E#
I
3^4
:
7^
( five
The
fifth of
c,
E^
is b'^
sharps, y^
g,
ând a)
I
and has twelve sharps

fx
double
B# ex dx e^
2
gx ax B^
3^
5 6
7^
with their sharp
B^
has taken us back to our starting key called by a different
name.
All twelve keys have
now been named
THEORY OF SCALES.
signatures.
15
To
continue counting five would take us over

is
is
The student the same keys called by different names. advised to do a little of this for mental discipline. If this
done beyond fourteen sharps, it will be necessary to add triple Of course, triple sharps are never used in musical sharps. notation and such a research would be entirely arithmetical.
The
order of the letters in the sharp signature which
lows should be committed to
memory
fol-
F C G D A E
B.
All keys having one double sharp or more would be difficult to read, and so instead of using the sharp signatures on
such keys, the

Rule
fiat
signatures are used.
All twelve keys with
their fiat signatures will

2.
now be
given.
The Fourth
of a Scale is the
Tonic of the Scale hav-
ing the Next
Number
;
of Flats.
C has no flats
the rule,
the fourth of
C is//
flat
:
we
find that
i^has one
therefore,
by following
FgabbcdeF
1234 567^
Notice the fourth of the scale
is
a black key.
:
The
fourth of
F\s
I
and has two flats Bb c d eb f g a B[?

b\?
the added
flat is
2345678
flat
is
Notice that the b remains

fourth of the scale.
flat is
and that the added

always the case
the
This
the fourth of the
new
f
scale.
:
The
fourth of B\^
is e\^
Eb
I
and has three flats g ab bb c d Eb

6
The
fourth of
^b
I
is
3j^ 5 7^ ^b and has four flats

c db eb
f
Ab bb
2345678
g Ab
l6

fourth oi A\?
is d\,
The
and has
five flats
Db
I
eb
2
is
3^
gb ab bb c Db 6 5 7 8
flats
f
:
'The fourth
of Z>b
^b and has six Gb ab bb cb db eb

I
Gb
2
is
3
c\,
5678
flats
The
fourth of
Gb
I
and has seven

fb
Cb db eb
2
gb ab bb
5
Cb
3^
in the
7^.
fourth of Cb is/b and has eight flats. This key necessitates one double flat and d has the double flat. The
The
double
are.
flats
are
added
flat
same order
The double
step.
(designated:
that the single flats bb) lowers a tone one
whole
Fb gb ab bbb Cb db eb Fb
I
3^
is
7^
flats
The
fourth of i^b
:
flats, <^bb
and ^bb ) Bbb Cb db ebb

I
^bb and has nine
(two double
fb
5
gb ab Bbb
6
3
is
'
4
^bb
7^^
flats
The
fourth of
^bb
flats, ^bb, <?bb
and^bb) Ebb fb gb abb bbb

I
and has ten

Cb db
(three double
3^j.
5678
Ebb
The
fourth of
flats, ^bb, <?bb>
^bb and has eleven bb and ^bb )
^bb
is
flats
(four double
Abb bbb
I
Cb dbb ebb fb gb
3
is
5678
Abb
The
-double
fourth
of A\,\?
^bb and has twelve

and^bb):
flats
(five
flats, <^bb, <?bb,
^bb, ^bb,
THEORY OF SCALES.
Dbb ebb
I
17
fb
gbb abb bbb cb Dbb

5
3^
7^
taken us back to our starting key called by a different name as was the case when we had twelve sharps.
Dbb has
continue counting four would take us over the same keys by different names. As was advised in the sharp research should be continued by the student. this If keys,
called
to
To
more than fourteen add triple flats.
flats
are considered,
it
will
be necessary
The order
of the letters in the flat signature
lows should be committed to
memory
which
fol-
B E A D G C
By comparing
with that of the sharp signature,
ture reversed.
it
F.
flat
the order of the letters in the

will
is
signature
be seen that the order
of the letters in the flat signature
that of the sharp signa-
Notice that each key has more than one
name
for ex-
ample, the white key next to the left of the group of two black keys has been called C, Z>bb and B^.
Rule
of a
3.
An Enharmonic Change
its Pitch.
is
the Change of a
Name
Tone without Altering
Two or more scales played from the same pitched tone but called by different names are called enharmonic scales. In practice,* fifteen major scales are used, three of which are
scales. Following is a list of the major scales used in practice together with their signatures:
enharmonic
no sharps or
I
flats
G
*
sharp (f)
D A
sharps
( f
and
3 sharps (f,c and g)

)
4 sharps
( f , c,
g and d
Theoretical keys appear in many compositions during transitions, but they are not obvious (except by analysis) because of the fact that their signatures do not appear.
i8

5 sharps 6 sharps
(f, c, g,
( f, c,
f , c,
g, d,
d and a) a and e )
7 sharps (
g, d, a, e
and b )
flat (
b
(
Bb. Eb
2 flats
flats
Ab
4 6
flats
Db. Gb. Cb.
5 flats
flats
7 flats
b and e ) (b, e and a) a and d ) ( b, e, (b, e, a, d and g ) enharmonical to C# and c ) enharmonical to F# ( b, e, a, d, g a, d, g, c and f ) enharmonical to B ( b, e,
in practice are
:
The enharmonic keys used
flats )
)
five (
sharps
)
)
enharmonical to
F#
(six sharps
enharmonical to
)
Cb Gb
seven
flats ( six
C#
(seven sharps
4.
enharmonical to
of
Db
five flats)
Rule
The Sum
tures is Twelve.
Notice that this
the Enharmonic Flat and Sharp Signais true in the above three
keys.
keys (that is, those having more are For example than seven sharps or flats) easily found. flats the to find the key having eleven key having eleven
By
this rule the theoretical
flats is
enharmonical to the key having one sharp (11+1 = 12). 6rhas one sharp and changing its name to the enharmonic flat key, we obtain ^bb which, therefore, has eleven flats.
This process should be applied to
all
keys having eight to

a
eleven sharps and eight to eleven flats inclusive. As stated in the first chapter, the pitch of
tone
is
determined by the note's position on the staff. The staff of five lines with its spaces allows of the designation of but one octave and one step, whereas, in modern music, there is need of This necessitates the use the notation of at least six octaves.
of
symbols called clefs and

^
lines
added
to the staff called ledger
THEORY OF
lines.
SCALES.
19
to the staff lines
Ledger lines are short lines parallel added above or below the staff lines. There are three clefs :1.
the treble or
G
F
clef,
2.
the tenor, movable or

the bass or
clef.
clef,
3.
Middle
C is
the tone v/hich
all
voices can sing.
It is in
the lower register of the high female voice and in the upper register of the low male voice.
The
Its
clef (treble
clef) is for
symbol shows the position
of the
high voices or instruments. G next above middle C
thus
i
Its
staff,
Middle
is
found on the
first
ledger
line
below the
tenor or
G clef,
C clef is
thus
w^
medium voices
or instruIt
is
The
ments.
for the use of
symbol shows the position of middle C. This clef is movable and may place middle C on any line or space of the staff. Its most common position is on the third line of
the
thus
-M
not
uncommon, how
For vocal music
ever, to find
it is
it
on the second or fourth
line.
often written in the third space. The bass orFclefis for the use of low voices or instruments.
Its
symbol shows the position of the
F next below middle

found on the
first
(7,
thus:
line
^' ^
Middle
is
ledger
above the
F clef
:
thus
The notation
practice follows
in the treble clef of all the
major scales used
in
20
Scale of C
i
^^
i
J
Cde
J
J
f
gabC
f
Scale of
p GabodefttG
Scale of
^*
ffS
tt
g
D
e
ftl
eft
Scale of
i'^
ft
'rr
b
cj
ftt
gtl
Scale
of
V^
J E
J
ftt
J
gtt
*
a b
ctt
Scale
of
(k
tf
^)j
^
cH
dtt
d E
ftt
gtt
att
Scale of Ft
^liîiii"
J
Ftt
J
gtt
J
att
ctt
dft
ett
Ftt
Scale
C| d el
ftt
gtt
a b|
Cjt
THEORY OF SCALES.
Scale
21
FgabbcdfiF
Scale of Bb
^1 ^|
:3^
#
d
el>
J
f
J g
J
a
II
Bb
Scale of Eb
^'^'
J
Eb
f
ab
^^
bb
c
Bb
Eb
Sea le of Ab =^fe=>S
Ab bb
Scale of Db
dl?
eb
A]?
^
(jk
^^^K
J
Dl>
J
el>
gb ab
bl>
Dt
Sor>le of
Gb
1>
I;
y
Gb ab bb cb db eb
f
Gb
Scale of Cb
^^^^
Cb db eb fb gb ab bb Cb
The Minor
There are two forms
of
Scale.
scales, /larmonic 3.nd melodic^
minor
both differing in construction from the major form. The minor key having no sharps or flats in the signature is a. Starting at a and sounding the seven white keys in
order to the right produces a form of scale with whole steps
between
and
2,
steps between
3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, 7 and 8, and half and 3 and between 5 and 6. This scale is
22
unsatisfactory to the ear as its subtonic is not a leading tone. The effect of a leading tone should be urgent, restless, and demand its tonic in order to obtain a restful effect. This
urgent effect can only be obtained by the subtonic being one This may be obtained by simply hair step below the tonic.
raisins: the
seventh one semi-tone in the above scale formais
tion
and thus
produced the so-called harmofiic minor

for raising a note are
\}i\&
sq.2X^.
The symbols
sharp (^), the double
sharp (X), and the cancel (tj) (also called natural) when placed The before a note that has been previously affected by a flat.
symbols for lowering a note are the yf^/ (i^), the double flat and the ca?icel when placed before a note that has been (t>t), By these statements it can be previously affected by a sharp.
seen that the cancel
bol.
(h) is
both a lowering and a raising sym-
The
cancel lowers a tone
when
flat.
it
cancels a sharp and
raises a tone
when
it
cancels a
'The harmonic minor scale is formed by whole steps between half steps between 2 and 3, and 2, 4 and 5, 3 and 4, and interval of one and one-half steps and and an 6, 8, 7 5 6 and 7. In demonstraan between (called augmented step) line will be minor a curved used to connect the ting keys, those figures representing tones one half step apart and a
I
bracket to connect those figures representing tones an aug-
mented step
apart.
(
The key of a minor

I
harmonic form
is
as follows
abcdefgâ
2
3^ 5j
7^
The
The
Nevertheless, the a minor
student will notice that this scale has one sharp (^). is the minor key which has neither
flats in
is
its
sharps nor
signature.
raised seventh of
all
minor keys
Ticcidmtal,
never present in the signature, but appears as
THEORV OF SCALES.
When
which
it is
ill
23
a sharp, double sharp, flat, double flat or cancel, not present in the signature, is placed before a note, If the raised seventh were present called an accidental.
is
the signature, uniform signatures in the minor would be It may also be remarked here that the seventh impossible.
is
is
not always raised during the course of a composition and necessarily raised only when the composer desires the
listener's ear to
come
at rest
on the
tonic, in
which case the
must be preceded by the raised seventh, if the subtonic precedes the tonic in the melody or harmony. The same rules (pages 13 and 15) used in the major for finding the key having the next number of sharps and the
tonic
key having the next number

minor.
of flats are applicable in
the
flat
The order
is
of the letters in both the sharp

in the
and
signatures
the
same
minor as
fifth
in the
is
major.
<?
minor has no sharps, the
sharp (/):
of ^
and has one
f :}^
g a b
d^^
123456 78
The
fifth of
<?
is
and has two sharps (/and

e f#
c)'.
b c# d
12345678
{f, c
ai^
The
fifth of b
is/# and has three sharps

f#
and ^
):
gS a b c# d e# f#
12
The
fifth
345678
(/,
c,
oif'^
is
C^
and has four sharps

b# c#
g and
d):
c# d# e f# g^ a
123456
78
24
The

fifth
of c^
is
^^ and has
five
sharps (/,
fx
c,
gy
d and
g# a^ b cs ds
123456
and has
g^
78
The
F
^):
is
student will notice that in this key, yis double sharped, sharped in the signature, but because the subtonic
requires raising,
y demands
is
d'-^
a double sharp.
six sharps (y,
c,
The
fifth of
g^
g, d^
a and
d#esf#giâ#b cxd#
12345678and has seven sharps

(/,
c,
The
and
fifth of
-
by.
d^
is a'^
g, d, a, e
aftb^cft
12345678
d#e#fS gxas
The minor keys having more than seven sharps should be found by the student and submitted to the teacher for For the sake of brevity, they are not given correction. here, but the student should be thoroughly capable, by this
time, of finding
them
all.
A minor (jy
has no
flats,
the fourth of ^
is
^ and has one
flat
d e
g a
b[7
c^^d
123456 78
The
fourth oi
\s
g and
has two
flats
f;j
and
e ):
a bb c d eb
123 456 78
The
fourth of
^ is
and has three flats d eb f g ab bb c
( ^,
<?
and a )
123456 78
THEORY OF SCALES.
The
it is
25
;
student will notice a contradiction in the above scale

stated that c has three flats
cancelled.
This
the example, b is cancel, however, appears as accidental (the

in
and
raised seventh) and must be a flat in the signature. The fourth of c is and has four flats { b, e, a and
y
f
d)
a[?
bb
c di? eb
123
The
fourth
of
45678
and has
f
\s b\,
five flats ( b,
e,
a,
d and
bb c db eb
12345678
The
fourth of
<^b is e\}
gb
at[
bb
and has
six flats
( b,
<?,
a, d,
g and
c):eb
f
123456
and/):
The
fourth of
e\,
gb ab bb cb
I
d|;j
eb
78
flats {b, e^ a^ d, g, c
\s a\?
and has seven
12345678
The
seven
student should find the minor keys having more than
flats.
ab bb Cb db eb fb
gt[
ab
The harmonic minor
scale
is
awkward
in
formation
on
account of the augmented second step between steps six and All augmented intervals sound harsh and are difficult seven.
to sing tunefully. scale
is
For
this reason, another
form
of
minor
sometimes used which eliminates the augmented second step. This form is called melodic minor and is used, It defies as its name implies, only for melodic purposes.
harmonization for the obvious reason that
differs
its
ascending form
from
its
descending form.
26

The melodic minor
scale
has the sixth as well as the seventh
raised by accideiital in ascending, but in descending, both The ascending form has the sixth and seventh are restored.
whole steps between i and 2, 4 and 5, 3 and 4, 5 6 and 7, and half steps between 2 and 3 and beand 6, tween 7 and 8. The descending form has its half steps be-
tween 6 and
and between 3 and

is
2.
Notice that the

taised
descending form
as
its
signature dictates.
raised
Ascending
123456 Descending 876543

:
:
78
21
The ascending form

as the major scale,
the raised sixth

in a
of the melodic minor is nearly the same and for this reason it is best not to retain and seventh in descending. The subtonic
descending scale does not lead ( progress) to the tonic and therefore need not necessarily be situated one half step below the tonic.
Any minor key

having the
is
called the relative of the

;
same signature
therefore, the relative
major key minor of C

flats.
major
is
a* as they both have neither sharps nor
Rule
5.
The Relative Minor The Relative Major
is
found on the Sixth of the
Major Scale.
Rule
6.
is
found on the Third of the
Minor
Scale.
Some writers have called the relative xmxiox parallel vcvmox^ This is a usage using relative and parallel synonymously. to be regretted as it causes considerable confusion. By most
minor is treated as the scale commencing on the same key-note as the major and will thus be treated
writers, the parallel
in this
book, therefore
the relative minor of

the parallel minor of
*
C
C
is is
a;
c.
Capital letters are used to designate major keys and small letters to designate
minor keys.
THEORY OF SCALES.
The
sharps
parallel
in its
27
flats
minor scale has three more
or three less
In other words, signature than the major scale. by lowering steps 3, 6 and 7 of the major scale one semitone, the signature of the parallel minor is obtained.
The
notation in the treble clef of

:
monic and melodic) follows

Scale of a
all
the minor scales (har-
Harmonic
^^ ^
i w
I
Scale of a
>.#4r^
Melodic
t=m
Scale of e
JP
ft
Harmonic
jjJp f^l J* f 1^
I
Scale of e
Melodic
^^
41^
Scale of b
Harmonic
m
i
*'
^
i
MjjJJi^^^^
J^^f^
Scale of b
Melodic
Scj Dale
of
ftf
Hiarmonic
hj-ftj t ^
WItT^ g
i
Scale of
fjt
Melodic
^ jjjp^rr
r'ryfpJJji
28
Scale
Harm(onic
^
Ik
^J *
Scale of
cjf
Melodic
j^j
jJJ
iJtf|'f
a
**i
Scale ofgjf
Harmonic
I'll'
[
'
ii
ir rr:
Scale Melodi
Scale of
djf
Harmonic
^1
^
Jj>Y
Scale of
djf
Melodic
jVMjjjJJttpYF^^
k21
Scale ofajf
Harmonic
Scale of
I^Â^Wrrr
ajt
Melodic
^ B
^
tfj^^ft^tt^ '
t^
_,p<^Yr
fi''g
Scale
nic Harmo]
^7
^ J
Scale of d
Melodic
.i"
jjjJ-Vrnr'f^
Scale of g
Harmonic
Scale of g
^
î)'
THEORY OF SCALES.
29
Melodic
jj^r'T^rri^
^
i
wrgr
Scale of c
Harmonic
Scale of c
jA^jjiiJ
Melodic
Scale of
Harmonic
$ ^ ^^
ii
e=b
'^fW
fciz
k^
^
:fy
mW
Scale of
Melodic
Scale of bb
Harmonic
Scale of bb
^ ^ s ^5 P
TO==K
^
I'
!
Melodic
jijjj^*'
^î'J jj ji^
Harmonic
Scale of eb iMelodic
^
g)
I'
'
''i^'î.'^
JJ^
30
Scale of
ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY

al
Harmonic
i^
td^
Scale of
al>
Melodic
EXERCISES
Oral and Written
1.
Into
?
how many
is
parts does
modern custom divide
an octave
2.
3.
What What
each part called ? is the difference between a chromatic scale

?
and
a diatonic scale
4.
How many
forms of diatonic scales are there and

four ways in which the tones
Avhat are their names ? Name and define the 5.

6.
of the diatonic scales are named.
What
is
the key-tone
7.
8. 9.
Describe the movable and fixed systems. Describe the major scale.
Describe the effect of a sharp of a double flat of a cancel.
; ;
of a double sharp
of a
flat
10.
number of sharps and next number of flats.

1 1
.
State the rule for finding the key having the next the rule for finding the key having the
Write on the
staff,
using the treble

flats.
clef,
all
the
major keys
tenor
clefs.
to eleven sharps
and eleven
Write several
scales (the teacher deciding the
(Show by curved
is
line those notes situated
number) using the bass and one
semi-tone apart.)
1 2.
What
In the
the order of the letters in the sharp signasignature

?
ture
flat
EXERCISES.
13. 14.
15.
31
What is meant by enhar?nomc ? What are the e7iharmonic scales used

Give enkarmofiic
letter
in practice
names for each

and
flat
of the twelve
keys.
16.
What
By
is
?
the
smn
of sharp
signatures of
enharmonic keys
17.
the use of this enharmonic sum, find
all
the
theoretical keys.
18.
What
is
the construction of the harmonic

?
minor
scale
Of the melodic minor
Write on the staff all the minor scales (both har19. monic and melodic) to eleven sharps and eleven flats, letting the teacher determine which clef or clefs to use.
20.
What
?
is
the reason for raising the seventh in har-
monic minor
21.
What
is
the reason for raising the sixth in melodic
minor
differ
Why does the descending form of melodic minor from the ascending form ? 23. Why does not the raised sixth or seventh appear
22.
?
in the signature
24.
25.
26.
What What What

from
is is
an accidental?
the relative minor and
is t\\Q
its
parallel minor and
how is it found ? how does its signa-
ture differ
parallel
major
Before proceeding to the next chapter all these exercises should be properly answered and corrected by the
N. B.
teacher.
CHAPTER
III.
INTERVALS AND INTRODUCTION TO CHORD

BUILDING.
An
are
interval
is
the distance between two tones

ordinals.
intervals
named by the
The number
of letters
comprised
of
in the notation of
two tones determines the ordinal name

:
the interval.
Example
^ to
is
an
inter-
It makes val of a second because two letters are comprised. no difference whether or not either or both of the above tones
is
affected by an accidental, the interval
still
comprises two
letters
and
is
a second.
tonic of the major scale to each degree
:
Reckoning from the
of the scale produces the following intervals
prime. 3nd
Brd
4th 5th
6th
7th
^
perf.
8th or octave
9th
The
interval
of
the
ninth
is
often called a
second, the
octave not being considered.
These intervals are the normal intervals of the major These normal intervals are qualified in two ways. prime, fourth, fifth and octave are called perfect.
scale.
The The
second, third, sixth and seventh are called major ; thus:

perf.
prime Snd
maj. maj. 3rd
perf. perf. jnaj. maj.
4th
5th
^ jiUJUJiiJij^
32
^
6th
7th octave
maj. 9th
CHORD BUILDING.
All
33
intervals
is
should be
reckoned from the lower note,
which
that
If the upper note is considered a major key-note. in the major scale of the lower note, the interval is normal
;
the upper note is not in the major scale of the lower note, the interval is a derivative The derivative intervals are called mi?ior, dinwiinterval.
is,
either perfect or major.
If
ished and augme?ited.
minor interval
is
one semi-tone smaller.
derived from a major interval and is By lowering the upper tone of any
major interval one half step or by raising the lower tone of any major interval one half step (not altering the letter name
in either case) a
minor interval
is
formed, thus
minoi^
minor
3rd
minor
6th
3nd
g JU
^
minor
7th
etc.
i w^
$ w^
A
diminished interval
is
one half step smaller than a minor or a perfect interval. By lowering the upper tone of any minor or any perfect interval one half step, or by raising the lower tone of any minor or any perfect interval one half step
(not altering the letter val is formed, thus
:
name
in either case) a
diminished inter-
dim.
3nd
dim. 3rd
dim.
4th
dim. 5th
fc
dim,
6th
dim. 7th
dim.>
8th
i
The
#I
must be called a second because two
tones of the diminished second are the same pitch, but letters are comprised.
34

is
The diminished prime

ically,
possible melodically, but harmon-
only in theory.
It is
^f^zr^~~^^
An augmented interval is one half step larger than a major or a perfect interval. By raising the upper tone of any major or perfect interval one half step, or by lowering the lower
tone
any major or perfect interval one half step (not the letter name in either case) an augmented inter" altering val is formed, thus
of
:
aug.
aug.
aug.
prime Snd
3rd
I
aug. 4th
I
aug. 5th
i
aug.
6th
aug. 7th
aug.
8th
Jjji \jtt
itf
jH
^
|,i
u^
in
w^
etc.
Notice that the tones of the augmented seventh are the same pitch, but must be called a seventh as seven letters are
comprised.
The name
:
following
intervals are the
same
sound, but not in
perfect prime
sounds the same as diminished 2nd
augmented
CHORD BUILDING.
From
the preceding
7.
list
35
is
the following rule
apparent
of
Rule
By Changing
Enharmonically
Either or
is
Both
the Tones of an Interval, a Different Interval
Obtained
Which
Sounds the Same as the Original Interval.
The
is
distance in semi-tones of
:
as follows
all
the intervals to an octave
prime
36
A quicker and better method of determining an interval than by committing to memory the above table is to consider If the upper the lower note the tonic of the major scale.
note
is
in the
major scale of the lower note, the interval

.
is
practice the num( ) ber of letters in an interval can be determined at a glance.
normal
If the
major or perfect
is
After a
little
upper note
is
the interval
derivative
not in the major scale of the lower note and is determined by the informa-
tion heretofore given.
Inversion of Intervals.
Intervals are said to be inverted
when
the lower note of
the original interval is placed an octave higher, thereby becoming the upper note of the interval thus fonned. Ex-
ample
the inversion of
The same
is
letters are
in
both intervals, but the

is
is
first
interval
a third and the inverted interval
a sixth.
is
Rule
8.
The Sum
of
an Interval and Its Inversion
Nine.
The above
versions
:
rule, therefore, gives the following table of in-
a prime inverts to an octave " " a seventh a second

a third a fourth
" "
" "
( i
a sixth a
fifth
=9 (2 + 7 = 9) (3 + 6 = 9)
+
8
"
fifth
"
a sixth
a seventh
" "
"
"a
"
"
a fourth
third
a second a prime
(4 + 51=9) = 9) (5 + 4 (6 + 3 = 9) (7 + 2=9)
an octave
(8 +
= 9)
To
find to
etc.,
invert, consider
what intervals ninths, tenths, elevenths, twelfths, them respectively as seconds, thirds^
CHORD BUILDING.
fourths, fifths, etc.,
37
and consider the lower note placed two

:
octaves higher instead of one octave. Qualifications invert in the following manner
intervals intervals invert to minor >? " " " 7najor " " 7> " perfect perfect >J " " " aus:mejited diminished
major
viitior
auzniented
}}
)j
7J
diminished
)>
By
the use of the above table
be determined.
Examples
and
rule 8, all inversions
may
major 3nd
minor
7th
inverts
t
*
major
6th
o^
minor
3rd
tt
lêrf.
prime
>
>
t>
>i
etc.
38
tervals,
is also called an u7iison, but in speaking of inshould always be called 2ipri??7e. Correctly speaking, a perfect pri7tie is not an interval, but in the theory of music it is so called. There is good reason for making this
it
The prime
error,
tmisoTi.
but none for calling a dim'mished prime a di77iinished Notice that the di77ii7tished seco7id as well as the peris
fect prt77ie
an
U7iis07i.
Intervals are considered both harmonically and melodically, or in other words, both when sounded together or sepIn either case, the lower note is the one from which arately.
to determine the interval.
Chord Construction.
chord
is
a combination of two or more tones sounded

All chords are constructed in thirds.
simultaneously.
The
fundamental
is
tone of a
chord
is
the tone on which the chord
constructed.
A chord of three tones is a /rzW which consists oiîfimdamental together with its third and its fifth. Triads are The indedivided into two classes, indepe7ide7it and depende7it.
pendent triads have no dissonant intervals and may end a comThe dependent chords have one or more dissonant position.
intervals
" restless " chords
and are
and demand another
chord to follow.
dependent chord to an independent chord, thereby obtaining a restful effect, is

progression of a
called resolution.
The
There are two kinds

minor.
of
independent
of
triads,
major and
A
third,
major triad consists
the
fundamental, the
major
and the
perfect
fifth.
Example
'~^S
:
CHORD
BUILDING.
39
fninor triad consists of the fundamental, the minor third,
and the
perfect fifth.
Example
is
'^
first
augmented or diminished, the triad a dependent. Dependent triads are found constructed on the subtonic of major keys on the subtonic, supertonic, and mediant of the minor keys. The triad on the mediant of the
If the fifth of
a triad
is
minor key
is
an augmented triad and the
three mentioned
triads are diminished.
Music written
for four voices necessitates the

triad.
doubUng
is
of
one of the factors of the
Any
factor of the triad
may
be doubled.
The
factor
most frequently doubled
the
fundamental
double octave, or unison. The four voices are soprano (high female voice), alto (low female voice) te7ior (high male voice), and bass (low male
in the octave,
,
voice).
merals.
Chords are figured under the bass by Large numerals designate 7najor triads
;
Roman
;
nu-
small nu-
merals designate minor triads

(')
affixed designate
augmented
large numerals with the mark triads small numerals with a

;
The notation of cipher afiixed designate diminished triads. the triads on each degree of the major and minor scales
follows
:
Major Mode.
N.B.
^^5
II
? ni
m
IV
VI
VllO
40
ESSENTIALS
Minor Mode;
OP^
MUSIC THEORY.
^
1
^
III'
IV
^
V
VI
viio
II"
Although doubled in the above examples, the fundamental of the subtonic triad is seldom doubled in four
N. B.
voice writing and
if
doubled, a bad
progression results
in
many The
.
cases.
three upper voices in a fundamental chord arranged in a different manner

:
may be
With the fundamental
in
the
soprano
^g
C
I
With the
ird in third
the soprano
I
upper voices do not exceed the compass of an is said to be in "close position." If the chord the octave, three upper voices exceed the compass of an octave, the
If the three
chord
is
" said to be in
open position."
Inversion of Triads.
chord
is
is
inverted
damental
in the bass.
when a factor other than the funThe first inversion of the triad is
It is called the chord where we have the third in the bass. of the sixth, because the fundamental is the sixth of the bass. This chord is figured by a small Arabic figure () over the bass note, the Roman numeral under the bass showing the
fundamental.
Examples:
CHORD BUILDING.
doubled fundamental
41
doubled
^
^
6
third
^
The second
and
is
inversion of the triad has the
fifth in
the bass
six-four
called the chord of the sixth
and fourth, or
chord, because the fundamental is the fourth of the bass. This chord is figured by the small Arabic figures {%) over the bass, the Roman numeral under the bass showing the fun-
damental.
Examples
doubled
fifth
doubled fundamental
i
6
i
6 4
^^
The seventh chord
is
m
The Seventh Chord.
obtained by adding the seventh of A seventh chord may be the fundamental to any triad. of the formed on each degree major and minor scales. It is
figured with the
Roman
numerals below the bass and a small
The notation of the seventh chords Arabic (7) over the bass. the on each degree of major and minor scales follows
:
42

C Major.
i
i
I
m
i
VI
VTI*
^
IT
P
ux
IV
a Minor.
g^
i
S
Iir
i i
^
IV
^
fe
viio
no
VI
The tonic and subdominant of the major mode and the submediant of the minor mode are formed with the major triad
and the major seventh. The dominant seventh in both modes formed with the major triad and the minor seventh. The seventh chords on ii, iii and vi in the major mode and on IV of the minor mode are formed with the minor triad and the minor seventh. The seventh chords on vii in the major mode and on ii in the minor mode are formed with the diminished triad and the minor seventh. The subtonic seventh chord in the minor mode is called the dhiiinished sevefith and is formed with the diminished triad and the dimis
The seventh chord on the mediant in the formed with the augmented triad and the major seventh. The seventh chord on the tonic of the minor mode is formed with the minor triad and the major seventh. In
inished seventh.
is
minor mode
four voice writing,
all
the seventh chords with the exception
CHORD BUILDING.
of those on the subtonic of both
43
modes
are often written with-
and with the doubled fundamental. All seventh chords are dependent chords and their natural resolution is to the chord the fundamental of which is situated a fourth above or a fifth below the fundamental of the seventh chord.
out the
fifth
This progression
to the tonic.
inant,
is
tonic seventh chord of both
called "cadencing resolution." The submodes may also naturally resolve

is
The most important seventh chord

to the tonic.
close.
the
is
domcalled
which resolves
close
)
This progression
of
the authentic
is
Another method
ending a composition
by the plagal
(
which
is
is
harmony
the
triad
to tonic.
a progression from subdominant The plagal close is preceded by
the authentic close and
also called the after cadefice
and
Amen
cadence.
Inversion of Seventh Chords.
The
first
inversion of the seventh chord

(
is
called the chord
of the fifth
and sixth
by the Roman
figures
(
The chord is figured chord). numeral below the bass note and the Arabic
six-five
over the bass.
Example
i
s
6
^
The second
inversion
is
called
the chord of the
third,
It is figured by the fourth and sixth (four-three chord). Roman numeral below the bass and the Arabic figures I
or simply
over the bass.
Example
44
g
4
3
s
The
fourth.
third inversion
It is figured
is called the chord of the second and by the Roman numeral below the bass
(
and the Arabic
Example
figures (1),
f),
or simply (a) over the bass,
C
^ >:
V^
study of chord progression, altered chords, melody writing, passing tones, etc., belongs properly to the study of
The
harmony and counterpoint which

volume.
is
not the subject of this
EXERCISES.
Oral and Written.

1.
What
is
an interval
? ?
2. 3.
4.
How
What
?
are intervals
named
are the normal intervals
Qualify the derived intervals
from what
is
each
derived
EXERCISES.
5.
45
and
all
Notate
all
the normal intervals
the deriva-
tive
intervals.
6.
Name
all
the following intervals
(Accidentals affect only those notes before
which they are placed.)
ii
U J U 'înib J |jj J ji
l
ijtf^
|j
JiOi^
jrij^riiJrij"^'jûi"îiJti^
l-r-L
I
^
f
^
f
7.
I
.,
1"^
iM
(
itj
1^
p^
invert.
Name
several intervals
the teacher to determine
the number) having different names, but sounding the same. 8. What is the sum of inversions ?
9.
State the
manner
in
which qualifications
10. 11.
Invert
the intervals given in exercise 6. Notate and figure all the triads in several different
all
major and minor keys.

?
Which
are dependent and which are
independent Describe a dependent triad. 12. Describe open and close position. 13.
14.
Notate and figure several
sixth
chords; several
six-four chords.
46
15.
Notate and figure all the seventh chords in several different major and minor keys. What is the most important seventh chord ? 16.
17.
18.
19.
What What
is
the authentic close? the plagal close

?
is
Notate and figure a
six-five
dominant chord
in sev-
major and minor keys. Notate and figure a four-three dominant chord 20. several major and minor keys. Notate and figure a four-two dominant chord 21.
eral
in
in
several major and minor keys.

22.
vised
Choose some standard chorals (Bach's are adand analyze the chords therein.
CHAPTER
The
science of sound, including
velocity,
is
its
IV.
EPITOMIZED ACOUSTICS.
cause and effect and the
manner,
and
intensity of
its
conveyance through
is
dif-
ferent media,
called acoustics.
The medium through which sound

agated
is
most commonly prop-
at a temperature of 32 Fahrenheit, sound travels at a rate of 1090 feet per second.

air.
Through
this
medium,
The
sible.
quality
speed.
locity of
If this
and intensity of sound do not alter the rate of were not true, ensemble music would be imposis
Intensity of sound
greater in condensed air;
ve-
temperature. Many experiments have been made to determine the ve locity of sound, the most reliable of which vary not over seven
of six of the best experiments, nineteenth century, is 1089.7 Ten hundred and ninety feet per second at 32 Fahrenheit.
feet per second.
sound
is
greater in a
warm
The average
made
in the early part of the
now generally adopted. are the only circumstances affecting Sound travels the velocity of sound in the air to any extent. about four times faster through water than through air, and
feet per
second
is
the rate
Wind and temperature
than
of a
about ten times faster through solids such as metals and wood through air. A sudden displacement of the molecules
medium produces sound which

all
travels in
waves
at
an
in
a.
equal velocity in
stone in water
directions.
An
idea of the
manner
which sound waves

;
travel
may be
obtained by throwing
small waves are propagated from the point of impact which, if the water be still, spread equally in all directions, but if it be running water, the waves extend a
47
48
down stream than up stream. The effect of wind on sound waves may be compared to the effect of running water on the waves propagated by the impact of the
greater distance'
stone.
Musical tone is produced by regular vibrations noise by The tones of the tempered chromatic irregular vibrations. scale have the following number of vibrations per second
;
:
'
Middle
c^ or
<i# or
258.6
274.
db d
eb
e
f
290.3
507.6
325-9 345-2
f#or
gb
365-8
387-5 410.5
.
g#or
a#or
ab
......
figures "
435.
bb
460.8
488.2 represent the vibrations of the which was adopted by the Piano
The preceding
**
International Pitch
A is the standard pitch Manufacturers' meeting in 189 1. having 435 double vibrations per second at a temperature of 68 Fahrenheit. Many pitches have prevailed in different
At the time of Handel and was lower Mozart, the pitch (422.5 and 421.6). England run as has had the pitch high 454.7 and the United States
countries at different times.
as high as 460.8.
Sounds vibrating below a certain number lose the character of musical tones as do those vibrating above a certain number.
Great discrepancies of opinion
exist
among
theorists
on
this
Savart claims the lowest audible sound has eight subject. vibrations per second; Helmholtz claims that there is no
EPITOMIZED ACOUSTICS.
definite pitch of
49
sounds having
less
than forty vibrations per
second
Herr Appum claims
to hear fifteen vibrations
by
the use of specially loaded tongues in reed pipes. He claims the character of tone commences at twenty vibrations, but the
musical character of bass tones does not exist until frequencies exceed twenty-four vibrations per second. On the subject of the audibility of acute sounds, opinions are
advanced
ranging from 6,400
The
36,000 vibrations per second. limits of the human voices are tabulated below
to
Bass
50

at the present time in chord construction. chords of the eleventh and thirtreated old theorists
exist but are not
used
The
teenth, but
modern
theorists treat these intervals as suspen-
sions, anticipations, etc.*
The
origin of chord construction
may be seen from these har77ionics. These over tones, generated from a fundamental, are the pure (untempered) intervals.
intervals, with the exception of the octave, are of tune but not enough so to shock the ear. out slightly The pure (untempered) scale of C has the following
The tempered
number
of vibrations per c
second
Middle
261.
d
e
f
293.6
326.2 348.
g
a
391-5
435-
489-3
to explain completely All ambitious students should con-
An
sult
entire
volume would be necessary
the science of acoustics.
books on acoustics. The author recommends the books, on sound by the following writers
:
Appum
G. B. Airy Pietro Blaserno
Benjamin Peirce
Rodolphe Radau
Savart
Helmholtz
Pole
Tyndall
J.
August Zahn
intervals as chord factors.
i
Composers
of the present
day often use these
CHAPTER
A
person with
V.
EAR TRAINING.
comparatively
little,
an untrained ear can appreciate music even though he is well educated in the
Absolute pitch is the ability to recognize theory of music. and intonate any tone indicated. Very few persons possess naturally absolute pitch, but it may be acquired by a systematic study of ear training. Relative pitch is the ability to recAdvanceognize a tone by comparison with a known tone. ment in relative pitch eventually leads to the attainment of
absolute pitch.
In practicing ear training, only a few minutes at a sitting are advised. Too much time at once devoted to this practice tires the ear and does more harm than good. On the other
hand, these sittings should be
many each day.

in ear training
is
Students
who
do not have a teacher

mistakes.
If
daily, should have a
member
of the
household play the exercises
and correct the

musical, the stu-
no member of the household
dent should co-operate with another student. Each exercise should be thoroughly learned before proIt may be recognizable ceeding to the following exercise.
and properly intonated
at
is
once or
it
may take
several sittings.
the standard for orchestral tuning pitch 435 and is recommended to the student for a fundamental. The
at
The
pitch
student should carry upon his person a tuning fork of this and sound it as often as an opportunity permits, and
Eventthereby fix this fundamental thoroughly in his mind. the will student this whenever he hears pitch ually, recognize
51
52
it.

Other tones
fundamental.
will
this
Any
be recognizable by comparison with other pitch for a fundamental may

is
favor of
be chosen with equally good results. The argument A because of its use in orchestral tuning.
in
Many
results, exist.
systems of ear training, which produce the desired The following system has been found the
most satisfactory by the author.* Deviations from and additions to this system do no harm and are advisable in certain
individual cases.
The
cises.
Italian syllables should be used in singing the exer-
Movable do
is
advised.
Any
instrument
may be
used by the teacher or co-operator to play the exercises. For low voices, the exercises should be played two octaves lower than indicated, and for medium voices, one octave
lower.
The
teacher, after having played an exercise, should
The student should explain the interval or intervals therein. and then without. instrument with the first exercise the sing
Each
exercise should be faultlessly intonated before proceed-
ing to the following exercise.
GROUP
The Normal Intervals
I.
I.
of the
Major
scale
Major
Scale.
i
2.
w
All intervals of the major scale
:
^m
i
[
3.
V,
i'
|i
:
||i
rMrMr
Tonic triad
P
*
Jrijr
XE
children find difficulty in intonating small intervals and it is necessary in such cases to commence with large intervals and work toward the smaller intervals.
Many young
EAR TRAINING.
4.
53
Perfect
fifth
ii
JJlî
The
given.
nJrJ
III
ii
I I
II
teacher should
use various rhythms besides
those
^^
u &^
b)
6.
5.
Perfect fourth
t*
i
3a:
$
i
i?f
l-J^J
Perfect octave
^ I S
fe
a)
?F
i
ZZ
b)
^
t
nn
XE
Perfect intervals combined
#fe^
The
ways and
ody
free
zz
XE
teacher should
in several different
combine these intervals in various rhythms and the student should

teacher
notate the exercise.
The
may also choose some
mel-
from accidentals and play it slowly while the student notates. Such practice accomplishes a two-fold result,
ability to notate
rhythm as well as
intervals.
54
8.

Major
third
:
^f
^*
^ i
sixth
Minor
^
lO
fc^
^ ^
<-
^
:
f ^
XE
Major
sixth
#
II.
.
^
Minor
third
:
i^^^lJ
ri'iij'ijjuj'
first
is
j.j.
iTnrjii
The
last
The
which
measure of exercise
contains the major second
an easily recognized
interval.
measure
but two of exercise 2 contains the major seventh. This interval is ordinarily a difficult interval to intonate but coming
as
it
does
in exercise 2
ascending scale
the present,
it is
it is easy to intonate because of the on the second half of the measures. For
except
in
some such sequence as exercise
not advisable to practice the major seventh All other nor2.
mal
intervals
tions.
may be practiced separately and in combinaAfter the student has become thoroughly proficient
and properly intonating
II.
all
in recognizing
the intervals in
group found
I,
he
may proceed
to the intervals of the
minor scale
in
group
EAR TRAINING.
55
GROUP
The Normal Intervals
1
.
II.
of the
Minor
Scale.
Melodic minor scale

t
^
*L><
Vf
:
w=*
-j^-^^rn
2.
Harmonic minor
scale
$
If the
3.
^
Do
^ffM^^
mi ^
student finds difficulty in singing the harmonic form with the awkward augmented step, the singing of this scale
may be postponed.
of minor,
Play alternatively the major scale and both forms and require the student to distinguish between
not proceed until the student
all
is
them.
capable of recog-
nizing and distinguishing between

4.
diatonic scales.
:
All intervals of the harmonic minor scale

/
1
1
L.I
Ui
rî
pi
Ittî
If
It
56

8.
The major
1
sixth
22
J
I
..
I
I
The minor
sixth
$
II.
^
lo.
The major
third
s i^
lations
^^
free
Play slowly several minor melodies and require the student to notate.
to parallel
from modu-
The teacher should now

tions
play melodies in which are transi-
from major
minor and
is
vice versa.
Great
familiarity with the
normal intervals
It is
studying altered intervals.
necessary before that the major seventh hoped

considerable
may now be properly intonated. The student may experience
difficulty
with
the following group, in which case it is advisable to postpone this group until the ear is more thoroughly trained. The of its the normal intervals is fix to object following firmly the
fundamental and
mental.
all
intervals
by comparison with
III.
this funda-
GROUP
Altered Intervals.
I.
The chromatic
scale
%% %0f%fT ^rri"rry
r^ r r
i^^
^@
EAR TRAINING.
57
tervals, the syllable
In syllabicating the chromatic scale or any of the altered inah may be used on each tone. To those
wishing to adhere to the Italian syllables, the tonic sol-fa syllables, invented by Miss Sarah Ann Glover, may be used
which are as follows

ray,
re,
ascending chromatic scale

se,
doh^
de,
me, fah, fe, soh, chromatic scale doh, te,
lah,
le,
te,
doh
ta,
lah, la, soh, sa,
descending fah, me, ma,

;
ray, ra, doh.
syllables to also changed the subtonic

2.
Miss Glover changed the spelling of the Italian coincide with the English pronunciation. She
from
si to
te.
fourth is found as a scale interval between the fourth and seventh steps of the major scale (^fah to te^. It is more difficult to conceive and intonate properly
The
aicg77iented
the augmented fourth when it is constructed upon the tonic. In order to make this interval less difficult, the following exercise contains the intermediate scale steps previous to the
skip of an augmented fourth
m
It
y:s
rrr T.nrf^'^ r F
i i
%fi\t?
necessary with some students to interpolate some the intermediate steps previous to skips to all altered It may not be amiss to state here that in correct intervals.
may be
all
or
melody writing augmented and diminished

ally avoided.
intervals are usu-
of tune.
Singers almost invariably intonate them out When these intervals exist as constituent parts of
an arpeggio chord progression, they are comparatively easy.
As
strum^ts being capable
altered intervals these skips are given to instruments ( inof properly intonating all skips )
when
a dramatic effect
is
desired.
3.
fourth.
is analogous to the augmented Being the inversion of the augmented fourth, it is
The diminished ffth
58
found as a scale interval between the seventh and fourth

steps
(
te
to
fah
diminished
fifth
following built upon the tonic

).
The
exercise
contains the
fîM
It
is
0=^
^
:
k
33:
The augmented Jifth is analogous to the minor sixth. 4. found as a scale interval between the third and seventh steps of the harmonic minor scale and ascending melodic
minor
scale.
The
following exercise contains the augmented
fifth built
upon the major tonic
i
5.
t
The
fifth
^
is
?r)
i
is
TTr
te
xs:
di77iinished
fourth
mented
and
analogous to the
the inversion of the augmajor third

:
^
6.
T
It is
T/J
J^J
"'^|
rg~^
22
xe:
third.
The augmented second is analogous to the minor found as a scale interval between the sixth and seventh steps of the harmonic minor. The following exercise
contains the augmented second built upon the major tonic
^m m ^^^
The diminished seventh
is
za.
7.
is
the inversion of the an 0-,

:
mented second and
analogous to the major sixth
^^
^P
i-^
EAR TRAINING.
The augme7iled third is found tween the third and the raised
8.
is
59
analogous to the perfect
fourth.
This interval
in the altered
fifth
minor
triad be-
of the triad.
Derivation
of the
augmented
third
Exercise
J. p r ' r'JM'r-iV'i
mi^
i^ ygr.
9.
27/<f
^
Xt?^
3C2
r^
IF
-<s>-"
X-(5>-
XiS>-
Ji
seventh.
augmented sixth is analogous to the minor This interval is found in the augmented sixth
;
chord.
Origin of the augmented sixth chord
^
TJie
\\
,\\
^
the aug-
En
is
diminished sixth, which

third
the inversion of
and analogous to the perfect fifth, is not used The diminished third, which is the inversion of melodically. the augmented sixth aad analogous to the major second, is
mented
but seldom used melodically.

If the singing of the
it
harmonic minor scale has been postExercises containing the
now be practiced. poned, seventh major may now be given.

should
6o
GROUP
IV.
Arpeggio Chords.
not yet fixed in the student's mind exercises pertaining to groups I and II should be given beThe intervals already given should be exfore proceeding.
If the fundamental
is
panded, the major second to a major ninth, the major third

to a major tenth, etc., etc. In practicing the following exercises, the student should name the intervals between consecutive notes and between
each note
of the
chord and the fundamental.
^^
I.
The major
triad
? p
2.
The minor
=3=
triad
t
$
^^ m
:
2t
3.
The diminished
=JF
triad
^
The augmented
4.
triad
i'^
A
UV
tiii
iJft
^m ^m
?
:
The dominant seventh chord

?x:
XE
EAR TRAINING.
The
its
6i
resolution.
teacher should explam the dominant seventh chord and Also give exercises on the skip of a minor
seventh.
6.
$
I
a ^
The
r.
The
supertonic seventh chord
#
8
-o-
P
:
TJ
7.
U 1
4
subtonic seventh chord
?^
--*
?
:
-^
8.
The diminished seventh chord
w
A
great
.r
i^^-4
|||J p
#8
^
in
-O-
many exercises on these chords should be given the natural resolution of the dependent chords. with together Exercises on the inversions of these chords may be given when the student has obtained proficiency on the fundamental position.
III.
The
inversions
may be found
Chapter
GROUP
V.
Two Voiced Chords.

with the other.
the exercise
The student should name the interval that one voice forms The upper melody should then be sung as
is played. Repeat the exercise, the student singIf the student experiences ing the lower melody this time. chords should be played difficulty in naming the intervals, the
in arpeggio style.
62
I.

Thirds
:
2.
Sixths:-
V
3.
jj.Hiii'rrirrri'11
intervals
h
:
XE
Mixed
^
a
and rhythm (contrapuntal)

33: -o33:
Cherubini
33:
^^^ i
m ^^ P
y:
14
-O-
xn
^
fZi:
3X
33:
-o-
P
XT
-O-
m
-^
^
33:
-O-
3X
14
JJJJ
^ ^ i i
33:
EAR TRAINING.
63
GROUP
VI.
The Four Voiced Chord,

It
becomes necessary
student should
voice.
to use
organ or piano for this group.
The
name
the kind of chord
and sing the
upper
I.
The primary
triads
22
-vS
^
3
3 il
XE
2Z
31:
^^
2.
The primary and secondary
triads
:-
^^
^^ ^
3.
22
T*^
22
m
:
Sf m s^
Î
w
3?
g:
^^^
i
Introducing the dominant seventh chord

(a)
"XT"
m
g
m^ ^
4
z:;
i
:]i:
i i
^5^^
-:ir-^r#-
^^
-sjs^
-|S>-
fr4-
3X
i 00
64
(b)
ffe
^ ^^ mhâ ^ ^^
m
i
22ZI
4.
chords
Introducing the dominant and secondary seventh
M44
(b)
^t-^4^
^
rJ
r.
"CCr
3CE
-3-
^
i
(
f
"iTF
:g^-f
zsizzz:
^Sr
S^
The
is
--
XE
should
chorals that were chosen for analysis in Chapter III now be played for ear training. The teacher's judg-
ment
very necessary in deciding the limitations of each
EAR TRAINING.
individual student.
65
made.
Before the student
be capable of any and all chords sounded.
At the proper time modulations may be may be called proficient, he must instantly recognizing and properly intonating
Can You Compose Music?

In this, the latest of methods for the study of Harmony, the author, Carl E. Gardner, presents a system of training which, both in purpose and plan, provides, what up to the present has frequently been hinted at, but
never practically accomplished music composition.
"direct" method for the teaching of
In the writing of the work the student's practical development has been uppermost in the author's mind and to this end he has provided not a mere treatise on musical grammar, along conventional, hackneyed lines, but a new method which will allow and encourage the student to compose as he advances and develops.
MUSIC COMPOSITION
A NEW METHOD OF HARMONY
BY
CARL
Author
of
E.
GARDNER
Music Theory."
"
Essentials of
Price, $1.50
OPINION OF THE PRESS

"His work
It
is
numbering i6i small pages
is of
necessity simply an abbreviated affair.

his subject
soundly done, the work of a

capitally written."
man who knows
through and through, and
it is
MUSICAL AMERICA.
" The author calls his method the direct method, in that he makes the pupil begin to compose from the beginning instead of after a long and tedious course of technical Time will tell whether this new method will make better composers than the old rules. way or not, but the new method will certainly make the way of the pupil less thorny.
The average student

by Carl E. Gardner
.
probably enjoy learning composition according to the method is no reason whatever why this method should not be as useful as the long established methods of Jadassohn, Prout, Richter and others who beUeve in keeping the pupil's nose to the grindstone for several years before furnishing MUSICAL COURIER. him with wings."
will
There
by Carl
of harmony,' by Carl E. Gardner, published a meritorious text book which seeks to combine, in efficient manner, the teaching of simple forms with the customary guidance in chord conThe abandoning of the isolated manner in which harmony is generally taught nection. and the stimulus of life it undoubtedly receives by joining to it symmetry, rhythm and
'
"
Music Composition,' a 'new method

Fischer,
New
York,
is
melody,
is
undeniably a progress."
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF MUSIC.
PUBLISHED BY
CARL FISCHER
BOSTON
NEW YORK
CHICAGO
BOSTON UNIVERSITY
MT6F12
Essentials of music theory
...
BOSS
17n
D03D3
M7bfi
DO NOT REMOVE CHARGE SLIP FROM THIS POCKET IF SLIP IS LOST PLEASE RETURN BOOK DIRECTLY TO A ORCULAnON STAFF MEMBER.
Boston University Libraries

771 Commonwealth Avenue Boston, Massachusetts 02215
n.
-k
:^.-
t
i
l-
^*
-4

Essential Music Theory PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Essential Music Theory PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

iUii*iitllj|>irtiliii>'.-m?;<'.?<ntiwm.

BOSTON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MUSIC

Author of "Music Composition"

NEW YORK CARL FISCHER

Boston University College of Music

axe usually ignored.

planned to meet the needs of the busy

teacher and student.

further object of the text

to offer a course of prepara-

tion for the study of

music such as are treated in

Mabel Gardner Bankart and Lena Gardner Lewis.

Rhythm: Note Values: Time Signatures: Tempo

Theory of Scales (Major and Minor)

Intervals and Chord Building

The Seventh Chord

Major Scale of the Minor Scale

Arpeggio Chords Two Voiced Chords The Four Voiced Chord

Boston University College of Music

ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY

propagated through the produce musical tone.

indicated by symbols called notes.

Double whole note or Breve.

Half note or Minim.

Eighth note or Quaver.

Thirty-second note or Demisemiquaver.

Occasionally the sixty-fourth note

a table of the relative value of notes:

AA A A A AAA AAA AAA

ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY.

but seldom used.

not given in this table it is twice the whole

note, four times the half, etc.

Each note has

indicated by symbols called rests. equivalent rest. Following is a list of

Bars are lines drawn vertically across the

music into measures.

contents of the measure

fraction, or their equivalents.

groups are the

of three notes played in the time

the value of four of

in the value of six of

ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY.

kind of group, thus

ritardando, the hold

viated riiard, or rit^

to lessen the speed, the accelerando

This occurrence of pulses

^ also called alia breve.

4' 4 4' 8' 2' 2' 2' 2' 16'

accents which are

ways. cents are \ht.forzando (designated thus

The most common

a sudden strong accent to the note or chord over or under

the rinforzaiido (which is not quite so the staccato (designated by a dot

faster than Larghetto.

the mediate between fast and slow.

Presto, very quick.

ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC THEORY.

Oral and Written.